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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

dntversal Dictionary

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

VOL. XIV.

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THE

ee CL OPA DIA:

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

Arts, Sciences, and Literature,

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

Sunes: acne
IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XIV.

eR

LONDON:
Printed ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Parernoster-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S.- BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, RK. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.

1819.

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CLOCLOPUE DT 2:

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OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS

and SCIENCES.

FE xv

. is applied, in the Schools, in various
fenfes.

Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not belonging to the ef-
fence of another; in which fenfe the efficient caufe and
the end, or fcope of a thing, are faid to be extrinfic, or
extrinfic caufes.

Sometimes it implies a thing not being contained within
the capacity of another. In which fenfe thofe caufes are
faid to be intrinfic, which introduce fomething into a fub-
je&t from without: as when fire introduces heat, &c.

‘Sometimes it denotes a thing added, or applied to another.
Thus, accidents and adherencies are faid to be extrinfic to
the fubjeét; and thus vifion is extrinfic to the object feen.

“Extrinsic Argument, Service. See the fubftantives.

EXTUBERANTIA, from extubero, to fwell out, in
Surgery, tumours fituated under the fkin.

EXUBERANCE, compounded of ex and uber, plen-
tiful, of uber, udder, in Rhetoric, a redundancy. See Re-
DUNDANCE, and PLreonasm.

EXUCONTIANI, a branch of Arian heretics.
Exovcontit.

EXVERRA, in Antiquity, a kind of brufh ufed in
cleanfing houfes, out of which a dead perfon had been
carried. —

EXULCERATIO, from exulcero, to caufe ulcers, in
Surgery, an incipient ulceration ; an excoriation, -

EXUMA, in Geography, one of the Bahama iflands,
fituated on the eaft of the Great Bank, between Stocking
ifles on the S.W. and Long ifle on the E. ; about 25 miles
long and three broad. Although this ifland is almoit un-
inhabited, it is one of the beft of the Bahamas, on account
of the fertility of its foil, and the excellence of its anchor-
ing ground, in the found to which it gives name. N. lat.
24° 20'. W. long. 74° 30’,

Vou. XIV.

See

Strahan and Prefton,
New-fect Squares Londom,

bie gs 8

Exuma Sound, a large channel among the Bahama
iflands, extending from N.W. to S.E., between Cat ifland
or Guanabani to the eaft, and a range of {mall iflands and
rocks to the weft and fouth-weit: the entrance is fouth of
the ifland of Eleuthera. In this found the whole Britifh
navy might ride in fafety.

EXUMBILICATIO, from ex, out of, and umbilicus,
the navel, in Surgery, a {welling in the fituation of the
navel,

EXUPERY, St. in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Correze; fix miles S.E. of Uffel.

EXUSTION, of ex, and uro, J burn, the a& of burn-
ing with fire; ufed in fome operations by furgeons. See
Burn. :

EXUVIA, formed from exuere, to put off, to diveft, in
Phyfiology, tranfient parts of certain animals, which they
put off, or lay down, and affume new ones.

Such, efpecially, are the fkins or floughs of ferpents,
fhells of lobiters, and the like; which are annually changed,
and renewed in the f{pring.

The outer integument of the body, which in man and
other large animals is fo durably fixed on the body, is in
many of the animals of the reptile kind much more loofely
fixed, and is changeable feveral times during the period of
their lives. ‘The ferpent kind all fhift their fkins feveral
times in their lives, and the water-newt has been lately ob-
ferved to do the fame ; but no creature in the world docs
it fo often as the caterpillar, almoft every fpecies of theie
infe&s throwing off their old fkin once in ten or twelve days,
or lefs ; and this in fuch amanner as is extreme ly worthy of
an attentive obfervation. Malpighi obferved that the com-
mon filk-worm changed its {kin four times during its conti-
nuance in that ftate; the firit of thefe changes happening
at eleven or twelve days from its appearance from the egg,

and

EYC

and the others at the diftance of five or fix days each; and
probably the reft of the caterpillar kind obferve nearly the
fame periods.

Neither is this change of the fin confined to the few
creatures we have mentioned ; but among the whole infect
clafs, the moft numerous of that of all animated beings we
know, there is fcarcely one {pecies, every individual of which
does not throw off its fin, once at leaft, before it arrives
at its full growth. The term changing the {kin is fearcely
expreflive enough for this operation in the caterpillar kinds;
for the creature throws off the external covering of every
the minuteft part and organ of its body, and the fkins they
thus depofit havg fo much the appearance of a complete
infe&t, that they are very often miftaken for fuch, prefenting
us with every thing that we fee in the external appearance
of the living animal. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. i. part 1,
ps 225:

Exuvia, in Agriculture, the caft-off parts of animals or
their coverings, and likewife the fhells and other marine
produGions which are met with in the bowels of the earth,:
when they have been depofited for a vaft length of time,
probably from once living creatures. “lhefe are fometimes
called Exrranrous Foffls, but more commonly Re-
L1QuiA, which fee. They are of confiderable variety, and
differ greatly in their appearances. All fubftances of this
nature are capable of much ufe as manures, where they can
be procured in {ufficient abundance, efpecially upon all the
heavier and more ftiff defcriptions of foil, as they fupply
the calcareous principle in fome degree, while they have
the effet of rendering them more light and open.

EY, in our Old Writers, the fame with infula, an ifland,
from which comes eye?, a {mall ifland or iflet, vulgarly called
eyght. Hence the names of places ending with ey denote
them to-be iflands, as Sheppey, &c.

EYACH, in Geography, a river of Germany, in Wur-

temberg, which rifes about 4 miles S. of Ebingen, and runs.

into the Neckar, three miles above Rothenburg.
EYASIORD, a bay onthe N. coaft of Iceland. N..
lat. 65° sol.
EYBACH, a town of Germany, in the territory of
Nuremberg; five miles S. of Nuremberg.

EYBELSTADT, a town of Germany, in the prin-.

ipality of Wurzburg ;. three miles $.S.E. of Wurzburg.
EYBENS,. a town of France, in the department of the
Vere; three miles S. of Grenoble.

EYBENSCHITZ, or Ewanics, a town of Moravia,.

in the circle of Zuaym, formerly famous for an affemblage
of very numerous religious fe&s. The Huffites and Lu-

therans worfhipped in the fame church; the Calvinilts had:

two churches; the Jews had a fynagogue; befides which
there were Anabaptifts, Quakers, Holy Brethren of
Switzerland, Photinians, &c. The inhabitants at prefent
are chiefly Roman Catholics and Jews; 20 miles N.E. of
Znaym. N. lat. 49° 8'. E. long. 16° 17’.

EYBENSTOCH, or Eysensrapr, a town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Erzgeburg; 20 miles S.S.W. of
€hemnitz.. N. lat. 50° 25’. E. long. 12° 35'.

EYCHENFLIES, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Wurzburg ;. 12 miles S. of Gemunden.

EYCK, Huserr Van, in Biography, a painter, born
at Maafeyk in 1366.. He is regarded as the founder of
the Flemith {chool of painting, the Giotto of Flanders; and
exhibited, for that early period of act, great genius and {kill.
In concert with his brother Jehn, he was celebrated for
many extraordinary and curious works, executed in oil,
after the latter had made his difcovery of that mode of
painting.

%

EY €

He painted well alfo in diftemper, but gave that up after
he adopted the other, One work of his, painted in con-
conjunction with John, was preferved in a chapel of ‘the
cathedral of Ghent. Sir Jofhua Reynolds faw it there,
and fays of it, (fee his Journey to Flanders, ): “it repre-
fents the adoration of the lamb taken from the Apocalypfez
it contains a great number of figures in a hard manner, but
there is great charaGer of truth and nature.in the heads, and
the landfcape is well coloured.””

It is now among the fpoils of the French in. the gallery
of the Louvre. While it was in Ghent, (at leaft for a time
after being wrought, it was held in fuch eftimation as to
be fhut up from public view, except on feltivals; and at
other times was only fhewn to ambafladors or princes them-
felves who defired to fee it.

Philip I. of Spain withed to purchafe it; but that not
being practicable, he employed Michael Coxis to copy
it, who {pent two whole years about it, and received four
thoufand florins for his labour from the king, who placed it
in the Efcurial. This artift died in 1426; aged 60.

Eyck, Joun Van, younger brother to Hubert, was born
at Maafeyk in 1370, and fludied with his brother, though
in the end he excelled him. ‘

‘To him the world is indebted for the firft ufe of oil im
painting, which he difcovered in the year 14.0.

Painters before this wrought their works in diftem-
per, (fee Distemper,) and then to fecure them from the
action of air and dampnefs, they were accuftomed to yarnifh
them ; with what compofition it does not appear. WVafan
(Part 2, page 213, ed. 1681,) relates that Giovanni di
Bruggia (fo he calls him,) ‘“ had painted a pi€ture in the
ufual way, and having varnifhed’ it, fet it to dry in the
fun’s rays, as was cuftomary; but either from the wood
being ill feafoned and ill put together, or from the extreme’
violence of the heat, the piéture was cracked and quite
fpoiled.. He therefore deliberated how he fhould in future
beft prevent accidents of this nature happening to his works,
and endeavoured to make a varnifh which would dry in*
the fhade, without the neceffity of expofing it to the fun.

«¢ After many experiments, he found at latt that oil of lin-
feed and of nuts, were more ficcative than any others he had’
tried. Thefe, when boiled with other ingredients, made
the varnifh fo much wifhed for by him and other painters..
He afterwards difcovered that mixing thefe oils with his
colours gave them a hardnefs, and in drying not only equal-
led the water colour, but gave them more brilliancy and
force: and that, without the neceffity of varnifhing aftere
wards :. and he was furprifed to find alfo, that they united
far better in oil than in water.”?

The fame of his difcovery foon fpread over Flanders and
into Italy, and when he grew old, but not till then, he im-
parted his fecret to feveral painters, both Flemifh and.
Italian. And.it muft be confeffed the art of painting is
very highly indebted to him for this foundation of the-
wonderful fuccefs with which fucceedingages have profited
by this very ufeful difcovery. pemee

As a painter he poflefled very good talents, confidering
the early period of the art. He copied his heads generally
from nature ; his figures are feldom well compofed or drawn...
But his power of producing richnefs of politive colours is
furprifing, and their durability no lefs fo. He paid great
attention. evidently to nature,. but. faw her in an inferior”
flyle. He laboured his pictures very highly, porkeiedy
in the ornaments which he beftowed with a lavifh-hand,
but with all the Gothic talte of the time and country in
which. he lived. In the gallery of the Louvre is a
picture of the §* Divine Being,” as he chofe to call it, re-.

prefeated.

.

EYE

prefented by an aged man with a long beard, crowned with
the pope’s tiara, feated in a chair with golden dircles of
Latin inferiptions round his head, but without the leaft
dignity of eharaGer, or evident action or intention. It is the
very bathos of the art. At the earl of Pembroke’s, at
Wilton Houfe, is a fmall pi&ure which does him more
credit. It reprefents the nativity of our Saviour, with the,
adoration of the fhepherds, and the compolition confifts of
four figures, befides the Saviour and four angels, and has in
the back ground the anomaly of the angels at the fame
time appearing to the fhepherds. It is in oil, and the
colours are moft of them very pure, except thofe of the
flefh. The garment of Jofeph is very rich, being glazed
(fee Grazine, in Painsing,) thick with red lake, which
is as frefh as if it were new. Almoft all the draperies are
fo glazed with different colours, and are {ill very clear,
except the virgia’s, which, inficad of maintaining its blue
colour, is become a blackifh green. ‘There is a want of har-
mony in the work, but it is more the effe& of bad arrange-
ment. of the colours than the tones of them. The lory
furrounding the heads of the virgin and child is of gold.
We have been the more particular in flating thefe circum-
ftances of this picture, becaufe our readers will naturally
be curious to know how far the original inventor of oil
painting fweeeeded in his procefs, and they will fee by
this account that he went very far indeed, in what relates to
the perfediion of the vehicle he ufed, which, if he had
happily been able to employ as well as he underitood, the
world would not have feen many better painters. He lived
to practife his difcovery for 31 years, dying in 1441, at the
advanced age of 71. F

EYDY ENGLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Vifiapour; 14 miles S. of Galgala.

EYE, in Anatomy and Phyficlogy, the organ of vifion.
The eye-ball is the immediate agent in refracting the
rays of light, and in colle&ting them into one point, fo as to
form an image of the object from which they are refleéted.
Fer this purpofe we find in it a feries of perfectly tranfparent
parts, which execute the various refractions 3 a nervous pulp,
on which the rays of light thus refra&ted make an impreffion
to be conveyed to the fenforium by the optic nerve; and
sertain membranous opayne coverings, containing the above-
mentioned parts, and fupporting them in their relative fitua-
tions. The vifual organ, fimple, when thus confidered, be-
comes much more complicated, if we include in our de“ nition
all the apparatus added for the purpofes of proteétion or
affiftance. The mufcles which move the globe in various
direétions, the eye-lids, which cover and protect it in front,
and the parts which fecrete the tears, and convey them into
the cavity of the noftril, are all fo intimately conne&ted in
fitvation and function with the globe, that a regard to na-
tural arrangement leads us to include them in the fame arti-

cle; in which we hall confider, firft, the anatomy of the

whole apparatus, and afterwards the phyfiology of vifion.

The eyes are two in number, exactly fymmetrical, placed
in two bony cavities, called orbits, which are fituated under
the forehead, and feparated from each other by the nofe,
The detailed defcription of the orbits will be found under
the article Crantum. The figure of thete cavities is that
of a pyratnid with four unequal fides, directed obliquely
forwards, and outwards from the point to the bafe. The
fize varies but little in different individuals, and is ufually
independent of general flature. It exceeds confiderably
that of the globe, which is fupported by much fat and other
foft parts, fo that it can be moved with great quicknefs and
facility in every direGtion.

The globe of the eye is Situated in the anterior part of the

EYE

orbit, nearer to the internal than the external fide of the
cavity, and is more or lefs prominent in different individuals.
The bafe of the orbit being truncated obliquely, the eye
projects beyond its edge on the external fide, while it appears
more deeply buried towards the nofe. It is fupported in
front by the moveable eye-lids; on the other fides by its
mufcles, which, as well the nerves and blood-veffels of the
organ, are enveloped ina foft fat, filling the reft of the orbit,
and keeping the eye on a level with the face. In the ema-
ciation confequent on age or difeafe, this fat is abforbed,
the eye lofes its prominent fituation, and finks much deeper
in the orbit ; hence the angular edges of the bony cavity
are rendered more evident, and the charaéter of the face
undergoes a marked alteration.

The fize of the eye varies but little in different fubjeGis ;
its apparent varieties depending in great meafure on the
larger or fmaller opening formed by the eye-lids, It is
{maller in the female than in the male, and proportionally
larger in the infant than in the adult. The fexual and na-
tional differences in the external proportions of the eye will
be more minutely confidered in the explanation of the plates, .
which follows the anatomical defcription.

The figure of the eye reprefents two portions of diftin®
fpheres, of different diameters, united towards the front.
The feétion of the {maller {phere is tranfparent, and occu-
pies about the anterior fifth of the globe, projeGting from the
larger {phere, which is opaque. By this difpofition, the
axis of the eye exceeds its tran{verfe diameter in a {mall ratio,
ot which we fhall have occafion to {peak more minutely
hereafter.

The axes of the globe and the orbit are not the fame;
that of the latter is directed obliquely outwards, fo that, if
prolonged behind the apex of the pyramid, it would meet its
fellow within the cranium: the axes of the two eyes are
parallel, and point directly forwards. The ftrong cylindri-
cal chord, made up of the optic nerve and its firm inveftmente,
enters the orbit in the direction of tlie axis of the latter, and
is attached towards the inner fide of the pofterior furface of
the globe.

The globe or ball of the eye is compofed of corcentric
membranous coats or tunics, invefting tranfparent parts of
different denfities, ufually called Aumours. The external
covering, which gives the figure to the eye, is firm and
thick, formed of two diitin@ portions ; the anterior, which
is tranfparent, is called the cornea ; the pofterior, opaque and
white, the /c/erotica. A certain portion of the front of the
globe is covered by a membrane, which conneéts the bail to
the lids, and is called the conjun@iva. The inner furface of
the latter is lined by a thin opaque membrane, of delicate
ftru€ture, covered on both fides by a dark coloured pigment,
and called the choroides : this is plaited on the inner furface
of its anterior part into projecting folds, the ciliary proceffes,
and it is connected by its front edge with another membrane,

. the iris, which floats tranfverfely at a fmall diftance from

the cornea, and has a circular opening about its middle,
termed the pupi/. The retina, a foft tranfparent expantion,
commencing from the optic nerve, and nearly equalling the
choroides in extent, lines the inner furface of that membrane.
This embraces by its whole internal furfacé a pellucid body,
occupying the greateft portion of the globe, and named the
vitreous humour, In front of this, and partly imbedded in
it, is placed the chry/lalline lens or humour, another tran{parent
body, nearly {pherical in fhape, and of greater comparative
denfity. The {pace left between the latter and the cornea,
is divided partially by the iris, and filled with a clear watery
fluid, named the agucous humour. The rays of light pafs
through the tranfparent cornea, the aqueeus humour, the

B2 openiag

Biv ee

opening in the iris or pupil; the chryftalline lens, and vitreous
humour, undergoing various refractions in their paffage, and
are finally colle&ted fo as to form an image on fome part of
the concave furface of the retina, from which the impreffion
is conveyed to the ferforium.
The pee or membranes of the eye. — The /elerotic coat (die
tffe haut, Germ. ) extends from the entrance of the optic
nerve to the curnea, covering about four-fifths of tne globe,
and truncated in front for the reception of the cornea. The
external furface is covered behind and in the middle by the
mufeles of the eye and the furrounding fat, and in front by
the conjunstiva. The inner furface, connected with the
choroid by a delicate cellular fubitance, by blood-veffels and
nerves, is ufually tinged of a dufky colour by the pigment of
that membrane ; an effe& produced after death by tranfuda-
tion, fince the ftain is not vifible in an eye examined in its
moft recent ftate. ‘his furface is pierced by numerous
{mall lobes, ‘particularly about the entrance of the optic
nerve, apd near the origin of the cornea, by which arteries
enter dire@ly into the choroid coat; the openings are lefs
numerous towards the middle, and give paflage to veins,
and to many fmall nerves which run through the {clerotica
obliquely, for two or three lines, and lie in fuperficial fur-
rows ofits inner furface in their way to the ciliary circle and
iris. he fclerotica prefents in front an aperture nearly
circular, of which the tranfverfe is rather longer than the
perpendicular diameter. The inner edge of this opening
is bevelled off, and the outer paffes over the oppofite floping
edge of the cornea, which is thus fet in the iclerotica. A
{mall round opening, appearing on the infide as a circular
{pot, pierced by numerous {mall holes, is placed nearly in
the centre of the pofterior and thickeft portion of the tunic,
and tranfmits the medullary part of the optic nerve. This
is equi-diftant from the upper and lower parts, but nearer‘ to
the inner or nafal, than to the outer or temporal fides of the
globe. It grows gradually {maller from its commencement
at the outer, to its termination on the inner furface of the
{clerotica, the nerve diminifhing in diameter in the fame pro-
portion in this part of its courfe. ; mut
The {clerotica is of a white colour. It is nearly a line in
thicknefs at the back of the globe, but becomes confiderably
thinner at the front. Its thinneft part is near the infertion
of the tendons of the re&ti, which is rather beyond the middle.
Next to the cornea it becomes again flightly thicker. Its
ftruGture is firm and denfe, confilting of itrata of fibres run-
ning parallel to and decuffating each other in every direction,
fo as to complete a {trong fibrous membrane, not feparable
into layers, at leaft not in the adult, even after very long
maceration. In the foetus it may be divided into two lamine
throughout its whole extent, the union between them not
being very firm. In this inftance the external layer appears
diftin@, and totally independent of the fheath of the optic
nerve. The thin internal layer is manifeftly continued from
the fine membrane immediately invefting the nerve. The
difpute, whether the firm fheath of the optic nerve derived
from the dura mater expands as it reaches the bulb, and
conftitutes the {clerotica, is a point of little moment. The
_Aheath and the fclerotica are evidently united moft intimately,
if the membrane is not continuous. Zinn defcribes the
outer layer of the vagina of the optic nerve as colleéing,
before it arrives at the fclerotica, into numerous denfe, fhin-
ing, firm fibres, which are inferted into the pofterior, thick,
prominent edge of that tunic, where it is pierced by the
medullary part of the nerve. The inner layer, thicker than
the external, pafles deeper between the nerve and the fcle-
rotica, on the inner furface of which it gradually difappears.
The difference between the fclerotica and the fheath of the

nerve is marked by the fudden increafe of thicknefs in the
former, by its white colour, and by its denfe ftru€ture, com.
pofed of bres interlacing each other, the fheath of the
nerve being thin, and of loofer texture.

The brilliant white colour of that portion of the f{elerotica
covered by the conjun@iva, has been attributed to a pecu-
liar membrane, to which the name of tunica albuginea has
been given; and it has been fuppofed that this coat was
formed by the union of the tendons which terminate in front
the four ftraight mufcles of the eye; but thefe tendons are
not extended to the cornea, are not broad enough to unite

y their edges, and are always diftinét from each other, and
the intervals between them are of equal brightneis with the
parts covered by the tendons. No fuch tunie in reality
exilts ; the {clerotica fhining advantageoufly through the

io

tran{parent conjunctiva is the only caule of the brilliaacy
and whitenels. _ <r

The {clerotica is fupplied by veffels from the ciliary arte-
ries and veins; they are few in number, and capillaries in

ize. We can obierve in it no traces ofnerves, It is elattic,

and capable of undergoing very confiderable extenfion, as
obferved in hydrophthalmia. ‘The chief ufe of this tunic ap-
pears to be that of defending the delicate parts it contains,
giving the figure to the eye, offering an infertion for its
mu(cles, and fupporting its veffels and nerves.

In the foetus it is comparatively thin and feeble, its
colour is not fo decided, and from its femi-tran{parency the
colour of the choroid can be diftinguifhed throughit. It
is more particularly behind that the fclerotica has a blueifh
tint from this caufe ; it is lefs evident anteriorly, the mem-
brane being rendered more opaque by the tendons of the
different muicles.

The cornea (horn-haut) is the tranfparent fubftance en-
cafed in the opening left at the front of the felerotica ; it
occupies, therefore, about the anterior fifth of theeye. Its
form is not quite circular, the tranfverfe diameter being
rather longer than the vertical. Its convexity is greater
than that of the fclerotica, the cornea appearing as a feg-
ment of a fmall {phere placed on the truncated plane a a
larger. Anteriorly, it is covered by the conjunGiva, which
at this part is very delicate, and adheres firmly to the cornea,
giving it a fhining polifhed furface. They are eafily fepa-
rable by long continued maceration. The polterior furface
of the cornea is concave, and lined by the membrane of the
aqueous humour, conttituting the anterior limit of the an-
terior chamber of the eye. The circumference of the
cornea, cut obliquely, flides under the edge of the {clerotica,
floped in the contrary direction, fo that the two parts touch
by a confiderable extent of oblique furfaces ; the fclerotica
advancing on the cornea anteriorly, while the latter pafles
under the f{clerotica in the oppofite dire€tion. ‘The confe-
quence is, that the anterior circumference of the cornea is
lefs than the pofterior: the chord of the fegment formed by
the external convexity is defcribed by Petit as equal to five
lines, that of the internal to five and a half.

The cornea and fclerotica are united to each other fo inti-
mately, that the former was for a long time regarded as a
tranfparent continuation of the fclerotica; but the form,
organization, and properties, as well as the difeafes of thefe
tunics are fo different, that we have no hefitation in confider-
ing them as diitin@. Further, by long continued-macera-
tion, and then plunging the eye into boiling water, they
come eafily apart in a pretty regular line, the conneétion by
cellular tiflue being eutirely deftroyed. The line of fepara-
tion is not equally marked in every animal, neither is the

figure of the correfponding furfaces the fame as in-man; :

in every inftance, however, the cornea and {clerotica are

diftind,

Byte

diftin&, though the union differs in its manner and degree.
The cornea poffeffes a middle thicknefs between thole of
the anterior and pofterior portions of the {clerotica: in this
réfpect it is nearly uniform throughout, except at the edge,
where it is fitted into the openinz left in the {clerotica.
Here its margin is accurately defined by a double groove,
marking the union between it and the {clerotica. It is to
this groove, diftinguifhable from tle bordering part of the
{clerotica by its dark colour, that the anterior edge of the
ciliary circle of the choroid coat firmly adheres.

The cornea is compofed, of an indeterminate number of

concentric laminz, connected by a fine tiffue, the cells of
which are filled by a tranfparent fluid; to ufe the words of
Zinn, “ areole aqua pellucidiflima femper funt ebriz.”
The external layers are more eafily elevated than the inter-
nal; they are often feparated by difeafes, an effufion of pus
or blood taking place between them, or lymph being depo-
fited fo as to deftroy the tranfparency of this membrane.
The cornea has not, in its healthy ftate, any veflels carrying
red blood, but is fupplicd by exhalants, which fecrete the
fluid of which we have been fpeaking. No rerve has been
traced into its fubftance. The pellncid fluid contained in
this membrane does not exude in the living ftate, but is con-
ttantly abforbed and renewed. After or a fhort time before
_ @eath, it is fuppofed to oofe out gradually, and form that
sobfcure film before the cornea which deftroys its tranfpa-
rency. ‘This isnot vifible in fubje&ts who die fuddenly ; but
where the difeafe has been of long continuance, the ob-
Sfcurity of the cornea begins fometimes before death, the lofs
of brilliancy being often regarded as one of its forerunning
fymptoms. The aqueous humour does not pals through
the cornea during life; after death it evidently does, the eye
becoming flat and wrinkled; its tenfion may be foon re-
ftored by immierfing it in water. Zinn believes that the ob-
fcure’ pellicle, obferved on the cornea after death, confilts of
Ahe conjunétiva in an opaque flate, fince it cannot be wathed
off; but may be removed by careful diffection with the
knife. The cornea is not fo elaftic as the f{clerotica, nor
capable of undergoing equal extenfion; it will, however,
recover its former dimenfions, after being ftretched, as is
proved by an experiment of Mr. Home. It gives no mark
of fenfibility when wounded, at lealt in its healthy {tate ; it
may when in a {tate of inflammation, and its veffels at fuch
time carry red blood.

In the feetus it is rather more prominent than in the
adult ; and is defcribed as being thicker, the interftices of
the laminz being larger, and containing a greater quantity of
fluid, fo as to diminifh the capacity of the anterior chamber,
and to approach, by its concave furface, nearer to the iris.
It can be reduced to half this thicknefs by compreffion.
Thefe obfervations have been made by Zinn and Petit : the
deficiency of aqueous humour and this particular condition
of the cornea was fuppofed by the latter to be one caufe
of the obfcure vifion of infants. It does not. lofe its
brilliancy after death to fo great a degree as in the adult ;

- which is attributed to its not allowing of tranfudation with
equal facility. For the fame reafon it fearcely decreafes in
volume under tlie fame circumitances.. The cornea has
been fometimes obferved to be partly offified in old age ;
the’ occurrence is, however, extremely rare.

The choroides, or, perhaps more properly, the cho-
rioides (gefafs-haut) forms the fecond coat of the eye, lying
immediately under the fclerotica. It extends from the en-
trance of the optic nerve to the circumference of the cornea.
‘The external furface is every where conne&ted with the
felerotica by a fine cellular tiffue, by numerous veflels paffing
between thefe membranes, and by the ciliary nerves. This

tiffue is more abundant in the fcetus than in the adult,
and more particularly furrounds the lerger veficls aud nerves.
It conneéts the two coats pretty clofely, but is fo delicate
as to allow of their being eafily feparated from each other
by impelling air between, the conneGtion being pref
only by the veficls, which havea greater degree of firmnefs.
It is more abundant near the cornea, and forms the bafis of
the ciliary circle. The internal furface of the choroid is
in clofe and accurate contaét with the retina at all points;
but the two parts are not united by the medium of veffvis,
or cellular tiffue. The pofterior part of the choroid prefents
a fmall round hole, through which the medullary fibres of
the optic nerve pafs. It was long fupyofed that the cho-
roid coat was contitued at this {pot from the pia mater,
or the thin membrane immediately invefting the optic nerve.
More accurate examination, however, has proved that they
are not continuous membranes. As the choroid approaches
the entrance of the optic nerve it adheres more firmly to the
inner furface of the fclerotica by means of the numerous
ciliary arteries, and the cellular tiffue furroanding them.
The pia mater of the optic nerve, after perforating with it
the holes in the felerotica, is refle&ted on all fides, formi: g
a {mall ring, and loft on the inner furface of that tunic. At
this part the: choroid adheres to the pia mater very clofely
by cellular tiffue, furrounding the rifing medullary papilla,
from which the retina has its origin, by a circular and
well defined margin. This is very evident by dividing the
optic nerve longitudinally at its entrance into theeye. The
choroid terminates in front by a wide aperture, nearly at
the point of union between the cornea and f{elerotica. Jui
before it ends we obferve it folded into the ciliary proceffes,
and forming on the outer furface, by its altered ftruture
and appearance, the ordiculus ciliaris, the anterior edge of
which is intimately connected with the iris.

The choroid is very delicate, thin, and eafily torn, It
is of a reddifh brown colour on each furface. On the out-
fide this colour is inherent in the ftru@ture of the membrane,
and does not depend on the depofition of any colouring fub-
{lance externally to its tiffue. In the perfeétly recent eye,
the finger is fearcely ftained by wiping it, neither does it
tinge water, if fuffered to remain in it for a few days. Af. °
ter that time the coloured tifue is foftened, aad parts with
fome of the colouring matter. On the internal furface of
the choroid this colour is more decided, and depends evi-
dently on a dark kind of mucous fecretion, called pigmenium
nigrum, included ina fine cellular tiffue, increafing in quan
tity and intenfity as we approach the anterior margin, where
it takes a blackifh tint. ‘Towards the entrance of the op-
tic nerve the pigmentum is much thinner, the ftru@ure of
the chore:d appearing through it. It feems to be a pe-
culiar iecretion from the veflels of the membrane, occupy-
ing both fides of the vafcular tiffue, but more particu-
larly its inner furface. It is defcribed by Hunter as a
‘ fub{tance approaching to the nature and appearance of a
membrane lining the choroid coat; and fomewhat timilar
to the rete mucofum- which lies under the cuticle of the
human body ; there is alfo fome of the fame kind of fub-
ftance diffufed through the cellular membrane, which unites
the choroid with the {clerotic coat.” When it has been
wafhed away by maceration, the inner furface appears vil-
lous. The colouring matter is not altered fenfibly by heat,
nor by any chemical tefts of whatever nature to which it
has been fubjected: the colour is in fome cafes deepened as
to intenfity, but never changes.

The choroid is formed by almoft innumerable arterial and
venous veilels, united by a fine cellular tiflue, into the form
ofa membrane. On examining it from without, after care-

fully

1 Spe Gh OP

fully removing the {clerotiea, we cbferve, firft, the flat ciliary
nerves, lying externally to the veffels, running forwards on
the convex furface.. Befides thefe nerves we can generally
fee two veffels, rarely more, one an each fide; which
having penetrated the fclerotica at its back part, run
horizontally forwards, giving fcarcely any branches to
the choroid, and divide at the ciliary circle. They are the
Jong ciliary arteries, and are frequently filled with blood.
Under thefe arteries and nerves are numerous veflels, about
the middle of the choroid, arranged in a particular form,
and called on this account vene voriicofe. There are ufually
three venous trunks from which branches are thrown off on
each fide, forming i;regular parallel arches, meeting each
other in the intervals between the trunks, Ina recent eye
thefe veffels are filled with blood, and are very apparent.
By immerling the choroid in alcohol, they become of
a white colour, and are then ftill more readily diftinguith-
able from the other veffels) The intervals between thefe
veins are occupied by the ramifications of the fhort pofterior
ciliary arteries, appearing as dark-coloured threads lying
under the arches. Thefe arteries pierce the {clerotic near
‘the entrance of the optic nerve ; in the firft inftance they
are on the external furface of the choroid; but as they ad-
‘vance they dip under the branches of the venz vorticofe,
and approach the inner furface of the membrane. Thefe
numerous branches are given off at very acute angles, and
are dire¢ted immediately forwards, forming an extremely
fine net-work on the inner furface, fo that the angular
mefhes are only vifible when confiderably magnified. ‘The
difpofition ofits veffels gave rife to an opinion that the cho-
roid was compofed of two layers, an external, formed by the
veins, and an internal, by the arteries. The latter has been
named tunica Ruyfchiana. his diftin@ion is now com-
pletely rejeéted by the beft anatomifts, who agree in confider-
ing the choroid as a fimple membrane: After long maceration
it becomes almoft tranfparent ; and at this time the fingle-
nefs of its ftruCture is {ufficiently evident: when held be-
tween the eye and the light it appears as a net-work of
veffels croffing in every direCtion, and not feparable from each
other. Parts of it have been oecafionally found offified.
At the diftance of a line or more from the cornea, the
external furface of the choroid begins to be enveloped in a
grey, foft, fhort, pulpy tiffue, of moderate thicknels, repre-
fenting a circular belt, to which different names have been
attached. It is ufually called the orbiculus ciliaris, or ciliary
circle ; it is deferibed alfo under the names of ligamentum
ciliare and plexus ciliaris: Zinn calls it annulus cellufofus ;
Soemmerring, from its flru€ture made up ‘nervis ciliaribus,
vafifque his intermixtis fanguiferis,’’? deferibes it under the
term of annulus gangliformis. It is more than a line in
breadth; its anterior part thicker and clofer in {ttu@ure
‘than the pofterior: it adheres with fome little firmnefs to
the felerotica at the groove obferved in the latter, clofe to
its inner conneétion with the margin of the cornea. It
may be eafily feparated by the finger, but is ftrong enough
to refilt the impulfe of air driven between the choroid and
{clerotic coats by the blow-pipe. Fontana has deferibed
a triangular canal as running along the circle of this fpongy
fubftance, intermediate to its conne¢tion with the fclerotica.
Tt has been noticed fince by Soemmerring, and particularly by
Murray, and is partly formed by the groove at the edges of
the cornea and fclerotica. It is filled by an aqueous fluid.
The ciliary circle is united more clofely with the choroid,
and can fearcely be feparated from it without tearing the
fatter. It isalways ofa whitith, or grey colour, very diltin@,
therefore, from the dark-coloured choroid ; and not fo broad
as the ciliary proceffes within, It receives in its fubitance

the ciliary nerves and arteries in great abundance in their
paflage to the iris. The ciliary circle marks the line of
diftin@tion between the choroid and iris.

The iris was for a long time defcribed as a direé&t continua-
tion of the external layer of the choroid; and-the ciliary
proceffes of the internal. The fimplicity of this membrane
has neceffarily deftroyed that opinion ; and it appears that
the iris is a diftinét membrane, both in its ftru¢ture and
funétions, feparated from the choroid by the orbiculus
ciliaris, in the anterior margin of the fubftance of which it
feems partially encafed, the outer edge of this circle proje@-
ing forwards beyond that of the iris, as may be feen after
the cornea and {clerotica have been carefully removed.

The inner furface of the front of the choroid forms the
ciliary procefles, which are thin plaits difpofed in the
manner of radii round the chryttalline lens, and lodged in
correfponding depreflions of the, vitreous humoyr. “The
ring made by-the union of thefe plicz, confidered asa whole,
is called the corpus ciliare. On making a perpendicular
fection of the eye from right to left behind the middle of
the fphere, with an attention to difturb the connedtions of
the feveral parts as little as poffible, we obferye, on looking
into the anterior fection, through the pellucid vitreous hu-
mour, a dark ring, refembling the difk of a radiated flower;
furrounding the chryttalline eats It is two lines in breadth,
and rather narrower on the nafal fide than on the temporal.
Itisterminated pofteriorly by aferiated, undulating, accurately
defined and black margin. Nearer to the chryftalline it
prefents white ftreaks with black intervals placed alternately,
fo that apparently two rings are formed, the poiterior and
widelt of an uniform dark colour, the anterior compofed
of white and black lines alternately. The white lines are
the edges of the ciliary proceifes, and the black interftices
the depreflions between them covered by pigmentum nigrum, —
When the membrane is removed from thevitreous humour,
efpecially if the eye is not recent, a great portion of the
pigment is left on the furface of the latter, giving an impref-
fion correfponding inverfely to the oppofite appearance of
the procefles. In the eye of the new-bofn infant this is fill
more remarkably the cafe. In the recent eye er the adult
this dark yarnifh remains deeply fixed on the fubitance of
the intervals of the procefles, and requires much wathing
and maceration, in order completely to remove it.

After a careful abfterfion of the pigment it is very
evident that the corpus ciliare is a direct continuation of
the choroid. It is of a grey colour, lighter towards the
iris from the white colour of the ciliary circle on its outer
fide, The corpus ciliare is concentric pofteriorly with the
{clerotica; farther on it gradually quits it by the interpofi-
tion of the ciliary circle, and turns inwards towards the lens,
correfponding more to the convexity of the vitreous humour
than to the concavity of the [clerotica. The projecting
folds will now float freely from one fide to the other, when
immerfed in water, being reftrained by no tranfverfe lateral
connections. On a clofe examination of thefe parts we
may obferve the ciliary procefies rifing from the inner
furface of the choroid, about a line and a half from the iris,
by two or more almott imperceptible ftriz ‘¢ lineole tenuif-
fime,’’ which foon unite to form a fingle fold, increafing
in depth the nearer it approaches the chrytftalline lens. The
number of the ciliary procefles varies from fixty te eighty, —
but is generally neareft the former of thefe numbers and
fometimes below it. They are alternately longer and fhorter,
Of the three edges formed by the triangular fold, the
polterior is flightly denticulated, concave, and lodged in
the oppofite groove of the vitreous humour; the anterior,
conyex, is the bafe rilfing from the choroid, the internal,

not

1”

EY i

not a line in length, meafures the {paee between the great
circumference of the iris and that of the chryftalline ; it is
evidently denticulated. Of the three angles, the one
correfponding to the chryftalline is rounded, paffing a little
in front of the anterior part of the capfule, without, however,
foriuing any connection with it. Zinn, who appears to
have inveitigated this point with his ufual accuracy and
minutenedfs of refearch, is decidedly of opinion that the ciliary
proceilés are not adherent to the capfule of the lens; ‘non
unica fibra, aut ullo vinculo capfule lentis adneCtuntur.”
Haller believes that the ciliary proceffes fupport the chryf-
talline lens ia its fituation, not by any immediate con-
netion, but by the intervention of the vitreous humour,
with which they certainly have a tolerably intimate con-
neCtion. He agrees with Zion im not allowing them
to be mufcular. The angle correfponding to the great
margin of the iris is joined to it, and to the round
edge of the ciliary circle, by veffels and cellular tiflue:
at the line of usion feveral ftraight limes are feen going off
on the potterior farface of the iris to the edge of the pupil.
The potterior angle is much elongated, and terminates in the
fine itrie we have mentioned on the inner furface of the
choroid. The furface of the ciliary body, but more
efpecially the intervals of the proceffes, is covered by a very
dark mucus, much deeper in colour than that which lines
the reft of the choroid: it is nearly black. The potterior
edges of the procefles not being covered by it, appear of a
light grey. When the pigment has been wafhed off, the
furface of the corpus ciliare appears villous, like that of
the choroid behind : it is generally rugous. The ftructure
is made up wholly of veffels united by fine tiffue, as the reft
of the choroid ; we do not believe them to poffefs any muf-
cularity, or any power of motion. The arteries come from
the fhort ciliaries, which, after having run parallel to each
other on the internal furface of that membrane, pafs into
each ciliary procefs to the number of twenty at leaft. They
run in a ferpentine courfe along the fold, giving off numerous
branches, which, by their multiplied divifions and frequent
anaftomofes, form an extremely fine net-work. When they

have arrived at the floating edge they turn in one towards '

another, and anaitomofe, forming concentric arches. The
veins of the ciliary proceffes join the ven vorticofe of the
choroid.

The choroid in the foetus, at the time of birth, is well
formed: it may be detached eafily from the fclerotica and
cornea, leaving on the firft areddifh tint. Its onter furface is
of the fame colour as in the adult : the pigmentum on the
infide is black inftead of brown ; is tb fluid, and more
ftrongly fixed. After it has been removed, the choroid re.
tains a fenfibly red colour, derived from its very vafcular
organization, and differing from that in the adult, under
fimilar conditions. Towards the optic nerve, where the
pigmentum is in fmaller quantity, the reddifh choroid is very
apparent. ‘Che ciliary circle is not fo fully marked as
in the adult, and adheres but weakly to the {clerotica.
The ciliary proceffes are comparatively more developed, and
are very diftin&t: they are ofa reddifh colour, but sot fo
deep as the pofterior part of the choroid.

The iris, (regenbogenhaut, oder blendung,) fo called
from the variety of colours on its anterior furface, is a plane
membranous ring, floating in the aqueous humour, fub-
tending the fegmeut of the {phere, formed by the circum-

nce of the cornea, and dividing the anterior from the
pace chamber of the eye. It is perforated bya circu-
ar opening, called the pupil, (lichtloeh, oder {eheloch,
Semm. ) This aperture does not occupy the centre of the
iris, butis rather nearer to the nafal than the temporal mar-

gin of its great circumference ; hence the iris is broader, by
about one-fixth, towards the temple. than ou the fide next
the nofe. The diameter of the opening varies very confidera-
bly, according to the quantity of light direéted on the retina.
The anterior furface of the iris correfponds to the pofterior
concayity of the cornea, feparated from it by a {pace called
the anterior chamber, which contains by far the greateft
portion of the aqueous humour. This furface is flat, and
very differently coloured in different individuals. It is
brijliant, and we can diftinguifh in it an external wider cir-
cle of a light r, and an internal narrower ring of a darker,
often of a different tint. On this furface alfo we fee a num-
ber of ftriz, more or lefs ferpentine, or parallel, large or
{mall, converging towards the leffer circle, on which the
{trie are not fo numerous, or fo confpicuous. The diftinc-
tion between them depends more on their colour than on
any elevation above the furface; and they are more ferpen-
tine in proportion as the pupil is dilated, and the iris con-
trated. he pofterior furface of the iris is oppofite to the
anterior convexity of the chryftalline, feparated from it by a
narrow fpace, the pofterior chamber of the eye, filled by the
leffer part of the aqueous humour. It is covered by a thick,
dark coloured mucus, nearly black. Here alfo, when the
colouring matter has been wafhed off, we obferve ftraight
lines converging to the centre of the pupil, but very dif
tin from thofe on the anterior furface. This furface was
formerly known by the name of uvea. The great circum-
ference of the iris is let into the thicknefs of the anterior
edge of the ciliary circle, at the line where the cornea termi-
nates internally. It may be fepsrated without any lacera-
tion by the finger, or more eaiily ftill by maceration in
water.

Although the appearance of the two faces of the iris is
very different, we cannot inthe human fubje@ make any divi-
fion of it into two layers, though this is the cafe more or
leis in other animals. It appears as a fimple membrane,
made up of veffels, nerves, and membranous fibres: When
examined with the affiftance of a magnifying power, the
two circles on the anterior furface of the iris appear com-
pofed of numerous fibres, converging from the circumference
of the iris towards the pupil, and diftinguifhed from each
other chiefly by theircolour. The longer ones are general-
ly white ; the fhorter are finer, and of a darker colour.
They are tortuous when the pupil is dilated, and nearly
ftraight when it is contraGted. When they arrive at:the cir-
cumference of the leffer circle, the larger of thefe bbres di-
vide into two branches, feparating at-olwerfe ancles, andinclin--
ing towards fimilar branches with which they unite, to form
an undulating or denticulated circular line, dividing the
greater annulus from the {maller, From this margin there
depart feveral delicate fibres, fimilar in their courfe to the
larger ftrie, which converge as radii towards the pupil, and
form the leffer ring of the iris, by which that opening is im-

mediately furrounded. Haller, who minutely defcribes the

appearance of the iris under the magnifying power, agrees in
the principal features of his account with the one here
riven. He fays that feveral of the radiated {trie are col-
feated into flocculi, and that thefe united make a ferrated
arch, convex towards the pupil, at the margin of the leffer
circle, the flocculi being * varié in Garatalan quafdam in-
trorfum euates difpofiti.”” This radiated ftruQure is-co-
vered by a fine tranfparent inembrane, of which we fhall
{peak below, as including the aqueous humour. When the
pigment’ has been wafhed from the back of the iris, this
{urface appears of a whitifh colour, and prefents a great
number of rifing itraight lines, converging from the circum-+
ference to the pupil, appearing almoit as continuations of
the

iy Ye Es

the ciliary proceffes. Thefe lines, totally different from the
radiated and ferpentine ftriz on the anterior furface, become
more prominent, forming a kind of plait when the iris is
extended, fo as to augment its breadth. As they approach
the pupil, they are gradually effaced, but with a highly
magnifying power may be traced to the opening of the
pupil. Nocirculsr fibres are in any cafe vifible. The re-
gular difpofition here deferibed is not vilible to the naked
eye: we can obferve irregular lines converging towards the
pupil in the living fubje&, but cannot by any means difcern
their exaét difpolition. After death they are {till lefs appa-
rent.

The long ciliary arteries are the chief fource from which
the iris, derives its {upply of blood. Thefe veffels, two
in number, one on the nafal, the other on the temporal fide
of the eye, run between the choroid and fclerotic coats,
till they arrive at the ciliary circle. Here they divide ufual-
ly into two principal branches, going off at very obtufe
angles, which advance to the circumference of the iris,
where the two branches of one artery anaftomofe with thofe
of the oppofite, fo asto form an arterial circle, correfpond-
ing nearly to this cixcumference. From this arterial ring,
augmented by the acceflion of the anterior ciliary arteries,
are produced a great number of fmali branches, more or lefs
parallel, or tortuous, directed towards the pupil, and ana{-
tomofing freely by lateral communications. On arriving at
the lefler ring of the iris, many of thefe bifurcate ; their
branches anaftomofe, and produce another vafeular circle,
correfponding to the circumference of the leffer ring of this
membrane, from which other radiated veffels go to the mar-
gin of the pupil. This circle, however, is by ho means fo
regular as that round the circumference of the iris ; and
many branches from the latter pals on, without joining it
to the leffer ring, and to the pupil. With thefe arterial
ramifications many veins are intermixed, which join, fome
the vene vorticofz, others the veins accompanying the long,
andthe anterior ciliary arteries. The ciliary nerves, which
we have before defcribed as entering the ciliary circle, di-
vide in that part into numerous fine threads, running to-
wards the anterior furface of the iris, into which we can
trace them but a very fhort way : they {con become fo con-
founded with the fibres before mentioned, as to efcape all
refearch, even by the affittance of the microfcope.

The iris then appears as 4 membrane compofed principal-
ly of arterial and venous branches and nerves, connected by
memLranous tiffue. The fisres arife probably from the dif-
pofition of the latter of thefe parts, and totally differ from
thofe of a mufcular kind both in ftruéture and funétions.
A fuppofed neceffity of afluming their mufcularity, in order
to account for the motion of the iris, has alone given rife
to that opinion, which is now rejeéted by the moit eminent
phyfiologifls. Numerous membranous flocculiare deferib-
ed by Zinn on the anterior furface of the iris, plainly dif-
tin& from the veffels; they in fome meafure float in the
aqueous humour in the intervals of the radiated fibres before
deferibed, producing, in conjunétion with thefe two, innu-
merable refraétions of the luminous rays.

‘The various colours of the iris in the fame, and in differ-
ent individuals, eflentially depend onthe pigment which covers
the pofterior furface of the iris, which gives the prevailing
fhade of the tint. Forif this is removed, the iris is nearly
tranfparent. ‘The exaét nature or immediate caufe of thefe
colours is unknown, Soemmerring obferves, that the lighter
the colour of the pigmentum and of the iris, the more deli-
cate are the coats of the eye, and the converfe holds equally
good; the darkerthe eye, the fewer are the ciliary plice.
The colour of the pigmentum correfponds in fome degree

4

with that of the hair and fkin. Inthe human fubjeG it is
moft commonly dark. In many claffes of animals, there is
a difference of colour in the:fame eye ; in the cow, or fheep,
for inftance, there are, in the fame eye, certain portions of.
a filvery white, and others of a fine green colour, the re-
mainder being black. Inthe human fpecies we fee different
fhades from nearly black to nearly white ; and we find
thefe to correfpond in a ftriking manner with the co-
lour of the fin and hair, if we trace it from the black iris,
and fkin of the A'rican negro, through the different races
of men, to the fair fin and light eyes of the northern Eu-
ropean. We fometimes meet with perfons whofe fkin and
hair are very white, and yet the iris is dark, which is a
fign ofa dark pigmentum ; but if we examine more careful-
ly, we fhall alfo find that the eye-lafhes are dark. The iris
of one eye is often lighter in colour than that of the other,
and fometimes only one-half of the iris is white. Whether
this difference in the fame individual is owing to the pig-
mentum being different in colour, is not, we believe, afcer-
tained. The iris is totally white in the wall-eyed horfe. In
the Albino, of whatever race, the iris is fomewhat white,
but almoft pellucid, flightly tinged of a colour betweena pale -
violet and red. The pupil is ofa full pink, or ratherred..
Thefe phenomena are caufed by the deficiency of the pig-
ment, the tinge arifing from the numerous blood-veflels of
the iris and choroid coat; and correfpond with the total
want of colouring matter in the rete mucofum, For other
peculiarities in the eye of the Albino, or Leucethiops, we
refer the reader to the defcription of the firft plate illuftrat-
ing the anatomy of theeye. In all cafes the colours of the
iris, the ‘ ftupende colorum varietates’? are very much
clearer when feen through the medium of the aqueous hu-
mour, which evidently augments their intenfity ; when the
cornea is removed, and the aqueous humour diflipated, they
lofe much of their brilliancy.
The iris poffeffes but little fenfibility in its healthy ftate ;.

its motions are involuntary, and depend not on any direé&t

excitation, but on the quantity of light falling on the re-

tina; rays of light, fo direéted as to fall only on the iris,
have no vifible effe& in altering its figure. It changes moft
plainly and rapidly when the eye is brought fuddenly near
to the flame of a candle, or removed from a light to a
darker place. In the firft cafe the breadth of the iris is:
increafed, and the pupil proportionally contracted ; in the
fecond the converfe may be obferved. This alteration in
the diameter of the pupil is conneéted in fome degree alfo
with the clofenefs or diftance of the obje&t. The iris, in
all its motions, appears to poffefs a peculiar rode of ation
obferved in no other animal tiffue. Its dilatation diminifhes
the pupil, and its contraction widens that opening. Here
then the prefence of the ftimulus produces an elongation : -
of its parts, and its abfence their contraétion, the inverfe
of what happens in mufcular action. That the iris aé&ts
fympathetically only, is further proved by its lofs of motion
in paralytic affections of the retina, as in gutta ferena, the
pupil being in thefe cafes widely dilated. ‘This affords
another argumert to fhew that the contracted ftate of the
iris is the itate of reft, and that this part moves only in»
confequence of the aétion of light on the retina. Further,
its motion ceafes at the moment of death, and cannot, like
that of mufcular fibres, be renewed by the application of
ftimuli. The very different diameters of the pupil in the
dead fubject depend on the ftate of the iris at the inflant
of diffolution, and conilitute a further argument againft
its mufcularity. The motion of the iris has been aferibed
to the fudden turgefcence or depletion of its veffels; the
former condition increafing its breadth by making the fer-
pentine

EY &.

pevtine veffels ftraight. But no fuch change can be ob-
ferved in the tremulsus and delicate iris of the albino, which
feems made up almoft wholly of veffels, and the motion of
the iris continues unimpaired when the a¢tion of the heart
is occafionally interrupted. Blumenbach believes the caufe
of its motions to depend on its vita propria, or peculiar
vital properties, as the iris, “tam quod ad fabricam et vivi-
difimum in multis animalibus colorem, &c. quam quod ad
motum, nulli plane in univerfo animali corpore analogum,
tam multa habet fingularia, et propria.’’

In the infant, at birth the iris is covered at the pofterior
furface by a very large quantity of dark pigment. In the
foetus, before the end of the feventh month, the opening
in the iris, the pupil, is occupied by an extremely delicate
membrane continuous with its margin, called the mem-
brana pupillaris, (lichtlochfhaut.) It is fupplied by many
veffels derived from thofe of the iris; yet it differs from
that membrane very materially in ftru€ture and appearance.
The membrana pupillaris is extremely thin and tranfparent,
while the correfponding edge of the iris is thick, and co-
vered by a layer of the dark pigment. Soemmerring parti-
cularly mentions it as an independent membrane. It gra-
dually difappears before birth, at which time no vellige of
it remains ; its particular ufe is unknown. It has occupied
the pens of Albinus, Hunter, Haller, Waiter, Wrifberg, and
Blumenbach. Wrifberg has given a ‘paper on the fubjec&
in his “ Commentationes Medice,’’? Gott. 1800.

The retina, (mark-haut,) deriving its name from the
‘reticulated difpofition of its component parts, forms the
third membranous inveftment of the eye, being fituated im-
mediately between the choroid coat and vitreous humour.
As it is connected direétly with the optic nerve, we fhall
introduce here fome remarks on the latter. The optic
nerve, after decuffating its fellow, with which it is moft in-
timately connected, paffes into the orbit by the foramen
opticum, covered by a firm fheath derived from the dura
‘mater. It now aflumes a cylindrical form, and purfues
rather a ferpentine courfe forwards and outwards, receiving
in its paflage a {mall artery and vein. It foon after enters
the globe of the eye, on the inner or nafal fide of its axis.
As the nerve approaches the eye, the fafciculi of opaque
pulpy fibres gradually diminifh in fize, and increafe in
number by an irregular fub-divifion, till they terminate in
the retina. Near the eye, where the fafciculi are moft
numerous, the fubftance of the nerve has a confiderable
degree of tranfparency, from the number of interftices
‘between them, filled by a tranfparent jelly. At this part
alfo we obferve in the middle of the fub{tance of the nerve
finall veffels running in its axis, the central artery and vein
of the retina. On arriving at the bulb, the fheath of the
nerve becomes conne¢ted with the {clerotica in the manner
already defcribed. he nerve contraéts, forming an irre-
gular cone, the temporal fide diminifhing more than the
nafal, fo that if divided vertically, the inner feétion of the
cone would be the thickeft. ‘The convex end of the cone
having traverfed the thicknefs of the fclerotic coat, meets
‘with a thin concave layer of membrane, (/amina cribrofa,)
intimately united with the inner edge of the opening in that
tunic, and perforated by numerous foramina. hrough
thefe the medullary fibres of the nerve are tranfmitted,
there being a larger hole in the middle (porus opticus)
for the central velfels. The convex end of the nerve, co-
vered by this perforated membrane, projects towards the
infide of the eye, and the medullary part of it forms within
the membrane a conical white papilla, with a depreffion in
the middle. This prominent difk may be diftinguifhed from
within by its projecting beyond the level of the retina, and

Vor. XIV.

by the difference of its colour. From this circle the re-
tina fpreads under the choroid as far as the commencement
of the corpus ciliare. It has no conneétion with the cho-
roid, being fimply in contact with it, and receiving no
tinge from the pigmentum. The concave furface of the
retina embraces clofely the vitreous humour, but has ap-
parently no further union with it than what is derived froim
the paflage of the central artery into that body. The .a-
terior margin of the retina correfponds to the great cireum-
ference of the corpus ciliare, the choroid beyond this line
being in immediate contaét with the vitreous humour. The
termination of the retina at this line has been doubted by
many anatomilts, who maintain that it 1s continued over
the vitreous humour to the edge of the chrytialline. They
affert that a very delicate layer 1s continued from its apparent
termination between the ciliary proceffes and vitreous hu-~
mour, to the edge of the chryftalline. In order to fee
this part the choroid muft be carefully removed, and the eye
immerfed in water, when the prolongation of the retina
becomes evident. That a delicate membrane really adheres
to the anterior part of the vitreous humour would thus
feem clear, but whether it is a continuation of the retina
admits of doubt. If the examination be made in a recent
eye, the latter membrane terminates moift decidedly at the
edge of the ciliary proceffes. Immertion of the eye in fpi-
rits gives to the vitreous body an opaque and pallid fur-
face, which may be miftaken for a continuation of the re-
tina. But the retina ealily feparates from this apparent
prolongation, and appears to end by a regular, acute, and
well-defined margin, very different from what we fhould
expect if the membrane had been lacerated. We believe
its termination to be at the great circumference of the cor-
pus ciliare, and confequently more than a line from the cir-
cumference of the chryftalline lens.

In ail other animals that have a corpus ciliare the retina
terminates as we have defcribed. In birds it forms a pro-
jeting roll at this part. In animals which have no ciliary
proceffes the retina ends fuddenly towards the commence-
ment of the iris, and it is manifeit that the anterior furface
of the vitreous body retains no portion of it. It further
appears that an initrument paffed into the eye, in the hu
fubjeét, behind the ciliary proceffes, occafions acute p
which is not the cafe if the wound be made anterior to their
commencement. And we have no example in the animal
body where the medullary part of a nerve is continued inte
a membrane of no fenfibility, whofe only ufe could be that
of fupporting the foft parts within it.

The retina in the living fubje¢t is moft perfely tran{pa-
rent ; it becomes-of a pale white foon after death. It pof-
feffes fome thicknefs, but is fo foft as to be torn with flight
force. It is formed eflentially by a medullary fubflance
continued from the optic nerve. When examined atten-
tively as it lies fpread over the vitreous humour, we ob-
ferve in it many tranfparent lines, diftributed without any
regular order, united by other tranfverfe lines, between
which opaque areole are vifible. Thefe lines are probably
the ramifications of veflels of the retina. For in addition
to the medullary pulp, of which the rétina is compofed,
this membrane prefents a vafcular and flamentous net-work,
occupying its inner furface, made up by the central veflels,
and a very fine tiffue fupporting them. On this net-work
the medullary part refts, fo that the retina may be almoi
defcribed as being compoféd of two layers. It is, however,
impoffible to feparate them throughout, even by maceration.
On the outer, or temporal fide of the membrane, abou
two lines diftant from the entrance of the optic nerve,
and ia the very axis of the eye, we obferve in the

recent

is

EY E.

recent organ a yellow fpot, of a deeper colour towards its
centre, and of about a line in breadth. It is generally
concealed by a fold of the membrane, for which reafon it
efcaped for a long time the refearches of anatomitts,
Soemmerring having been the firft who obferved and de-
feribed it. The centre of this yellow fpot is perforated
by a {mall hole. Thefe facts are beft feen by detaching
the pofterior part of the {clerotic and choroid coats under
water ; the eye fhould be as recent as poffible. <‘ In vero
retine centro luculentiffime tum cernitur foraminulum
plane rotundum cum limbo luteo, quod duo yaforum fangui-
ferorum rami eleganti corona cingunt.’? The folds fur-
rounding it are thus prevented, and the membrane con-
tinuing tenfe, thefe appearances are fufficiently evident.
They may alfo be advantageoufly feen through the tranf-
parent vitreous humour in a fimple fe€tion of a recent eye.
In this way, however, it is difficult to prevent the retina
from falling iato folds. Another method of demonftrating
it is, by removing the cornea, iris, and chryftallize. The
retina then remains undifturbed, and the foramen, with its
yellow zone, is plainly vifible in a {trong light. Mr. Home
fays, that it is apparently a little below the pofterior end
of the vifal radius. He obferves alfo, that in feparating
the vitreous humour from the retina, there is a greater
adhefion at this particular part. This fpot is pale in chil-
dren, bright yellow in young perfons, and again pale in
old age. It has been obferved that the intenfity of the
colour is conneéted with the ftate of vifion: that it di-
minifhes where that is obftruéted, and that the yellow {pot
entirely difappears when vifion is loft. The plait which
has been defcribed as extending from this {pot to the optic
nerve we believe to be only accidental, and caufed by the
adhefion of the vitreous humour, when the latter has been
fomewhat difplaced in the examination.

The foramen centrale, firft difcovered by Soemmerring in
the human eye, has been fince demonftrated in the eyes of
feveral quadrumana, where thefe organs are directed for-
wards, and have their axes parallel to each other.

The central artery gives its principal branches to the
retina; a {mall trunk only enters the fubftance of the vi-
treous body. We frequently find the larger of thefe
branches filled with blood, and two of them furroundimg the
eentral foramen “ inftar corone.’? The central veffels ex-
hibit a very elegant appearance, when feen through the
tranfparent lens and vitreous humour, on the furface of the
retina. The central artery varies much in its origin, being
derived fometimes from the trunk of the ophthalmic, at
others from the internal long ciliary, or the inferior mufcu-
lar. There are fometimes more than one arterial trunk,
but the principal always runs on the axis of the optic
nerve, and enters with it as before defcribed. The central
vein ufually correfponds to the artery in its origin and
courte.

The retina is very completely formed in the full grown
foetus. Its veffels are particularly numerous and apparent.
The yellow {pot is not vifible in the faetus of nine or eight
months; nor can it be obferved at all times even in the eye
of the new-born infant.

The humours of the eye—The humours of the eye are
three in number; viz. the vi/reous, the chry/falline, and the
aqueous, each poffefling a delicate tranfparent membranous
inveftment peculiar toitfelf, The vitreous body (glafkorper)
fo named from its refemblance to glafs, is compofed by the
vitreous humour, properly fo called, and the membrana
hyaloidea, which contains it. It is a foft tranfparent mafs,
extending from the back of the eye to the chryttalline lens,
*ccupying rather more thar three-fourths of the globe, and

2

pofleffing a {pherical figure, with a deprefiion in the middle
of its anterior furface, in which a part of the chryftalline is
lodged. Its furface is covered in the greateft part of its
extent by the retina, with which it is connected only at its
pofterior part, as before related. Beyond the termination
of the retina it is covered by the ciliary body, and is marked
by radiated grooves, into which the ciliary procefles are re-
ceived. It is perfectly pellucid, offering, at firft fight, no
diftin€tion of membrane, or humour. The membrana hya-
loidea contains the vitreous humour, forming its external
capfule. Numerous plates of membrane pafs from its
inner furface, interfeGting each other, and thereby forming
fmall cells of different figure and fize, in which the hu-
mour is immediately held. Towards the commencement
of the corpus ciliare this membrane divides into two layers,
the internal of which, continuing to cover the vitreous
humour, paffes behind the chryttalline, whilft the external
goes on under the corpus ciliare to the circumference of the
chryftalline, attaching itfelf to the anterior part of the cap-
fule, in which the lens is contained. This layer is defcribed
by Zinn under the name of the ‘ membranula, or zonula
corone ciliaris;’?? which latter term denotes the radiat-
ed circle on the front of the vitreous humour, marked by
the pigment of the ciliary proceffes. This membrane has
probably been miftaken for a continuation of the retina.
Zinn does not believe it to be a continuation of the outer
layer of the hyaloidea, which he afferts to be throughout a
fimple membrane. Between it and the membrane immedi-
ately invefting the vitreous humour there is formed a tri-
angular, curvilinear cavity, the bafe of the triangle being
formed by the capfule of the chryftalline. This canal is
named from its firft difcoverer, F. Petit: it was called by
him ‘le canal godronne,’”’ from its peculiar appearance. It
is covered externally by the black radiated {triz of the ciliary
procefles, and-here it correfponds to thofe proceffes. Hence
we notice in it radiated fibres, equal in number to the ciliary
proceffes, and in contaét with their pofterior edge. Thefe
fibres are not fo long as the loofer membrane between,
which correfponds to the hollows between the ciliary pro-
cefles. ‘They bind it down confequently from fpace to
f{pace, fo that when air is impelled into it, we fee this canal
godronne alteraately elevated and deprefled. Being equal
in breadth to the corpus ciliare, it muft be rather broader
on the temporal than on the nafal fide. It has no commu-
nication with the cavity of the chryftalline capfule. Little
is known concerning the intimate ftru€ture of the membrana
hyaloidea. It receives a few fimall ramifications from the
central veffels of the retina, and fecretes, no doubt, the vi-
treous humour. It is capable of undergoing a certain de-
gree of extenfion without rupture. Boiling water, or con-
centrated acids, aét but feebiy onit, producing only a flight
contra¢tion.

The humour may be obtained, from its containing mem-
brane and cells, by preflure, or by making incifions into, and
fufpending the vitreous body: when thus procured, its
quantity is proportionate to the volume of the eye. Its
weight, as afcertained by Petit, was 104 grains in an eyes
ball which weighed 142 grains. It is fomewhat vifcous,
and perfectly limpid. The fpecific gravity, as determined
by Chenevix, is 10053. It it compofed of water, albumen,
gelatine, and munate of foda; and is eafily mifcible with
water, which, even when boiling, produces only a flight
Opacity.

The arteria centralis fends to the vitreous body a branch
called the central artery of the vitreous humour: this paffes
from behind forwards to the back of the chryftalline cap-
fule, on which it is diftributed in a beautifully arborefcent

Me.

ny i

form. <A few very fine branches from this veffel are fpread
over the membrana _hyaloidea.

The ftru€ture of the vitreous body may be moft advan-
tageoufly examined in the feGtion of a frozeneye. We then
obferve numerous icy flakes, feparated by membranous tepta
ofthe moft delicate appearance. Thefe flakes are of dif-
ferent lengths and breadths; they refemble, on the whole,
wedges with the bafe backwards, and the fummit forwards;
the convex part next the circumference of the vitreous
body, and the thinneft directed towards the chryitalline:
in other words, they appear as fegments of a circle, the
centre of which would be in the lens. This ftru¢ture may
be exhibited by means of acids, which render the membrane
fomewhat opaque; and ftill better by immerfing the vitreous
body in a folution of potafh, which a¢ts only on the mem-
brane, and gives no degree of turbiduefs to the contained
fiuid. The cellular fepta may be fhewn by allowing the
fluid to efcape through a fimple incifion, and afterwards
impelling air through the fame opening. |

The chryflalling humour—fo called from its tran{parency,
is alenticular body, fituated on the anterior furface of the
vitreous humour, which is hollowed to receive it, and en-
clofzd in a peculiar membrane, called its cap/ule. The
chryttalline 1s placed at the diftance of about four-fifths
from the pofterior end of the axis of the eye: but, as its
a-is is the fame with that of the pupil, and the iris is one-
fixth broader on the temporal than on the nafal fide, the
centre of the chryftalline is rather on the inner fide of the
axis of the eye, though in the fame horizontal plane with
it. Its anterior furface is oppofite to the back of the iris,
from which it is feparated by a {pace called the pofterior
chamber of the cye, and containing a part of the aqueous
humour. The circumference correfponds tu the canal of
Petit, and to the ciliary proceffes, which project a little over
its anterior furface into the aqueous humour. ‘The two fur-
faces of the chryttalline are not of equal convexities, the
potterior being the moft prominent. According to the ex-
periments of Petit, the anterior convexity reprefents a feg-
ment of a fphere, whofe diameter would vary from fix to
nine lines; and the pofterior, of a {phere, the diameter of
which would be fomewhere between four lines and a half and
five and ahalf. Thefe forms of its fuperficies, however, are
by no means coniftant, the difference of convexity being in
fome inftances fearcely difcernible. he chryttalline varies
much in figure, tranfparency, and confiftence, according to
the age of the fubje¢t. It is firmer in old people, and very
frequently acquires a yellow tinge. Inthe healthy adult the
chryftalline is perfectly tranfparent, not of equal confiftence
throughout, but gradually increafing in denfity to its centre.
The exterior parts are thick and glutinous, and may be
rubbed off by the fingers. Thole more deeply feated are
folid, and appear, after immerfion in weak acids or alcohol,
difpofed in the form of numerous concentric lamina, harder
as we approach the centre. Each of thefe lamine is com-

ofed of extremely fine parallel fibres lying in a direétion

tom the circumference to the centre. When expofed to
air after a fhort maceration or immerfion in alcohol, it fur-
ther breaks into irregular triangular fegments, converging
by their points to the centre of the lens, which again fubdi-
vide into. fmaller portions. When immerfed in boiling
water the foft external parts acquire a milky white colour,
and a firmer confiftence. In this ftate it may be eajily re-
moved, leaving a nucleus much more folid. of a pearl colour,
fhining faintly, and not undergoing any further alterations
by repeated immerfions. Alcohol produces fimilar effects,
but not in fo fenfible a manner. Long continued macera-

tion changes the chryftalline into a pulpy mafs, LExpofure

to the air renders it dry, folid, and friable on the furface,
the primitive form, and even tranfparency, being {till pre-
ferved; in this ftate it may be kept for a long period.
Seétions of the dried lens exbibit its Jaminated flruéture.
Examined chemically, the’ chryttalline is found to confift
of albumen and gelatine, with a very {mall quantity of
water, and has not either any thing acid or alkaline in its
compofition,

It receives no red blood-veffels; we can trace no nerve
even to its capfule ; nor does it poflefs any animal fenfibi-
lity. Anatomifts have even doubted whether this body
poflefs any vital properties. Leeuwenhoek has defcribed
the fibres of the chryttalline, and indeed fometimes calls it a
mufcle. Little can be drawn from fuch examination, when
we confider the very great power of his microfcope, and
the probably dry ftate of the chryftallines he examined.
Dr. Young has given an apparently accurate defcription
of numerous fibres, with interfecting tendons, in the chryf
talline ofan ox. Thefe he believed to be mufcular, and to
poffeis a power of increafing the {phericity of the part. This
opinion he afterwards changed, as we fhall notice here-
after. The late Mr. Hunter conceived that the chryftal-
line could change its figure. He obferved the, remarkable
fibrous lamine which furroand the more folid parts in the
cuttle-fith, and concluded the ftru€ture to be analogous in
other animals, where coagulation developes the fibrous
ftru€ture. We are difpofed to admit of a change of figure
in the lens, but the arguments for its mufcularity are not
convincing, Though it may be feparated into {pherical
lamin after death, we cannot infer that the pellucid, co-
lourlefs, vifcid lens in the living eye is compofed of fibres
and lamelle divided by regular fegments. The re-agents
above mentioned totally alter its nature, rendering it
opaque, and partially friable. The appearance of fibres is
equally ftrong in the coagulated part of the blood, when im-
merfed in the fame menitrua. But if we admit the radiated
fibres of the feveral artificial lamine, the tranfparent na
ture and refraétive powers of the lens are hardly recon-
cileable with the idea of mufcular ac¢tion. The lens, in
experiments made initantly after death, is not acted on by
thofe ftimuli which fo evidently affeét mufcles under fimi-
lar circumftances. No change of figure, no aétion of its
comporent parts, can be feen on the application of electri-
city. In fhort, if we confider the peculiar appearance of
the recent lens, its perfect tranfparency in a healthy ftate,
and its peculiar difeafes ; the want of cellular tiffue, of red
blood-veffels, and nerves, the deficiency of fenfibility and
contractility, animal, or organic, indeed, of all properties
poffefled by the common mufcular fibre, we muft conclude
that no fufficient proofs of mufcularity exift. A fuppofed
neceflity for the prefence of mufcular fibres, in order to ac-
count for certain fuppofed changes in the figure of the lens
fubfervient to the accommodation of the eye to different
diftances, has given rife to an opinion, hitherto unwarranted
by anatomical inveftigation.

The chryitalline is contained in a tranfparent membranous
capfule, compofed of two portions; one of thefe is derived
from the hyaloidea, inferted into the capfule on its anterior
furface, beyond its greatelt circumference, and already de-
{cribed under the name of membranula corone ciliaris. This
is probably continued over the whole anterior furface, but
cannot be demonftrated fo extenfively ; towards the cir-
cumference it is manifeft by a tranfverle fection of the canal
ef Petit. The hyaloidea is in clofe union with the pofterior

art of the proper capfule, but may be feparated from it.

he proper capfule, thus maintained in its fituation, forms 2
complete bag, between which and the furface of the lene

C2 we

EY FE

we find a fmall quantity of tranfparent aqueous fluid, more
abundant on the arterior fide, and efcaping inftantly when
the capfule is wounded, (aguula Morgagnit.) Its quantity
is very {mall in the recent eye. Haller believes it to be
produced by tranfudation from the lens; probably it is fe-
ereted by the capfule, and prevents the adhefion of the op-
pofed furtaces. The anterior part of the capfule is more
elaftic than the pofterior. he latter, as it can be fepa-
parated from the hyaloidea, is thinner and fofter, but {till
thicker than that membrane. It contraéts and becomes
Opaque by immerfion in boiling water: fimilar effets, but
in a lefs degree, are produced by acids; it is not altered
by alkalies; it becomes yellow by remaining in the air,
The texture of the capfule is but little known. It is fup-
plied by veffels from the central artery, which penetrates
the vitreous humour. After a minute injection in the
foetus, a {mall trunk can be perceived coming from this ar-
tery, giving off numerous radiating branches on the pofterior
furface of the capfule. Some of thefe have been even
traced into the fubftance of the lens; but no fuch veffels
can be feen in the adult. Veffels have been traced alfo
croffing from the choroid proceffes to the circumference of
the capfule. Some of thefe may be continued to the lens
itfelf; but, if they exift»at all, they muft be extremely
minute.

The aqueous humour is a limpid tranfparent fluid, occupy-
ing the curvilinear fpace between the chryttalline, the front
of the corpus ciliare, and the cornea. ‘This cavity 1s di-
vided by the iris into two unequal parts, communicating with
each other by the opening of the pupil. The larger portion
being between the iris and the cornea, the {maller between
the iris and the lens ; the firft is called the anterior, and the
laft the potterior chamber of the eye. Much pains have been
taken, by freezing the eye, to afcertain the relative dimen-
fions of thefe. The aqueous humoer weighs generally be-
tween four and five grains; the exaét quantity in each
chamber, and the dimenfions of thefe cavities, have been molt
carefully afcertained by Petit ; and the refults of his invefti-
gations are contained in the Memoires de l’Academie des
Sciences. The very exiftence of a pofterior chamber has
been doubted; but the moft accurate refearches fhew that
there is always a {pace between the front of the lens and
the pofterior furface of the iris, occupied by aqueous
humor. :

The aqueous humour refembles the fluid contained in the
cells of the membrana hyaloidea in its compofition ; it has
the fame fpecific gravity, and the fame proportions of
albumen, gelatine, and water, and muriate of foda, ac-
cording to the obfervations of Mr. Chenevix. It offers the
fame phenomena when expofed to the aétion of fimilar
chemical agents. ‘This humour is probably contained in a
fine capfule, fomewhat fimilar to thofe belonging to the
other humours. We can obferve at leaft an extremely fine
membrane lining the pofterior furface of the cornea, re-
fle&ted from its circumference to the anterior furface of the
iris, and advancing over that membrane towards the open-
ing of the pupil; to the aperture of which it cannot how-
ever be traced. ‘This membrane may poffibly be continued
through the pupil, and line the pofterior chamber. We
fuppofe it to fecrete the aqueous humour. This may be
furnifhed perhaps by the arteries of the iris, or ciliary pro-
ceffes. It is very rapidly renewed after wounds in the
cornea. ,

Mufeles of the globe.—The globe of the eye is fituated
towards the front of the orbit, fupported by a cufhion of
foft and yielding fat, and receiving the infertion of various
mufcles, which execute its rapid and varied motions, Thefe

arife from the bony orbit ; five coming from the polterior
part, at the apex of the cone, and one near the front edge.
They follow different directions towards oppolite parts of
the eye-ball; azd are named from their direétion, or ap-
parent a¢tion, the four ftraight, and two oblique mufcles ;
or the elevator, depreflor, asductor, adductor, great and
{mall rotators of the eye. The four recti are clofely con-
need at their poflerior attachment, fo as to form part of
the fides of a hollow cone, of which the bafe is the bulb of
the eye, and the form nearly the fame as that of the orbit.
In this {pace are contained, befides fat, the ciliary arteries,,
the ciliary nerves, and lenticular ganglion, and the large optic
nerve. Thefe four mufcles, arifing by {mall tendinous ends,
become prefently flefhy and of increafed fize, which dimi-
nifhes as they arrive at the middle of the bulb, the mufcles.
terminating in flattendons. In the latter part of their courfe
they are clofely invefted by a cellular fheath, which conneéts
them with the anterior part of the orbit, and is continued on.
each fide, conneéting the tendons in fome meafure, and
paffing forwards between the fclerotica and conjunétiva..
The tendons of the re€ti proceed beyond the middle of the
bulb, which is flightly hollowed externally for their recep-
tion, and are attached, at about equal diftances from the
cornea, on four oppofite fides. Thefe tendons are no where
im conta€t with each other, not even at their termination,
which is their broadeft part ; and are fo clofely united with
the {clerotica, as not to be feparated from it without mani-~
feft laceration. Mr. Home, and Mr. Pierce Smith affert, in
the Philofophical Tranfactions, that the tendons not only
pafs to the anterior part of the {clerotica, but are continued
in one united fheet over the cornea. This very ancient
opinion, produced as a new and important difcovery, has
long fince been overturned by the moft eminent anatomitts,
and fcarcely requires difcuffion here. Neither would the
reprefentation, if well founded, affift us in explaining the
phenomena of vifion, or the motions of the eye. The
tendons are inferted very confiderably beyond the tranfverfe
vertical diameter of the globe, gaining thereby an extent of
power, which they could not poffefs if attached behind that
line. The conftruction is plainly fubfervient to the motions
of the globe ; any further ufe is perhaps problematical.

The redus fuperior, aitollens of Albinus, is attached pofte-
riorly, between the levator palpebre fuperioris and the
foramen opticum, by fhort tendinous fibres; it pafles
nearly horizontally, above the optic nerve, and, turning over
the bulb, is attached to the anterior part of the fclerotica,
about 4th of an inch from the edge of the cornea, It
covers, anteriorly, the globe of the eye and the tendon of
the fuperior oblique; pofteriorly, the optic nerve, the
ophthalmic artery, and the nafal branch of the ophthalmic
nerve. Above it, lies the levator palpebra fuperioris.

The redus inferior, depreffor of Albinus, refembles the
preceding in form, but is {maller in bulk, fituated on the
lower part of the orbit. It is attached behind by a tendon
common to it with the abduétor and addu€tor; a tendon
fixed to the fphenoidal bone near the fella turcica, and
paffing through the foramen lacerum orbitale; it divides
into three portions, one for each of thefe muicles. The
rectus inferior paffes horizontally forwards, and is united to
the f{clerotica oppofite to the infertion of the rectus fuperior,
It correfponds below to the floor of the orbit ; above it are
the optic nerve at fome diftance, and in the interval the
nerve of the third pair.

The redus externus, abduor, Alb. has a greater length of
mufeular belly than any of the four, which it otherwife
much refembles. It has two attachments pofteriorly ; one
to the tendon before mentioned, the other, ati to

6 ae

EqY #:

that of the reftus fuperior, is derived from a ligamentous
band croffing obliquely the upper part of the foramen lace-
rum. Between thefe attachments a fiffure is left for the
paflage of the nerve of the third pair, of the fixth pair, and
of the nafal branch of the ophthalmic. The mufcle itfelf
proceeds obliquely to the outer fide of the globe, and is
united to the anterior part of the fclerotica, at about the
fame diftance from the cornea as the two preceding mufcles,
Onits outer fide are the furface of the orbit, and the lachry-
mal gland; on the inner the optic nerve, the nerve of the
fixth pair, and the ophthalmic ganglion.

The reéfus internus, adduGor, Alb. lies on the inner fide of
the orbit. It is attached behind to the common tendon, and
to the inner fide of the foramen opticum, as far as the origin
of the re@tus fuperior. It paffes, in a ftraight courfe, to
the inner fide of the globe, and terminates in a manner
analogous to the reft. It is the fhorteft, and the thickeft of
the four reti mufcles ; the former circumftance arifing from
the relative form and pofition of the orbit and the eye-
ball. ;

OF the two oblique mufcles, one arifes from the bottom
of the orbit as the reéti, the other from its anterior, and
internal part. The firft of thefe, the obliguus fuperior, or
trochlearis, is attached pofteriorly to the internal and upper
part of the orbit, about two lines from the foramen opti-
cum, by fhort tendinous fibres. The mufeular portion is
{mall and fomewhat rounded, and paffes towards thie internal
angular procefs, where it terminates in a delicate tendon,
which paffles through a cartilaginous pulley fixed to the
upper fide of the orbit. This pulley is formed by a cartila-
ginous plate, with its edges turned upwards and attached
to the orbit, fo as to form a complete tube, fituated
obliquely, of about a quarter of an inch in length. The
pulley is bound to the orbit by ligamentous fibres at both
its ends, and efpecially in front. Soemmerring has defcribed a
* ligamentum lunatum ex arcuatis fibris tendineis {plenden-
tibus compofitum,” pafling between the edge of the orbit
and the pulley, and preventing it from being drawn back-
wards in the a¢tions of the mulcles of the eye. This canal
is lined by a fynovial membrane, which continues to
inveft the tendon of the obliquus fuperior, after it leaves
the trochlea to its infertion in the globe. The tendon is
reflected at an acute angle, and defcending a little back-
wards and outwards, paffles under the re€tus fuperior, and
terminates below it on the outer, pofterior, and upper
furface of the fclerotica, about half way between the optic
nerve and the edge of the cornea. It correfponds, in the
firft part of its courfe, to the orbit within, the optic nerve
without, the reétus fuperior above, and reétus internus
below ; in the fecond its tendon lies between the conjunc-
tiva, the reGius fuperior, and the eye-ball.

The obliquus inferior is fixed by a {mall tendon to the in-
terior edge of the orbit, rather below and on the outer fide
of the opening of the duétus nafalis. It pafles obliquely
vutwards and backwards, between the reétus inferior and the
orbit, and turning upwards, between the globe and the
rectus externus, is attached by a tendinous expanfion to the
felerotica at the fuperior part of its outer fide, behind the
infertion of the obliquus fuperior.

The immediate actions of the re@i mufcles are’ fimply
thofe of direéting the axis of the eye towards different
points. According to their attachments they will elevate
or deprefs the pupil, turn it towards the nofe or the temple.
By the differently combined aétions of thefe mufcles, the
eye may be moved in any of the intermediate angles. By
the fucceflion of fuch actions it may be moved rapidly round
in the orbit. In all thefe cafes the action of one mufcle is

moderated by itsoppofite. The motions of rotationinwards
and outwards, motions in which the eye does not move
from its place, but only on its axis, are executed, the firft
by the fuperior, the lait by the inferior oblique. By the
united ation of the fix we are enabled to preferve the eye
in the fame relative pofitios with regard to the object,
whether it be at motion, or at re(t; and whether the head is
fixed er moving in any direétion, fo as to alter its pofition
with refpeét to the objet; in fhort we can by their means
dire& the eye to any point, and keep it fixed there under
any change of the fituation of either. To ufe the expreffive
words of Mr. Hunter, “ the objeét becomes as it were the
centre of motion or fixed point, commanding the dire@tion
of the actions of the eye, as the north demands the direction
of the needle, let the box in which it is placed be moved in
what direétion it may.”? From the two eyes being always
thrown on the fame objeéts, and the wiil not being able to
change the direétion of one of them only, for inftance to
deprefs the left while the right is elevated, they are always
feen to correfpond in their motions, which are executed in
the two eyes by the oppofite mufcles. If the eyes are di-
rected to the right for example, it will be inftantly feen that
the rectus internus of the left eye, and the rectus externus of
the right will be principally employed. The will extends
only to the moving both the eyes at the fame inflant; we
have no power over either feparately.

The itraight muicles move the eye from objeé& to obje&,
and keep its point of vifion fixed upon any particular one,
be it moving or at reft, while the head remains a fixed point,
while it moves progreflively with the eyes in following a
moving objeét, and even infome cafes where the head and
the obje& are moving in oppofite directions. They pro-
duce the circular movement when the head is at reft ; and
when the eye is to become fixed, the head performs the cir-
cular movement. By thefe means the object, the axis of
the eye, and the point of fenfation, are all preferved in the
fame itraight line. But there are fome movements of the
whole head, of which the eye is a part in which the itraight
mufcles alone are not fufficient to effe& this, and where the
oblique mufcles are efpecially called into aétion. ‘ Thus,
when we look at an obje&, and at the fame time move our
head to either fhoulder, it is moving in the arch of a circle,
whofe centre is the neck. When the head is moved to-
wards the right fhoulder, the fuperior oblique mufcle of the
right fide aéts, and keeps the right eye fixed on the obje@ ;
and a fimilar effe&t is produced on the left eye by the action
of its inferior oblique mufcle: when the head moves in a
contrary direction, the other oblique mufcles produce the
fame effe@. As this motion of the head feldom takes place
uncombined with its other motions, fome of the ftraight
and oblique mufeles will be employed at the faine time, ac-
cording as the motions are more or lefs compounded.”?

It has not been clearly determined whether thefe mufcles
can alter the figure of the eye, nor in what direGion the
change would be produced, although confiderable labour
and ingenuity have been beftowed on the fubje&. Mr.
Home advances, that an increafed curvature of the cornea,
an elongation of the axis of vifion, and a motion of the
chryftalline lens; all which changes he fuppofes to have
taken place in the adjuftment of the eye to view objects at
different diftances, depend in great meafure on the contrac-
tion of the four itraight mufcles. Compreffion of the eye
will force the aqueous humour againft the centre of the
cornea, while the glébe is at the fame time fteadied, fo
that the radius of the curvature of the cornea will be ren-
dered fhorter, and, its diftance from the retina increafed.
When the recent eye of an adult was diftended by air —

blown

EGvaeE:

blown through an opening made in the optic nerve, the axis
of vilion was elongated from 17-20ths of an inch to 174.
Mr. Home {uppofes that in this cafe preffure is made in the
mott unfavourable way for producing the greateft elongation
in the axis of vifion, and that a lateral preffure from with-
out would be more effectual ; this preflure he believes to be
made by the reéti-mufcles. That the eye-ball does not re-
cede in the orbit, under thefe circumftances, he concludes
to be fufficiently proved by its not having done fo in his nu-
™merous experiments. It is not demonitrated, however,
that any action of the reéti, or at lealt any powerful ation,
took place in any of thefe experiments. Dr. Hofack, who
believes in the elongation of the axis by mufcular aétion,
{uppofes the four fecti to make the compreffion, and the
oblique mufcles to keep the eye inits proper dire¢tion and
fituation. To us it 1s yet problematical, whether any
change is produced in the axis of the eye by the action of
its mufcles. How far fuch changes could contribute to the
adjuftment of the eye to diftances, will be more properly
confidered hereafter.

The great mobility of the eye has rendered this organ
well fuited to exprefs many of our wants, to affilt, in fome
degree, our geftures, or our voice, and to fupply their place
when their aétion fails. The part performed by the eye,
in exprefling the different paffions, the f{pirit which it gives
to the other features, are intere{ting fubjects, on which our
limits will not allow us to enlarge.

The courfe of the optic nerve in the orbit, and its ter-
mination in the retina, are defcribed in our account of that
membrane. The other nerves of the orbit will be deferibed
under the article Nerve. Some particulars concerning
them will be found in the explanation of the plates repre-
fenting the anatomy of the eye. ‘The arteries are derived
principally from the ophthalmic, of which a defcription will
be found under the article Artery. The veins of the
globe of the eye join the vena ophthalmica cerebralis, which
opens into the cavernous finus. The veins of the choroid
and iris, as named by Walter, are an inferior, fhort, and an
anterior long ciliary joining the infra-orbital vein ; an inter-
nal ciliary, a fuperior ciliary, a pofterior and fome long
ciliary veins, joining the trunk of the ophthalmic. Thefe
veins return the blood carried to the eye by the ciliary
arteries. They arife by very minute ramifications from the
iris and the ciliary procefles, run for a fhort way in trunks,
and perforate the f{clerotica in different parts, in a manner
analogous to that of the ciliary arteries, but more particu-
larly at its pofterior furface. The vene vorticofe of the
choroid, having collected into trunks, follow the fame
courfe. The vena centralis retine collects its branches
from the antenor termination of the retina into three or
four trunks, which unite into a fingle one, entering the
eptic nerve in company with the central artery. ‘The reader
will find a minute and moft complete defcription of the
veins of the eye, in J. G. Walteri epiftola de venis oculi.
Berolimi, 1778, 4to.

The eye-brow, eye-lids, and lacrymal apparatus.—Confi-
derable proteétion is afforded to the eye by the edge of the
orbit, but its anterior furface is further guarded by feveral
adventitious organs. ‘Thefe parts, to which Haller has
given the name of “ tutamina oculi,’? confift of the eye-
brow, the eye-lids, and the parts deftined to fecrete and
remove the tears.

The cye-brow is an arched eminence, covered with hair,
placed at the bafe of the forehead, above-the upper eye-lid,
extending from the root of the nofe to the temple. It
differs very much in its length, breadth, and thicknefs, in
aifferent individuals, and is generally very ftrongly marked

inold age. The eye-brow, at its commencement on the
nafal fide of the orbit, is at different diftances from its fel-
low on the other fide; fometimes the two arches meet at
the root of the nofe, at others there is an interval of more
than half an inch. It defcribes but a flight curve, the
convexity of which is turned upwards, and terminates at
the temple by a pointed end. The eye-brow is formed by
a thick doubling of the fkin covered by hairs, by cellular
tiffue and fat, by a trong mufcle, and by bone. It has a
plentiful fupply of blood-veffels and nerves. The fuper-
ciliary ridge of the frontal bone contributes very effentially
tothe prominence of the eye brow, cauling great variety in
this re{peét in different perfons. ;

The orbicularis palpebrarum, and the frontalis mufcles,
fend many of their fibres into the fubftance of the brow,
which are very clofely intermixed with the fibres of another
mufcle, called from its office the corrugator /upercilii. Thiw
mufcle is fhort, made up of numerous mufcular fibres, oc-
cupying the fuperior and internal part of the bafe of the
orbit. It is attached by fmall tendinous fibres, divided
into two or three portions, to the protuberance above the
nofe on the frontal bone ; it pafles, making a flight curve,
over the internal half of the orbitar arch, and terminaces
by uniting its fibres with thofe of the orbicularis and fron-
talis, by which it is wholly concealed. It is feparated
from the frontal bone by the veflels and nerves coming from
the orbit.

The eye-brows are covered by hairs of different
lengths, which vary much in number, in colour, and ir
length, in different individuals. They are more numerous
towards the nofe, and coarfer, ‘Vheir colour is generally
the fame with that of the hair of the head. They are
generally thicker in brown than in fair perfons, The
hairs are difpofed obliquely, pointing outwards, and ftand-
ing off from the fkin ; the inferior hairs are turned obliquely
upwards, the fuper.or obliquely downwards, fo as to de-
cuffate by their points, and form an angular projecting line
in the middle of the brow. They’ are commonly, but er«
roneoufly, figured as horizontal. When the eye-brows
meet, the hairs next the nofe moft commonly point up-
wards. Eagh hair forms a curve according to its place, and
is not ftraight. It commences by a bulb in the fkin, be-
comes fine, gradually {wells in the middle, and terminates’
in an extremely fine point.

The eye-brow is fufceptible of various motions, and
forms, by its prominent fituation and mobility, a very
principal feature in the expreffion of different paflions. It
will be elevated by the action of the occipito-frontalis, and
confiderably lowered by the orbicularis palpebrarum. The
corrugator fupercilii, having its fixed point near the root
of the nofe, will by its aétion contract and wrinkle the fkin
of the brow perpendicularly, drawing the whole towards
the nofe, producing what is called a frown, When we re~
gard a diftant object, or one which reflects but little light,
we elevate the eye-brow ; we lower and contraét it on the
contrary, when the object is near, or very bright, or the
fenfibility of the eye from any caufe, too great. Thus it
protects the organ from the impreffion of too vivid a light,
and guards it in fome meafure from foreign bodies.

The eye-lids are two moveable bodies, placed in front of
the eye-ball, and occupying the whole opening of the bony
orbit, which determines their extent ; they are diftinguifhed -
into upper and lower. The upper lid, the largeft and
moft moveable, when lowered, covers the principal part of
the eye, defcending much below its tranfverfe diameter,
‘infra aquatorem oculi defcendens ;”? the under lid rifing
but a fmall way to meet it. On the convex anterior furface

ae ak Je

of each we obferve a few wrinkles following the curve of
the lid, varying in number according to the pofition of the
part. When the eye is open there is always one large fold
of the fkin in each eye-lid: this is more particularly marked
in the upper, in confequence of the levator palpebra draw-
ing it under the edge of the orbit. The wrinkles are
effaced when the eye-lids are clofed in fleep, fo that they
exhibit an uniformly f{mooth furface. The fkin of the
upper lid is continuous above with that of the brow; the
fkin of the lower with the cheek; the only line of diftinc-
tion is the edge of the orbit, and the depreffion within the
margin. The pofterior furface of the eye-lids is concave,
{mooth, in contaé& with the globe, and always moift. The
edge of each lid is ftraight for about one-fourth of an inch
next the nofe, where it correfponds to the caruncula lacry-
malis. In the reft of its extent it is flightly concave, cor-
refponding to the projeétion of the eye-ball, and of con-
fiderable thicknefs, which diminifhes towards the temple.
The anterior margin of this edge is angular, and fupports
ranks of fine hairs, called eye-lafhes; the pofterior is be-
velled off, fo as to form with the globe, when the eye is
fhut, a triangular canal, narrow towards the temple, and
gradually increafing in fize towards the nofe. It is_parti-
cularly large at the angle, where the ftraight and concave
portions of the eye-lid meet, which is marked by a pro-
jecting papilla, perforated by the punétum lacrymale.
From this point outwards, we obferve alfo, between the
two margins, a line of {mall holes, the openings of fe-
baceous glands. The two lids are united at each end,
forming two angles, or canthi, of which the nafal or in-
ternal is a little rounded off, and called the great angle ;
the temporal or external is acute, and termed the lefler
angle. The difference is produced by the alteration in the
outline of the lid above-mentioned, and by the difpofition
of the tendon of the orbicularis mufcle. The opening
between the lids in different perfons varies a little in its
tranfverfe diameter, which is meafured by the two angles.
The perpendicular diameter, depending on the a@ion of
mufcles, is conftantly changing, and determined by the de-
gree of their contraction, We believe it is to the greater or
lefs tranfverfe, and vertical diameters of the opening of the
eye-lids in various individuals, and not to any great va-
riation in the bulk of the globe, that the apparent fize of
the eye is principally owing. The apparent difference in
the volume of large, or {mall eyes, is certainly greater
than can be attributed to a difference in the globe, which
we know to vary but inconfiderably.

The eye-lids are compofed of many different tiffues, dif-

ofed in layers, one beneath the other, over a broad carti-
age, which gives the figure to the whole. The curtain
formed by thefe is not fuiliciently thick to prevent {trong
lights from affeCting the eye. Beginning from the anterior
furface, we find fucceffively a fine fkin, a mufcle, a fibrous
_ expantion, and a plate of cartilage, on the pofterior fide of
which are febaceous glands covered by a mucous membrane.
In the upper lid there is a fecond mufcle between the ante-
rior furface of the cartilage and the fibrous layer. As the
cartilage fupports the reft, we fhall commence with it.

In the fubitance of the oppofed margins of the eye lids we
find thin pieces of cartilage, named the farfi, extending
through nearly the whole length of the lids.” Thefe differ
in form and fize. The tarfus of the upper lid is broad in
the middle, narrowing gradually at each end, refembling the
fegment of a circle, the arc of which is towards the margin
of the orbit, and the chord oppofite the lower eye-lid. It
is much larger than the lower, which is of nearly uniform
breadth throughout, correfponding to the external figure of

the inferior lid. The convex anterior furface of each cor-
refponds to the mufcle, the pofterior is lined by a membrane
between which and the cartilage are glands. The connected
edge of each, thin, in the upper lid convex, in the lower
nearly ftraight, gives attachment to fome ligamentous fibres.
The ciliary or oppofite margin is thick, covered only by the
conjunctiva ; its particular figure has been already deferibed
as contributing to form the triangular canal between the
clofed lids. The outer extremity of each is fine aed pointed,
the nafal or internal is rounded, and of greater thicknefs.
The tarfi are thin and flexible, fibro-cartilaginous in ftruGure,
of a yellow colour. As the folid part of the eye-lids, they
favour their gliding over the furface of the globe of the eye,
keeping them equally extended in every movement. When
the upper lid is elevated, its tarfus pafles in fome degree
under the edge of the orbit, keeping the furface next the
globe uniformly fmooth, while the fkin forms a deep fold
in front, the tarfus retreating from it partly as it glides far
back over the globe. The broad ligaments of the tarfi are
fibrous produétions, extending from the edge of the orbit to
the oppofite margins of thefe cartilages. They are very
evident, and of confiderable thicknefs next the orbits, where
they appear to be continuous with its periofteum. As
they recede thence, they diminifh very much in thick-
nefs, a few fibres only remaining, which are attached to the
tarfi, the intervals being completed by cellular tiffue. They
are pierced in many places to give paflage to veflels and
nerves. ‘This fibrous layer is generally moit diftin€& towards
the temporal fide of the eye-lids, where it is more evidently
attached to the tarli, the fibres decuflating each other be-
tween the leffer angle of the eye-lids and the oppofite angle
of the orbit, fo as to forma tolerably firm band, conne@ing
them together, fimilar in fome meafure to the tendon of theor-
bicularis on the nafal fide. In the upper lid, the ligamentous
bands lie between the orbicularis and levator ; in the lower,
between the firft of thefe mufcles and the membrane lining
the lid. They fearcely deferve the name of tarfal ligaments,
but they form a tendinous arch round the orbit, the contents
of which they affiit in protecting. The tarfus of the upper
lid, when elevated, pafles behind its ligament.

The mufcles of the eye.lids are two in number; viz. one
common to both, the orbicu/aris palpebrarum, another be-
longing to the upper eye-lid only, the /ewaror palpebre fu-

perioris

This laft mufele is thin, long, and flat, placed in the upper
part of the orbit, from the kottom of which it arifes, in
front of the foramen opticum, immediately before the origin
of the rectus fuperior. It is tendinous at this point, and
foon becomes flefhy, paffes forwards, making a gentle curve
over the convexity of the globe, {preading as it, proceeds.
Oppofite the globe of the eye it forms gradually a thin ten-
dinous expanfion, which turns downwards, and is attached
partly to the fuperior margin of the tarfus, partly to its
ligament on the temporal fide, by means of which it is con-
nected with the outer angle of the orbit, the remainder of
the tendinous fibres paffing down in front of the tarfus to its
ciliary edge. In this latter part of its courfe, it is clofely
connected with the orbicularis in front, adhering by cel-
lular tiflue to the tarfus on its pofterior furface. The upper
lid, from its mufcle terminating in a broad diverging apo-
neurofis, fpread over the front of the tarfus, is further
{trengthened than the lower, which has only its ligament to
protect the lower part.

If we now examine the two lids, fuppofing them clofed,
we find their temporal fide efpecially defended by a fbrous
expanfion, fupplying the place of the bony orbit, which, by
the obliquity of its bale, leaves the eye mere expofed on

that

EY £.

that part ; we find their nafal fide with but little of this
fibrous covering, which was lefs neceflary, as the ball is
defended by the projection of the nofe; we obferve, more-
over, the upper lid forti-ed by an additional fbrous layer,
formed by the tendon of its levator mufcle, a conitruGtion
the more required here, as it executes almoft alone the mo-
tion by which the lids are clofed, and is more dire¢tly in the
way of external injuries.

Externally to the parts we have hitherto defcribed is a
thin, broad, oval mufcle, formed of concentric fibres, with
a line of divifion in the middle, correfponding to the open-
ing of the eye-lids, placed in front of the opening of the
bale of the orbit, occupying a great portion of the upper
part of the face, and named orbicularis palpebrarum. Its
fibres on the nafal fide have atriple origin: ene above, from
the nafal procefs of the fuperior maxillary and the orbital
procefs of the frontal bones; another, below, from the an-
terior edge of the lacrymal groove and the neighbouring part
of the bale of the orbit ; a third, between thefe two, to the
two edges and front of a fmall tendon, which paffes tranf-
verfely from the nafal procefs of the maxillary bone to the
internal commiffure of the eye-lids, where it divides, and
becomes conneéted with each tarfus. The tendon in its
paflage croffes over an aponeurofis which proteéts the lacry-
mal groove, and adheres intimately to it; from this aponeu-
rofis alfo a few mufcular fibres are derived. ‘The fibres
arifing from the two firft of thefe points pafs outwards in
oppolite curves above and below the orbit, and join each
other at its temporal angle, after having formed round the
lids an oval plane of fome breadth, and well defined ; a few
fcattered fibres are intermixed with thofe of the corrugator
and frontalis above, others are loft in the cellular tiflue and
fat of the cheek below, or fometimes join fome of the
mufcles of the face. On the temporal fide of the orbit the
orbicularis is very thin, it 1s much ftronger towards the nofe.
The fibres which are derived from the tendon of the mufcle
are {pread over each eye-lid, following the fame direction as
the preceding, with which they are continuous, and uniting
at the external fide of the temporal commiflure. Thefe fibres
are generally paler than the others, and we fometimes can
obferve them meeting in a tendinous line at the leffer angle.
Clofe to the edge of the lids we find a ftronger bundle of
fibres, following nearly a ftraight courfe, to which the name
of ciliaris has been given-- "The orbicularis is connected with
the integuments in front by cellular tiflue. It covers the
corrugator fupercilii, the margin of the bafe of the orbit,
and fome mufcles of the face. It is feparated from the
membrane lining the lids by the ligaments above defcribed,
and in the upper by the tendon of its levator.

The febaceous glands of the eye-lids, known under the
name of the Meibomian glands, are lodged in grooves hol-
lowed on the polterior furface of the tarfal cartilages. They
confift of numerous clufters of follicles, ranged fide by fide,
reprefenting yellow lines, the direétion of which is vertical,
or tranfverfe to the length of the cartilage. Thefe lines are
more numerous in the upper lid, where we may count be-
tween 30 and 40; in the lower they do not exceed the
loweft of thefe numbers. They vary fomewhat in breadth,
and much in length, efpecially in the upper lid, in a manner
correfponding to the breadth of the tarfus; there are often
irregular fhort lines between the longer ones. ‘They are not
fo long in the lower, its cartilage being much narrower.
Thefe lines are generally parallel ; fome of them may be

‘ ftraight, others tortuous, feparated by intervals unequal in
breadth. ‘T'wo of the lines often unite to form one, fome
with their angle of union turned towards the ciliary edge,
ethers meeting in an arch convex towards the connected edge

of the tarfus. The follicles which form them are excced-
ingly numerous, difpofed in bunches; they communicate
with each other, and open near the pofterior edge of the
tar{us by a row of minute holes, Bbefore-mentionsay Thefe
follicles fecrete an urCtuous fluid, which hardens after deathy
and may be prefled through the holes in a folid form, re-
fembling little worms.

The parts we have defcribed are covered anteriorly by the

fkin, and on the pefterior furface by a membrane continuous
with it, called conjunétiva. The fkin invefting the eye-lids
is much thinner than that of the brow or cheek, and becomes
more and more fenfible as it approaches the ciliary margin
of the tarfus. A loofe cellular tiffue, in which we never
find any fat, but frequently an effufion of ferous fluid, lies
between the fkin, and the orbicularis behind it. —
: As the fkin arrives at the anterior margin of the eye-lid,
it is perforated by numerous holes, from which the cilia, or
eye lafbes, are produced. Thefe hairs form two or more
rows, are more numerous, and longer in the upper lid; they
are more numerous and longer allio in the middle of each,
than at the extremities, and we find only a very few fine hairs
between the pun¢tum lacrymale and the nafal angle. Each
hair is curved in its dire€tion ; beginning from a bulb, it is
at firft very fine, {wells in the middle, and terminates in a
conical extenuated point. In the upper lid they are firtt
dire@ted downwards, turning up towards the point; in the
under the direGtion is inverfe. They differ in colour in
different perfons, but are generally, though not always, of
the colour of the reft of the hair.

At the line formed by the eye-lathes, the fkin becomes
changed in appearance and itructure, and we obferve con-
tinued from it 2 mucous membrane, called, from its office,
the conjun@iva, which, after invefting the pofterior furface
of the tarfi, is reflected over the Fiat of the eye-ball.
Tracing it from the edge of the upper lid, we find it firit
perforated by the mouths of the Meibomian glands, dipping
into the canal of which the punétum lacrymale is the open-
ing, and {pread over the lid a fhort way beyond the convex
edge of the tarfus, Abandoning the lid, it turns over the
globe, two-thirds of which 1t covers, below is refle&ted again
to be extended over the lower lid to the ciliary margin.
From this difpofition the conjunétiva prefents two iurfaces,
one connected with the parts it covers, the other expofed.
The latter is fmooth, and conftantly moiftened by fecreted
fluids. The former is united to the lids and the globe by
cellular tiffue. On the eye-lids it adheres clofely to the
tarfi, more loofely to the fibrous membrane, to the orbicu-
laris below, and to the tendinous expanfion of the levator
above. In quitting the lids to inveft the globe, it forms a
loofe circular fold which correfponds behind to the fat in
the orbit, and which, extending further in the upper lid, is
lodged during its elevation in a fmall angular {pace left for
it in the fat behind the margin of the orbit. By this means,
tran{verfe folds in the conjunétiva, fuch as we have remarked
in the fkin, are prevented when the upper eye-lid is raifed.
On the globe of the eye the conjunétiva adheres but loofely
to the {clerotica, giving to it a fmooth and gliftening afpeét.
On the cornea it adheres very clofely, and is very thin. In
this courfe the conjunctiva forms at the internal angle of the
eye a femi-lunar fold, concave outwards, fomething like the
third eye-lid in birds. This fold, which appears larger
when the eye is turned towards the nofe, difappears when it
is turned far towards the temple. The conjunétiva may be
confidered as a mucous membrane, from the general charaéter
of its ftruéture: it has not, however, a villous furface,
neither is the fluid which it fecretes of much confiftence,
in fome particular inflammations of this membrane it becomes

thick

Te es

thick and yellow, Although defcribed under the fingle
epithet of conjunétiva, and obvioufly a fingle and continuous
membrane, its organization difiers very confiderably at dif-
ferent parts. Anatomitts call that portion which lines the
lids, conjundina palpebrarum ; and that which covers the
globe, conjundiva oculi. The former contains very nume-
rous red veffels, vifible in its natural ftate, and o¢eafionin
the membrane to aflume a general rednels when injedted:
The latter has very few apparent blood-veffels, and its
whitenefs conflitutes the white of the eye. But this part
under inflammation becomes entirely covered with veflels
carrying red: blood, ‘That portion of the membrane cover-
ing the cornea 1s again very different trom what is connected
to the felerotica, being completely tranfparent, ‘That the
conjunctiva is aétually continued over the cornea cannot,
however, be doubted. Yor, although the latter part is in-
fenfible, its anterior furface is endowed with the fame ex-
guifite feeling as the reft of the conjunétiva. In amphibia,
which fhed their epidermis at certain feafons, this membrane
comes off from the front of the eye with the reft of the
cuticle; the fame fact may be obferved in {kinning an eel,
end in the zemni, or mus typhlus of Pallas it is covered with
fine hairs. It is very fenfible, and irritated by apparently
flight caufes, The eye-lids are fupplied with veflels and
nerves in great abundance from the neighbouring trunks.
Such is the ftruéture of the eye-lids. ‘Their ufe appears
to be that of covering the oe during fleep, of protecting
jt from accidental violence, of excluding the light when of-
fenfive, and of keeping the furface of the eye conftantly
moilt, by {preading a fluid, the fources of which we have
vet to deferibe, uniformly over its furface, Thefe purpofes
are fully provided for by their organization and difpofition,
and executed by the mufcles which enter into their ftructure,
The cartilages, in fome meafure fupported by ligaments,
referve an uniformly imooth furface ; the febaceous glands
eerete an unctuous fubilance, which prevents the adherence
vf the lids in fleep, or when brought into contact by the
rapid and frequently repeated action of winking ; which, in
conjunétion with the cilia, prevent infects, duit, orany {mall
bodies from injuring the furface of the globe ; the conjunc-
tiva prefents two moiltened polifhed furfaces, which eafily
jide over each other, and it favours, by the loofenefs of its
attachment, the motions of thelids, With regard to thefe
Jaft, when the eye is opened after fleep, the lower lid dees
not alter its fituation, the opening is made by the upper
lid afcending by the attion of its levator mufcle under the
edge of the orbit, where there is fpace to receive it filled
only by loofe fat and cellular tiffue, If the opening of the
eye-lids fucceeds a clofure of them, effected by the aétion
of the orbicularia, this mufcle, by its relaxation, concurs in
producing their feparation. ‘This will appear evident if we
confider that the clofure of the eye is produced very differ.
ently in the different flats of fleeping or waking. Inthe
firft cafe the meeting of the lids is paffive, owing to the re-
Taxation of the levator mufele, and the falling down of the
epee lid; an effeét analogons to what is feen in a paralyfis
of that mufcle, where the eye cannot be opened without
external aid. Inthe lalt the clofure of the lids is active,
produced by a contraction of the curved fibres of the
orbicularis, which by this aGtion approach nearer to a itraight
line. In the lait cafe alfo, the particular motion of the
eye-lids, called winking, is aaied: in a great degree by the
relaxation of the levator, and its alternate contraction, We
believe this motion to be defigned to keep the furface of the
eornea clean and moift, fit to tranimit the rays of light ;
but it is alfo neceflary by the difpafition of the feveral parts ;
. Vor. XIV.

the levator not being able to remain in a flate of permanent
contraction, fince it is a voluntary mufcle, is of neceffity
relaxed at intervals, and caufes the motion, of winking,
which is further aflifted perhaps by a flight ation of the
orbicularis. Further, in clofing the eye-lids when awake, the
orbicularis acts with lefs or greater energy. When we
with to defend the eye from a vivid light, it contracts ftrongly
in company with the corrugator fupercilfi, and colleéts the
integuments of the forehead and cheeks in numerous folds
to bury ag it were the eye more deeply. The orbicularis
and Jevator are then to acertain point antagonilts, one oper-
ing, the other clofing the eye-lids ; in fome cafes their actions
are combined.

Lacrymal apparatus.—The parts which remain yet to be
deferibed, and which have been included under the general
name of the lacrymal apparatus of the eye, are the lacry-
mal gland and caruncle, the lacrymal points and ducts, the
lacrymal fac, and the common canal leading into the nofe.
In animals that live in air, the anterior furface of the eye
would foon become dry, and be rendered foul by duft, or the
numerous {mall bodies floating in the atmofphere, were it
not conftantly bathed by a limpid fluid. A part of this we
believe to be furnifhed by the conjunctiva; but its more
abundant fource is from the facryma/ gland. It is ulually
known by the name of the ¢ears.

The lacrymal gland is fituated at the fuperior, anterior,
or extegnal part of the orbit, -It is fomewhat flattened,
nearly an inch in length, and half an inch in breadth. It
is divided partially into two lobes, of which the internal
and upper is the {malleft. From its flattened form we fhali
confider it as having two furfaces. The upper convex fide
correfponds to an oppofite depreffion in the bony orbit ;
the concave inferior furface to the globe of the eye, and to
the fuperior and external re¢ti mufcles, with which it is con-
neéted by cellular tiffue. Of its two extremities, the internal,
or that turned towards the nofe, is thin and narrow; the
external and inferior end is broader, and of greater thick-
nefs, There isa {mall ligament, firft defcribed and figured
by Soemmerring, paffing from the exteraal and pofterior part
of the Jacrymal foffa underneath the gland, which it re-
tains in its fituation, The lacrymal gland is formed by
many {mall lobes united by cellular tiffue, the veffels and
nerves being lodged in. the intervals. Thefe little lobes are
themfelves made up of {mall granules, inte the fubftance of
which the veffels penetrate. It is fupplied with arteries
from the lacrymal branch of the ophthalmic; with nerves
from the lacrymal branch of the nerve of the fifth pair,
The excretory ducts of this gland are very apparent in the
larger animals; in man they are not fo readily perceived,
Their number is generally feven ; they pafs out from the
anterior edge of the gland, defcend in the fubftance of the
upper lid between the ligament and the conjunctiva, on the
furface of the lait of which they open on the temporal fide
about $th of an inch above the convex edge of the tarfus.
The dus have no communication with each other,

The caruncula lacrymalis is a tmall reddith body fituated
between the internal angle of the eye-lids, and oppofite fur.
face of the globe of the eye. It is oblong and conical in
form, its fummit correfponding ta the eye-lids. It differs
much in colour, froma pale pink toa full red in different
individuals. It is compofed of a number of mucous folli-
cles, united by cellular tifflue, and covered by the con.
junctiva. On minute examination we may find very fine
hairs growing from its furface. It appears to fecrete a mus
cous fluid, and perhaps from its fituation may alli the
paflage of the tears into the lacrymal punéta.

Oa

EYE.

On the outfide of the caruncle, at the angle where the
curved and ftraight portions of the eye-lids meet, there is a
{mall papilla in the margin of each lid perforated by a {mall
hole which is always open, called the pundum lacrymale.
There is a {mall interval between them and the openings of
the moft internal of the Meibomian glands, nor are they
placed exaétly in the fame row with them. The punéta
are always more vifible in the living than in the dead fub-
je&. They are not immediately oppofite to each other, but
when the lids are clofed the inferior paffes up a little on the
outfide of the fuperior ; they are both direéted a little back-
wards.

The puna lacrymalia form the openings of two fhort
tubes, named the /acrymal dués, and diftinguifhed by the
epithets fuperior and inferior, from their fituations in the
two lids. Thefe canals are formed in the fubftance of
the lids, and are neareft‘to their pofterior furface: they are
larger than the area of the puncta, and the fuperior is ra-
ther longer than the inferior. Their direction is nearly in-
verfe ; the fuperior canal afcends for a fhort fpace, turns
Inwards at an acute angle, and defcends obliquely ; the in-
ferior firft paffes downwards, makes alfo an acute angle,
and then goes obliquely upwards. The dire€tion of the
fuperior canal maft vary as the lid is elevated or deprefled :
the change, however, ean never be very confiderable, as the
lid defcribes but a {mall {pace at the internal angle in any
of its motions. The canals gradually approach each other,
following the margin of the lids, and feparated by the ca-
runcle; at the internal angle they unite to form a common
du@, which is continued fora very little way behind the
tendon of the orbicularis, before it opens into the lacrymal
fac, fomewhat above the tendon. Sometimes thefe canals
are feparated throughout by a thin partition, and open in
the fac by two diftin& mouths; generally, however, this
intervening membrane is not continued to the opening into
the fac. The lacrymal canals are lined by a fine membrane
continued from the conjunctiva.

The Jacrymal fac is a membranous bag, lodged ina groove
formed by the os unguis, and the nafal procefs of the fu-
perior maxillary bone. It is of an oval form below, anda
little flattened tranfverfely. It is covered on its anterior
furface by a fibrous membrane attaclied to the circumference
of the lacrymal groove, ftrongly connected with the ten-
don, and with the mufcular fibres of the orbicularis. — On
its external fide are the caruncle and the conjunétiva, and
anterior to thefe the orbicularis and the fkin. The inner
fide is clofely adherent to the lacrymal groove. The upper
end of the fac is clofed, rounded, and extendsa little way
above the tendon of the orbiculatis. The lower end termi-
nates by a contracted portion, which opens into the nafal
du&. On the external fuperior part of its interior furface
we remark the openings of the lacrymal canals. The fac
is formed by a mucous membraue continuous with the con-
jun@tiva, and the membrane lining the nottrils, the latter of
which it much refembles. It is invefted, where not lodged
in the bone, by the fibrous membrane above-mentioned.

The inferior end of the lacrymal fac is contracted by a
circular fold of the membrane, through which it communi-
cates with a pretty large tube, called the rafal dud, or dudus
ad nafum, which opens below the inferior turbinated bone
in the noftril. It is enclofed ina bony canal, formed by the
union of the bones which furround the lacrymal fac, and at
the lower end by the inferior turbinated bone. The du&
is not quite half an inch in length; it is often contracted
about its middle. Its dire€tion is from above obliquely
downwards, and a little outwards and forwards, deferibing

a gentle curve with the convexity infront, It opens in the
inferior meatus narium by an oblique flit in the pituitary
membrane, which is often fo loofe as to form a valve over
the aperture. The area of the opening is never fo large as
that of the du@, but it differs much in fize, fo thatin fome
individuals an inftrument has been paffed into it from the an-
terior opening of the noftrils. The membrane of the nafal
du& is fimilar to that of the fac: we can obferve mucous
crypte here and there on its furface. It adheres to the
fibrous membrane lining the bony canal.

We include, under the appellation “ears, the whole fluid
poured out on the furface of the conjunctiva ; and produced
in part by that membrane, but chiefly by the lacrymal
gland. Superficial obfervation would lead a perfon to con-
clude that its ordinary quantity is {mall, and only fuflicient,
by lubricating the parts, to facilitate their motions. For
we notice no actual fluid in the eye, and obferve merely a
moilt {tate of the conjunétiva. When, however, the paflages
which carry off the tears into the nofe are obitructed, aud
the fluids which ordinarily defcend into the noftril, where
they are evaporated by the conftant current of air through
that cavity, flow over the cheek, we find that the natural
quantity of the tears is very confiderable. As the con-
junGtiva belongs to the clafs of mucous membranes; its fe=
cretion has the properties which belong to thofe of fim-
larly organized parts. This, when freed by evaporation:
from the more aqueous portion of the tears, forms the in=
cruftations obfervable about the eye-lids after fleep; and:
would conftantly agglutinate their margins at that period,
were they not defended from its action by the unétuous
matter of the Meibomian glands, Hence, when the latter-
parts do not furnifh this greafy fubftance, or when the eon-
jundtiva, in a difeafed itate, pours out an increafed quan-
tity of mucous fluid, the ciliary margins become adherent
ina very difagreeable manner during fleep. The fecretion of
the lacrymal gland is aqueous, but contains mueh faline mat--
ter. The chemift difcovers in it common falt, phofphate
of lime, phofphate of foda, and foda in an apparently
uncombined ftate. Indeed the bitterith faline tafte of the
fluid produced in weeping is a cireumftance of common no-
toriety. It appears probable, that the conjunétiva is the
ordinary fource of the lacrymal fluid, which conftantly
lubricates the globe and lids: but when any irritation affects
the organ, as when a foreign body, a particle of duft, &c.
is lodged within the lids, a large quantity of fluid is fud-
denly poured out from the lacrymal gland, and often wathes-
off the offending fubftance. The faline nature of this fhuid
actually produces a degree of rednefs in the conjundtivay
which the natural mucilaginous fecretion of that membrane
does not occafion ; and this difference indicates a diverfity
in the nature of the flaid. The tears furnifhed in fuch a.
cafe are much more copious than the lacrymal paffages can,
convey into the nofe; and they @nfequently overflow the
lids. A fimilar increafed fecretion from the lacrymal gland,
taking place under various mental afleétions, conftitutes <
weeping. ‘he lacrymal fluid is fpread uniformly over the
anterior furface of the eye-ball, by the alternate lowering
and elevation of the fuperior lid, an a@tion fo rapid, that
although conftantly repeated at {mall intervals, it appears
not to impede the functions of the organ. Thefe motions
caufe it to flow towards the nafal angle, along the triangular
canal formed by the pofterior edges of thelids. ‘The feba-
ceous matter of the Meibomian glands probably prevents
it from overflowing their margins. It is direéted towards
the internal angle, when the eye is clofed, by the form of
this canal increafing in fize towards the nofe; and by the

: OR

EYE.

action of the orbicularis, which has its fixed point at the
fame part; when the eye is open, by the inclination of the
lower lid, as the external angle is then higher than the in-
ternal. ‘The puncéta lacrymalia take up the tears by a pe-
culiar vital a¢tion, and not by capillary attraG@tion. From
thefe canals the fluid paffes into the lacrymal fac, and thence
into the noftrils,

The parts above defcribed are very fully developed at the
time of birth; correfponding in this refpect with the almoft
perfect ftate of the globe itfelf at that period. The eye
refembles another organ of fenfe, the ear, in the forward-
nefs of its evolution, and.in the early period after birth, in
which its funétions are called into exercife. They are both
ajalogous in this point of view to the organ of touch.
The mutual affiftance which they afford each other, in cor-
re¢ting erroneous ideas formed from the feparate ufe of ei-
ther, is much favoured by this early and contemporaneous
completion of their ftructure.

A knowledge of the forms, proportions, denfities, the
refraGtive and difperfive powers of the humours, as well as
the radii of their feveral curvatures, is effential to under-
ftanding rightly the phyfiology of the organs. Our limits will
not allow us to detail the numerous experiments which have
been inftituted to determine thefe points. The following
admeaturements and calculations are drawn from thofe given
by Petit, Mafkelyne, Comparetti, Young, Wollafton, and
Cavallo ; to all of whom the reader, who wifhes for minute
information, is particularly referred.

The axis of the human eye, meafured from the anterior
-furface of the corneato the foramen opticum, is about .98
-of an inch: of this, the cornea occupies about .o4; the

aqueous humour .11; the chryttalline .17; and the vi-
treous .66.

The diameter of the eye, meafured internally, from the

ppofite furfaces of the retina, is about .go.

The vertical chord of the cornea is about .47, and the
horizontal .49. The radins of its anterior convexity .35 3
its verfed fine .11; its diftance from the anterior furface of
_the chryftalline .13.

The radius of the {phericity of the inner furface of the
fclerotica .46.

The aperture of the pupil at a mean .14.

The radius of the anteriox convexity of the chryttalline
~ 343 of the pofterior .22.

. The refractive and difperfive powers of the aqueous and

_vitreous humours are ver nearly, if not exactly, the fame as
thofe of water; thofe af the chryttalline are, for its whole
fuiitance, as 14 to 13.

__ By calculating from the preceding data the progrefs of
rays, fuppofed to radiate from an object about to inches
diftant, it is found that they will be collected into foci,
nearly on the furface of the retina: from the different re-
frangibility of the rays, perhaps not in exact focal points,
but the circle of i wihod is fo minute, as hardly to be
worth confidering in.the phyfiology of the organ.

The axis of the eye is in a line drawn in the axis of the
cornea. Yrom the excentricity of the pupil, and chryf-
‘talline lens, with regard to the cornea, their axes are not
in the fame line with that of the latter; and the vifual
‘axis is found to be one twentieth of an inch further
‘from the optic nerve’ than the point oppofite the centre of
‘the pupil; and about 16 hundredths of an inch on the
“outlide of the centre of the nerve,

Defcription of the Plates in which the Anatomy of the Eyeis
reprefented,
Prarte I.

The figures in this plate reprefent the external parts of
the eye in different pofitions, and exhibit the principal va-
rieties depending -on fex or nation, as well as the ap-
pearances of the clofed eye-lids during fleep.

Fig. 1.—The figures in the upper line exhibit the left
eye of an adult male in a front and fide view. We begin
with the firft.

abc, the eye-brow, or fupercilium ; a, its end next the
nofe ; c, that towards the temple. :

+ d *, the upper eye-lid, or palpebra; +, the part which
has but little motion; d, the fold which difappears when
the eye-lids are clofed; the depth of it may be feen in
Plate IV. fig. § ;*, the edge fringed with the eye-lafhes or
cilia.

e*rm, the opening of the eye-lids.

efghi, the internal, or larger canthus of the eye;
e, the caruncula lacrymalis; f, the femi-lunar fold of the
conjun&tiva; g 4, a depreffion round the caruucle (“ lacus
lactymalis’’) ; i, the fituation of the hgament of the pal-
pebra crofling the lacrymal fac.

£7, an horizontal line, fhewing how much the internal
canthus is inferior to the external. ?

mnop gq, the lower eye-lid; ma, its margin ; m, the in-
ternal edge or labium perforated by the opentags of the
febaceous glands; n, the external edge, from wiich the
lower cilia or eye-lathes arife ; g, a fuperficial fold, cblerved
when the eye is opened.

r, the external or leffer canthus of the eye.

stu v w, the iris fhining through the tranfparent cor-
nea; sf, the narrower part next the nole ; w, the wider
part towards the tempie ; ¢ v, the inner, or leffer circle of
the iris; s w, the outer, orlarger circle; u, the pupil.

In the fide view, we oblerve fome points not difiinguifh-
able when the organ is viewed in front. We fhall explain
the letters only wheu affixed to different parts trom thofe in
the former figure.

defgh, the upper eye-lid; ¢, the fold; 7 gs the
breadth of its margin; g 4, the upper eye-lafhes, decreafing
in number, length, thicknefs, and curvature, as they ap-
proach the external canthus,

i &, the cornea; i, its convexity; &, its circumfer-
ence.

7, the iris, which can be feen in the fide view, by the
alteration in the direétion of the rays in pafling through the
aqueous humour. The iris would not be feen if the eye
was viewed in the fame manner under water ; the cornea
alone would appear.

Fig. 2.—The figures in the fecond line reprefent the fe-
male eye, feen in the fame circumftances as the male eye in
the line above. The differences between them are {uffi-
ciently evident to merit attention. ‘The male eye exceeds
the female in the relative fize of the eye-ball, in the thick-
nefs of the parts which are connected with it, as well as in
many other leffer variations of form, all of which are marked
with great effe& in the beautiful fpecimens of ancient feulp-
ture. In the male, the {kin of the eye-lids is harfh and
rough, with a degree of rednefs not obfervable in the fe-
male, where it is more delicate and {mooth, paler, and ap-
parently humid. Viewed generally, the promixent,, full.
orbed eye of the male has a bolder charaGter than the ob-
long, depreffed, and gentle eye of the female. ‘Thedkin
ef the brow is thicker, and has a greater projeCtion ;. the

2 i eye-brow

2? Ww

err Ri

eye-brow itfelf is broader, thicker, and formed of hairs of

reater Jength, and coarfenefs, not lying fo clofe to the
fan as they do inthe female. Inthe male, the upper lid
is more elevated, fo as to appear {maller; the fold is there-
fore larger, and nearer the eye-brow. The opening between
the eye-lids is wider and rounder, the angle at the corners
is greater, and the margin of each is broader. The eye-
Jafhes are thicker, and not fo fine. The differences we have
been noticing are not equally evident in all eyes, but are fuffi-
ciently ftriking where this feature has its e,quifite diftinétive
form corre@tly marked.

Fig. 3—Thefe two figures reprefent the eye of the
male adult negro. In the firft:

a bc, the eye-brow, formed of fhort, fcattered hairs.

de tg the upper eye-lid, full, puffed, and broad; ¢, a
fuperficial ; f, the deeper fold.

ghkp, the opening of the eye-lids, rather oblong; 4,
the internal angle, which appears uarrow from the thicknefs
of the lids ; 7, the caruncle, which, for the fame reafon, ap-
pears deeper ; * the lunated fold.

&lmn op, the lower eye-lid, comparatively broad ; /, the
outer edge of the margin of the lic, fomewhat rounded ;
m, the orifices of the febaceous glands, appearing as white
points ; p the external canthus.

In the fide view of the fame eye we obferve further differ-
ences.

+, part of the forehead.

efghi, the upper lid; g, its thicknefs; i, the eye-
lafhes, more curved than in the European.

£ to 0, the lower lid; /, its outer edge, rounded; 7, the
lafhes, as much curved as the upper.

p> the outer canthus.

%*, the root of the nofe. From this it appears how nearly
the eyes are on a level with its edge, differing much ta this
refpect from the European.

In reviewing the principal differences between the eyes of
the Negro and European, we obferve, that in the former
the eye-brow is thin, and projeéts but little over the eye lid,
fo as to throw but little fhade on the eye; the hairs are not
woolly, but nearly as ftraight as in the European. The
eye-lids are thicker, and denfer in their texture, and tumid,
fo as to give the eye the appearance of being buried more
deeply inthe fkin of the face. Hence many rays, which
would fall on the globe at {mall or acute angles, are avert-
ed from it ; and the light can affect the eye but little when
the lids are clofed. The lower lid 1s broader and more
moveable, covering a greater portion of the eye. The
opening of the lids is narro er; their margins are tumid,
and the outer edge rounded. The eye-lathes are more
curved, and thicker ; and are fo extremely fine and black,
as to exclude many rays of light. The conjunctiva is not
fo white, and the fold at the inner canthus is broader. ‘The
cornea appears fmaller, and not fo convex ; the bulb itfelf
larger. The almoft uniformly dark colour of the iris is fo
intenfe, that, when viewed at a little diftance, we can
fcarcely diftinguifh it from the pupil, the whole appearing
as a dark fpot. This much diminifhes its brightnefs. The
preceding faéts lead us to conclude that the eye of the Ne-

ro can bear more light, and is better fuited toan African

Y> than that of the European, who enjoys, perhaps, a
larger field of vilion, from the direction of his orbits. The
differences are not equally obfervable in all individuals of the
two races.

Fig. 4.—The left eye of a young white negrefs (Leuce-
thiopiffa, or Albinefs) is here reprefented. The character of
the female eye is ftrongly marked : thefe figures ; which

however differ remarkably from the preceding ones of the
male fubject, as well as from thofe of the European female,
The eye-brow is foft, of a yellowifh or pale white colour, and
ftraight, with the hairs fcattered. The lids are puffed, and pof-
fefs rather the colour of chalk than of flefh; and the flcin is-
{caly inftead of being f{mooth. The upper lid appears
comparatively very narrow. ‘The opening of the eye-lids
is narrow, particularly when the light is at all trong,
The eye-lafhes are delicate and much curved, efpecially
in the lower lid, where they are exceffively clofe; they
are of a pale white. The caruncle is not fo red ;
the cornea more convex. The iris, formed of thin,
delicate, reticulated fibres, appears of a pinkifh white co-
lour, and fo tranfparent, that between the fibres we can fee
the rofe colour of the bottom of the eye ; in other words it
fhines through the iris. The iris itfelf isin an almoft con-
{tant ftate of tremulous motion.

Fig. 5.—The eye of an adult female, drawn in a ftate of
tranquil fleep.

abc, &c. the eye-brow; ode f, the upper eye-lid,
fmooth and ftretched the eye-lathes, decuffating each
other.

/} i, a line drawn horizontally, fhewing the external can-
thus to be the lowett.

£/, the fituation of the iris, or rather of the cornea, pro-
jecting under the lid.

mno, cutaneous veins, fhining through the delicate
ficin.

g> the fold of the lower lid.

In the fide view of the fame eye, a, &c. denote part
of the forehead; 4, the root of the nofe; c, the eye-
brow ; d to g, the upper lid; &, the middle part, which
is folded when the eye-lids are opened. The projection
of the cornea is evident in this view. The other letters
point out the fame parts as in the former figure.

In the ftate of quiet fleep the eye-lids are gently clofed ;.
the upper one fmooth and unwrinkled, defcends lower on
the outer than on the inner fide, and hangs as it were
obliquely. The caufe of this difference is in the ftru€ture
of the two angles; the upper lid having but little motion
at the inner angle, on account of the tendon of the orbicu-
laris rufcle, while it defcends freely at the external canthus.
The bulb of the eye is fomewhat turned upwards, as we
may obferve in drowfy perfons; fo that when the eye is
fhut, the cornea, with the greateft part of the globe, is
covered by the upper lid alone. This fituation of the eye--
ball is very manifeft in children when afleep ; the cornea in
them fhiving through the thin eye-lid, appearing 2s a dark
{pot, and its convexity being vilible when viewed from the
fide. The lower lid generally retains its fold. The differ-
ence in the angular form of the two canthi is ftill obvious.
The eye-lathes decuflate each other ; and, if the eye be na-
turally prominent, the cutaneous veins are feen feattered
over the upper lid.

> 8?

Prare II.

The figures in this plate illuftrate the ftru€ture of the
eye-lids and of the lacrymal apparatus. .
Fig. 1.—Exhibits the orbicularis mufcle of the left eye in

the adult.
ab, the opening of the eye-lids clofed; c, the tendon,
which joins the eye-lids at the internal canthus, and is fixed
into the nafal procefs of the fuperior maxillary bone; d,
mu({cular fibres attached to the bones ; ¢, f, fibres intermixed
with thofe of the corrugator fupercilii and frontalis; g,
delicate bundles of fibres covering the upper lid; 4, fibres
; covering

EB YE

covering the lower lid, joining the preceding at the outer
angle; 4, ftronger fibres attached to the bone, and the
tendon ; i, fibres pafling towards the nofe ; /, m, thin Hbres
towards the temple ; m, 2, {trips of mufcle going over the
cheek ; 0, 0, fcattered fibres at the very outer a p> p>
clofe fibres immediately furrounding the edge of the eye-
lids, called by Albinus “ mufculus ciliaris,’?

fig. 2.—The eye-lids opened widely, and the margins
turned out a little,

a, the eye-brow; 4, the fold of the upper lid; c, the
openings remaining after having pulled out the eye-lathes ;
d, the punétum lacrymale ; ¢, the upper edge of the inter-
nal canthus; f, the orifices of the febaceous glands ; g, the
union of the two eye-lids, externally ; 4, the caruncle ; 4,
the femi-lunar fold of the conjunétiva; 4, the fold of the lower
lid; /, the openings after having pulled out the eye-lathes ;
m, the punétum lacrymale ; x, the lower erus of the inner
canthus ; a, the mouths of the febaeeous duéts. The marks
left by the cilia are far more numerous in the upper than
in the under eye-lid, as well as larger. The openings of the
febaceous glands are placed in a curved line, and rather nearer
to the inner edges of the tarfi, The puncta lacrymalia, or
openings of lacrymal ducts, are much larger, and placed in a
fmall papilla.

Figs. 3, and 4.—A long and fhort hair taken from the
eye-brow, magnified to four times their natural fizes; a,
the bulb, buried in the fkin, which becomes thinner at 4 ;
and is continued fwelling, cylindrical, and curved, c ; and ter-
minates in a fine point d.

Figs. 5, and 6.—Two hairs trom the eye-lafhes, magni-
fied. They begin alfo.in a fmall bulb, @; diminifh in
fize confiderably at &; become gradually thicker, c; are
thickeft about their middle, d; again decreafe in a conical
form, ¢; and end in avery fine point, f. Thefe figures

oint out the differences in the fhape of the hairs of the eye-
pee and the lathes, or cilia.

Fig. 7.—The eye-lids of the right eye, moderately
open, feen from behind, with the lacrymal gland turned a
little forwards, covered at its anterior point by the conjunc-
tiva,

a, a portion of the orbicularis palpebrarum, on its inner fur-
face; 4, the chink between the lids; c, the lacrymal gland, on
its lower fide ; d, its divifion into two principal lobes; e, its
“excretory duéts ; f, the openings of thefe duéts in the con-
janctiva; g, the conjun¢tiva, lining the internal furface of the
eye-lids ; the part which appears folded has been turned off
‘from the bulb ; 4, the febaceous glands of the upper hd,
fhining through the conjunétiva; , the fuperior punétum
lacrymale ; 4, the glands of the lower eye-lid; /, its punétum
lacrymale, or mouth of the lacrymal Mar m, the carun-
enla; 2, the femi-lunar fold of the conjunctiva. This is
drawn back a little by the other folds of the membrane ; its
natural fituation would be at /. {

Fig. 8 —The internal or pofterior fnrface of the eye lids,
to thew the ftruéture of the febaceous glands, ‘The figure
is magnified to twice its natural fize, which may be feen by
comparing it with the preceding one.

a, the orbicularis palpebrarum ; 4, the opening of the
eye-lids, through which the cilia of the upper lid are dif-
cernible; ¢, the levator palpebre fuperioris ;_f, the openings
of the excretory duéts of the lacrymal gland; s, the con-
jundtiva; 4, the febaceous glands fhining through it; 7, the
portion of the conjunétiva refleGted, and the glands expofed ;
&, the openings of thefe glands; /, the febaceous glands of
the lower lid wholly expofed, fo as to fhew their difpofition
in rows made up of {mall bunches united with each other.

Fig. 9.—This may be confidered as the reverfed appeare

ance of fig.2. The true relative fituation of the lacry-
mal gland, and of the lacrymal duéts, is particularly pointed
out.

ab,cd, the upper and lower lacrymal cemals as con-
tained in the eye-lids ; a, a, the openings or punta lacry-
malia; 4, 4, the blind pouches formed by each; c c, the
continuation of the canals ; d, d, their openings in the lacry-
mal fac; e fg, the lacrymal fac; ¢, the blind finus at its
upper end ; g, its termination below inthe nafal part of the
lacrymal canal; 4 i, the termination of the du@ in the
noftril.

Fig. 10.—The lacrymal dué& on the left fide, viewed from
the fide next the nofe, to give an idea of its diretion,
breadth, and of the opening in the noftril. It will be feen to
be much wider on this, the internal, than on the anterior fide, -

ab,the palpebral portion ; c d, the lacrymal fac; ¢ f;
the nafal portion ; f, the natural appearance of its opening
in the nofe, not difturbed by the introduction of any inftru-
ment.

Fig. 11.—The lacrymal canal laid open, and halved, to
fhew its internal capacity, its thicknefs, and its ftruéture.

abc d, asinthe preceding figure; d, a doubling, or
fold of the internal men\brane, which marks the end of the
lacrymal fac; ef g, thd nafal portion of the duct; fia
fold in the inner membrane, fometimes obfervable ; 4, mu-
cous follicles, or crypte, which may be feen fcattered up
and down the membrane, efpecially after a fuccefsful in-

jection.

Prate III.

The figures of this plate exhibit the mufcles of the globe,
and the nerves belonging to them; together with the more
intimate ftructure ef the globe itfelf.

fig. 1.—The mufcles of the bulb of the left eye; with
the levator of the upper lid,-in their relative: fituation to
each other, and to the bony orbit in which they lie.

I 2 3, the out-line of the left orbit; 1 3, the internal ;
1 2, the external fide; 3 2, the inferior margin; 4, the
cartilaginous pulley for the tendon of the obliquus fuperior ;
5, the bulb of the eye; 6 7, the optic nerve; 6, the part
which lies on the fella turcica ; 7, the part which enters the
orbit.

a—e, the levator palpebre fuperioris ; a, its pofterior
tendinous extremity, adhering to the dura mater at the upper
margin of the foramen opticum ; 4, its conneGtion with the
rectus fuperior; c d, its mufcular part; ¢, its anterior
tendinous end at the margin of the upper lid.

fg, the reétus fuperior, almoft wholly covered by the
levator palpebrz.

hi k, the re€tus externus; /, the anterior attachment
of the obliquus inferior; m, the reétus inferior; n 0, rectus
internus ; p—s, obliquus fuperior; g r, its flefhy fibres,
arifing partly from the tendon, p; partly from the orbit ;
and terminating in the tendon, ss, which pafles through
the pulley 4, and {preads over the bulb.

Fig. 2.—The fame parts; the levator palpebra, reGtus
and obliquus fuperior, optic nerve, and globe of the eye
having been removed.

a bc, the re&tus internus; d e .f, re€tus inferior ;
g 4 i rectus externus : itis {plit at its pofterior tendinous end,
g, to allow of the paflage of nerves; 4 / m, the obliquus
luferior ; &, its attachment to the periofteum of the fuperior
maxillary bone.

Fig. 3.—The trunks of all the nerves belonging to the
eye, in their relations to the cranium, the orbit, the mufcles,
and the other parts of this organ. As this figure, exclu-
fively of the nerves and lacrymal gland, is prtailily the

wi

EY £.

with fiz. 1, the letters of reference to the mufcles are
entirely omitted, to prevent obfcurity.

2, the optic nerve; its final diftribution will be feen
helow ; 3, the third nerve of the brain or motor oculi; 4,
the fourth nerve, or trochlearis; 5, the nfth nerve; A the
coutraéted portion next the brain, which {wells confiderably
at B; C, the firlt branch of the fifth entering the orbit; D,
the fecond branch which paffes through the foramen
yotundum G; E, the third branch, which enters the
foramen ovale F I.

The rrft branch of the fifth, after giving off a flament,
a, which joins the fourth, divides into the ramus frontalis
fei, and the nervus lacrymalis, 4. ‘The ramus frontalis
fends a {mall twig, c, to the neighbourhood of the trochlea ;
another, d, which’ joms the nervus infra trochlearis,
The proper frontal branch, e, is f{tretched over the levator
palpebra fuperioris, without fending any twig to it, aud is
diftributed over the forehead 4 4 ; i:—é, the lacrymal nerve,
‘the branchesof which feparating and re-uniting, may be divided
inco two principal parts, an internal, /, and an external, m.
The inner branch, communicating with the external, 2 0,
goes towards the lacryma! gland, in which it is partly
diftributed, a few filaments running on in conjunction with
-fome from the external branch r, to the orbicularis, and
fkin of the upper lid, ss. The external branch is fcattered
in the fubftance of the lacrymal gland, and communicates by
different filaments with the inner branch, ws with the
third branch of the fifth, vp; and is tnally loft on the
upper lid; y, a fmall twig which enters the orbit from the
facial verve.

6 6 6, the fixth nerve of the brain,
fifth, as far as D, entering the orbit with it.
buted on the reétus externus.

Fig. 4.—This figure exhibits more particularly the diftri-
bution of the third nerve, and the ftruéture of the lenticular,
or ophthalmic ganglion. It correfponds with figs. 1, and
3, the fourth, and moft of the branches of the fifth are re-
moved. The levator palpebrea and reétus fuperior are
turned a little afide.

A A, the rectus fuperior turned off, fo as to exhibit a

art of its lower furface; B B, the levator palpebre in the
pik fituation,

3 a, &c. the third nerye. At its very entrance into the
orbit, a {mall branch, 2, is feen going off, which is joined
by a finall filament from the firft branch of the fifth, u, and
then divides into a branch for the levator palpebra, d, and
another, ¢, for the rectus fuperior ; e, the greater branch,
_ pailes under the optic nerve on the outer fide of the latter. It

_divides into an inner twig for the rectus internus ; a middle

one, fs for the. reétus inferior; and an inferior, g,
which again {ubdiyides a fhort but rather thick portion,
A, joming the ophthalmic ganglion, and a longer, and
thinner, 74, pafling to the obliquus inferior. From the
ephthalmic ganglion two fafciculi of the ciliary nerves
proceed. The {maller and fuperior fafciculus {plits into
three tlaments, é, 4, £, which purfue a ferpentine courfe
near that of the optie nerve, dividing into fix or more
unegual portions, /, 1,1; three of thefe may be feen enter-
ing the fclerotica, The inferior fafciculus, rather the
largeft, generally divides into fix tlaments, two only of
which, m, m, are here apparent.

5, the ffth nerve ; 2, the frft branch of this nerve ; four
‘of its twigs are cut off; e correfponds to a in fig. 33 p

“to 43g to e3 r to £3 s, a ‘fth twig from this nerve,

a
Ge

It is covered by the
It is diftri-

_dividing, into a nafal-twig, ¢, which is cut off, into another, _

My communicating with that twig of the third which goes

to the rectus fuperior; and inta a fmall filament which
joins the ophthalmic ganglion.

6w, the fixth nerve, or abduor, paffing to the reCtus
externus at ww.

The remaining figures reprefent minutely the ftru€ture of
the globe of the eye.

Fig. 5.—The anterior half of the left eye, after the
organs had been divided perpendicularly ; the other half
forms fig..6; a, the cut furface of the fclerotica, of nearly
uniform thicknefs all round; 2, the dark-coloured fubftance
between the {clerotica and choroidea; c, the tunica cho-
roidea, appearing in folds from being cut; it is really
{pread uniformly {mooth over the retina; d, the pigmentum
nigrum, between the choroidea and retina; ee ff, the retina;
ee, its cut margin, folded and turned in; ff, its anterior
termination, feen more diftintly in figs. 7, 9,10; fg h, the
ciliary body, fhining through the remains of the vitreous
humour. From the great quantity of pigment covering it,
its folds can be feen diftin&tly only towards the margin of
the chryftalline lens. It is manifeftly not covered by the
retina ; 4, the {pace between the ciliary proceffes and the
lens, fhewn by zz in fig. 7; ik/, the chryttalline lens,
included in its capfule, feen through part ef the vitreous
humour ; i &, the iris, broadeft at the outer fide; /, the

upil.

Fig.6.—The pofterior half of the preceding fetion ;
abed, asin the foregoing figure ; e—#, the retina, on its
inner furface; the margin e f much wrinkled ; /, the round
fpot, fhewing the entrance of the optic nerve; ¢ 4i, branches
of the central artery, and vein of the retina, filled with
blood; 4,1, two branches, which furround in a circle the
foramen centrale, or centre of the retina; 4, edged by a
yellow ring, concealed in this view by the folds of the
retina,

Fig. 7.—The lower half of the eye-ball divided hori-
zontally, or at right-angles to the fection exhibited in the
two preceding figures. Its axis lies between the points 3, @.

a—d6, the {clerotica; 4, its thinneft part, under the
tendons of the reCti mufcles; c¢, its middle portion, thicker;
d, its thickeft part, united with the fheath of the optic
nerve ; 6, an hemifpherical rifing in the fclerotica, pierced
by holes, through which the medulla of the optic nerve
paffes, to be expanded in the retina; o—r, the iris; s, its
pofterior furface, covered by pigmentum nigrum ; ww w, the
retina; w, its anterior margin, or termination; qw, its in-
ternal furface, feen through the vitreous humour; 1 2—8,
the optic nerve divided; 45, the fheath of the nerve, con-
fitting of two lamiaz ; 8, marks of the central veffels of the
retina perforating the optic nerve. ‘The nerve diminifhes
very much in fize at 6.

Fig. 8.—The pofterior furface of the retina of the
left eye, drawn from behind; the true centre of the retina
falling exaétly in the middle of the figure.

a, the retina fpread over the vitreous humour, fo placed
as to fuit the pofition of fy. 5; 4, the foramen centrale;
c, the yellow ring furroundmg it; def, the place where
the optic nerve perforates the fclerotica, the fituation of
the central yeflels of the retina, improperly fo called; g; 4, i,
three principal branches of thefe veffels, filled with blood.

Fig.g—A view of the retina and vitreous body, with
the lens, feen from the front; it is the reverfe of the
preceding figure, exhibiting the anterior limits of the retina,
the {pace between it and the lens, the anterior furface of the
latter, and the foramen centrale, feea through the chryttal-
line and vitreous bodies. :

ab, the retina; 446, its termination in front; ¢$, the
corona ciliaris, formed by the membrana hyaloidea round

the

iY

the edge of the lens, correfponding to the ciliary procefles;
cede, thelens; d, the foramen centrale; ¢,e, veflels of the
yetina.

Fig. 10.—The outer furface of the retina in the left eye;
@a, its anterior margin ; 4, its central foramen; 4, i, blood-
veffels furrounding the latter; cd, the optic nerve, deprived
of its inveltments; ef, the corona ciliaris, not covered by
the retina; ef, the diftance of the ciliary body from the
dens; g, remains of pigmentum nigrum; £/, the lens; 4,
the part projecting above the corona ciliaris.

Fig. 11e—The choroid coat of the left eye with the
veflels injeGted ; {een on the fide towards the nofe.

ab, the optic nerve ; c—f, the remaining part of the f{cle-
rotica 3; g—w, the tunica choroidea; ghim, the annulus
gangliformis ; m, the internal long ciliary artery; n, the
internal long ciliary veins 0, the internal long ciliary nerve;
psp» the long and fhort arteries of the choroid; g,q, the
cillary nerves; r, a trunk of the vena vorticofa fuperior;
s, a trunk of the vena vorticofa inferior ; ¢, another of the
fame; g 4, the margin which marks its feparation from
the iris.

fig. 12.—The anterior furface of the choroid, and
iris of the left eye, being a front view of the preceding
figure.

abc, tunica choroides; 4c, the annulus; d—=s; the iris ;
dh, the margin conneéted with the choroides; de, the
outer or larger ring; ¢f, the inner or leffer ring of the
iris; g, the pupil; df, the narrow fide of the iris next the
nofe; g/, the broader fide towards the temple; 7, a, ciliary
nerves, forming plexufes on the annulus; 7, the external
long ciliary artery ; s, the internal long ciliary artery.

fig. 13.—A view of the chryftalline lens of a child newly
born, fhewing its rounded form..

Fig. 14.—The lens of a child of fix years old, increafed
fn circumference, not in thicknefs.

Fig, 15,—A fide view of the lens of an adult. The dif-
ference between the anterior and pofterior fegments is lefs
than in either of the preceding..

Prare IV.

. Mig.1.—A fegment of the choroides and iris-of a new-
born child, feen on its internal furface, magnified twenty-
five times. The velflels are filled with injection.

a, the true fize of this fegment ; —g, the part belonging
to the iris; dc, the margin of the pupil; fg, the margin
next to the circumference of the cornea; 4—e, part of the
lefler ring of the iris; 4, 4, trunks of blood-veffels fupplying
this net-work ; d—g, part of the greater or outer ring.
The difference in the diftribution of the veflels on’ thefe
parts is’ very evident ; i,4,/, three larger arteries arifing
from the circle formed. by the long ciliary veflels round
the iris; m—s, a fegment of the corpus ciliare;
n,0,p, three entire plice or folds; m, g» two fegments of
‘folds; ¢v, the projecting margin of the fold, which dips
into a correfponding depreffion in the vitreous body ; w cw,
a deeper part of the margin, where the plice join each other;
rsx y, a ftriated part of the choroides between the ciliary
body or procefles, and the anterior margin of the retina,
feen in Plate II. fig. 5 ; xy v1, part of the choroid cor-
refponding-to the retina; xy, that oppofite the termination
otf the retina; 2—8, trunks of the ven vorticofe.

Wig. 2.—The anterior part of. the choroides, with the
iris, and membrana pupillaris, in a foetus of feven months,
magnified quadruply, and the veflels filled with injeGion,

A, the true fize of this fegment.; a 4, the proper choroid
of the bulb; ¢, the annulus gangliformis; cd, the iris; de,
the membrana pupillaris, its veflels continuous with thofe of

the iris; _f, the long internal ciliary artery ; g, the long ex-
ternal artery. Thefe arteries, by their divifions, form a ring
round the iris ; 15, five venous vortices in the choroid.

Tig. 3.—The pofterior part of the chryftalline lens, en-
clofed in its capfule, froma foetus of feven months, with the
veflels injected, magnitied to four times its natural fize.

A, the true fize of the lens; 4, a blood-veffel from the
central artery of the retina, which has pafled through the
middle of the vitreous humour, and is {cattered over the cap-
fule.

Figs. 4.and 5.—Views of the left eye, after a plane per-
pendicular feétion pafling antero-pofteriorly through the
orbit, and the parts it contains, dividing them into two
equal portions, an internal and external, the former of
which is here reprefented. Every part is feen in its natural
fituation, nothing having been dilturbed or removed. ‘The
explanations are given in the following plate, where the
figure is magnified to three times its natural diameter, in
order to avoid confufion, and exprefs the obje&s more dif.
tintly. In fig. 4. the eye is fhut; im fg. 5. ic is open.
Some parts alfo which were exhibited in fy. 4. having been
removed, othersare brought into view in jig. 5. In fig. 5.
we obferve the fold of the upper lid, and the cart age
paffing under the fold back into the orbit. The retina and
lens being removed, the choroid is brought into view, with
its ciliary procefles, venz’ vorticofe, and long internal ci-
liary artery. It fhews alfo the fituation of the central ar--
tery of the retina.

Pirate V.

A magnified outline of fig. 4. of the preceding plate.
As this isa moft important view, the references are given
very fully. The words ‘ cut furface of” fhould be under-
{tood throughout :. they are omitted to avoid -the- tedious
repetition of the fame phrafe. j

A—Q, the bony orbit; A—H, the upper plate of the:
orbit ; A B, the fmooth furface towards theeye; CC GH,
the convex furface, uneven, correfpording to the brain; -
ADEF, the frontal part of the os frontis;.C CG, the
orbital part of the os frontis; E E, the medullary cells of
the frontal part; F, the left frontal finus; F F, the me-
dullary cells of the orbital part; G, the future between :
the frontal and {phenoidal bones; G BH, a part of the
upper or leffer ala of the {phenoidal bone, which forms the
upper part of the canal for the optic nerve ; Q—M, the in-
ferior plate of the orbit; II, the fuperior maxilla; K L,
the orbital fiffure occupied by tendinous fibres, fat, veffels,
and nerves; M, part of the leffer ala of the {phenoidal
bone, forming the lower part of the foramen opticum ; L,
the periofteum ; BHM, the canal inthe ala minor of the
{phenoidal bone for the optic nerve, or foramen opticum ;
N, the periofteum of the frontal bone ; O, a continuation of
the periofteum towards the upper lid, forming.a kind of
ligamentous arch, the ligament of the fuperior tarfus ; P,
the periofteum of the fuperior maxilla; Q, a continuation
of this periofteum, towards the lower lid, in the form of
an arch, the ligament of the inferior tarfus; ++, the
axis of the orbit; R—V, the dura mater; R, the exter-
nal, S, the internal Jayer; TU V, the place where the
dura mater is united partly with the periofteum of the orbit
T, partly with the fheath of the optic nerve U, partly
with the origin of the levator palpebre 1, and the rectus
fuperior 43 W—Z, the forehead ; W, the thicknefs of
the fkin of the forehead ;.X, the fat between the ‘kin and
the frontalis; Y, the frontalis; Z, the fat bétween the
frontalis and the periofteum of the frontal bone.

a~d, the brow, or fupercilium, .a, corrugator fuperi-

7 Clik 5 >

rte,

ellii ; 4, mouth of the frontal vein ; ¢, mouth of the fron-
tal artery ; d, hairs of the eye-brow; e—w, the upper
eye-lid; ¢, fkin; f, fat between the {kin and orbicularis,
gradually eg ages towards the eye 3 > orbicularis pal-
pebrarum ; 4, fat beneath the orbicularis, terminating in a
thin edge below ; i, the tendon of the levator palpebre:
fuperioris ; 4, cellular tiffue between it and the conjunctiva ;
J, the cartilage of the upper lid; m, marks of the febaceous
follicles; rrs#, conjunctiva of the upper lid; rr, where
it invefts the cartilaze and febaceous glands ; rs, where it
is conneGted with the tendon by cellular tiffue; rst,
«where it becomes reflected on itfelf ; st, where it is fpread
cover the globe of the eye; yr 24 s, the fuperior burfa,
or fold of :the-conjunétiva ; 4e, the fpace between the two
layers, reprefented by the black line, as the two furfaces
are in contatt; opg, the margin of the upper lid; g, the
part where the {kin of the face becomes inflected, and con-
‘tinued into conjunGtiva; u, the cilia or eye-lafhes of the
upper lid; 2, the opening of the coronary artery of the
upper lid. ; ,
a—q, the lower eye-lid; a, fkin; 6, fat beneath it; c,

-orbicularis; d, fat under the orbicularis; g¢ e, cartilage of

the lower lid; fg 4, margin of the lower lid ; h,a groove
‘between the two edges; y, triangular hollow left be-
‘tween the edges of the eye-lids, and the eye-ball,
when fhut ; 4—n, conjunctiva of the lower lid, difpofed as
in the upper; y, /, the inferior burfa of the conjunétiva ; /,
‘lower eye-lath ; g, a quadrangular {pace between the cilia
and the margins.of the eye-lids.

1—tr1, mufcles of the eye; I 2 3, levator palpebray fu-
perioris; 4 5 6, rectus oculi fuperior ; 7 8 9, rectus inferior ;
10, the tendon of the obliquus fuperior ; 11, the flefhy part
of the obliquus inferior.

12—r8, the optic nerve, curved, fomewhat like an italic
Ss 12.13, the fheath of the optic nerve ; 12, its internal,
‘13, Its external layer ; 14, the thin membrane immediately
invefting it; 15, the fibres of the nerve cut and expofed ;
16, part of the nerve as it paffes the bony canal, appearing
compreffed from above below ; 18, the contracted extremi-
ty of the nerve in the felerotica; 19, the principal trunk of
the ophthalmic artery ; 20, the principal trunk of the
ophthalmic vein; 21, fome brarches of the nerve of the
fifth pair.

22—43, the bulb of the eye; 22 22, the axis of the
‘bulb; 23, the greateft tranfverfe diameter of the bulb;
24 —26, thecornea ; 25 2626, the fpace between the cor-
nea and lens, divided into the anterior chamber, 25 ; and
the pofterior chamber, 26 26; 247%, and 24r, 2 double
groove between the cornea and {cleretica; 27—29, the
{clerotica; 27, its anterior limit, with the double groove,
-to which the annulus of the choroid is firmly fixed, 32;
28, the thinnelt part of the fclerotica; 30, the pigmentum
nigrum between the f{clerotica and choroideas 31—37, tu-
nica choroidea ; 32 33, the annulus gangliformis; 34, 35,
ciliary proceffes ; 34 39 39, part of the choroid not cover-
ed by retina, and which is generally of greater brightnefs
than the reft; 36 37, the iris ; 36, the margin by which it
adheres to the annulus and ciliary procefles; 37 26, the
margin of the pupil; 38, pigmentum nigrum between the
choroides and retina; 39 40 41, the retina, Its anterior
termination pointed out by the line 39 46 39; 4o—46,

. the chryftalline lens; 43 42, the long diameters; 44 45,
the fhort diameter; 42-—44, its anterior convexity 3 42 45
43, its pofterior convexity ; 46 26, the capfule ot the
lens; 34, 42, the diftance of the lens from the ciliary
body.

Fe this autline the forms and proportions of the feveral

parts are preferved with the moft ferupulous exa@nefs, fo
that any calculations made from it will be founded cor-
rectly,

Phyfiology of the eye,—To eftimate corre&tly the powera
of the eye requires an acquaintance with the nature of
light, and with the laws by which it is regulated ; an exaét
knowledge of the organ ; and of the forms, proporttons,
denfities, refractive and difperfive powers of the tranfparent
parts, as well as of the radii of their curvatures. Since
many of thefe points are hitherto but imperfeétly elucidated,
we cannot expect to determine the funétions of the eye ac.
curately in all their detail. Generally, indeed, in inveftis
gating this delicate organ, the mathematicians have been
deficient in correét anatomical knowledge; while anato.
miits have been unacquainted with the feience and with the
method of calculating accurately the refults of their obfer-
vatious.

Experiment and calculation prove that the huninous rays
proceeding from any objeét to the eye undergo certain
changes in their paflage through the tranfparent parts of
the organ; that thefe changes ultimately colleét the rays,
proceeding from the feveral points of the ebjeét, into oppo.
fite correfponding focal, or nearly focal points on the reti-
na ; and that the impreffion thus produced caufes the pera
ception of the obje&, A fimple but interetting experiment
will prove the point, Let an eye, from which the back of
the iclerotica and choroid have been earefully removed, and
thei place fupplied by oiled paper, or by the membrane
which Lines the fhell of an egg, be placed in aroom with a
fingle candle, with the cornea towards the luminous objeét,
The image of the candle will be reprefented on the paper,
diminifhed i fize and inverted. Vithout attempting ta
calculate precifely the refraétion or difperfion of the rays in
the different parts, we {hall trace them from the anterior
furface of the cornea to their colleétion into foei on the
retina, giving the change of direétion in general terms,

The pencils of rays radiating from any objet, when they
arrive at the furface of the cornea, form cones, the points of
which are at the objeét, and the bafes an the cornea, Thofe
which impinge on the opaque fclerotica are reflected, and
have no concern in the produétion of vition: and thofe
which, falling very obliquely, make a very confiderable
angle with the cornea, are alfo refleted without penetrating
inte the aqueous humour, ‘The rays, which fall within sn
angle of about 48 degrees, pafs through this membrane, un-
dergoing a certain refragtion, by which they are brought
nearer to the line of the axis of the cornea; and, if

produced, would converge into a focal point beyond the

bottom ofthe eye. From the cornea the rays pais into the
aqueous humour, They are divided by the difperfive
powers of this fluid, fo that, if continued in the fame mes
dium, they would uot only converge beyond the back of the
eye, but on account of the aberration caufed by their dif.
ferent refrangibility, would produce a confufed and coloured
image.

The rays colle&ted by the cornea pafs through the pupil,
Thofe which come in an unfavourable direction are either
reflected by the iris, or abforbed by the pigmentum on its
polterior furface. The pupil admits only thole rays which are
the neareit to tke axis of vifion, They then meet with tha
chryttalline, which, by its refractive pgwers, colleéts them,
and brings them into foci, after pafling through the lefa
refractive medium of the vitreous humour an the concave
furface of the retina,

They do not impart a correct perception of the body
which reflects them, unlefs they fall on the retina preeifel
in the order in which they are detached from that oxip

*

EY 1.

To produce this effe@, it is neceffary that all the rays, which
proceed from any one point, fhould be colleéted in one
point of the retina; and that all the points of union thus
formed fhould be difpofed in the fame manner asin’ the body,
of which they form an image.

The cone of rays which proceeds from any luminous
point to the cornea forms another cone, the apex of which
falls onthe retina. ‘Thefe two cones have their axes almoft
ina ftraight line. That which is perpendicular to the mid-
dle of the chryitalline proceeds dire€tly to the bottom of
the eye; that which comes from above falls inferiorly ;
that on the left proceeds to the right, and fo on with re-
f{pe& to the others: thus an inverted image is formed on
the retina.

Among the obvious advantages derived from the actual
difpofition of the feveral parts of the eye, we may remark,
* that the furface of the cornea only, if it had been more
convex, could not‘have colleéted the lateral rays of a direct
pencil to a perfect focus, without a different curvature near
itsedges; and ther the oblique pencils would have been
fubjeGted toa greater aberration, nor could have been made
to converge on any focus on the retina. A fecond refrac-
tion performs both thefe offices much more completely, and
has alfo the advantage of admitting a greater quantity of
light.

ehe iris, by altering the diameter of the pupil, in the man-
ner we have already noticed, will influence immediately the
quantity of light admitted into the eye. If one eye is
clofed, and we continue to look at the fame objeé, the pupil
of the open eye dilates evidently, and contraéts again, as
the other is opened, to its farmer diameter. The iris alfo
intercepts fuch rays as would fallon parts incapable of re-
fracting them regularly, or fuch as are directed fo obliquely
on the cornea as to be too much refracted, admitting only
the {maller pencil which enters the eye more in the direGtion
of its axis. This reafoning applies, however, but partially,
and only in cafes where the opening of the pupil is circular,
and where the confufion which would arife from the aberra-
tion of the extreme lateral rays may poffioly be prevented :
it wiil not hold good where the opening is very much ex-
tended, oblong, vertical, and, in fome circumftances, almott
linear, as in the cat. The excentricity of the pupil men-
tioned in the defcription of the iris can only fo far in-
fluence the pencils of rays as to make them fall on the an-
terior vertex of the chryttalline, with which it correfponds :
the axes of the pupil, and the lens, do not correfpond with
that of the cornea. From obferving that the pupil changes,
when objeéts are brought nearer to or removed farther from
the eye, phyfiologifts have fancied that alterations in its dia-
meter are the principal means of adjufting the organ to dif-
ferent diftances. But it has appeared from careful experi-
ments that this contraétion and dilatation are irregular and
_limited ; that by bringing the object nearer to the eye,

within a certain diftance, the pupil not only ceafes to con-.

tract, but becomes again dilated ; and, that beyond a few
yards diftance, it alfo ceafes to dilate. In viewing the fun,
inftead of dilating according to the diftance, it contracts
mott clofely, obeying the quantity and intenfity of the light,
rather than the diflauce of the object. In viewing a lels
-lumizous ébjeé, the pupil dilates, when it is more dif-
tant, a greater.quantity of light being neceflary to pro-
dtice a clear impreflion; as the object is brought nearer,
we require a Icfs degree of light, and the iris contraéts to
exclude what is fuperfuous Thus far the iris may be ule-
ful in accommodating the eye to different diftances ; it may
ed the quantity of light, but it cannot alter the di-

on. In quiefcent vifion, the pupil preferves its diame-

Vou. XIV.

ter with fteadinefs, when the proportion of tight neceffary to
be admitted is once determined. By its contraétion, when a
nearer objet is viewed, it leflens the confufion which would
arife, in feb eyes as cannot accommodate themfelves fufit-
ciently by powers hereafter to be examined, from the mag-
nituce of the imperfeét focal points on the retina.

Some infzétion of the rays may hare place in paffing the
edge of the pupil; but its great mobility, the wix
the openiag, and its very {mall diftance from the chryf
prevent any apparent confufion. Where from any caufe
the opening is very narrow, and the iris has but little
motion, a confufion may certainly take place from this
caufe.

The alterations of the pupitaccommodate the eye to v:
ous flates of difeafe, by regulating the quastity of light.
When a great number of rays would eccafion p2in in.an
inflamed organ, the contraétion of the eperture excludes
the light; while a proportionate enlargement of the pupil
provides againit the inconveniences of diminifhed fenfibility,
by admitting the greateft quantity of rays.

As the chryttalline lens diminifhes in denfity gradually in
every direGtion, approaching the vitreous humour on one fide,
and the aqueous on the other, Mr. Ramfden fuppofes that
its refractive power muft be the fame with that of the two
contiguous fubftances. Its principal ufe appeared to him
to be that of correcting the aberration arifing from the
{pherical figure of the cornea, where the principal part of
the refraction takes place. From the conftitution of the
chryftalline he inferred, that it will refraét the rays of light
without refle¢iing any of them ; fo that, although we have
two furfaces of the aqueous, two of the chryitalline, and
two of the vitreous humour, we have only one reflected
image, and that being from the front of the cornea, there
can be no furface to refle& it back, and dilute the image
on the retina. If the furfaces of the chryttalline had been
abrupt, there muft have been a refle@ion at each, and an
apparent hazinefs would have interfered with the diftin®
view of every luminous object. The {maller deafity of the
lateral parts will not only correét the aberration of the
{pherical furface of the cornea, but will canfe alfo the focus
of each oblique pencil of rays to fall either accurately, or
very nearly fo, on the concave furface of the retina, through-
out its extent. Had the refra@tive power been uniform
throughout the whole fubitance of the lens, it might have
collected the lateral rays of a dire& pencil nearly as well,
bat it would have been lefs adapted to the oblique pencils
of rays. Alfo, the gradual! increafe of denfity in approach-
ing the centre makes the chryftalline equivalent to a much
more refractive fubltance of equal magaitude.

The principal ufe of the vitreous humour appears to be
that of giving a ready paflage to the rays of light, as they
are converging into foci on the retina, and of keeping at
the fame time the furface of the latter uniformly {pherical.
It would allow a change of figure in the eye, or in the lens,
or even a change of place in the latter, fuppofing there
were powers in the living organ adequate to the purpofe.

Some have conceived that the retina is not equally fenfible
in all parts, and that a certain portion only, near the axis of
the eye, is capable of conveying diftin@ impreffions of
minute obje&ts. Comparetti fays that diltinct vifion is
effeéted only in the optic axis, which is moved mott rapidly
over every point of the object ; and that what is feen appa-
rently out of the axis is caufed by the direétion of the firit
impreffion in the axis. We believe, however, that the
limits of diftin vifion are far more extenfive. Dr. Young,
{peaking of his own eye, fays, that the vifual axis being
fixed in any direGtion, he can fee at the fame time a lumi-

: nous

Pry

I YE;

nous objeé&t placed at confiderable difeances from it; the
angle, however, differs. Upwards it extends to 50 degrees,
inwards to 6c, downwards to 70, and outwards to 99
degrees. Thefe internal limits of the field of view nearly
correfpond with the external limits tormed by the different
parts of the face, when the eye is directed forwards and
fomewhat downwards, which 1s its moft natural pofition ;
and both are well calculated for enabling ws to perceive the
moft readily fuch objects as are the molt likely to concern
us. The extent of the retina is every way greater than the
limits of the field of view. The whole extent of perfect
vifion is little more than ten degrees; or, more ftrictly
fpeaking, the imperfection begins within a degree or two
of the vifual axis, and at the diftance of five or fix degrees
becomes nearly flationary, until, at a flill greater diftance,
vifion is wholly extinguifhed. ‘The imperfection may be
owing partly to the unavoidable aberration of oblique rays,
but principally to the infenfibility of the retina ; for, if the
image of the fun itfelf be received on a part of the retina
remote from the axis, the impreffion will not be fufficiently
flrong to form a permanent {pectrum, although an object
of very moderate brightnefs will produce this effect, when
diftinéily viewed. The motion of the eye has a range of
about 55 degrees in every direction, fo that the field of
perfe& vifion, in fucceflion, is by this motion extended to
110 degrees.
It appears from fome experiments of Haldat’s, made by
roducing an artificial ftrabifmus, that the opinion, which
janes the pofition in which an image can be feen diftinéily
to a point at the bottom of the eye, is by no means recon-
cileable with aGtual obfervation. For, in an artificial ftrabil-
mus, one of the impreflions falling on a part without the
vifual axis, ought not to produce any perception of the
objet; this we know not to be the cafe. From this fat alone
we may conclude that the place of the image is not necefla-
rily confined to the axis, but that many points of the furface
ef the retina are capable of conveying an impreffion of it.
As the angle is increafed, the perfection of the image may
be leffened ; but we do not lofe the perception of it until
its pofition is fuch, that none of the rays proceeding from
it directly can be brought to converge on the potterior
hemifphere of the globe. This would appear to conform
alfo with our ideas of the nfe of the extent of the retina, for
which, if the field of vifion was fo extremely limited, we
could affign no reafon, The points of it, at a diftance from
the axis, may be lefs favourably difpofed, but are not per-
haps lefs fufceptible of being aflefted. “ The whole of the
retina is of fuch a form as to receive the moft perfect image
on every part of its furface, that the {tate of each refraéted
pencil will admit ; and the varying denfity of the chryital-
line renders that flate more capable of delineating fuch a
picture than any other ima le contrivance could have
done.”? To illuftrate this, Dr. Young has given an ex-
cellent diagram, reprefenting tke7fucceflive images of a
diftant obje@ filing the whole extent of view, as they
would be formed by the fucceffive refraGions of the dif-
ferent furfaces. In oppofition to the obfervations given
above refpe€ting the decreafing fenfibility of the retina
semarked by Dr. Young, it has been obferved by others, that,
on comparing the impreffions produced by rays parallel to
the optic ax:s with thofe by rays much inclined to this axis,
they have appeared to differ in intenfity only in a degree
correfponding to the diminution in the extent of the opening
of the pupil, produced by the obliquity of its plane to the
luminous rays, and by the obliquity of the rays themfelves
to the refraGting fubftances through which they pafs. At
the moil, the difference of the clearnefs of the impreflion

is not fuch as it would be, if it depended on a diminution
of the fenfibility of the retina, proportionate to its diftance
from the optic axis. Notwith{tanding the influence of the
caufes juit mentioned, the light of a candle pafliag into
both eyes, when their axes are artificially inclined, fo
that the images make angles of 15 to 25 degrees with the
optic axis, fuffers no apparent diminution of brightnefs..
This faé& certainly gives-to the field of diftin& vifion a
more confiderable extent than that ufually affigned it.
The point of the retina, which correfponds to the optic axis,
may poffibly be the place of mot perfe& vifion ; not becaufe
it is endowed with a greater fenfibility than other parts of
the retina, but from its being in the exa@t focus of the re-
fractive powers of the eye, and the only point where the
image can be imprefled with every perfeétion.

In confidering the fenfibility of the retina, the effets of
the pigmentum muft not be overlooked. In the kuman
fubjet the pigment varies in colour ; but is always more or
lefs dark. In animals, where the pigmentum is more than
of one colour in the fame eye, the lighter portion is always-
placed at the bottom of the eye, including the entrance of
the optic nerve in its fweep; the colour varies in different
animals, but has always a brilliant furface. Probably the
light has.a greater effect on the retina, in eyes which have
a white pigmentum, than in fuch as poflefs a dark one.
Hence all animals fee more or lefs diftinétly in the dark, ac-
cording as their lucid tapetum approaches nearer to a white
or black colour. Man, in whom it is dark, fees very im-
perfectly in a light where a cat, or dog, would perceive
objects with tolerable clearnefs. We may obferve, that
when either of the latter look at us in the dark, the whole
pupil is enlarged and illuminated ; but in a full light there
is no fuch appearance. Here there mutt be a reflection of
light from the bottom of the eye to produce the effeét ;
and the reflected light is always of the bat colour with the
tapetum. Thofe individuals of our fpecies who have a
light pigmentum, fee much better with lefs light tian
thofe who have it dark. Inthe Albino, where the colour-
ing matter is exceedingly thin, or wholly deficient, the
common day-light is far too powerful to admit of difting&
vifion. When he attempts to examine the qualities of an
object with precifion, the eye-brows are knit, and the eye-
lids kept almoft fhut. In the twilight he can fee more
plainly, as the luminous rays are then not too intenfe for
the very fenfible retina. The ferret is deftined, from its
mode of life, to fee in dark places ; and its pigmentum is
naturally white,

The rays which pafs through the tranfparent retina are
difpofed of according to the refleGting powers of the pig-
mentum. In man, who requires diftinét vifion in a mo-
derate light, rather than the power of feeing where light
is almoft wholly wanting, the pigmentum is dark, and the
rays are abforbed, and entirely loft; therefore, in fuch eyes,
it can add nothing to acutenefs of vifion, and a confiderable
quantity of light is required to produce an adequate im-
preffion on the retina. The rays are then loft in the pig-
mentum, and the accuracy of the image is no way impeded.
In animals, who require a great acutenefs of fight, the rays,
reflected from a light and brilliant furface, again imprefs
the retina, and increafe the power of vifion. ‘The iterval
of time is too fhort, and the diftance between the points
they may firike in their double paflage too minute, to occa-
fion any indiltinétnefs of the image. y

Diftin& vifion requires that the obje& fhould be fixed,
and not allowed to move over the furface of the retina.
To accomplifh this obje&t, the mufcies of the globe are
employed in the manner above defcribed. We-believe the

3 impreflion

'

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EY E;

impreffion made on the retina by the lumindus rays to be
in fome degree permanent, and the more fo as the light is
ftronger. The duration may vary probably from 1oodth
of a feeond to nearly a fecond. Hence the well-known
phenomenon of the circle of light in revolving a lighted
Hick. If the object is painfully bright, the fenfation is
more permanent, and vanifhes at laft gradually.

It is very difficult to afcertain the proportions of the eye
fo exaétly as to determine with certainty the magnitude
of the image on the retina, as the iituation, curvature,
and conititution of the lens.will make a very material dif-
ference in the refult. It is proportionate to the magnitude
and diftance of the objeé&, and is meafured by the angle
which each end of the object makes with the retina. The
more remote therefore the objeét, the fmaller the image,
a8 it is included in a {fmaller angle: when the diftance is fo
great as to put an end to diitin& vilion, we fuppofe the
angle on the retina to be too acute to convey any precife
idea of the fize of the objet. By alcertaining the leatl
poffible obje& that the eye is capable of difcerning, we
may thus form fome conjeéture as to the fmalleft poffible
image. The power varies no doubt in different individuals,
and has been varioufly eftimated. ‘Ihe eye of almott all
perfons can perceive diftinétly two points fubtending an
augle of a minute; in fome perfons it ean diftinguifh the
difference of obje@s fubtending an angle of 20 feconds. A
fingle objet, if bright, and at the proper diftance for dif-
tinct vifion, (about eight inches, ) may be difcerned, though
not fubtending an angle of two feconds and an half. Haller
fays even lefs than this. Jn the feétion of a gilded filver

thread, the gold may be diftinguifhed from the filver, when ~

not exceeding yy5~4755,dth of a line in thicknefs. Ac-
cording to the rule above-mentioned, the image of dif-
tinction in this cafe muft form on the retina a point almoft
incalculably fmall, and yet fuch is the fenfibility of the
latter, that the difference of the objects is scoatels deter-
minable. This far exceeds the common opinions concern-
ing the powers of the eye in difcerning minute objects.
Experimeut has flewn that there exilts in the retina an
infenfible {pot, about an inch in diameter; if the image
falls on this, no perception is produced, Two pieces of
white paper are fixed on a wall fomewhat darkened, about
level with the eyes, two feet diltant from each other, the
left eye is then thut, and the right eye directed upon the
left objet; if the obferver moves flowly backwards, the
object, although four inches in diameter, will difappear at
the diftance of nine or ten feet. The experiment may be
made more fimply with the two thumbs, er two candles.
The latter are as, fay at ten inches from each other; at
a diflance of 16 feet, if the eye is directed to a point four
feet to the right or left of the middle of the {pace between
them, they are loft in a confufed {pot of light; but any
inclination of the eye brings one or other of them into the

‘field of view. The objeé is fuppofed to vanifh, or become .

obicure, when it falls directly on the {pot occupied by the
entrance of the optic nerve. Different experimenters have
varied in their eftimate of the diameter of the infenfible
{pot, from the fortieth part of an inch, to a seventh part
of the diameter of the Bulb ; the firlt we believe to be too
fmall, the daft certainly too great. Since the difcovery of
the central foramen in the retina, a que{tion has been ftarted,
whether the want of the retina at this {pot does not account
more fatisfaétorily for the vanifhing of the obje&, than any
fuppofed infenfibility at the entrance of the optic nerve?
The anfwer is, that the fituation of this foramen in the
retina does not correfpond with the part oppofed to the
objeét, when rendered inyifible ; and chat the entrance of

the optic nerve ag found to be precifely in the part oppofed-
The orifice itfelf is placed juft at the end of the vifual axis,
and muit, we fhould conceive, have fome material office at-
tached to it, and have a confiderable effe€t on vifion. The
faturation of the yellow ring around it appears by obferva-
tion to be conneéted with the acutenefs of the organ. Mr.
Home fays, ‘it is probably too {mall to produce any defe&
in vifion :” that it produces no defect we readily admit,
but that it is too {mall to influence vifion, 1s not, we think,
at all probable. Its ufe has not been as yet afcertained.
Blumenbach advances the following conjecture on this point.
Man, and fuch animals as have the two eyes placed with
the axis parallel, thereby gain the advantage of feeing ob-
jects with both eyes at once, and therefore more acutely.
But at the fame time they are expofed to this inconvenience,
that in a ftrong light both eyes become dazzled at onceg
and this happens fo much the fooner, becaufe the light falls
on the correfponding principal focufes of both eyes at
once. ‘This inconvenience ieems to be obviated by the
foramen centrale ; fince that part which forms the princi-

. pal focus of the eye opens in a dazzling light, fo as to form

a kind of {mall pupil, through which the concentrated rays
pafs, and fall on the pigmentum beneath.

Since the images are pictured inverted on the retina,
many difputes have arifen as to the caufe of our perceiving
the objects ereét. If it be allowed that we judge of the
fituation of each luminous point by the direction of the
rays it tranfmits, it follows, that we muft fee bodies as we
really do fee them, in their proper pofition. The opinion
that we really fee objects reverfed, and correct the fenfation
by experience and jucgment, derived from the other fenfes,
is liable to very numerous objections. The chick juit
hatched knows where to direct its bill; and perfons born
blind, who have fuddenly gained their fight, fee objeéts in
their proper pofition. We do not fee the picture on the
retina, but the object itfelf in the dire@tion of each of the
rays which conveys to us the fenfation, or, to fpeak more
correétly, in the direétion of the axis of that pyramid,
which a pencil of divergent rays forms in proceeding from
any point of an object to the eye. Berkeley explains the
f{uppofed difficulty in another way ; he does not allow that
we can eftimate the fituation of parts or objeéts by the
decuffation and direction of the rays of light, as the mind
neither perceives the interfections of the radious pencils,
nor purfues the impulfes they give in right lines: without
perceiving them it cannot form a judgment, and it cannot
perceive them without a confciouinefs of fuch perception.
The fituation of vifible obje&ts muit be entirely relative,
and depend on the place which they occupy with regard to
each other. And as all vifible objects are inverted at the
fame initant, each will be in the fame relative fituation on
the retina as it isin aQyally. Thus the terms of above and
below are arbitrary expreffions, by which it is agreed to
call upper, what correlponds to the heavens, and lower,
what correfponds to the earth. Now it is evident, that at
the bottom of the eye the fituation of thefe is inverted,
the earth is above, and the heavens below. We call that
the lower end of an obje& which-is neareft the ground;
and the image of a man’s feet, being in conta& with the
image of the earth on the retina, we naturally infer thet
they are in contaét with the actual earth; the head being
more remote from the earth, we {uppofe that it is higher.
The confufion has arifen from mixing the ideas derived
from the different fenfations of fight and tonch. You fay,
(to ufe the words of Dr. Berkeley,) the picture of the
man is inverted, and yet the appearance is ere&t. I aik
you what mean you by eee of the man, or, which

2 is

BY! Et

isthe fame thing, the vifible man’s being inverted? You
tell me, it is inverted becaufe the heels are uppermoft, and
the head undermoft. Explain me this: you fay, that by
the head being undermoft, you mean that it is neareft to
the earth; and by the heels being uppermoft, that they
are fartheft from the earth. I afk again, what earth you
mean? You cannot mean the earth that is painted on the
eye, orthe vifible earth; for the picture of the head is
fartheft from the pi€ture of the earth, and the picture of
the feet neareft to the piture of the earth ; and accord-
ingly the vifible head is fartheft from the vifible earth,
and the viftble feet neareft to it. Ut remains therefore that
you mean the tangible earth, and fo determine the fituation
of vifible things with refpe&t to tangible things, which is
abfurd, and perfetly unintelligible. The two diftin@ pro-
vinees of fight and touch fhould be confidered apart, and as
if their objets had no intercourfe, no manner of relation
to one another, in point ef diftance or pofition.

Two diltin& images are painted, one upon each eye, and
yet we only perceive a fingle object. Many very different
explanations have been given of this phenomenon; the moft
fatisfactory is, that in the two eyes there are correfponding
parts of the retin which are probably fufceptible of the
fame impreflion in equal degree, and convey it to the fenfo-
rium in that equal degree: hence, as long as fimilar points
of the images fall upon the correfponding points of the re-
tine, the perception of the fame object is fingle. Itis dou.
ble for the fame reafon whenever the difpofition of the vi-
fual axes is deranged. Every objeét which produces two
diftinG images on the retinz is neceflarily placed at the point
of interfeCtion of the optical, or vifual axes, and is painted
confequently on correfponding points of the retine. By
an artificial preffure on one of the eyes we may fo dif-
place its vifual axis, or point of moft perfeé vifion, that the
two Images fhall not fall on thole parts of the retine of the
two eyes ufually impreffed fmultaneoufly ; a double image
is the confequence. The optical axes are fo nearly parallel
to each other, that they naturally meet at a great diftance:
but, in order to preferve the fimplicity of the perception,
when we look at an obje@ brought nearer to us, we make
them converge towards it by means of the external mufeles
of the eye, which is further adjufted to the decreafing dif-
tance by fome other of its powers, fo as to convey a fingle
and diftiné&t image of the objeét. This opinion is con-
firmed by fome obfervations of Mr. Home’s on double
vilion as the confequence of a want of correfpondence,
produced by fome change in the refraéting media of one of
the eyes, or elfe by a want of fimilar aGtions in the mufcles
of both eyes refpeétively. The former takes place after the
chryttalline lens has been extracted, and the convex lens made
ufe of to produce the requifite focal adjuftment is not pro-
perly placed. Yet, when objeéts are in rapid motion, or
when brought very much nearer to the eye than the point of
diftin& vifion, may not the impreffions be made on points not
exatly fymmetrical, or in the vifual axis, without producing
double vifion? It appears from experiments that it is not
abfolutely neceflary that objects fhould fall on the vifual
axis in order to produce fingle vifion, but that there are many
points at different diftances from the axis on which, if the
images fall, they will appear but as one. In the tranverfe
plane the optical axes muft be much inclined (about 15
degrees), in order to produce a double image ; in the ver-
tical, a very flight inclination is fufficient to caufe it. It is
inferred from thefe experiments, that the limits of the field
of fingle vifion, or of the area of the points of correfpondence,
will form an ellipfe, of which the long axis correfponds to
the tranfverfe axis of the globe, and the fhort to the verti

cal axis: the firft of thefe is about three lines and a
half in length, the laft fearcely one. It has been a matter
of doubt, how far the judgment is concerned in the per-
ception of the fingle image. Obje&ts appear fingle, it is
faid, although there is a double image, becaufe the touch
which correéts the impreffion produced by vifion teaches us
that the fame objeG&t we fee double is aétually fingle. Ex-
perience and cuftom have fo well eftablifhed our judgment,
formed from thefe two fenfations, that we cannot derange
it by the will. An argument againit this is, that in cafes
where perfons born blind have obtained their fight, the ob-
ject is at once feen fingle.

As double vifion is produced by a moderate derange-
ment of the optic axes, fquinting is produded by a much
greater derangement. It does not follow that the fquinting
perfon fees every obje& double, for the apparent improper
direGtion of the eye may be owing to the unufual fituation
of the parts of the eye, fo that the image may yet fall
en correfponding parts of the retine. The more probable
explanation is, that the object is not feen by both eyes ; but
that one eye, more or lefs perfeét, is direCted to the object ;
while the other, which in fuch cafes isimperfect,is drawnafide
by habit, in order that its operation may not difturb the im-
prefiion received by the other eye. The greater ftrength,
fhortnefs, and ftraightnefs of the reétus internus mufcle, may
be the reafon that the deviation 1s made towards the nofe.
Squinting takes place in three different circumftances ; when
one eye has only an indiftin® vifion; where both eyes are
capable of feeing objects, but the one is lefs perfect than the
other; and where the mufcles of one eye have, from practice,
as in the cafe of frequently looking through telefcopes, ac-
quired a power of moving it independently of the other.

The fuperiority of vifion with one eye over that with two
has been the fubje&t of many difcuflions. It is commonly
fuppofed that the firft produces the moft diltiné& per-
ception; the opinion, however, is not correét. If we
place a fheet of white paper directly before the eyes, and
bring any opaque body, a book for inftance, before the right
eye, fo that half the paper is concealed from it, while the
whole is vifible to the left; on regarding the furface
alternately with one, or both eyes, we may obferve diftin@tly
that the part vifible to both eyes is brighter and clearer
than that which is vifible only to the left: the firft is
of its ufual whitenefs, the laft is obf{cured by a flight fhade.
The fuperiority of telefcopes with two eye glaffes, over
thofe with one, is univerfally acknowledged. In vifion, with
two eyes, therefore, we believe the impreflion to be ftronger,
the fenfation more vivid, and the perception clearer; not
doubly fo as the impreffion is, becaufe we can with difficulty
diftinguifh coincident fimilar impreflions. Ifwe look at any
obje& through fluids of two different colours placed one
before each eye, the obje& will appear of the colour refult-
ing from the mechanical mixture of the two employed. If
the colours were yellow and red, the perception would be
as from orange, &c.3 proving that a double impreffion
produces in this cafe a compound or mixed fenfation, from
which a fimple perception arifes. “There are many other
phenomena attendant on the feparate vifion of different
objects producing different combinations of them, which
our limits will not allow us to difcufs. The reader
will find this fubje&t very amply confidered by Dr.
Haldat in the Journal de Phyfique, t. 63, and illuftrated
by numerous apparently accurate experiments. The con-
clufion to be drawn from them is, that in many cireumftances
vifion with both eyes will produce a fimple perception, an
apparent combination of objeéts varying in colour and form
when they are viewed ieparately by each eye, And that

4 objects

By Vos

ebje&s are not increafed in their apparent dimenfions. when
feen wita both eyes, although their brightnefs is rendered
more intenfe under the fame circumftances.

The image of the obje& is fuppofed to be painted on the
retina, free from any prifmatic colours produced by the dif-
ferent refrangibility of the rays, which might render it con-
fufed. The tranipareat parts of the eye are fo difpofed as
to correét the aberration of the vifual rays, and to prevent
their final difperfion. Thefe effects are principally effected
by the curvatures and conttitution of the chryttalline already
infifted on, which produce the fame effet that in an achro-
matic obje@ glafs we obtain in a lefs perfect manner, by
proportioning the radii of curvature of different lenfes. In
the eye it has been generally fuppofed that the correétion is
perfect, the regular diminution of the dentity of the chryt{tal-
line, redreffing the errors caufed by the cornea and aqueous
humour. The perfe€tion of the achromatic powers of the
eye has been called in queftion by many able men, efpecially
in confequence of experiments related by Mafkelyne,
Comparetti, and Dr. Young. Dr. Maflkelyne, by calculat-
ing the refra€tions of the mean, moft, and leaft refrangible
rays at the feveral humours of the eye, inferred a diffufion
of the rays, proceeding from a point in an object, at their
falling on the retina. The circle of diffipation, however,
would be too fmall to occafion any confufion ; and he fhews
that the picture of objects on the retina is relatively, if not
abfolutely, perfect, and fitted for every ufeful purpofe.

The experiments and obfervations of Comparetti are inge-
nious ; he fuppofes that the chryttalline leus cannot, under
all circumftances, correé the difperfion of the rays, although
he conceives it to be fufceptible of certain alterations of
pofition direéted folely to that purpofe. His experiments
are too numerous, and complicated to be introduced here in
any fhape. He proves, perhaps, a flicht imperfection, under
certain circumitances. Dr. Young does not think that the
ftructure of the chryftalline, or any other provifion, has the
effet of rendering the eye perfeily achromatic. He adduces
the colour bordering the image of an objeét-feen indiftin@ly ;
the colours perceived on viewing an object through {mall
openings, fuch as thofe of his optometer; and the follow-
ing experiment mentioned by Dr. Wollatton. He looks
through a prifm at a fmall lucid point, which of courfe
becomes a linear fpeGtrum. But the eye cannot fo adapt
itfelf as to make the whole fpeCtrum appear a line ; for if
the focus be adapted to collet the red rays to a point, the
blue will be too much refraéted, and expand into a furface ;
and the reverfe will appear if the eye be adapted to the blue
rays; fo that in either cafe the line will be feen as a
triangular {pace. He concludes alfo by another experiment,
that the red rays, from a point of twelve inches diftance, are
as much refracted as white or yellow light, at eleven. The
inference is, that the eye is not capable of uniting at the
fame point all the elementary colours of light. Thefe
obfervations have been examined with much ingenuity by
Haldat, who draws from them arguments highly in favour
of the achromatic powers of the eye. The flight appearances
of the decompofition of light at the edges of minute bodies
are not owing to any inequality in the refractive powers of
the eye on the different rays ; but to the attraction which
thefe bodies have for the luminous rays, which {trike on
their furfaces, after being reflected from the plane on which
thefe {mall bodies are placed. When placed on a black
wall, or table, no reflection takes place, and no colours are
vifible at their edges. It is evident, that if differently
coloured rays are unequally refracted by the eye. {pots
of different colours fhould produce penumbre of unequal
extents, proportionate to the refrangibility of the rays they

may refle&t. But circular pieces of card, equal in fize, and
about a line and a half in diameter, painted red, yellow,
blue, green, viewed on black, or white walls, at equal dif-
tances, and at the fame time, offer penumbrz of equal extents.
The colour obferved on viewing objects through the optome-
ter is caufed by the luminous rays, by which we perceive
them, being neceffarily ated on by the narrow opening
through which they pals; and no further decompofition of the
light takes place than can be readily accounted for by prin-
ciples well eftablithed in optics. If this were not the cafe,
why fhould the eye be fuppofed to decompofe rays which
come through narrow apertures, and not thofe which arrive
without any external obftacle to theirnatural radiation. In
bodies feen indiflinétly, the rays which glance on their mar-
gins are decompofed ; and this difperfion, not vifible at a dif-
tance from the mixture with the undecompounded rays which
are in the greateft number, is plainly feen when the object
is brought clofe, becaufe they arrive at the retina almoft
without any intermixture. The colours, therefore, feen
at the edges of fuch bodies, do not arife from any fup-
pofed imperfection in the refractive powers of the eye,
when the object is brought clofe to it. In order to draw a
conclufion that the humours of the eye are not achromatic,
luminous rays fhould be brought to bear on them, fuch as
they are when radiating from a luminous body, and without
undergoing any decompofition in their paflage from caufes
external to the eye; it fhould then be preved that they
undergo a decompoStion in pafling through the kumours,
and that this difperfion cannot be corrected. In the cafe
of the prifm, the feparated rays may appear to be refracted
unequally, becaufe the fpeCtrum is not linear in its whole
extent. But on account of this very extent, they arrive at
the tranfparent cornea with different inclinations, in unequal
proportions, aud impinge on a refraéting medium, the curva-
ture and denfity of which are uneqnal: we cannot therefore
expect an equal refraGiion. ‘The eyeis capable ot preferving
the natural mixture of the elemenzary rays which arrive at its
furface; its not having the power of recompoiing thofe rays,
which artificial external caufes have diffipated, is not fufficient
to induce us to conclude that its achromatic powers are not
perfe&t. The perfe&tion of the achromacy of the eye is
further proved, by there being no diminution whatever in
the diftinéinefs of the image, when, by an artificial dilatation
of the pupil, by means of belladonna, the anterior furface of
the chryitalline is almoft wholly expofed. Again, when
the greateft poffible inclination has been given to the raySy
no colour is perceptible.

The luminous rays, which arrive at the eye from an ob-
ject at fome little diftance, will unite into a focus at a cer-
tain diftance behind the chryftalline lens. Rays, which
pafs from an object clofer to the eye, as they diver
confiderably, will unite into a focal point at a greater
tance behind the chrytftalline, and indiftin vilion woulc
the neceflary confequence, if the eye had not the power either
of elongating its axis, or fhortening its focal diftance; fo tha
in thefe very oppofite conditions the rays fhould converge
equally into a point on the retina, This power of adjult-
ment to diftance is one of the moft important to the per-
fetion of the organ, and has excited the attention of every
writer on the mechanifm of vifion; all allowing that fome
change muft be produced, but few agreeing as to its na-
ture or mode. The fubje& has been particularly agitated in
this country, and has called forth many excellent obferva-
tions on the mechanifm of vilion, which, if they have
not finally proved the means by which the accommodation
is brought about, have, at leaft, proved the fallacy of
moft of the theories adopted to account for it, To us,

-
t.

EY, Ey

Dr. Young’s opinion, of the change of the focal dittance
b;~fome alteration in figure of the chryftalline, appears the
mott fatisfactory, and fupported by the mott decilive proofs t
the manner in which this alteration is effected, is a point
not perhaps as yet demonftrated, however conclufive the ar-
guments may be in favour of fuch alteration actually
occurring, There isa certain point at different diflances
in different perfens, from which luminous rays, pafling
to the eye, will be brought to a focal point on the
retina, without any apparent exertion of any part of the
organ. This is called the point of perfect indolent vifion.
In perfons who are near-fighted, or in whom this point is
pretty clofe to the eye, owing to the too great refractive
powers of the organ, the rays from objects at a moderate
diftance are brought toa focus at a point anterio: to the
furface of the retina. In fuch cafes the divergence of the
rays is increafed, by means of a concave lens, and a confu-
fion of the image is prevented. In thofe who are long
fighted, where this point is at a greater diftance, the rays
from near objeéts cannot be brought to focal points foon
enough to imprefs a diftinct image, and the defect depends
on caufes the converfe of thofe which produce the myopic
or near-fighted eye. It is remedied by a convex lens,
We poflefs, however, in the perfect eye, the power of fee-
ing diftinétly objects much nearer to the eye than this
fuppofed point of diftinG vifion; and this exilts in very
different degrees in different individuals, It is equally true,
onthe other fide, that we cannot, by any volition, accom-
modate the eye to view objeéts at a diltance greater than
that of indolent vifion, a circumftance eafily experienced by
any one. Jn the year 1793 Dr. Young made fome obferva-
tions on the ftruCture of the eye, and its provifions for ad-
juftment, among which are accounts of the theories of adjuit-
ment, propofed by various earlier writers. Of thefe we
fhall fay nothing, as a reference to the anatomical defcrip-
tion of the eye, and other remarks already detailed, would
at once refute the greater part ofthem. It was the opinion
of Dr. Young that rays of light, pafling from objects at a
{mall diftance, could only be brought to foci on the retina
by a nearer approach of the chryitalline to a {pberical form:
this change, he believed, was effeGted by the mufcularity of
the lens. In the following year, fome obfervations of John
Hunter on this fubje& were publifhed by Mr. Home,
from which it appears, that he had for many years enter-
tained a notion, that the chryttalline humour was enabled, by
its own internal ations, to adjuftitfelf, fo as to adapt the
eye to different diftances. Mr. Hunter had inftituted fome
experiments, but died before he had made fufficient progrefs
to draw any conclufion. Inthe fame year, Dr. Hofack, in
a paper ofvifion, controverts Dr. Young’s deductions with
regard to the mufcularity of the lens, and attributes the ef-
fects produced in adjuftment to the aGious of the mufcles.
He aflumes, as the neceffary confequence of contraétion in
thefe mufcles, that the axis of the eye will be elongated,
and the elattic cornea rendered more convex ; both which
circumftances would tend to preferve diftinétnefs of vifion
with regard to near obje&ts. In order to prove that the eye
is capable of having its focal adjuftment confiderably varied
by external preffure, he applied the common {peculum to
his own eye, and by increaling the preffure of it confider-
ably, was enabled to fee objects diftinGly, though placed
much nearer than the natural focal diftance. ‘The means,
here made ufe of to afcertain the fact do not appear to us
very accurate. In the Croonian lecture for 1795, Mr.
Home relates a feries of experiments and obfervations made
by himfelf and Mr. Ramfden, from which he concludes,
that the eye has a power of adjufting itfelf to different dif

tances, when deprived of the chryftalline lens; and that,
therefore, the fuppofed fibrous, and laminated ftru€ture of
that lens, is not mtended to alter its ferm, but to prevent
refletionsin the paflage of the rays through the furfaces of
media of different denfities, and to corre&t fpherical aberra-
tions ; that the cornea is elaftic, capable of being elongated
;{,th of its diameter ; that the tendons of the fiat ftraight
mufcles terminate in forming a lamina of the cornea; and,
that in changing the focus of the eye from feeing with pa-
rallel rays to a near diftance, there is a vilible alteration pro-
duced in the figure of the cornea, rendering it more convex ;
and when the eye is again adapted to parallel rays, the alte-
ration by which the cornea is brought back to its former
{late is equally vifible. The exertion required to adjuft
the-eye to near diftances, and the eafe with which it is
adapted to remote objects, proves that the firft wasa pofi-
tive action, and the feconda relief. The defec& of elafticity
in the cornea, inferred to arife from age, is applied to explain
the changes of vifion which take place in advanced life. By
fome further experiments Mr. Ramfden and Mr. Home were
induced to abandon the opinion that the adjuftment is pro-
duced folely by the alteration’ of the convexity of the cornea,
which might probably be fufficient when the lens was re-
moved, but not when the eye is entire. Mr. Home aflumes
that the action of the ftraight mufcles will clongate alfo the
axis of the eye, and produce an effe€ upon the chryftalline
lens, and ciliary procefles, pufhing them forward in propor-
tion as the corsea is ftretched. Granting thefe two laft
changes, Mr. Ramfden computed that the increafe of the
curvature of the cornea may be capable of producing one-
third of the effeet, and that the change of place of the lens,
and elongation of the axis of vilion, foticietly account for
the other two-thirds of the quantity of adjuflment neceflary
to make up the whole. We mutt here obferve, that it is not
yet demonilrated that the aétions of the ftraight mufeles can
produce the effe& afcribed to them. They have been fup-
pofed by others to flatten the eye, and fhorten its axis,
upon arguments equally plaufible. We believe they have
but little effet, except that of direGting the axis of the eye
to the objeét, and doubt if they can exert any preflure on
the globe. Neither is it afcertained what effeét fuch pref.
fure would have in elongating the axis, pufhing forwards the
lens, or increafing the curvature of the cornea. ‘The opinion
that the chryftalline lens is moved forward by the action of
the ciliary proceffes, is equally gratuitous. In the yea
1800 was publifhed an excellent paper by Dr. Young, on
the mechanifm of the eye, in which he examines, with great
acutenefs and accuracy, the different opinions on this fub-
ject. It is impoffible to give an abftra& of his obfervations
in the compals of this article; we muft refer the reader to
the paper itfelf, for the detail of all the proofs by which
he endeayours to eftablifh his opinion of au alteration in the
figure of the chryftalline, and give here only the general
conclufions drawn from his inveftigations. “¢ The arguments
in favour of an increafe of the convexity of the chryiftaliine
lens are of two kinds; fome of them are negative, derived
from the impoffibility of imagining any other mode of per-
forming the accommodation, without exceeding the limits
of the aGtual dimenfions of the eye, and trom the examina-
tion of the eye inits different ftates by feveral tefts, capable
of deteGing any other changes if they had exifted: forex-
ample, by the application of water to the cornea, which
completely removes the effects of its convexity, without im-
pairing the power of altering the focus, and by holding the
eye, when turned inwatds, in fuch a manner as to render
any material alteration of its length utterly impoffible.
Other arguments are deduced from pofitive evidence of the
change

¥

! ee i 2p

change of form of the chryftalline, furnifhed by the parti-
cular effeéts of refraction and aberration, which are obfer-
vable in the different {tates of the eye ; effects which furnilh
a direét preof that the figure of the lens mutt vary 5 its fur-
faces, which are nearly fpherical, in the quicfcent form
of the lens, afluminga different determinable curvature,
when it is called into exertion. The objeétions which have
been made to this conclufion are founded only on the ap-
pearance ofa flight alteration of focal length in an eye from
which the chryftalline had been extracted; but the fact is
neither fufficiently afcertained, nor was the apparent change
at all confiderable : and even if it were proved that an eye
without the lene is capable of a certain {mall alteration, it
would by no means follow that it could undergo a change,
five times, or ten times as great.’

The means whereby ye are enabled, by fight, to deter-
mine the diftance, maguitude, and fituation of objects have
not been fufficiently explained to allow us to fpezk with
confidence. It is acknowledged that the eftimate we make
of the diftance of objects confiderably remote, is rather an
act of judgment grounded on experience than of fenfe.
When we perceive a great number of intermediate objects,
which we have experienced to take up a confiderable {pace,
we conclude that the object we fee beyond them is at a
great diflance. When an objeét appears faint and fmall,
which at a near diltance we have experienced to make a
ftrong and large appearance, we conclude it alfo to be far off.
Tt is f{uppofed by fome that when an object is fo near that
the interval between the eyes bears any fenfible proportion
to it, the two optic axes meeting at the object, make a fen-
fible angle, by means of which, according as it is greater or
{maller, the objet is perceived to be nearer or further off.
This does not depend on judgment formed from experience,
but refults from a fuppofed neceffary conneétion between
the idea of an obtufe angle and a near diftance, and an acute
angle and a farther diftance. There is another way men-
tioned by others, by which we are faid to perceive diftances
when we look only with oneeye. And that is, the greater
or lefs divergency of the rays which fall on the eye, that
point being judged neareft which is feen by the mott di-
verging rays, the apparent diftance increaling as the di-
vergency of the rays decreafes, until the diftance is {o great
that the rays which fall on the eye are to fenfe parallel.
This mode of judging is not derived from experience, but
from the difference of angular impreflions made by diverging
and nearly parallel rays; it being a certain neceilary truth,
that the nearer the direct rays falling on the eye approach
to parallelifm, the farther off is their point of interfe¢tion, or
the vifible point from which they flow. Such are the com-
Mion opinions concerning our perceiving diftances by fight.
Thofe which make no allowance for the interference of
detent formed by experience, appear to us inadmiffible.

ith qll the advantages derived from experience, our judg-

ment of diflances is {ill imperfe&t, owing to the deceptions -

arifing from the apparent magnitude compared with the real,
from the uncertainty attending the intentity of the colours,
the appearance of the minute parts of the object, and its
relative fituation with regard to others. Thefe are the prin-
cipal means of direGting our judgment, and if they be im-
perfect, or any of them deficient, an error in judgment will
be the probable confequence. If we judged of diftance by
magnitude only, we fhould be led into numerous errors; it
is by confidermg the other qualities of the object, and its
fituation with regard to others, that we are led to forma
correct judgment as to its real diftance. We know that a
man equal to us in fize, appears {mallera hundred yards off,
and fmaller {till at five hundred, Here, being certain of the

real fize, we can make ufe of it with tolerable accuracy in
determining the diftance. We are deceived, when unac-
quainted with the real magnitude, we draw conclufions from
the apparent only. We know by experience that objects
become paler, and more indiftin@, in proportion as they are
remote. We know by a number of objets being interpofed
betaveen ourfelves and the objeé& to which we particularly
direct our attention, that the latter is at a certain diftance.
Hence diftances at fea appear much fhorter than on land. It
is only by combining the different fenfations, and the judg-
ments arifing from them, that we can form an opinion any-
wife correct. It is equally neceffary to have a recolleGion
of the diftance of an object, when forming a judzment of its
fize. It is poflible that we may judge of magnitude by the
vifual angle, or by the fize of the image on the retina. But
we mutt take into the account the conneétion between the
magnitude or extenfion of the vilible obje¢t, and the fize as
afcertained by the touch; the confufion or diftinétnefs of
the image ; the faintnefs or intenfity of the rays, and their
diveétion ; the figure, number, and fituation of objeéts ; and
other circumftances that have been obferved to attend
greater or fmaller tangible magnitudes. Experience is
equally required to aid our judgment ef magnitude as of
diftance. By fight we can diftinguifh the quantity, the co-
Tour, and the direGtion of the luminous rays which ftrike our
eye: it is yet a matter of doubt how far the fight alone can
convey ideas of magnitude or diftance. When judging from
vifible appearances only, we are liable to many deceptions,
which are extremely interefting, as they illuftrate the theo-
ries of our different fenfations ; and there are many other
circumftances, conneéted with the theory of vifion, which
will be better confidered under the different heads of phyfi-
cal optics.

The phenomenon of accidental colours, or ocular {peétra,
obferved long fince by Buffon, who gave an account of it in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Paris, has fince been con-
fidered at length by Dr. R. Darwin, and by many other
writers, When a perfon, after looking long and attentively
at a fmall bright obje&, removes his eyes, or clofes them,
an image is full vifible to him, refembling in form that which
he was attending to, but of a colour oppofite to the firft,
that is, of fuch a colour as would be produced by with-
drawing the firft from white light. Thus if a perfon look
ftedfaftly, and for a confiderable time, at a {mall red fquare
painted upon white paper, he will at laft obferve a kind of
green-coloured border furround the red fquare. If he now
turn his eyes to fome other part of the paper, he will fee an
imaginary {quare of a delicate green, bordering upon blue,
and correfponding exaétly in point of fize with the red
{quare. his imaginary fquare continues vilible for fome
time, and indeed does not difappear till the eye has viewed
fucceflively a number of new objects. To this imaginary
image the name of accidental colour was given by Buffon,
and ocular fpeétrum by Dr. Darwin. If the obje& be yel-
low, the fpeétrum is blue ; if green, red ; if blue, yellow ;
if white, black ; and if black, the accidental colour is white,
We may therefore fay, generally, that the reverfe fpectra
are fimilar to a colour formed by a combination of all the
primitive colours, except that with which the eye has been
fatigued in making the experiment. The theory deduced
from this remark is ingenious, and has much probability.
The afligned reafon of the oppofite appearance is, that the
portion of the retina that is affefted has loft a part of its
{enfibility to the light of that colour with which it has been
imprefled, and is more ftrongly affe&ed by the other con-
ftituent parts of the white light ; fo that if we then regard
a colour which admits in its compofition that which has

fatigued

Ex Er.

fatigued the eye, the latter will ceafe to be vifible. Dr.
Darwin divides ocular fpectra into four kinds: 1ft, fuch as
are owing to a lefs fenfibility of a defined part of the retina,
or fpe€tra, from defe& of fenfibility ; 2dly, fuch as are ow-
jng to a greater fenfibility of a defined part of the retina, or
f{pectra, from excefs of fenfibility ; 3dly, fuch as refemble
their obje& in colour as well as in form, or direé&t ocular
fpectra; and 4thly, fuch as are of a colour contrary to that
of their obje&, or reverfe ocular fpeétra. He believes the
retina to be in an ative ftate during the exiftence of thefe.
In the firft cafe, the retina is not fo eafily excited into aێtion
by lefs irritation, after having been lately fubjected to a
greater. Inthe fecond, the retina is more eafily excited
into action by greater irritation, after having been lately fub-
jected to lefs. In the third, a quantity of ftimulus, fome-
what greater than natural, excites the retina into fpa{modic
action, which ceafes ina few feconds, or which ceafes and
recurs alternately. In'the laft, the retina having been ex-
cited into aétion much greater than natural, falls into oppo-
fite {pafmodie aétion, or into various fucceffive fpafmodic
aétions, or into a fixed {pafmodic adtion, which continues for
fome days, or a temporary paralyfis is produced, the effects
mentioned being fucceflively proportionate to the increafed
timulus. He adds many mifcellaneous remarks on the fub-
je&t in quettion, which tend further to illuftrate the pheno-
mena by the contralt of the fenfations. Dr. Young thinks
that the phenomena of the dire@t {petra may be better un-
derftood from the analogy of coloured fhadows. There are
many inftances related of an imperfeétion in the fight refpeét-
ing colours, fome individuals being only able to tell black
from white; others miftaking orange for green ; others to
whom full greens and full reds appeared alike, while yellows
and dark blues were nicely diftingnifhed. This has been
afcribed to an infenfibility of the retina to particular colours.
There are many other imperfections of fight which are not
introduced here, as not immediately conne¢ted with the
theory of vifion.

The reader is referred for further information to a mott
excellent catalogue of authors in the fecond volume of Dr.
Young’s Natural Philofophy. The lift of references is too
Jong to be introduced here, and is too complete to permit us
to curtail it. The authors we have been principally indebted
to are Zinn, Haller, Hunter, Soemmerring, Cuvier, Home,
and, more particularly Young; to fome papers by Petit in
the Memoirs of the French Academy, and to fome papers
in the Gottingen Commentaries, by Wrifberg and Blumen-
bach. Zinn’s defcription of the eye, with the fupplement
of Wrifberg ; Soemmerring’s moft exquifite plates and his
explanations, with Haller’s rich collection of facts and refer-
ences to authors in the fifth volume of his Elementa Phyfio-
logiz, are particularly worth confulting. Portal, in_his
Tableau Chronologique d’ Anatomie, &c. tom. vi. has given
along and very full deferiptive catalogue of authors who
have written on the fubjeé of the eye, which contains much
information.

The comparative ftruture and enatomy of the eye are very
curious; the fituation, number, conformation, &c. of this
organ in different animals, being finely and wonderfully
adapted to their different circumftances, occafious, and
manners of living.

In maw, and fome other creatures, an ingenious author
obferves, the eye is placed chiefly to look forward; but
withal is fo ordered as to take in nearly the hemifphere be-
fore it. In birds, (See Birps) and fome other creatures,
the eyes are fo feated as to take in near a whole {phere, that
they may the better feek their food andefcape danger. In
others they are feated fo as to fee behind them, or on each

fide, whereby to fee the encmy purfuing them; thus, in
hares and conies, the eyes are very protuberant, and placed
fo much towards the fide of the head, that their two eyes
take in nearly a whole {phere ; whereas in dogs that purfue
them, the eyes are fet more forward in the head, to look
that way more than backward.

Generally, the head is contrived to turn this and that way
chiefly for the oceafions of the eyes ; and generally the eyes
themfelves are moveable upwards, downwards, backwards,
and fidewife, for the more commodious reception of the
vifual rays. Where nature deviates from thefe methods,
fhe always makes ule of very artful expedients to anfwer
the fame end.

Thus, in fome creatures, the eyes are fet out at a diftance
from the head, to be moved here and there, the one this
way, and the other that ; asin fails, particularly, whofe eyes
are contained in their four protuberances, like atramentous
fpots fitted to the ends of their horns, or rather to the ends
of thofe black filaments or optic nerves fheathed in the
horn. Power, Exper. Phil. Obf. 31.

And in other creatures, ‘whofe eyes or head are without
motion, and in divers infects, that defeét is fometimes made
up by their having more eyes than two; as in {piders,
which having no neck, and confequently the head being
immoveable, the defeét is fupplied by the fituation and mul-
tiplicity of their eyes; fome having four, fome fix, and
others eight, all placed in the fore-front of their head,
which is round like a locket of diamonds. The reafon
Dr. Power gives, is, that being to live by catching fo
nimble and fhy a prey as flies, they ought to fee every way,
and fo take them fer faltum, without any motion of the
head to difcover them.

Again, men, and moft quadrupeds, are found to have
feveral mufcles belonging to their eyes, by help whereof
they can turn them any way, and fo obvert the organ of
fenfe to the obje€&t. But nature not having given that mo-
bility to the eyes of flies, fhe in recompence furnifhes them
with a multitude of little protuberant parts, finely ranged
upon the convex of their large bulging eyes ; fo that by
means of thefe numerous little ftuds numberlefs rays of
light are deflected from objets placed on either hand, above
or beneath the level of the eye, and conveniently thrown
upon that organ, to cender the objeéts they come from
vifible to the animal; and by the help of a good microfcope,
and a clear fight, fome hundreds of thefe fittle round pro-
tuberances may be difcovered, curioufly ranged on the con-
vexity of a fingle eye of an ordinary fleth-fly.

So fcorpions are found to have above a hundred eyes ; and
Swammerdam has obferved no lefs than two thoufand in the
little infe& called ephemeron.

In other creatures the like deficiency is fupplied by hav-
ing their eyes nearly two protuberant hemifpheres, each con-
filting of a prodigious number of other little fegments of a
fphere. :

‘ The eyes of a cameleon, Dr. Goddard obferves, refemble
a lens, or convex-glafs, fet in a verfatile globular focket,
which ke turns backward and forward without ftirring the
head, and ordinarily the one a contrary way to the other.

Laitly, the mole, which the ancients, Ariftotle, Pliny,
Alb. Magnus, &c. fuppofed to have no eyes at all, is now
found to furnifh a notable in{tance of the diverfity of the
apparatus of vifion ; for that animal living altogether under
ground, fight would generally be ufelefs to it, and fo tender
a part as the eye troublefome. Jt has therefore eyes, but
thofe fo exceedingly fmall, and withal fituated fo far in the
head, and covered fo ftrongly over with hair, that they
cannot ordinarily be of fervice or diflervice to it. Yet to_

guide

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EY E.

guide and fecure it a little when it chances to be above-
ground, Borrichius, Blafius, Schneidner, Dr. Derham, and
others, obferve that it can protend, or put them forth be-
yond the fkin, and again draw them back at pleafure, fome-
what after the manner of fnails.

In the eyes of noéturnal animals is a part not yet men-
tioned, viz. a fort of tapetum at the bottom of the eye
which gives a kind of radiation on the pupil, enabling them
to fee and catch their prey in the dark. Thus, Dr. Willis,
Flujus ufus eft oculi pupillam quafi jubare infito illumi-
nare—quare in fele plurimum illuftris elt ; at homini avibus
& pifcibus deeft.”” De Anima Brutor.

He adds, that in fome perfons the iris has a faculty alfo
of darting out light ; and inftances in a man of a hot head
who, after a plentiful drinking of generous wine, could fee
to read in the darkeit night. Ibid.

The like Pliny tells us of Tib. Cefar, that upon his firft
waking in the night he could fee every thing for a little
while as if in broad day-light. (Nat. Hitt. lib. xi. cap. 37.)
and Dr. Briggs gives a parallel inftance of a gentleman in
Bedfordfhire. Ophthal. cap. v. § 12.

Frogs, befides the parts of the eye which they have in
common with men, and moft quadrupeds, have a peculiar
membrane or cartilage, which is not commonly perceived,
wherewith they can at pleafure cover the eye without too
much hindering the fight; becaufe the membrane is both
tranfparent and ftrong, fo that it may pafs for a kind of
moveable cornea, or occafional fafeguard to the eye. A
like membrane is alfo found in many birds, as alfo in the
crocodile,

Naturalifts relate wonders of the fharpnefs and accuracy
of the eyes of fome animals, as the eagle, &c. beyond thofe
of men.

Yet do thofe of men feem improveable to a furprifing
degree. Mr. Boyle inftances in a major of a regiment of
king Charles I. who being afterwards forced abroad, ven-
tured at Madrid to do his king a piece of fervice of an ex-
traordinary nature and confequence; which being there
judged very irregular, he was committed to an uncommon

rifon or rather dungeon, having no window belonging to
it, only a hole in the wall, at which the keeper put in
provilions, and prefently clofed it again on the outfide, but
not perhaps very exactly. For fome weeks this gentleman
continued utterly in the dark, very difconfolate ; but after-
wards began to think he faw fome little glimmering of light ;
and this ane time to time increafed fo, that he could not
only difcover the parts of his bed, and other fuch large
objects, but at length, amidft this deep obfeurity, could
perceive the mice that frequented his chamber to eat the
erumbs of bread which fell upon the ground, and difcern
their motions very well.

The author juft mentioned, in his Obfervations on Vi-

‘tiated Sight, gives us fome uncommon phenomena that

regard the eyes. He furnifhes feveral inftances of nyéta-
jopies, or people whofe eyes in the day-time were quite
dark, or at leaft fo dim that they could hardly difcern their
way; who yet, foon after fun-fet, and during twilight,
faw very clearly.

Eve, drtificial, is the refemblance of a natural’ eye,
formed either for the purpofe of fupplying the appearance
of an eye ina perfon who wants one of thole natural organs;
or for the purpofe of illuftrating the con{truétion, together
with certain defe&ts, of the natural eye, deferibed in the
next article.—The latter part of an artificial eye isa little
machine which exhibits the principal parts, and the princi-
pal offices of a natural eye.

» From the defcription of the camera cbfcura, and from

Vor, XIV.

the anatomical defcription of the eye, it plainly appears
that the latter is a moft excellent camera obfcura, having all
the neceffary properties of it, toa mott admirable nicety.
It is a globular dark reom, with one aperture for the admif.
fion of light, with a lens and other media fit to form a pic-
ture of external obje€ts on the hind part of its cavity, which
is lined with a membrane called the retina. It has likewife
all the neceffary adjuftments within certain limits; fuch as
the power of adapting itfelf to the view of near as well as
of diftant objeéts, the power of admitting more or lefs
light, according to circumftances, and fo on. (See Vi-
ston and Sicut.) If the eye of an animal, efpecially
of a large fize, as that of an ox, be taken out foon
after the death of the animal, and the fkin, fat, &c. be care-
fuliy feraped off from the back of it, until a thin femi-tranf-
parent pellicle remains, which is the retina, the eye fo pre-
pared may then be ufed asa little camera obfeura; ox. if
it be turned towards any objets, the figures of thofe obje@s
will be feen depicted on the thin membrane juft mentioned,
fo that the obferver being placed behind the prepared eye,
may fee that picture very difltinéily. J

In old perfons the humours grow thicker, and the parts
lefs pliable, hence their eyes lofe in great meafure the power
of adjufting themfelves. But, independent of old age, the
eyes of certain perions can be adjufted for viewing diftant
objects eafier than for near objects, and vice verfa. When
the eye is defe@tive, and in conlequence of its fize or of other
peculiar conformation, parallel rays form their foci before
they arrive at the retina; then the perfon, who is poffeffed
of iuch eyes, will be able to fee near objeéts only ; and
{uch pertons are faid to be near-fighted, or myopes. When
the eye is flatter than ordinary, then the foci of rays pro-
ceeding from pretty near objeéts, are formed beyond the
retina ; and fuch perfons as are poffeffed of eyes thus formed,
are faid to be long-fighted, or prefbyte ; for they can only
adjuit their eyes for viewing objects fituated beyond a cer-
tain diftance ; the latter is generally the cafe with perfons
advanced in age.

Thefe imperfe€tions may in great meafure be correéted by
the ufe of proper glaffes or fpeétacles; for fince in near-fighted
perfons the rays of light converge to a focus before their ar-
rival at the retina, a concave lens, placed before the eye,
will remedy that imperfection, becaufe a concave lens dimi-
nifhes the convergency of the rays of light, and, of courfe,
will prolong the pencil fo as to enable it to converge exaGly
on the retina. And for thofe who can fee diitant objeGs
only with diftin@ion, that is, in whofe eyes the rays of light

do not converge foon enough, convex lenfes, which increafe
the convergency of the rays, will remedy the imperfection.

Now the artificial eye we are treating of, ferves to illuf-
trate the above-mentioned defeéts, together with the coer-
rections by means of lenfes. In its moit improved tate of
conftruéction, it alfo ferves to exhibit imitations of the prins
cipal parts of the humaiy eye.

The artificial eye is formed principally of glafs, and its
parts are kept together by a brafs cell; but the thape and
formation ot fuch a machise is, in fome meature, varied by
almoit every workman. The part which re prefents the clobe
of the eye, and its humours, is fixed ina focket, where it
may be moved in any direction. The fore-part of the
focket forms a fcreen to prevent the concurrence of fup
fluous light ; but it has a hole in its middle, which is
painted round fo as to repreient nearly ahuman eve. If this
artificial eye be turned towards objeéts that are at a mode-
rate diitance, their piture will appear very diitine?, but in-
verted, upon the back part of the machine, where the rough
furface of the glafs performs the office of the retina. The

Te

2 YF.

parts of this artificial eye may be examined in the following
manner: unfcrew the focket which confines the ball of the
eye and its parts; then the outermoft coat reprefents the
{clerotica, the more protuberant part of which is the cor-
nea. Next to this there is a plano-convex glafs lens to re-
prefent the firft chamber of theaqueoushumour, under which
there is a perforatéd flat piece of tortoife-fhell to reprefent
the iris with the pupil, and under this there is another
plano-convex lens which reprefents the fecond chamber of
the aqueous humour. On removing the fecond coat, which
reprefents the choroides, a {mall double and unequally con-
vex lens will be found which reprefents the chryftalline hu-
mour, and under this is a large piece of glafs which oc-
cupies the remaining {pace of the machine, and reprefents
the vitreous humour. The back part of the laft mentioned
piece of glafs is made rough, fo that the pictures of ob-
jects may be formed upon it, as upon the retina of a real
eye.

In order to reprefent the nature of vifion in long-fighted
perfons, the ufual plano-convex lens, which reprefents the
firft chamber of the aqueous humour in front of the artificial
eye, muft be removed, and another fimilar lens, but lefs cone
vex, mult be placed inftead of it. With this alteration, if the
artificial eye be turned towards the fame objeéts, which before
the alteration were reprefented dittinétly on the back of the
machine, they will now form an indiltin& image upon the fame
place, becaufe now the rays converge to a place more diftant
than the back of the artificial eye. But if in this ftate
a proper convex {petacle lens be placed before it, the image
on the back of the artificial eye will be rendered perfect,
which fhews the ufe of that kind of fpectacles to long-
fighted perfons. In order to reprefent the imperfetion of
fhort-fighted eyes, the plano-convex lens, reprefenting the
firft chamber of the aqueous humour, muft be more convex
than the original one. In this cafe then the focus of rays
will fall fhort of the retina, in confequence of which an
imperfect image of objects will be formed on the back of the
artificial eye; but by placing a proper concave {pedtacle lens
before it, the above-mentioned image may be rendered perfect.
And this fhews the ufe of concave lenfes to fhort-lighted
perfons,

A fimpler conftrudtion of an artificial eye confifts of a
globular brafs box, having a {mall rough glafs on its back,
and a convex lens in front. This convex lens is fet in a brafs
focket, which may be {crewed farther into, or farther out of
the brafs box ; by which means the picture of obje&s on
the rough glafs may be rendered imperfe& either by fcrew-
ing the focket with the lens farther out, which imitates
the fhort-fighted eye, or farther in, which fhews the imperfec-
tion of long-fighted people; and the image may be rendered
perfectly diitin@ by placing a concave f{pectacle lens in the
firft cafe, or a convex one in the latter cafe, before the
artificial eye.

Eve, drtifcial, in Surgery. When fuppuratien takes place
in the eye, the matter at length makes its way through the
cornea, and efcapes together with the aqueous, and fome of
the yitreous, humour; the tranfparent cornea is_in part
deftroyed, while the reft continues in a ftate of opacity ;
the pupil becomes clofed, the iris is adherent to the cornea,
and the whole eye-ball fhrivels up in a greater or lefs degree.
A total lofs of vifion, and great deformity of the counte-
nance, are the evils neceffarily arifing fromall this mifchief.
The firft of thefe confequences is quite incurable; the
fecond may be obviated by the ufe of an artificial eye.

Artificial eyes are concave little plates, adapted to the
anterior half of the eye. Upon the middle of their front,
convex, white furface, the tranfparent cornea, the pupil, and

the iris, are imitated in the beft poffible manner, - When
they are applied, what remains of the natural eye-ball lies in
their pofterior excavated furface, They may be made
either of glafs or enamel, Though fuch as are made of
glafs anfwer tolerably well, yet they are apt to break, The
enamel ones are not {ubjeét to this objection, and, as we -fhall
hereafter explain more fully, their back edges may be made
with the file better than glafs ones, for-lying conveniently
in the orbit, In the choice of artificial eyes, for every kind
of cafe, the furgeon fhould take care, that the contrivance
refembles the natural healthy eye as much as poflible, in
regard to the colour of the iris, the greater or lefler convexity
of the cornea, the greater or leffer projection of the whole
eye-ball from the orbit, and the more or lefs confiderable
breadth of the globe of the eye between the external and
internal canthius.

Artificial eyes are conftru@ed of various fhapes and
depths, Some are made of a long oval form, and thefe are
found the moft eligible for perfons, whofe eye-lids have a
long fiffure between them. Other artificial eyes are of a
rounder fhape, and are proper in cafes, in-which the inter-
{pace between the two eye-lids is fhort. Deep concave
platesare to be chofen for patients, whoie eyes make a con-
fiderable proje€tion forward; but flat ones are to be pre-
ferred when the eyes are naturally fmall and deeply fituated
in the fockets. Deep plates are alfo to be employed, when
only a {mall part of the eye-ball is left ; but flat ones, when
a contiderable portion remains. A principal obje& always
confifts in endeavouring to render the refemblance between
the artificial and natural eye, as complete as poflible, fo that
the artifice may not be difcovered.

When what remains of an eye, which has been deftroyed
by fuppuration or difeafe, is of middling fize, the artificial
eye can be applied with the greateft convenience, There is
now fufficient room, confequently, no painful preffure is
excited, and the inftrument does not lie too deeply in the
orbit. Belides, the remaining part of the natural eye,
which always retains fome degree of motion, and lies in the

hollow of the artificial one, communicates to the latter a_

certain motion ; fo that, in this cafe, the deception becomes
more difficult to dete& than in any other examples.

When what remains of the natural eye is too fmall, or
large, it does not enter into the hollow of the artificial one,
and, confequently, the latter lies quite immoveable under
the eye-lids, and the patient has the appearance of f{quinting
in a much greater degree, than in the foregoing cafe. When
the remaining portion of the natural eye has loft fo little of
its original fize, that there is not room enough for an
artificial one, an opening may be made into the eye-ball, a
part of the vitreous’ humour let out, and thus fufficient room
made for the artificial eye. ‘This operation is free from
pain and danger; but, it occafionally happens, that the.
vitreous humour colleéts again in its original quantity, fo
as to deftroy the {pace for the artificial eye, and render 4
repetition of the puncture proper.

When, from any caufe, the whole of the eye-ball has been:
quite deftroyed, as, for inftance, when it has been ex-
tirpated on account of fome cancerous affe&tion, the ufe of
an artificial eye is hardly admiffible. For although the
orbit, in this cafe, ufually becomes more or lefs filled u
with flefh, which would ferve as a fupport to an artifici
eye, yet the eye-lids generally lofe their natural power of
motion, and fhrink up to the edges of the orbit, fo as not:
to be capable of covering the artificial eye. Perhaps, how-:
ever, this kind of contraétion of the eye-lids might be pre-
vented, by filling the infide of thefe parts with lint, imme-.

2 diately

EY £.

diately after extirpating the eye, and keeping them approx-
imated with ftrips of adhefive platter.

The application and removal of an artificial eye are fo
eafy, that the patient commonly foon acquires the art of put-
ting it on and taking it off himfelf. The edge of the upper
eye-lid is to be taken hold of with the thumb and index fin-
ge of one hand, and drawn a little outward fromthe eye-

all, while the artificial eye, which is to be previoufly
moittened, mutt be pushed under the eye-lid with the other
hand. This can be accomplifhed with moft eafe when the
little corner of the artificial eye is firft puthed under the eye-
lid. It then lies tranfverfely, and pufhesthe upper eye-lid
fo high, that the lower edve of the artificial eye is fituated
higher than the upper margin of the lower eye-lid. The
lower cye-lid is now to be drawn a little outward with the
finger, while the artificial eye is allowed to glide downward
behind the part.
When the artificial eye is to be taken off, it is only necef.
fary to draw the edge of the lower eye-lid a little outward

‘with one of the fingers, and to introduce the blunt end of

a needle under the lower margin of the artificial eye, which

is now to be fomewhat raifed and prefled outward. When

this is done, it immediately flips out of the orbit.
The front furface of what remains of the natural eye is

often uneven, forming a prominence in one place, and a

' depreffion in another ; confcquently the glafs eye fits clofer
onfome parts than on others, and creates fuch painful fen-
fations as oblige the patient to remove it. This inconve-
mience may be obviated by taking off fome of the
border of the artificial eye at the parts which fit too
clofe, and make too much preffure, by means of a file,

When the whole circumference of the eye fmarts after the

‘application of the glafs one, the plate employed is probably

too deep, and the whole circumference of its edge makes

too flrong preffure. In this cireumftance a flat plate muft

‘be applied. When, notwithitanding this plan, the eye
continues painful, there is reafon for apprehending that
the organ is in anirritable ftate. In this inftance, the bett
way is to take off the inftrument again, and bathe the eye
well with cold water, or fore atfiringent collyrium. After
“a time, the eye-ball generally becomes capable of bearing
the preffure of the artificial eye, without any unceaii-
‘nefs. However, fome patients are fo irritable, that they
ean never wear an artificial eye without fuffering pain,
and fuch perfons ought to be advifed to give up the intention
altogether,

It is obvious, that, in every example in which the eye
“has been deftroyed by fuppuration, no idea fhould ever be
entertained of ufing an artificial eye, before all inflammation
and tendernefs of the organ have been quite removed. Alfo,
‘the ufe of thg artificial eye muft always be difcontinued,
whenever an inflammation is brought on by any accidental

caufes.

Perfons fhould be recommended always to keep by them

“More than one artificial eye of the fame kind, in cafe one
fhould ever happen to be loft. It is alfo advifeable to take
offthe artificial eye once every day, and cleanfe it, and par-

‘ticularly the orbit, from all kinds of dirt, mucus, &c.

_ Want of attention of this kind is frequextly the caufe of fuch

_inflammations, as compel the patient to difcontinue the ufe of
‘an artificial eye for a confiderable time. See Richter’s An-

> fahgsgroade der Wundarzneykunit ; Band 3.

_ Eys, Cancer, and Extirpation of. Tt becomes indifpen-
fably neceflary to remove the eye-ball in feveral kinds of

‘ cafes, as, for inftance, when the organ protrudes from the

“orbit, and cannot be reduced. The operation is alfo requi-

Site for fome ulcerated ftaphylomas, and for every kind of

cafe in which the coats and humours of the eye are fo dif-
eafed, as not to admit of being reftored to a natural ftate,
and in which the affeétion, if left to itfelf, would be likely
to be communicated to the orbit. i

Cancer of the eye, however, is the chief diforder, which
creates a neceflity for the performance of the opera-
tron

The eye may beeome affeGted with cancer in three differ-
ent manners. Sometimes the globe of the eye acquires an
irregular kaotty fhape, and enlarges to the fize of an apple.
The fight is gradually deltroyed, the blood-veffels in the
white of the eye are varicofe, and the whole of the mternal
and external ftruéture of the organ is fo altered, that the
part looks like a piece of flefh, and no veltizes of the origi-
nal organization are any longer perceptible. Sometimes, a
{mall remaining portion of the tranfparant cornea is exter
nally obfervable ; and, in certain cafes, a little aperture may
ftill be feen within, through which the remainder of the vi-
treous humour and choroid coat is difecoverable. Some-
times a feetid fluid is difcharged from the difeafed organ, an
ulcerated opening into the part having occurred. Occafion-
ally, no ulceration whatever can be noticed, and the eye-
ball refembles a firm piece of flefh. ‘The patient commonly
experiences at firft burning pains in the eye, which, how-
ever, are not in an infupportable degree ; but, at laft, they
become of a violent darting nature, and fhoot all over one-half
ofthe head. The caufes of this diftemper are- involved in
corfiderable obfcurity. A German furgeon, named Vogel,
mentions, that the difeafe is fometimes brought on by the
fmall-pox. The foregoing form of cancer of the eye is the
principal, and mot frequent one.

Sometimes excrefeences make their appearance upon the
front furface of the eye, and moft frequently upon the tranf-
parent cornea. Such tumours often admit of being eradi-
eated with the knife, ligature, or cavitic. In certain in-
ftances, however, they always grow again after the employ-
ment of thefe means, and become larger, more malignant,
and even cancerous. At length, they ‘change into a fun-
gous growth, which is extremely painful, covers all the an-
terior part of the eye, and renders the operation of removing
this organ abfolutely neceffary. Such 1s the fecoud form
in which cancer of the eye prefents itfelf.

On feveral occafions ulcers are produced upon the fore-
part of the eye, and although a great many of them may
be cured by the ufe of external and internal remedies, they
are often exceedingly obftinate, dettroy vifion, and acquire
fo malignant a flate, that they may very well be called
cancerous. This is the third fpecies of cancer, which
makes the extirpation of the eye requiiite.

With regard to the treatment of every cancerous kind of
difeafe, affecting the eye, we have a choice of three dil
ent methods. We either plainly difcover fome particular
determinate caufe, and employ meafures calculated for its

“removal ; or the malignant character of the fymptoms leads

us tohave recourfe to the remedies ufually preferibed for
carcinomatous difeafes; or elfe, when both thefe plans fail,
we proceed to put in practice the extirpation of the ey
What is commonly called a cancer of the eye does not feem
to be nearly fo malignant as the fame fort of difeafe in the
breaft ; for the operation almoit always accomplifhes a radi-
cal cure, as long as the diftemper is confined to the globe
of the eye, and the eye-lids, cellular fabttance, and bones of
the orbit continue unaffe&ed. The knowledge of this cir-
cumitance fhould lead us to undertake the operation in good
time, and-we can the more readily make up our mind to
perform it, fince the power of feeing is, in all thefe cafes,
irrecorerably loft. When the patient fuffers violent

F 2 head.

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head-achs, and pains in other parts of the body,
when his glands in different fituations are in an indu-
rated flate, when the eye-ball has burft, and it difcharges a
feetid matter, and when the eye-lids are red, fwollen, and
painful, the event of the operation muft be confidered, as at
leaft very doubtful.

In the performance of the operation there are two im-
portant circumttances, to which attention ought to be paid.
The firft is to remove every particle of the difeafe, and
Jeave none of the affected parts behind. ‘The fecond is to
avoid doing any injury to the periofteum and bones of the
orbit, The periofteum, in this fituation, lies fo near the
dura mater, that the confequences of any mifchief done
to the firft membrane, may eafily extend to the latt ;
aid the bones of the orbit are in moft places fo thin, that
they cannot be pierced, or broken; without a rifle of in-
juring the brain, which is fituated immediately behind them,
It is on this account that fome furgical writers have recom-
mended, for the performance of this operation, inflruments
which have no points. A man, endued with a very mode-
rate fhare of dexterity, however, may certainly ufe a point-
ed knife forthe purpofe both with fafety and advantage.

In order to be able to feparate the eye-lids far enough
from each other, it is fometimes recommended, in the firft
inftance, to make an incifion through them at their external
commiffure. An afliftant is to raife the upper eye-lid as
much as poffible towards the fore-head. Some authors alfo
advife us to introduce through the eye-ball a ligature, with
which the part may be drawn to one fide, or the other,
during the operation. We cannot conceive, however, that
there can be any real occafion for this painful proceeding,
nor for the employment of any kind of hook, with a fimilar
intention, fince any operator poflefling common adroitnefs
may eafily fucceed in drawing the globe of the eye forward
with his fingers, as foon as it is detached, from its connec-
tions within the orbit.

In this operation, furgeons have fometimes made ufe of a
{calpel curved fideways, and a pair of {ciflars of a fimilar
fhape, with which inftruments it has been fuppofed that
the parts behind the globe of the eye can be more conve-
niently cut, than with any ftraight ones. But many of
the beft operators prefer a ftraight inftrument, and find no
inconveniences attending its ufe.

The furgeon fhould firit divide the conjuné&iva conneéting
the eye-lids with the eye-ball, and this ought to be done
both above and below. Then the nerves and mufcles of the
eye are to be cut on all fides of the organ; a part of the
operation fometimes effected with crooked fciffars, though,
as we have already obferved, it may be as well done with a
common ftraight fcalpel. When a ligature is introduced
through the front of the eye ball, or when a hook is ufed,
the furgeon, by fuch means, is always to draw the globe of
the eye in that direction which will give moft room on the
fide where the parts are to be cut. But we confider the
employment of a ligature, or hook, for the purpofe of
pulling the globe of the eye in this manner, quite unnecef-
fary, and therefore improper.

Richter takes notice, that as the enlarged eye for the
mott part lies clofe to the cheek, and it is frequently very
difficult to make an incifion into the orbit, between the eye-
ball and lower eye-lid, the operation may often be more
eafity accomplifhed by firlt feparating the upper eye-lid from
the difeafed organ; then cutting from above downwards
more deeply into the orbit, fo as to divide the mufcles
above and at the fides of the eye; and, laftly, detaching
the eye-ball from itsconneétion with the lower eye-lid.
‘This mode of operating is, according to Richter, the more

eafy, becaufe the globe of the eye can always be more
readily inclined downwards, fo as to make room aboye, than
it can be pufhed in the dire&tion upward for the purpofe of
making room below. Until the optic nerve has been divided,
the operator muft avoid drawing the eye-ball too forcibly
forward,

As foon as the eye has been completely detached, all the
infide of the orbit fhould be very carefully examined with
the finger, and whatever indurated parts are difcoyered
ought to be diligently removed.

In certain inftances, it is proper and prudent to cut
away one, or both eye-lids, when affected with cancerous
difeafe. Surgical writers alfo feem univerfally to agree
about the propriety of always removing the lacrymal
gland, as it is particularly apt to be the fource of fuch
fungous excrefcences as are to be apprehended after the
operation,

Let the parts, however, be taken away with the utmoft
flaill and caution, ftill the event of the operation is invaria~
bly to be regarded as extremely doubtful, when the adja-
cent parts participate in the difeafe with the eye-ball,

The bleeding is feldom of any importance, generall
{topping as foon as the orbit is filled with foft lint. The

inflammatory fymptoms and fever are alfo feldom fo violent -

as to require any antiphlogiftic means, except a low diet,
and keeping the bowels well open.

During the fuppuration, the orbit becomes filled with
healthy granulations, and the procefs of cicatrization muft
be regulated by the fame principles, which are obferved in
the treatment of common wounds.

When the cure is complete, an artificial eye can feldom
be worn, on account of the manner in which both the

eye-lids fhrink, and contraé&, to the upper and lower margin *

of the orbit. It is true, an attempt may be made to pre-
vent fuch contraétion of the eye-lids, by ufing a bandage
and {trips of {ticking plafter to keep thefe parts together,
after the orbit is filled with lint. However, notwithftanding
our be{t endeavours, it muft be confefled, that an artificial
eye can feldom be made ule of after the operation.

Sometimes the granulations, which form in the orbit,
are flabby and indolent, in which circumftance fome mild
aftringent fhould be applied, as for inftance, lapis calamina-
ris, pulvis myrrhz, alumen uftum, &c. In fome examples,
the granulations acquire a fungous and malignant nature,
in which event they fhould either be cut away with a
{calpel,, or deftroyed with cauftic. Sometimes the fungus
is continually reproduced, and at length occafions death.
In fome cafes, as late as half a year, or even later, after the
cure has appeared perfeét, a fungous excrefcence has
arifen, and proved fatal. Occafionally head-achs, vomit-
ing, convulfions, &c. followed by death, come on a few
days, or weeks, after the operation. It is faid, that in
cafes of this kind the cancerous diftermper has been dif-
covered to have fpread to the brain, along the optic nerve,
and to have excited induration and ulceration in that
vifcus.

When a fungous malignant excrefcence occurs on the
cornea, there is no occafion to extirpate the whole eye.
It is quite fufficient to cut off the anterior portion of the
organ; for the bafe of the fungus feldom extends beyond
the edge of the cornea. The operation may be effe&ted by
making a puncture into the eye with a lancet, a little way
behind the margin of the cornea, and then enlarging the
wound all round by means of a pair of feiflars.

Though the bafis of the excrefcence does not often extend
into the white of the eye, yet, it is obfervable, that the
coats of this organ, for a greater or lefs extent around the

roet

EY £.

reot of the fungus, are preternaturally thick and {wollen,
Hence, as foon as the operation is finifhed, we fhould at-
tentively examine, whether the coats of the eye, in the
place where the incifion has been made, are in a natural
flate, and fhould any part not feem to be fo, it ought to be
cut away.

Eye, Contufions of the. See OPHTHALMIA.

Eve, Difea/es of the, are an ophthalmia, or inflammation
of the eyes; the gutta ferena, or amaurofis; a fuffufion,
or cataract ; an e€tropium ; a glaucoma; an amblyopia, or
obfcurity of fight, including the myopia, the prefbytopia,
the nytalopia, and the amaurofis ; the {trabifmus, or fquint-
ing ; an unguis pannus, or pterygium of the membrane of
the eye ; the albugo, leucoma, or {pot in the eye; a fugilla-
tion of the eye; anepiphora, or rheum in the eyes; a tri-
chiafis ; and the fiftula lachrymalis. See each defcribed
under its peculiar denomination, See Warner's Deferip-
tion of the human Eye, &c. with its principal Dileafes,
&c. 2d edit. 1775.

Eve, Falling out of the. See Protarsus oculi.

Eyes, Running of the, in Infants. See Invant.

Eyes, Scarification of the. Sec SCARIFICATION,

Eve, Wounds of the. See Wounps.

Eve of Birds. See Anatomy of Birvs.

Eve of Fifhes. See Fisu.

Eves of Flies. Every naturalift has cbferved, that the
eyes of flies are of a reticulated texture ; and each reticulated
eye of this kind is truly an affemblage of multitudes, often
of many thoufands, of {mall but perfect eyes. The reti-
culated eyes of flies are large, not only in proportion to the
fize of the creature, but abfolutely, and in themfelves ; but
the feveral fmall eyes of which they are compofed are re-
markably minute in comparifon of thofe of the butterfly
clafs,

Many of the butterfly clafs have in each of their reticu-
lated eyes many thoufand fmall eyes; but the fly clafs
greatly exceed them in number of thefe, as many of the
eyes of thefe are three times as large as thofe of the butter-
flies; and befides, that each finaller eye is vaftly more mi-
nute than the {mall eyes of the butterflies.

Mr. Hook computed 14,000 hemifpheres in the two eyes
of a drone; Mr. Lewenhoeck reckoned 6236 in a filk-
worm’s two eyes in its fly-ftate; 3181 in each eye of a
beetle ; and 8000 in the two eyes of a common fly. The
pearl-eyes of the dragon-fly appear with a common reading-
glafs like fhagreen ; and Mr. Lewenhoeck reckons in each
eye of this infect 12,544 lenfes, placed in an hexangular
penton, each lens having fix others round it. He alfo ob-

erved in the centre of each lens a minute tranfparent fpot,
brighter than the reft, fuppofed to be the pupil, furrounded
with three circles, and in appearance feven times lefs than
the diameter of the whole lens. Mr. Puget counted £7,325
in the eye of a butterfly, which Malpighi concludes to be
diftin& and feparate eyes. The abbé Catalan, and others,
have fince fhewn, that all the eminences difcoverable in the
cornea of infects have the neceflary parts, and perform the
offices of an eye. Lewenhoeck tiated the bundles of
optic nerves which ferve thefe {mail lenfes; and Reaumur
Pree et thefe fupply the place of all that is wanting
behind the lenfes, for the organization of an eye complete
for vifion, Baker’s Micr. 1743, p. 228. Reaumur, Hiit.
Inf. vol. i. p. 261, &c. See Enromotocy.

Eves of Poe in the Manege, &c. Thefe fhould be
bright, lively, full of fire, pretty large, and full; but not
too big, gogling, or ftaring out of the head: they fhould
alfo be refolute, bold, and brifk. A horfe to appear well,

fhould look on his objeét fixedly, with a kind of difdam,
and not turn his eyes another way.

In the eye of a horfe are difcovered his inclination, health,
and indifpofition. When the eyes are funk, or the eye-
brows are too much raifed up, and asit were {welled, itis a
fign of vicioufnefsand ill nature. When the pits above the
eyes are extremely hollow, it is for the moit part a certain
fign of old age: this, however, does not hold of horfes
got by an old ftallion; for thefe have them very deep at the
age of four or five years, as alfo their eye-lids and eye-
brows wrinkled and hollow.

Two things are chiefly to be confidered in the eye of a
horfe, viz. the chryftalline part, and the bottom or ground,
The chryttalline, or moft tranfparent part, fhould, for
clearnefs, refemble a piece of rock-cryltal, otherwife the
eye cannot be good. When this part is reddifh it is a fign
that the eye is inflamed, or elfe, as forme pretend, influenced
by the moon. When it is of the colour of a withered or
dead leaf upon the lower part, and troubled on the upper,
it infallibly fhews that the horfe is lunatic, which diftemper
contivues no longer than while the humour actually poffeffes

the eye.
As to the ground or bottom of the eye, which is pro-
perly its pupil or apple, it fhould be large and fall, and

ought to be carefully infpeGed, that there be no dragon, as
it is called, on it. hisis.a white {pot orfpeck, which at
firit appears no bigger than a grain of millet, but grows
to fuch a bignefs as to cover the whole apple of the eye: it
is incurable, never failing to make a horte blind in the eye
where it is found. If the whole bottom of the eye be
white, or of a tranfparent greenifh white, it isa bad in-
dication, though perhaps the horfe is not as yet quite
blind : however, it ought to be obferved, that if you view
a horfe’s eyes when oppofite to a white wall, the reflection
of it will make their apples appear whitifh, fometimes in-
clining to green, though they be really good. When this
is perceived, you may try whether his eyes have the fame ap-
pearance in another place.

In cafe you perceive above the bottom of the eye, as it
were, two grains of chimney-foot fixed thereto, it isa fign
the chryftalline is tranfparent ; and if, befides this, the faid
bottom be without a {pot er whitenefs, then you may infer
that the eye is found.

You ought alfo to examine whether an eye which is trou-
bled and very brown be lefs than the other ; for if it be, it
is irrecoverably lott.

All eyes which are {mall, narrow, and have long pupils,
run a greater 1ifk of lofing the fight than any others. See
Buinpyess.

The difeafes of the eyes in horfes proceed either from a
defluxion, or from fome external hurt. In the former cafe
the eyes are watery, hot, red, and fwollen, the diftemper
advancing by degrees; in the latter the malady comes
fpeedily to a height, and the fkin on the outfide of the eye
is peeled off.

If the diitemper take its rife from a rheum or defluxion, it
is to be confidered whether it proceeds from the eye itfelf, or
from another aggrieved part: in the latter cafe, the redre fing
of the part will fet the eye free; in the former, itis proper
to cool the horfe’s blood with an ounce of {fal pruncllx,
mingled every day with his bran; and when it leffens his ap-
petite, to change it for liver of antimony till he recovers
his ftomach.

For fore eyes, where a {kin is growing over them, the
following receipt is recommended: to the white of an egg

add a little fine powdered falt; then fet this on the fire
till

r YE.

till it be reduced to a powder, This, mixed with a little
honey, is to be put into the horfe’s eye with a feather.
Tf it is found infufficient to eat off the fkin, the powder
alone mutt be blown into the eye with a qu ll.

In cafe of a blow on the eye, take honey, and having
added a fmall quantity of powder of ginger, put it into
the horfe’s eye; or elfe take hog’s lard, with the oil of rofes
and elder, of each an equal quantity ; then, having melted
them together, anoint the eye therewith.

Some horfes have naturally tender weeping eyes, which
void a fharp eating humour; thefe are eafily cured, by
wafhing or bathing them every morning or evening with
prandy. See Horse. ere

We fay alfo, “a horfe unfhod ef one eye,’”? which is a
yallying expreffion, importing that he is blind of an eye.

Eve of the Branch of a Bridle, is the uppermott part of
the branch which is flat, witha hole in it, for joining the
branch to the hea¢-ftall, and for keeping the curb fait.

Eve of a Bean, isa black {peck or mark in the cavity
of the corner teeth, which is formed there about the age
of five and a half, and continues till feven or eight ; and it
is from hence that we ufually fay, fuch a horfe marks {till,
and fuch a one has no mark.

Eyvx-Flaps, thofe pieces of leather which cover the eyes
of coach horfes.

Eve, Altitude of the. See Avrirupe.

Eve, in Architedure, is ufed for any round window
made in a pediment, an attic, the reins of a vault, or the
like.

Eyes, Bullock's, Ocil de beuf, denotes a little fky-light
in the covering or roof, intended to illumine a granary,
or the like.

The fame term is applied to the little tlutherns ina dome ;
asin that of St. Peter’s at Rome, whieh has forty-eight in
three rows. See LuTHERN.

Eye of a Dome, denotes an aperture at the top of the
dome; as that of the Pantheon at Rome, or of St. Paul’s
at London. It is ufually covered with a Tantern. See
Dome.

Eve of the Volute, is the centre ot the volute, or that
point wherein the helix or {piral whereof it is formed
commences ; or it is the little circle in the middle of the
wolute, wherein are found the thirteen centres for de-
fcribing the circumvolutions thereof. -

Eye, in Gardening, a term which in the management
of fruit-trees fignifies the {mall bud or fhoot which is to be
inferted into anothestree. See Bup and Buppinec.

It alfo fignifies the fmall pointed knot to which the leaves
adhere, and from which the fhoots {pring forth. The eye
ef a pear denotes the extremity cppolite to its ftalk.

_ Eye, in Geography, a town of Norway; 36 miles S. of
Bergen.

Eye, a market and borough town of Suffolk, England ;
is fituated in the hundred of Hartifmere, at the diftance of
20 miles from Ipfwich, and 90 from London. It is feated
in a valley, and is almoft furrounded by a brook, which
gives name to the place. Asa borough it was firit incor-
porated by king John, from whofe charter, and fome that
have been fubfequently granted, it derived feveral pri-
‘vileges, but many of thefe have latterly been difcontinued.
The borough did not return members to parliament tll
the thirteenth year of the reign of queen Elizabeth, fince
which period it has fent two. The right of eleétion is
yefted in the free burgefles, corporation, and thofe inha-
bitants who pay ‘ fcot and Jot :”” a number amounting to

’

about 200. The éarl of Cornwallis is patron, or pro- .

prietor of the borouch, and thereby has the power of
controlling the elections. Ia the reign of king William
I. a priory for Benedi€tine monks was founded here,
and in the time of king Edward III. an hofpital for
lepers. The ftreets are moftly narrow, The church isa
large, handfome building. In the year 1801 the town
confifled ef 300 houfes, and contained 1734 inhabitants.
There is a weekly market on Saturdays, and aw annual
fair, It has a fmull manufacture of bone-lace; and fome
of the inhabitants are occupied in {pinuing. Kirby’s
Suffolk Traveller.

Eys, a river of Scotland, which rifes in the north-weft
part of Berwickfhire, and falis into the North fea, at
Eyemouth.

Eye is alfo ufed among Jezwellers for the luftre and
brilliance of pearls and precious ftones, more ufually called
the water. .

Eyer, among Naturalifs, is fometimes alfo ufed for a
hole or aperture: whence it is that the firlt of the larger
inteftines is called cecum, or the blind gut, as having no eye
or perforation. For a like reafon the chemilts call a clofe
veflel, ufed in diitillation, a blind head.

Eye, in Per/pedive. See PERSPECTIVE.

Eye, in Printing, is fometimes ufed for the thicknefs of
the types and charaéters ufedin printing ; or, more ftridily,
it is the graving in relievo on the top of the latter; other-
wife called its face.

It is the eye or face that makes the impreffion ; the reft,
which they call the body, ferving only to fuitainit.

The eye of the cis the little aperture at the head of that
charaGter, which diftinguifhes it from the «. See E.

Eye, in a Ship. The hole wherein the ring of the
anchor is put into the fhank is called the ‘ eye of the
anchor ;”? and the compafs or ring which is left of the
ftrop to which any block is feized, is called the “ eye of
the ftrop.”

Eye of a Stay, is that part of a ftay which is formed
into a fort of collar to go round the maft-head.

Eve-Bolt, is a long bar of iron with an eye in one end
of it, formed to be driven into the decks or fides of a fip
for divers purpofes, as to hook tackles, or faften ropes to,
as oceafion requires.

Eve-/et-Hole. See Sart.

Eves of a Ship, a name frequently given to thofe parts
which lie near the haufe holes, particularly in the lower
apartments within the veffel.

Evye-Bright, in Botany. See EupHRasia.

Evye-Brows. See Eye, in Anatomy.

Eye-Brows, wounded. See Wounps.

Evr-Brow, in Archite@ure. See Firvet.

Eys-Glafs, in our Double Microfeopes, is ufually a lens
convex on both fides; but Euftachia Divini long fince in-
vented a microfcope of this kind, the power of which he
places very greatly above that of the common fort ; and
this principally depending on the eye-glafs, which was
double, contilting of two plano-convex glaffes, fo placed
as to touch one another in the middle of their convex
furface. This inftrument is fpoken of with great credit
by Fabri in his Optics, and is faid to have this peculiar
excellence, that it {hews all the objeéts flat, and not crooked,
and takes in a large area, though it magnifies extremely
much. Phil. Tranf. No. 4o.

Eye-Gla/s, in Tek/copes, is the lens nextthe eye; and
if the telefcope confift of more than two lenfes, all but
that next the objet are called eye-glafles. 5

Eve-lids, Encyjled tumours of, in Surgery. Encyfted tu-

mo}

urs

BY 8

mours frequently form on the eye-lids: indeed, this is fo
much the cafe, that fome furgical writers affert that fuch
{wellings are more often found fituated on thofe parts than
any where elfe in the body. ; ;

We fhall not fiop to refute the opinion which has occa-
fionally ftarted up, that the frequency of encyfted tumours
on the eye lids arifes from the great number of febaceous
glands exiiting in thefe parts, which glands have been fup-
pofed to {well and enlatge from fome caufe or another.
Scarpa points out, that the glands of Meibomius are only
fitnated at the edges of the eye-lids, and that encyfted tu-
mours are not more common on this part of the eye-lids than
on others.

Scarpa remarks, that an encyfted tumour of the eye-lids,
in its early ftate, doesnot exceed a millet-feed or a fmall pea
in fize, and that it is long before a {welling of this kind be-
comes as large as a bean or filbert. ‘The tumour is in gene-
ral unattended with pain ; but fome uneatinefs is experienced
as foon as the difeafe has acquired fuch magnitude that the
free motion of the eye-lid, a partial depreflion of it, anda
decree of preffure on the eye-ball, are produced.

Scarpa expreffes a conviction, founded on the obfervation
ef numerous cafes, that thefe tumours are, from their firft
origin, moft commonly nearer to the internal membrane of
the eye-lids than to the integuments, their bafes being fo
fuperficially fituated on the inner furface of the eye-lids,
that, when fuch furface is turned outwards, the {wellings
feem quite denuded, and look tran{parent through the deli-
cate lining of the palpebre.

Various applications have been tried, with a view of dif-
perfing encyfted tumours of the eye-lids; as, for in{tance,
collyria, containing the aqua ammonia in a very diluted fiate,
refolvent gums, mercurial frictions, &c. Scarpa oblerves,
however, that he has found fo little fuccefs attend the ufe
of thefe remedies, that, he is convinced, the only effectual
mode of cure, particularly when the tumour is of long ftand-
ing, confifts in having recourfe to extirpation.

A furgeon, who adopts Scarpa’s opinion, naturally de-
cides, that the beft way of removing encylted tumours of
the eye-lids is, generally {peaking, to extra& them through
an incifion made on the infide of the eye-lid. The reafons
urged by Scarpa, in favour of this praétice, are, that the
wound need only be a very fuperficial one, the cyit may be
eafily feparated from the furrounding parts, the place readily
heals, and no {ear is left to denote either that there has been
any difeafe or operation.

Scarpa allows, however, that there is one cafe in which
this plan of operating fhould not be chofen, When the
encyfted tumour is fo fituated upon either eye-lid that the
part cannot be fufficiently turned infide-out, to bring into
view the bafe of the fwelling, and to enable the furgeon to
cut away the whole of it, the cut fhould be made from
without. ;

When the encyfted tumour is on the upper eye-lid, the
patient being feated with his head firmly fupported, an af-
fiftant is to turn out the upper eye-lid, and prefs in fuch a
manner as will make the tumour projeé as much as peflible.
The furgeon is next-to divide, with a lancet, or convex-
edged fcalpel, the- delicate membrane {pread over the tu-
mour. Hes to obferve to make the mcifion in the direction
of the edge of the eye-lid, and of fufficient fize to allow the
_ tumour to projeét and be taken out with eafe. The {welling
» may now be taken hold of with a pair of forceps, ora tenta-
culum, and detached from all its connections with the knife,
or, as fome may prefer; witha pair of fciflars. The eye-lid
is then to be put into its natural pofition again, and kept wet
with linen dipped in the faturnine lotion,

iB

The operation on the lower eye-lid is net materially dif-
ferent from the one already defcribed.

When an encyfted tumour is to be removed from the eyes
lid of a child, Scarpa advifes the child to be laid ona table,
with the head raifed on a pillow, and the hands and feet
firmly held by affittants.

In quadrupeds the lower palpebra is moveable, and is the
{maller ; in birds, on the contrary, the lower is moveabie,
and tke greater.

Animals that have hard eyes, as lobflers, and the gene-
rality of filhes, have no palpebre, fuch eyes being fufficiently
fecured without.

In the generality of brutes there is a kind cf a third eye-
lid, which is drawn like a curtain, to wipe off the humidity
which might incommode the eyes ; it is called the nictitat-
ing membrane.

The monkey is almoft the only one that wants it, as
being furnifhed, like a man, with hands to wipe the eye on
occation.

Evye-lids, Wounded. See Wounps.

Eve, Bulls, in Afironomy, a ttar of the firft magnitude,
in the conitellation Taurus, by the Arabs called Alde-
baran.

Eye, Cat’s, Oculus cati, in Natural Hiftory, a precious
ftone, called alfo /un’s eye, oculus folis, and taken by Dr,
Woodward for the afterias of the ancients. See Car’s-
eye.

Eve, Crab’s, Oculus cancrorum. See Crabs-eyes.

Eve, Goat’s, Oculus caprinus, is when there is a white
{peck on the pupil of the eye, asis feen in the eyes of goats.
Phyficians call it egias.

Eye, Golden, in Ornithology. See Duck.

Eye, Hare’s, Oculus leporinus, in Surgery, a difeafe arifing
from a contraction of the upper eye-lid, which prevents its.
being able to cover its part of the eye, fo that the patient
is obliged to fleep with the eye half open, after the manner
of hares.

Phyficians call it Jagophthalmia, a Greek word fignifying
the fame thing, being compounded of Aawya:, hare, and
oP Sarr roc, eye.

EYEABLE, in Rural Economy, is 2 provincial term
ufed to denote the fine appearance of colleétions of fheep
and neat cattle.

EYEMOUTH, in Geography, a {mall fifhing town in
the fhire of Berwick, having a good harbour for {mall craft
at the mouth of the river Eye. In the reign of Elizabeth
the French took poffetiion of it for the queen mother, and
fortified it, as being a convenient port for landing fupplies.
But queen Elizabeth fupporting the caufe of the reformers,
the French were foon obliged to quit the country. A con-
fiderable herring fifhery occupies the inhabitants. In 179%
fix buffes only were employed, but there is abundance of
room for numbers more, as the coaft abounds with various
kinds of fifth. In 1756 the harbour was improved by the
erection of a new pier on the wettern fide, and ia 1770 ane
other on the eaftern fide-was added ;._ fince which the trade
has inereafed, and much corn and meal are annually expoited.
It has two annual fairs in June and October, and is fituared
nine miles north by weit of Berwick, and 349 miles from
London. Sir John Sinclair’s Stat. Acc. of Scotland.

EYERDORTP, a town of Germany, ‘in the priacipality
of Wurzburg; five miles $.S.W. of Kiffingen.

EYERHEIM, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Wurzburg; feven miles E.S.E. of Schweinfurt.

EYERtLANDT, an ifland at the entrance into the
Zuyder fea from the German ocean, N. of the Texel, about
2 miles in length, and half a mile wide; joined to the

ifland

EYN
ifland of Texel by a bank of fand, and overflowed only at

high water.

EYESS, in Falconry. See Eyriz and Farcon.

EYETON, or Ayton, in Geography, a town of Scot-
land, in Berwickfhire, feated on the river Eye; feven miles
N. of Berwick-upon-Tweed.

EYFERDING. See Errerpine.

EYGUEL, a river of France, which runs into the Sarre;
five miles N.E of Sarre Alb.

EYGUIE'RES, a town of France, in the department
of the Bouches, or Mouths of the Rhone, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftri€ of Tarafcon ; 16 miles E.S.E.
of Tarafcon; the place contains 2925, and the canton
7320 inhabitants, in feven communes and a territorial extent
of 245 kiliometres.

EYGURANDE, a town of France, in the department
of Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié of
Uffel; the place contains 991, and the canton 4667 inhabit-
ants, ona territory of 180 kiliometres, in 10 communes.

EYKENHOUTS Douster, in Conchology, the name
of Venus macaffarica, in Leer’s Catal.

EYLA, in Geography, a river of Saxony, which runs
into the Wichra, two miles N. of Borna, in the margravi-
ate of Meiffen.—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Mazara; 25 miles E.S.E. of Palermo.

EYLAND, a river of Brandenburg, which runs into the
Oder; two miles S. of Frankfort.

EYLANDEN, one of the fmaller Japanefe iflands.
N. lat. 34° 45! E. long. 139° ro’.

EYLAU, Drurscu, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Oberland; 42 miles E.N.E. of Culm. N. lat. 53° 30!.
E. long. 19° 24'.

Eyvau, Preufit/ch, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen; 20 miles S. of Konigfberg ; famous for a
bloody battle fought near it in February 1807, between
the French and the Ruffians. N. lat. 54° 20’. E. long.
20° 42', ;

EYLES’s Istanp, a {mall ifland in the Mergui Archi-
pelago, near the fouth coaft of Sullivan’s ifland. N. lat.
to” 46!

EYLL, a river of France, which runs into the Roer,
near Juliers

EYME, a town of Germany, in the principality of Ca-
lenberg ; 16 miles E. of Hameln,

EYMET, a town of France, in the department of the
Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of
Bergerac; 12 miles S. of Bergerac. he place contains
1332, aud the canton 5402 whabitants, in 14 communes,
ona territory of 1224 kihometres.

EYMOUTIERS, a town of France, in the department
of Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri of Limoges; 18 miles N. of Limoges. The place
contains 1521, and the canton 13,159 inhabitants, in 16
communes, on a territory of 370 kiliometres. This town
earries on a confiderable trade in dkins, leather, and rags. —
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne;
15 miles N. of Perigueux.

EYNDHOVEN, a town cf Brabant, fituated on the
Dommel; 25 miles W. of Venlo.

EYNON, ariver of Wales, which runs into the Dovic,
about three miles below Machynlleth.

EYNSHAM, a village of England, in the, county of
Oxford, fix miles N.W. of Oxford, famous for a monaitery
founded here by Athelmer, or Aylmer, earl of Cornwall and
Devon, before the year 1005 3 and alfo for a council held
here by king Ethelred, at which the archbifhops and bifhops
of the realm attended, and many acts, ecclefiattical and civil,

EY S$

any paffed. The number of inhabitants in 1801 was
1166.

EYPEL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-

ratz 3; three miles $.S.E. of Trautenau.

EYPOLTAN, a town of Auitria, on the north fide of
the Danube; five miles N. of Vienna.

EY RAGUES, a town of France, in the department of
the Mouths of the Rhone; eight miles E.N.E. of Tarafcon.

EYRE, a town of North Carolina; 48 miles W. of
Halifax.

Eyrf, or /ré,a mountain of Africa, between Fezzan
and Cafhna,

i _Evre, or Eire, in Law, fignifies the court of juftices
itinerant.

The word feems formed of the old French, irre, iter,
way, track.

Hence juftices in eyre are thofe whom BraGton calls ju/fi-
ciarii ttinerantes. See Justices in Eyre.

Eyre of the Foreft, is otherwife called juflice-feat, which —
by the ancient cuftoms was to be held every three years by
the juftices of the foreft, journeying up and down for that
purpofe. See Justrices. —

EYRECOURT, in Geography, a poft town of the
county of Galway, Ireland; 72 Ivith miles weft from
Dublin, and about 34 eaft from Galway.

EYRIE, or Ayriz, among Fa/coners, the neft where
hawks fit and hatch, and feed their young.

Hence a young hawk, newly taken from the nett, is called
an eyefs.

EYRON, in Geography. See Erron.

EYSACH, a river of the Tyrolefe, which runs into the
Adige, near Bolzano.

EYSDALE, or Espace, a fmall ifland near the weft
coaft of Scotland, celebrated for its quarries of excellent
flate; feven miles S.E. from Mull. N. lat. 56° 18!
W. long. 5188.

EYSENBERG, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 20
miles S.S.W. of Brandenburg.

EYSL, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Anfpach; four miles N. of Thalmeffing.

EYSTATHES, in Botany, wsaSn:, firm and flable, in
allufion to the hard and durable nature of the wood. >
Loureir. Cochinch. 234. Clafs and order, Ogandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord, Sapindi, Juff. ?

Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, concave
leaves. Cor. Petals five, ovate, fpreading, the fize of the
calyx. Stam. Filaments eight, awl-fhaped, erect, inferted
into the receptacle; anthers ereét, ovate, of two cells,
Pif, Germen fuperior, roundifh, hairy; ftyle thread-thaped,
nearly as long as the ttamens; ftigma obtufe, notched,
Peric. Berry globofe, flefhy, of one cell. Seeds four,
ovate, comprefled,

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves, inferior.
ovate. Berry of one cell, with four feeds.

E. fylvefiris. Lour. 235. Native ot the lufty mountains
of Cochinchina. A large tree, whofe wood is reddifh,
even, firm, of an ample fize, fit for the purpofes of
building. Branches {preading. Leaves alternate, ovate-
oblong, pointed, entire, fmooth, veiny. Yowers white,
in nearly fimple oblong clufters, about ‘the ends of the
branches. Berry fmooth, with a hard fkin, pulpy in-
ternally, of a middling fize, not eatable. =

Such is Loureiro’s account. We know no defcribed
treé to which his defcription is applicable. The number
of feeds which he attributes to this genus, four inflead of
three, renders its natural order doubtful.

EYSTENEY, called alfo Ezfon-Ne/t, in Geography, isa

7 remarkable

Petals five,

EZE

rematkable head-land in Suffolk, formerly accounted the moft
eaitern point of the ifland, whence it received its Saxon, or
rather Britifh, denomination. But fince the latitudes and
longitudes of places have been more accurately afcertained
by modern difcoveries, the ftatement has becn found
erroneous ; part of the Norfolk coaft having a more cafterly
bearing. This point was the EEOXH, or Lxtenfio Promon-
zorium of the Roman geographer Ptolemy. ‘ And to put
it out of doubt,” fays Camden in his Britannia, that it
is the fame we call Eafton, it is to be obferved, that Lyf
teney fignifies the fame in Britifh, as Efoxn in Greck, or
Extenfio in Latin. Though the name in our language
may be with as much probability derived from its ealtern
fituation.”? (Vol. ii. Gough’s Edit. p. 76.) The pro-
bability, however, is in favour of the Britith derivation.
Dften or Ey/fen, m Celtic, means to extend, and Ay, prominent ;
hence Eyitenhy, or Eyfteney, will fignify the extended pro-
teétion, or bold promontory. Horfley places it at Gunfleet,
in the county of Effex.

EYTJOU-HOTUN, a town of Corea; 380 miles
E. of Peking.

EYWANOUITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Olmutz; 16 miles S. W. of Olmutz.

EZA, a town of France, in the department of the
Maritime Alps; 4 miles E. of Nice.

EZAGEN, a town of Africa, in Fez; 60 miles S. of
Tetuan,

EZAWEN, a town of Africa, in the country of Sahara;
yo miles N. W. of Tombuétoo.

EZDOUD, a town of Syria, on the fite of the ancient
Azotus, or Afhdod, famous at prefent for its fcorpions.
‘This town, which was once fo powerful under the Philiftines,
affords no proofs of its ancient importance. ‘Three leagues
from Ezdoud is the village of El-Majdal, where they {pin
the fineft cottons in Paleftine, which, however, are very
coarfe.

EZEKIEL, in Scripture Biography, one of the infpired
prophets, whofe prediétions are recorded in the Old Tefta-
ment. He was the fon of Buzi of the houfe of Aaron, and
one of the captives carried by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon
with Jeconiah or Jehoiachin. The era at which he com-
mences his prophecies was the fifth year of Jehoiachin’s
captivity, or the fifth of Zedekiah, or the 593d year B. C.
Jeremiah was his contemporary, and prophefied at the fame
time in Judea. Ezekiel, after his captivity, inhabited fome
place on the river Chebar, which flows into the Euphrates
about 200 miles northward of Babylon; and this was the
{cene of his predi&tions, though he was occafionally con-
veyed in vifion to Jerufalem ; and his prophecies were con-
tinued for about 22 years. ‘the events of his life, after his
advancement to the prophetic office, are interwoven with
the detail which he himfelf has given of his prediétions ; and
the mamer of its termination is no where afcertained. LEpi-
phanius, indeed, if he be the author of the life of this pro-
phet that is afcribed to him, informs us, that he was put to
death by the prince or commander of the Jews in the place
of his exile; becaufe he was addi¢ied to idolatry, and could
not bear the reproaches of the prophet. But on this ac-
count, which is intermixed with many fables, we can, place
no reliance. The fubjeGts of Ezekiel’s prophecies, con-
tained in the canonical book of the Old Teftament,

aring his name, are the dreadful calamities, foon after in-
fli&ted upon Judza and Jerufalem, on account of the idola-
try, impiety, and profligacy of their inhabitants; the di-
vine 5 ele that would be executed on the falfe prophets
and proplicteffes, who deluded and hardened the Jews in
their rebellion againft God; the punifhments which fhowld

Vou. XIV.

E25

befal che Ammonites, Edomites, and Philiftines, for their
hatred of the Jews, and for infuleing over them in their dif-
trefs ; the deftrudtion of Tyre, which he places in the 26th
year of the captivity of Jehoiachin, and alfo the congucf of
Egypt in the fucceeding year, by Nebuchadnezzar; the fu-
ture reftoration of Ifrael and Judah from their feveral difper-
fions, upon their repentance and reformation ; and their ulti.
mately happy ftate after the advent and under the govern-
ment of the Meffiah. The prediGtions of Ezekiel are dif-
tributed by Jofephus, and various other writers, into two
books, or parts; the firft of which extends to the clofe of
the 39th chapter; and the fecond, in which a new, more
elevated, and joyful fcene is exhibited, begins with the goth
chapter, and is comprehended in the laft nine chapters. Gro-
tius {peaks in high terms of this prophet, obferving, § that
he had great erudition and genius ; fo that fetting afide
his gift of prophecy, which is incomparable, he may de-
ferve to be compared with Homer, oa account of his beau-
tiful conceptions, his illuftrious comparifons, and bis ex-
tenfive knowledge of various matters, particularly of ar-
chitecture.”” Bifhop Lowth, in his z1ft leéture on the fa-
cred poetry of the Hebrews, gives us an admirable defcrip-
tion of the peculiar and difcriminating charaéteriflics of this
prophet. ‘ Ezekiel,” fays he, “is much inferior to Je-
remiah in elegance ; but is equal even to. Iiziah in fub-
lnnity, though their ftyle of compofition is very different.
For he is bold, vehemerxt, tragtcal, wholly intent ‘on exagge-
ration ; in his fentiments elevated, warm, bitter, indignant ;
in his images fertile, magnificent, harfh, and fometimes al-
moft deformed ; in his di¢tion grand, mighty, auttere, rouzh,
and fometimes uncultivated, abounding in repetitions, not
for the fake of ornament or gracefulnefs, but through in-
dignation and violence. Whatever fubje@t he undertakes
to treat of, he purfues it diligently, he remains entirely
fixed on it, and rarely deviates from his purpofe ; fo that
his reader is {carcely ever unable to difcern the fenfe and
conneétion of his matter. Perhaps he is excelled in other
refpects by moft of the prophets; but none ia the whole
compafs of writers has ever equalled him in the manner of
writing, for which he feems to have been fingularly qualified
by nature, in force, impetuality, weight, and grandeur. His
dition is fufficiently perfpicuous; almof all his ebfeurity
lics in his matter: his vifions are particularly obicure ; and

yet, asin Hofea, Amos, and Zechariah, they are iaterpreted
by a narration, which is plain and altogether hiftorical. The
greater part of Ezekiel, and what lies in the middle of his
book, is poetical, whether we regard the matter or the di@tion:
but heis for the moit part fo rude and void of compofition
in his fentences, that I am often doubtful what to determine
in this refpect.””? In another place the fame learned prelate
remarks, that Ezekiel fhould perhaps beoftener ciafled among
the orators than the poets ; and he thinks that, with refpe&
to ftyle, we may juitly aflizn to Ezckiel the fame rank among
the-Hebrews that A&fchylus holds among the Greeks, Vhe
mott learned and elaborate commentary upon this prophet
was written by two Spanifh Jefuits, Pradus and Villalpandus,
in three volumes folio, of which Dr. William Lowth has
availed himfelf in his valuable continuation of Bifhop Pa-
trick’s commentary on the Old Teitament. The lateit and
belt verfion of Ezekiel is that of the late learned bifhop New-
come, in 1788, in 4to. with a preface and notes, which Bibli-
cal {cholars will perufe with advantage. Prideaux’s Conn.
vol. i. ; Loowth’s Comm. Pref.: and Preface to Newcome’s
Com.

Egexren’s reed, or red, a {eriptare meafure, computed
by late writers te amount te 1 Engliih foot 11 inches + of
an inch,

a EZRA,

EZRA.

EZRA, or Ezpras, in Biography, a Jewifh prieit,
autMor of the book that bears his name, and compiler of
the Canon of the O. T., was a defcendant of Seraiah,
the high prieft, who was put to death by Nebuchad-
nezzar at the capture of Jerufalem, in the year 587 B. C.
and flourifhed about the year 458 B.C. He was probably
born in the land of captivity, and acquired the refpect and
confidence of his countrymen by his diftinguifhed learnirg,
acquaintance with the fcriptures, and zeal: for the religion
of hie fathers. Inthe beginning of the 7th year of Ar-
taxerxes Longimanus, or 458 B.C., Ezra received his
eommifiion to return to Jerufalem, with as many of his
nation as chofe to accompany him, for the purpofe of re-
{toring and {ettling the ftate, and reforming the church
of the Jews, and of regulating and governing both accord-
ing to their own laws. ‘The extraordinary powers with
which Ezra was invefted feem to have been conferred upon
him by the influence of Efther, who was at this time in
high favour at the Perfian court. At the commencement
of his journey he appointed a faft, with a view of recom-
mending himfelf and his affociates to the divine protection,
and arrnved at Jerusalem on the 1{t day of the 8th month,
having {pent 4 whole months in the journey from Ba-
bylon thither. Having delivered up to the temple the
rich offerings which had been made to it by the king, the
nobles, and the Jews who remained in Babylon, and having
comniunicated his commifiion to the king’s lieutenants and
governors throughout Syria and Paleftine, he made no de-
Tay in the execution of it; and difficult and arduous as it
was, he perfevered during an interval of 13 years, till Ne-
hemiah arrived with a new commiffion from the Perfian
court, to co-operate with him. From the advancement of
Efther to the high dignity of queen in the court of Perfia,
and the proteGiion and patronage’ thus afforded him, Ezra
derived an encouragement to go on. with the work of
reforming and fettling the Jewifh church and ‘tate in Jeru-
falem, which he had undertaken.

We fhall here obferve that the date of the commiffion
granted to Ezra in the 7th year of Artaxerxes furnifhes
the commencement of the 70 weeks of the famous pro-
phecy, delivered in the oth chapter of Daniel, concerning
the advent of the Meffiah, that thefe 70 weeks are weeks
of years, and that the whole number amounts to 490 years,
at the end of which the- period marked in the prophecy
expired ; after which the Jews were no longer to be the
peculiar people of God, nor Jerufalem his holy city, be-
caufe then the economy which he had eftablifhed among
them was to ceafe, and the worfhip which he had ap-
pointed at Jerufalem was to be wholly abolifhed. All
this was accomplifhed at the death of Chrift. Accord-
ugly, the end ot thefe weeks being fixed at the death of
Chrift, we may eafily calculate their commencement. The
death of Chrift, as moft learned men agree, took place in
the year of the Julian period 4746, and in the Jewifh
month Nifan, when the Jewifh paflover was always cele-
brated ; and, therefore, 1f we reckon 490 years backward,
this will lead us up to the month Nifan, in the year of
the Julian period 4256, which were the year and the
month in which Ezra had his commiffion from Arta-
xerxes, for his return to Jerufalem, in order to reftore the
church and ftate of the Jews. According to this inter-
pretation of the prophecy, the words * to reitore and re-
build Jerufalem’’? cannot be underftood in a literal fenfe.
If this be the cafe, they mult be underftood of that re-
building of Jerufalem, which was accomplifhed by virtue
of the decree of Cyrus, in the firft year of his reign, 536
years B, C.; but from this era to the death of Chritt

were 568 years; and, therefore, if the faid 490 years be
computed from thence, they will expire many years before
the cutting off or the coming of the Meffiah, both of which
events ought to fall within the compafs of them according
to the words of the prophecy. But to return from this
digreffion.

One of the firft objeéts of Ezra’s attention, after he had
appointed judges and magiftrates, was to induce the Jews
to diffolve the marriages, which had been contraéted by
many of them in direét contradiétion to the law of Mofes,
with wives from the families of their idolatrous neighbours,
During the ‘continuance of his government he feduloufly
employed himfelf in reftoring the difcipline and rites of
the Jewifh church, and the worfhip of the temple, accord-
ing to the form in which it had exifted before the captivity.
But we mutt not omit to mention a very important meafure
which engaged the attention of Ezra, and to which he
devoted his fkill and induftry ; and this was the correétion
and revifion of the books of the facred writings. What
he did in this refpeét towards forming a complete canon of
the feriptures, has been already ftated at large under the
article Binte. Although Ezra’s commiffion was fuper-
feded by that of Nehemiah, in the 2oth year of Arta-
xegxes Longimanus, he continued, in concurrence with
the new governor, to perfeé the reformation which he had
begun. When he had completed his revifion of the fcrip-
tures, and had them written out in the Chaldzan charaGer,
he made preparation for publicly reading the law of Mofes
to the people at Jerufalem. The day appointed for this
purpofe was the firlt day of the feaft of trumpets, when
the commencement of the new year was joyfully cele-
brated. Having afcended a feaffold, which had been
erected in the moft convenient part of the city, and being
attended by 13 of the principal elders of the people, he
began to read the law out of the Hebrew text, and fome
of the Levites, previoufly inftru&ted and appointed for
this purpofe, rendered it into Chaldee, which was then
the vulgar language of the people; and he proceeded thus,
day after day, during this feftival, and alfo that of taberna-
cles, tilk the whole law was finifhed. Nehemiah and Ezra,
at the clofe of this folemn bufinefs, by which the minds of
the people had been much impreffed, proclaimed a faft, in
order to give them an opportunity, and alfo incitement, for
a public and folemn confeffion of their fins, and for enter-
ing into engagements of future obedience to the laws
which had been explained to them.

The fubfequent events of Ezra’s life are not recorded,
Jofephus fays that he died at Jerufalem; but other Jews
affirm that he returned to Perfia, and died there, in the
120th year of his age. Many fables have been related con-
cerning him in the writings of the Talmudifts, and they
have been borrowed by the Mahometens; but they are not
deferving of recital. Several of them may be found in
Herbelot’s “ Bibliotheque Orientale,’? under the articles
Ozain, and Ben Seraiah.

The book of Ezra was written by him, partly in He-
brew, and partly in Chaldee, viz. from the 8th verfe of
the 4th chapter to the 27th verfe of the 7th chapter; and
contains the hiftory of the Jews from the time of Ar-
taxerxes’s, or, as others fay, Cyrus’s, edi& for their return,
to the twentieth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, It
fpecifies the number of Jews whe returned, and Cyrus’s
proclamation for re-building the temple, the obftruétion it
met with, and the finifhing thereof in the reigt' of Danus.
It is canonical, and allowed as fuch both by the church and
the fynagogue,

The books of Ezra, called in the Englifh verfion, © the

4 Firk

EZ R A.

Firft and Second Books of Efdras,’’ though held by fome,
particularly the Greeks, for canonical, are thrown by the
Englifh church into the number of apocryphal books, being
only extant in Greek. Thefe have been defervedly rejected
from the canon as {purious productions, confilting of com-
bined extracts from the genwine book of Ezra, rabbinical
fables, and the dreams of fome Chriftian vifionary. The
Jews aferibe to Evra the book of Nehemiah, but this

opinion is contradi&ted by Nehemiah’s own declaration at-
the beginning of it, and by his always {peaking of himfeif
in the firft perfon, Some have alfo conjectured that Ezra

was the author of the book of Ether, which fee; and

many have, with greater probability, attributed to him the

compilation of the two books of Chronicles; and others

have faid that he was the writer of the two books of Kings.

Prideaux’s Com, vol. ii. Du Pin.

F.

Y The fixth letter of the alphabet, and the fourth con-
9 fonant.

The letter F may be either confidered abfolutely, and in
itfelf, or with regard to the particular languages where it
is found. In the firft view, F is generally placed by gram-
marians among the femi-vowels, and diltinguifhed in the
enumeration of the alphabet by a name beginning with a
vowel ; though it has fo far the nature of a mute that it is
eafily pronounced before a liquid in the fame fyllable. Joh.
Conrad. Amman (in his Differtatio de Loquela) divides
the confonants into fingle and double, and the fingle into
hiffing and explofive. “Among thofe called hiffing, there
are fome pronounced by the application of the upper teeth
to the lower lip ; and thefe are the F and ps. ‘The reafon
why fome account the F a femi-vowel, and Amman places
it among the hiffers, is, that one may pronounce a little
found without any other motion of the organs than what is
neceffary to the pronunciation of the F.

In Englifh its found is invariable, being formed by com-
preffion of the lips, or a junction of the upper teeth with
the under lip, and a forcible breath.

This letter is derived to us from the Romans, by whom it
was borrowed from the Molians, whe, having no rough
breathing, invented this character, or rather borrowed it from
the oriental tongues; among the olians it is called digamma,
or double gamma, as refembling two I’s, (gammas,) one
over the other. The Latins ufed this great F inftead of wv.
Hence the A®olians, and the Latins after them, write Foie;
for owos, vinum, and Frowepe for tospay uelperes and «Fwy
for cis, evum. (See Letter E.) The afpirate, fays the
ingenious writer, cited under that article, inftead of vanifhing

on the principle there ftated, was changed into a labial
letter, w, v, J, ford. The digamma, however, did not
always originate in a guttural, but fometimes in confonants
allied to our w or y. The digamma, fays the fame author,
did not belong, as Dr. Bentley and others fuppofed, to the
Holic dialeé&t only, but to all the dialects of Greece in
their more ancient mode of pronunciation ; and he obferves,
in oppofition to the opinion of the learned, who fay that
the digamma at fy/? prevailed, and was afterwards fucceeded
by the afpirate, that the gutturals at firit prevailed, which
were foftened into mere alpirates, and that thefe were again
changed for a more eafy and agrecable letter, which being
fimply a labial, was diveriilied by different people into 9, zw,
vw, ?, orf. In contradiction to this very plaulible theory,

it may be alleged, that the dizamma is to be found only in
Homer, the moft ancient writer of Greece, while the
afpirate occurs in all the more recent authors. T'o this ob-
jection it is replied, that the ufe of the afpirate obtained in
the written language, and was, therefore, leis fufceptible
of corruption: on the other hand, that of the digamma
prevailed in pronunciation, which was more liable to change,
and to deviate from the original terms. Homer, we may
naturally fuppofe, adopted the firft in compofiug and writing
his poems, and the laft in reciting them to the people.
The written form, we may prefume, was at firft ufed but
little, but prevailed by degrees, while the peculiarities of
pronunciation in their turn began to decline. The language,
as written by Homer, at length became fafhionable in the
converfation of polifhed people ; and the afpirate being thus
triumphant in the daily converfe of learned men, would of
courfe in their writings triumph over oral and temporary
corruptions. The prefervation of the afpirate in the writ-
ten poems of Homer, while the digamma was ufed in recit-
ing them, is a proof that Homer did actually ufe a written
language, and that his works were preferved by a written
language ; otherwife the afpirate would have been loft, and
the digamma alone would have prevailed iu all the Greek
authors who followed. If an editor of Homer in modern
days would infert the digamma, he would corrupt the ori-
ginal orthography of Homer, and fubftitate, in the room
of the original charaéters, the corruption of pronuacia-
tion.

Mr. Jones further obferves, that the change of a guttu-
ral into an afpirate, or into a long vowel, or into a labial
letter, called the digamma, is not peculiar to any one
language, but is founded in the ftructure of the organs of
{peech ; and inftances of it prevail in all tongues, both
ancient and modern. We may further add, that the dis
gamma feems in its origin to have been no other than the
Greek ©, which being made at three itrokes, degenerated at
length into the figure F. For the letter @ being cam.
pounded of an omicren with a perpendicular drawn throughs
it, if that perpendicular be made firft, and the O at two
ilrokes afterwards, wiz, firft the upper, then the under party
it may happen, efpecially in writing fait, that the two
parts fhall not join; and even initead of two arches of
circles, hafte and conveniency may naturally enough make’
two ikraight lines. : :

What contirms this tranfmutation of the @ iato F, ig

G2 that

F

that on the medals of Philip, and the kings of Syria, in the
words EFMIMANOYE and GIAAAEA@OY, the phi is fre-
quently feen in the form jutt mentioned ; z.é@. it has no
circle or omicron; but acrofs the middle of the perpendi-
cular is a kind of right line, formed only of two dots, the
one on the right fide, and the other on the left, reprefent-
ing a crofs +. Such appears to be the origin of the letter
F, which of confequence is no other than a corruption of
the Greek ©; and accordingly, on the medals of the
Falifci, the F is ordinarily put in lieu of the Greek © : but
it matt be added, that though the Greek and Latin letter
were thus the fame thing, yet the found was much fofter
among the Latins than among the Greeks, as was long ago
obferved by 'Terentianus. wthy

The Roiaans for fome time ufed an inverted F 4, in lieu
ofa V confonant, which had no peculiar figure in their
alphabet : thus, in infcriptions we meet with TERMI.

A WIT, Digl, &c. According to Lipfius, in his Com-
ment on the Annals of Tacitus, lib: xi. Covarruvias and
Daufquius, this inverted digamma jJ was firit introduced
by the emperor Claudius. See Tacit. An. lib. xi. cap. 4.
and Suet. in Vit. Claud. cap. 41. :

It may be added, that the pronunciation of the F is al-
moft the fame with that of the V, as will be evident by
attending tothe manner of pronouncing the following words :
Favour, Vanity, Felicity, Vice, foment, Pogue, &e.
The French particularly, in borrowing words from other
languages, ehally turn the final v into an f, as chetif of
cattivo, neuf of novus, nef of nawis, &c. ;

In- the latter Roman writers we find the Latin F and
Greek © ph frequently confounded ; as in Falanx for Pha-
lanx, Filofophia for Philofophia, &c. which abufe is ftill
retained by many French writers, who write Filofophie,
Filippe, Epifane, &c. and even fometimes by the Englifh
as in fantafy, fltre, &c.

F, in the Calendar, is the fixth dominical letter.

F, in the Civil Law. Two ff's joined together fignify
the Pande&s: fee the reafon of this under Panpecrt.

F, in our Ancient Cufloms, was a ftigma or brand.

He that fhall malicioufly ftrike any perfon with a weapon
in church or church-yard, or draw any weapon there with
an intent to ftrike, fhall have one of his ears cut off. and
if he have no ears he fhall be marked on the cheek with a
hot iron having the letter F, whereby he may be known
for a fray-maker, or fighter.

F, or Fa, in Mu/fic, denotes the bafs-clef, being placed
on the fourth line upwards.

Indeed the charaéter or fign by which the f and c clefs
are marked, bear no refemblance to thofe letters. Mr.
Malcolm thinks it were as well if we ufed the letters them-
felves ; but cuftom has carried it otherwife. The ordinary
chara&ter of the F or bafs-clef is 3 which Kepler takes a
great deal of pains to deduce by corruption from the letter
F itfelf.

F, in the /talian Mujic, is often ufed inftead of forte.

¥F, implies fortifimo, very ftvong, or loud.

F, in Medical Preferiptions, ftands for fiat, let it be done,
as F. §. 4. denotes as much as fat fecundum artem.

F, among fuch as give us the numeral value of letters,
Signifies 40, according to the verfe

« Sexta quaterdenos gerit que diftat ab alpha.”
And when a dah was added over it ¥, fignified 40,000.

F, on the French Goins, is the mark of the town of
Angers:

‘in a flat but fertile country.

FAD
Fa, in Solmifation, is always the fourth found of each.

hexachord, as 4, re, ide :

F, Fa, Ur, in the icale of Guido, is the note which
occupies the fourth line in the bafs, on which the clef is
placed: fa implies the fourth in the natural hexachord of C,
and the wé the firft note of the molle hexachord.

Fa Feinr, in Old Mufic, implied F x; and any note not
in the regular hexachords, whether flat or fharp, was faid
to be a feigned or fictitious note.

Fa Ficrum, Latin, or Fa Finto, Ital. in Old Mujfical
Language, implied F %. See Fa Feint.

FAABORG, in Geography, a fea-port town of Den-
mark. on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Funen, fituated
Its harbour is not good $
it principally trades in provifions, N. lat. 55° 6!. E. long.
10° 16.

FAAS, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad; § miles
S. of Amednagur.

FABA, in Botany, from ¢eye, to eat, the common or
broad bean. Jufi. 360. Tourn. t.2i2. Juffieu feparates
this as a genus from Vicia chiefly on account of the verti-
cal, not lateral, infertion of the feeds, whofe fear or Ai/um
is terminal. ‘There are feveral fpecies, and their ftout ereét
habit, fo different from that of Vicia, countenances the
meafure. Even Gertner however, fo critical in differences
in fruit, has not adverted to this, and the general opinion
is in favour of J.inneus who combines the two. See
Victa. +

Fasa Bengalenfis, in the Materia Medica, a roundill:
compreffed fubftance, about an inch in diameter, brought
from Bengal, and thought to be a vitiated fruit of the
myrobalans kind. Itisa very good aftringent, and has been
fuccefsfully preferibed in fluxes and hemorrhages.

Fasa St. [gnatii. See StryYcHNOS.

Fasa Purgatrix, the fruit of a {pecies.of ricinus. See
Patma Chrifli and Casror-otl

FABACIUM, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs a.
fort of food then in ufe, which was a kind of cake made of
bean-meal.

FABAGO, in Botany, fee Zycoruyttum. The name
alludes to the thicknefs and fhape of the leaves, refembling
the feed-lobes of a bean.

FABALIS Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, a ftone men
tioned by many ancient authors of repute as found in the
river Nile, of the fhape of the common bean, and of ablack
colour. They fay it had the virtue of curing dzemoniace,
and that dogs durft not bark if it was laid before them.
Thefe, and many other like virtues, are attributed to this
ftone, to the great difgrace of the fober authors who relate
them. The ftone feems to have been of thofe extraneous:
foflils which Dr. Hill has ftyled ichthyperia, from their
having been formerly parts of the bony palates of fthes.
which feed on the fhell-ffth kinds; and other authors fili-
quaftri, from their refembling the pod of the lupine or
bean.

FABARIA, in Boteay, a name given by fome authors to.
the telephium or orpine, and by which it 1s in fome places.
called in the fhops.

Fasartx Calende, among the Romans, the calends of
June, fo called becaufe the beans being then firft mpe, fome
7 them were offered to. the goddefs Carna, the wife of

anus.

FABARIS, in Ancient Geography, Farfa, a river of
Italy, called by Ovid Farfarus, which had its fource at a
{mall diftance to the eait of Carpefia, at a place now called
«Capo Farfa,” and purfuing a welterly-courfe, difcharged
itfelf into the Tiber.

FABA.

FAB
FABATARIUM, among the ancients, fignifies, ac-

cording to fome, a large veffel in which beans were kept ;
others will have it to have been a kind of difh or plate into
which bean-pulfe was put and offered to the houthold gods.

FABER, Henry, in Biography, publifhed an elementary
traét on mufic, (ad Muficam Praticam Introductio, mulhus, )
1571, in which the feale in the harmonic or Guidonian
hand is better arranged than in any other book of the
kind that we have feen, by placing a clef at the top of the
three middle fingers, as beacons or land-marks, and making
each finger the reprefentative of a tetrachord. See plate,
Hittory of Mufic, vol. ii. p. 95.

Faser, Garcory, publiihed at Bafil, in 1552, “*Mufices
PraGtice Erotematum,” in two books, o€tavo, containing
230 pages; which, when they were written, could have been
but of {mall ufe to aftudent without the colloquial com-
mentary of a matter: its only value, indeed, now is, that
it contains compofitions of Julquin, Brumel, Okenheim, and
other muficians of that time.

Fanrr, Jaconus STAPULENS#S, or JAMES LEFEVRE,
born at Etaples in the Boulonnois, and who flourifhed about
the beginnirg of the 16th century, was an able mathema-
tician, and one of the few writers on mufic which France
could boaft of at that early period. He was educated at
Paris, and with a view to further improvement, he tra-
yelled through various parts of the world, that he might
have an opportunity of converfing withthe learned. On
his return to France, he declared open war againft the
Scholaftic philofopky, and attempted to introduce gennine
Ariftotelianifm, as well as to difleminate a tafte for mathe-
matical learning. Befides feveral theological works, he
wrote commentaries upon the dialeétics, phyfics, politics,
and economics of Ariftotle. Of thefe commentaries one of
his conteraporaries fays, ‘* Faber has rendered the Peripa-
tetic doétrine fo clear, that we have no longer any occafi n
for Ammonius, Simplicius, or Philoponus.’? Another feys,
*-Vaber was the firft amoug the French, as Cicero among
the Romans, who united philofophy and eloquence.”? The
boldnefs with which he oppofed the corruption of philo-
fophy brought upon him a fupicion of herely, and the per-
fecution of the doétors of the Sorbonne; bat he found a
fecure afylum in the court of Margaret, queen of Navarre,
where he is faid to have lived to the age of 100 years ; “and
where he died while veering between Proteftant and Catholic.
His chief works were theological, but his name is preferved
by Proteftants as a mufical writer, and author of an elementary
treatife on the art, (Mufica Libris Quatuor Demonttrata, )
under the title of “Jacobi. Fabri Stapulenfis Elementa
Muficalia, ad Clorifimum Virum Nicolaum de Haqueville,
&c.”? Paris 1496 and1552. Zarlino mentions him by the
title of TI Stapulenfe.”? He is faid by Bayle to have died
at Nirac (where the king of Navarre held his court in 1537)
at near 100. Bayle, who {ays nothing of his mufical work,
has been very aignielon his polemics, calls him a bit of a
man, “c’etoit un petit bout d’homme,” with a perturbed
dpirit, who attacked his friend Erafmus in an unhandfome
Manner; in which controverfy he loft. reputation, and
proved himfelf to be neither Catholic nor Protettant.

His mufical demonftrations, in a {mall 4to. of only 44
leaves, begins by a lift of the Greek founders and ‘writers
on the {cience, and the wonted wonders of its effects ; fol-
a a by an eloge on his matters, Labinius and Turbi-

nus.

He gives a lift of all the ancient writers on mufic, Greek
and Roman, from Ariftoxenus to Boethius, but appears to
have read none of them, except Boethius, whofe treatife he

FAS

feems merely to have abridged. Salinas fays that he under=
ftood other parts of mathematics better than mufic. His
tract is folely confined to harmonics, and was admired in his
own time, becaufe he had no rivals; but fo frequently has
the fubjeét of harmonics been treated fince by mathemati-
claps of a fuperior order, that this is only valuable for its
age and fcarcity. He takes notice of the Senatus Con-
{ultum againft Timotheus, but he has given us no copy of
it, nor does he mention any other notation nfed by the
Romans, iu the time of Boethius, than that of the Greeks.
There are feven or eight muficians and mufical writers re-
corded by Walker in his mutfical diétionary of the name of
Faber, and Lefevre, but as neither mufic nor precepts of
any ufe are come down to us from their labours, we fhall
let them go gently down the ftream of oblivion, without
endeavouring to check their courfe, or applying to the ha-
mane focie.y.

Fazer, Joun, was born at Hailbron, on the Necker,
about the year 1500 ; the circumftances of his early life have
not come down to us, but we find him belonging to the
Dominican order, and a doétor in theology at Cologne ;
after which he went to refide at Augfburgh, where he ac-
quired confiderable reputation as a preacher and writer
againft the Proteftant doftrines. His writings are chiefly
polemical, among which is “Fructus quibus dignofcuntur
Heretici,” a work highly regarded by the Catholics of his
own day on account of the facts, or perhaps fables, which
it details concerning Luther. He wrote alfo in the Germaa
language “ An illuitration of the Prophecy of Joel,” anda
collection of prayers compiled from the fcriptures and the
works of St. Auguftin. Moreri.

Fazer, Joun, furnamed from his own principal work,
6¢Malleus Hereticorum,’? was born at Leutkirchen, a
town of Suabia, towards the end of the 15th century: he
was zealoufly attached to the caufe in which he had been
educated, and was admitted to the degree of doctor in theo-
logy. In1518 he was appointed by the bifhop of Con-
flance his official, and in the following year his vicar-ge-
neral, and in that charaéter he was appointed to examine
the tenets of Zuingle and his fellow retormers in Switzer-
land. In this bufinefs his zeal outitript all fenfe of mode-
ration and propriety, and he exclaimed at one of the
debates in which he was engaged “that the world might
very well live in peace withont the gofpel.’? This was in
reply to thofe who contended that the fcriptures were the
only rule of faith and good condv@. The reformers car-
ried their point, an edict was iffued favourable to their opi-
nions, again{t which Faber had the temerity to enter his pro-
teft. He was next appointed confeflor to Ferdinand, who
at that time was king of the Romans, and afterwards emperor,
who fent him as envoy to the court of Henry VIII. of Eng-
land. In the year 1531 he was advanced to the bifhopric of
Vienna as a reward for his zeal and exertions in the Catholic
caufe. To this inftance of promotion Erafmus alluded
when he faid “that Luther, notwithitanding his poverty,
found means to enrich, his enemies.’”? He died in the year
1542, leaving behind works which were publifhed at dif-
ferent times, but which after his death were colleéted in
three volumes folio. .Moreri.

Faper, Basi, another learned German born in the
year 1520 at Sorau, in Lower Lufatia. he pafled through
many degrees of church preferment, end died at Erfurt in
1576. He pubitfhed works fufficient for two volumes folio,
but his moft celebrated piece was “ Theiaurus Evuditionis
Schola!hex,’? which has gone through many editions, aug
mented and improved by the labours of the learned. +e

bel

FAB

bet édition is that of the Hague in 1735, in two vols.
Moreri.

Faber, Honoratus, was born in the year 1626, ata

eriod when the {cholaftic philofophy declined. He was pro-
effor of mathematics and philofophy at Lyons, and wrote
upon philofophy, logic, and phytics. He implicitly followed
neither the Scholaftics nor the Ariltotelians, but borrowed
light from modern philofophers, particularly the Cartefians.
His innovations, however, brougaot him under a ftrong fuf-
picion of herefy, and produced littlezeffeét.

Fazer, Pirrre-JEan, a phyfician of the faculty of
Montpellier, and the author of numerous works relative to
medicine, furgery, and chemittry, publifhed chiefly between
the years 1624 and 1626, at Touloufe. Little ‘more is
known refpecting him, than that he practifed his profef-
fion at Cattelnaudary, in Languedoc, with great reputation ;
fo that he was frequently fent for to the cities of that pro-
vince, efpecially to Touloufe. The titles of his treatifes
will be found enumerated by Eloy. In one of thefe, “ In-
fignes Curationes Variorum Morborum, Tolofe, 1627,”
he informs us that he fucceeded in guriog a rich and noble
young lady of an hyfterical difeafe, mixed with occafional
attacks of epilepfy, and that fhe married him in reward of
his fervices. Eloy Dié&. Hitt.

Several phy‘icians of the name of Faber, of lefs note, are
mentioned by Mangetus and Eloy ; one of whom, named
Albert, after having praCifed his profeffion at Lubeek
about the year 1641, aud fubfequently at Hamburgh, be-
came phytician to Charles IL., to whom he dedicated his
only work, written in Englifh A Latin tranflation of this
work is extant, under the title of ‘* Practica recenfitio de
Auro potabili médicinali, ejufque virtute,’? printed at
Francfort in 1678. He furvived his royal matter but one
year, having died in 1686. :

Faser, in Ichthyology, the Englith Doree, a {pecies of
Zeus ; which fee—Alfo, a fpecies of Chetedon ; which fee.

FABIAN, Rosert, in Biography, an Englifh hiftorian,
bora in London in the rsth century, and brought up to
active bofinefs. In the purfuits of commerce he was fo
dittinguiflted as to be chofen fheriff of the city in 1493. His

leifure ours were devoted to literature, and particularly to
the ftudy of hiftory. He employed himfelf in compiling a
chronicle, which was printed after his death, entitled * A
Concordance of Stories.’ It is divided into feven parts, of
which fix refer wholly to the hiltory of England previoufly
to William the Conqueror; the feventh brings the
Englifh and French hiftories down to the reign of Henry
VII. He is copious in the affairs of London, m which the
work is chiefly valuable, and on that account it is called by
Stow “a painful labour, to the great honour of the city
and the whole realm.’? ‘To each of his books are prefixed
a metrical prologue and other pieces in verfe, which led
bifhop Tanner to ftyle him, “ pocta haud infelicis ingenii.”’
His chronicle was priated in the year 1516, four years aiter
the author’s death. Biog. Brit.

FABIANE, in Geography, a river of Louitiana, which
runs into the Miffiffippi. N. lat. 39° 31’. W. long.

Ital
3 FABIANS, Fasut, in Antiguity, a part of the Luperci.
Thofe priefts confilted of two colleges, the firit of which
was called the Fabii, andthe fecond the Quintilii, from their
refpeétive chiefs. The Fabii weve for Romulus, and the
Quintilii for Remus.

FABIANUS, Paryrivs, in Biography, an intelligent
naturalift, who hived in the reign of Tiberius, and wrote a
treatife “ On Animals.”? Pliny calls him natuiz rerum

FASB

peritiffimus.” He is alfo mentioned by Seneca and othe,
writers. Le Clerc, Hitt. de la Med. »

T'antanus, pope, was a native of Rome, to the bifhopric
of which he fucceeded in the year 236. He prefided in that
high {tation till the year 250, when he fell a martyr to the
Decian perfecution. He is charaéterized by St. Cyprian as
“an excellent man, the glory of whofe death had anfwered
the purity, holinefs, and integrity of his life.” According
to Tillemont, and others, a great part of Gaul was indebted
to Fabianus for its knowledge of Chriftianity, which was
taught by the bifhops that he trained up and fent out in
miffions for the propagation of religion. Moreri.

FABIO, SrGnor, in the year 1770 was leader of the
opera band at Naples; a mufician who knew and performed
his bufinefs admirably. As his name or his merit can be
little known in England, he would not perhaps have been
recorded here but to relate a circumltance which did him
honour, in our opinion, at Naples, but which in England
would have degraded him to the rank of a ticket-porter.
Having been invited to dine with a gentleman who loved
mufic, we obferved that he was fo obliging and fo humble
as to bring with him his violin. It is very common in the
great cities of Italy to fee performers of the firft eminence
carry their own inftruments throvgh the {treets. This
feems a trivial cireumftance to mention, yet it itrongly marks
the difference of manners and characters in two countries
not very remote from each other. In Ttaly, the leader of
the firft opera in the world carries the inftrument of his fame
and fortune about him, with as much pride asa foldier does
his fword or mufquet; while, in England, the indignities
he would receive from the populace would foon imprefs his
mind with fhame for himfelf and fear for his inftrument.

FABIUS, Maximus Q. an eminent Roman commander,
whofe hiftory and deeds are incorporated with that part of
his country’s annals which are devoted to the period in which
he flourifhed. He was matter of the horfe to the dictator
Papirius, who, jealous of the fuperiority of an inferior offi-
cer, fought revenge in the death of Fabius; but having
efcaped, he was himfelf made conful five times, and ren-
dered his country very fignal fervices. In the year Bz.
304, he ferved the important office of cenfor, and reformed
an abufe introduced by Appius Claudius, who, to obtain
influence in elections, had diftributed a great number of
freedmen, and perfons of the meanett condition, among the
country tribes. Thefe Fabius incorporated into four tribes,
and thus nearly deftroyed their influence. On this account
he received the appellation of *¢ Maximus,” which was
made hereditary in his family. The victories which he ob-
tained were very numerous, and many of them of the utmotft
importance to the welfare of Rome ; for that over the Gauls
and Samnites he obtained a triumph. He afterwards gave
a fignal proof of the love which he bore his country, by op-
pofing the elevation of his fon Fabius Gurges to the con-
fulate, becaufe he deemed lim to be inadequate to the
office, from habits of intemperance. Gurges was, however,
chofen; and, marching againft the Samnites, underwent a
fevere defeat. The father immediately went out as lieute-
naut to his fon, and by his valour refcued him, aad obtained
a fignal victory over the enemy. Farther fuecefles crowned
their exertions, for which Gurges, as coniul, was decreed a
triumph. The joyful parent followed the triumphal caren
horfeback, and was hailed by the citizens as their great
champion and deliverer. This was the conclufion of bis
military exploits. He was again nominated dictator in the
year B.C. 287. :

Faxivs, Maxinvs, Q. furnamed the Cun&ator, on ac-

count

FAB

eount of his great prudence in war, was either the grandfon
or great grandfon of the former, and attained the honour of
the confulfhip for the firit time in the year B.C, 233, when
he obtained a triumph for a victory over the Ligurians. In
his youth he had difplayed very moderate talents ; the meek-
nefs of his difpofiticn, and the gravity of his manners were
imputed to want ot character; it was, however, afterwards
difcovered that he had been diligently laying up ftores of
civil and military knowledge. When he was conful the
fecond time he had to contend with the great Hannibal,
and to his flill, and well-timed caution, the fafety of the
ftate was owing. His plan was to hazard nothing, but to
hover round the enemy, watching his motions, cutting off
his fupplies, and perpetually haraffing him with {mall de-
tachments, while he himfelf, with the main body, remained
in pots of fafety. This condu&, though the bet that
could be adopted, was very difpleafiag to the Romaus, who
recalled him to the city, and refufed to ratify a convention
for the mutual exchange and ranfom of prifoners, which he
had made with Hannibal. To enable him to make good
his engagements, he ordered his own lands to be fold, and
thus railed a fufficient fum of money to anfwer the pur-
pote.

On departing from the army, he gave orders to Minucius,
his matter of the horfe, not to rifk a battle ; but, regardlels
of the command, he attacked the enemy, gained fome ad-
vantages, and was raifed to an equal rank with Fabius. In
a fhort time he was attacked by Hannibal, and would have
been entirely cut off butfor the prompt affiftance of Fabius.
¢ On this occafion,”’ fays the hiftorian, “ whatever honour
Minucius might lofe as a general, he recovered as a man.
At the head of his foldiers he returned thanks to Fabius for
his deliverance, called him father, and refigned moit willingly
his authority into the hands of the dictator.?? Fabius em-
braced him as his friend, and continued him in the poft of
matter of the horfe. When his dictatorfhip expired, he left
his example. and advice to the conful P. Aimilius, who, not
being able to reftrain the rafhnefs of his colleague, Varrag
fuftained a defeat at the fatal battle of Canne. /Emilius,
when at the point of death, requefted a friend to acquaint
Fabius that he had never ceafed to follow his countel, and
was innocent of the misfortune. This difaiter juitified the
caution of Fabius, and gave him a juit and bigh pre-emi-
nence in the ftate. In the fubfequent years of warfare he
_was thrice made conful; but his moft confiderable aGtion
was the recovery of T'arentum, which had been bafely given
up to Hannibal. His fuccefs here was fullied by a1 indif-
criminate flaughter of the defenders, and by great feverity
towards the inhabitants, who were fold for flaves, after they
had been {ripped of their wealth. While Fabius was col-
lecting with great care all the gold and filver for the public
treafury, he was regardlefs of the admirable {fpecimens of the
fine arts which abounded in that Grecian colony ; and be-
ing afked what fhould be done with them, he replied, « Let
us leave to the Tarentines their angry gods.” Fabius lived to
an old age, and was much difconcerted at the fuccels which
attended the meafures of Scipio againit Hannibal, though
he did not live to witnefs the triumphant clofe of the war.
His fon who had been conful died before him, for whom he
himfelf pronounced a funeral oration. By Ennius, Fabius is

defcribed as

«© Unus qui nobis cun@tando reftituit rem.??

And by Cicero he is reprefented as not lefs ufeful in the
toga than at the head of the army. Univer. Hitt.
ABlUS, in Geography, one of the military towathips in

-converling together,

FAB

Onondago, New York 3 in which is a poft-office, and con-
taining 844 inhabitants.

FABLE, a tale or feigned narration, defigned cither to
inftrnét or divert; or, as Monf. de la Motte defines it, an
initruétion difguifed under the allegory of an aétion.

Fable feems to be the moft ancient way of teaching: the
principal difference between the eloquence of the ancients
and that of the moderns confifts, according to Pere Boffu,
in this, that our manner of {peaking is fimple and proper,
and theirs fwll of myfteries and allegories: with them the
truth was ufually difguifed under thofe ingenious inventions,
called, by way of excellence, ofa, fabulz, fables 5 that is,
words, as intimating that there was the jame difference be-
tween thefe fabulous difcourfes of the learned and the com.
mon language of the people, as between the words of men
and the voices of beatts.

At firft fables were only employed in {peaking of the Di-
vine Nature, as then conceived ; whence the ancient theology
was all fable. The Divine attributes were feparated, as it
were, into fo many perfons, and all the economy of the
Godhead laid down in the feigned relations and aétions
thereof ; either becaufe the human mind could not conceive
fo much power and aétion in a fingle and indivifible being 3
or, perhaps, becaufe they thought fuch things too great and
high for the knowledge of the vulgar; aud as they could
not well fpeak of the operations ot this Almighty Caufe

without {peaking likewife of its effe@s, natural philofophy,

and at length human sature, and morality itfelf, came thus
to be veiled under the fame fabulous allegoric expreffion ;
and hence was the origin of poetry, and particularly of epic
poetry.

The critics, <fter Aphthonius and Theon, reckon three
kinds of fables, rational, moral, and mixed.

Fasxes, Rational, are called alfo parables : thefe are re-
lations of things fuppofed to have been faid and done by
men, and which might poflibly have been faid and done,
though in reality they were not. Such in the facred writ-
ings, are thofe of the ten virgins, of Dives and Lazarus, the
prodigal fon, &c. Of thefe rational fables we have likewife
about a dozen in Phedrus. See Parasre.

Fasres, Moral, called alfo apologues, are thofe wherein
not ouly beaits, but trees, and other inanimate fubitances,
are introduced as a€tors and fpeakers. Thefe are alfo called
fEfopic fables ; not that A®fop was their inventor, for they
were in ufe long before him, viz. in the times of Homerand
Hefioc, but becaufe he excelled in them. Such was Jo«
tham’s fable of the trees, the moit ancient of any that are
now extant. See ApoLoGcue.

The rational differs from the moral fable in this, that
the former, though it be feigned, might, be true ; but the
latter is impoflible, as it is impoflible for brutes or {tocks to
fpeak.

Fasrets, Mixed, are thofe compofed of both forts, ra-
tional and moral, or wherein men and brutes are introduced
Of thefe we have a fine inftance in
Juftin. lib. xxiii. cap. 4. niade by a petty king to alarm the
ancient Gauls again{t the Maffilians, who, arriving out of
Afia into Spain, charmed with the place, begged leave of
the inhabitants to build a city. . To this effet: A bitch
big with young begged of a fhepherd a place to lay her
whelps in; which when fhe had obtained, the farther begged
for leave to rear them there. At length the whelps being
now grown up, depending on the itrength of her own fa-
mily, the claimed the property of the place. So the Mafli-
lians, who are now only itraugers, will hereafter pretend ta

be maflers of this country.
As

FABLE.

As to the laws of fable, the principal are, rft. That to
every fable there be ‘ome interpretation annexed, to fhew
the moral fenfe or defign thereof. ‘This interpretation, if
it be placed after the fable, is called exipvbiov, or af ‘abulatio ;
if before it, mpopvbsov, prefabulatio. 2. That the narration
be clear, probable, fhort, and pleafant. To preferve this

robability the manners mult be exprefled and clofely
kext to, as in poetry. See Prosasiriry and Man-
NERS.

M. dela Motte has fome fine remarks.on the fubje& of
fables, at the beginning of his ‘ Fables Nouvelles, dediées
au Roi, 1719.” A fable, according to this polite writer,
is a little epic poem, differing in nothing from the great one
but in extent: and that in being lefs confined as to the choice
.of its perfons, it may take in all forts at pleafure, as gods,
men, beatts, or genii, or even, if occafion be, create perfons 5
é.e. perfonify virtues, vices, rivers, trees, &c. ‘Thus, M.
de la Motte very happily introduces virtue, talent, and re-
putation as perfons making a voyage together. See Epo-
poeta and PersoniryineG.

That author fuggetts two reafons why fables have pleafed
in all ages and places. he firlt is, that felf-love is {pared
in the inftru@tion. ‘The fecond, that the mind is exercifed
by the allegory. Men do not love direct precepts; too
proud to condefcend to thofe philofophers who feem to
command what they teach, they require to be inftructed in
_a more humble manner; they would never amend, if they
thought that to amend were to obey ; add, that there is a
fort of a&tivity in the mind which mutt be humoured ; it
pleafes itfelf in a penetration which difeovers more than is
fhewn ; and in apprehending what is hid under a veil, fancies
itfelf in fome méafure the author of it. The fable mutt al-
ways imply or convey fome truth; in other works, delight
alone may fuffice, but the fable mutt inflruct. Its effence is
to be a fymbol, and of confequence to fisnify fomewhat more
than is expreffed by the latter. ‘This truth fhould for the
generality be a moral one ; anda feries of fictions conceived
and compofed in this view would form a treatife of morality
preferable to any more direét and methodical treatife: ac-
cordingly, Socrates, we are told, had a defign to compofe a
courfe of morality in this way. This truth fhould be con-
cealed under the allegory, and, in ftri€tnefs, it ought not to
be explained either at the beginning or end.

The truth or idea intended fhould arife in the réader’s
shind froni the fable itfelf. However, for the conveniency
of the lefs difcerning readers, it may bea good way to point
out the truth or moral in precifer terms. To have the moral
at the end of the fable feems much better than at the begin-
ning ; the mind is apt to be forcftalled in the latter cafe ; I
carry the key along with me, fo that there is no room to
&xercife my mind in finding any thing myfelf.

The image, M. de la Motte obferves, muft be juft, and
exprefs the thing intended diteétly, and without any
€quivoque: it mut be one; 7. ¢. all the parts muft be
vifibly acceffary to one ptineipal énd; and it mult be na-
tural ; i. c. founded on nature, or at leat on opinion.

The writers of fables are not many. If there wete any
before Aifop, who lived in the time of Solon, about the
fifty-fecond Olympiad, his foccefs has quite effaced their
memory; and even occafioned all the good things of
that kind to be aferibed to him. His life, as written by
Plavudes, is itfelf a thorough fable. It muft be owned
to be very happily imagined to make the inventor of
fables a flave, and his m fter a philofopher: the flave
has his mafter’s pride aud ill-humotr to deal with through-
out. His leffons were all contained iv the fables them-

6

felves, and the rcaders were left the pleafure of difcovering’
them.

It is generally allowed among the learned, that though
the matter and invention of the fables be A®fop’s, the
turn and expreffion are not. The Greek is of Planudes ;
and bad Greek it is, in the judgment of F. Vavaffor, De
Ludica Di&. Some authors will have Socrates the author
of the fables of AXfop; others attribute them to Solo-
mon, and others to Homer. See Aisop.

Phadrus was a flave too, and a freed-man of Augutftus 5
but he had the advantage over AZfop in education: he is
only a fabulilt, as he tranflatés and copies. Though his
fables be generally fhort, yet he is prolix compared with
his author. His flyle, however, is always florid, his de-
{criptions concife, and his epithets fuitable : he frequently
adds graces never dreamed of by the inventor, and every-
where enriches the fimplicity of AZfop in the moft deli-
cate manner. ;

Pilpay, another fabultft, governed Hindooftan a long time
under a powerful emperor; but he was not the lefs a
flave, for the prime minifters of fuch princes are always
more fo than the meaneft fubjeéts. Pilpay comprized all
his politics in his fables; and accordingly his work long
continued the book of ftate, or the dileiplnde of Hindooftan. .
It was tranflated into Perfian and Arabic, and fince into
the modern languages. His fables, M. de la Motte ob-
ferves, are rather famous than good; but he is the in-
yentor, and the merit of invention will always com-
penfate for many faults. His fables are often wild and
artlefs: and the collection is a fort of romantic affemblage
of men and gen, compofed in its kind like Cyrus or
Orlando, where the adventures are continually thwarting
and clafhing with each other.

We fay nothing of the fables of Gabrias, or Babrias,
Avienus, who lived towards the end of the fourth cen-
tury under the empire of Gratian, Abftemius, &c.

Among the moderns, the moft celebrated writers are Meff.
de la Fontaine and De la Motte: the firit of whom has picked
out all the beft things in AEfop, Phedrus, and Pilpay, and
giving them anew in French, with a delicacy and fimplicity
peculiar to himfelf: aud which, in the judgment of his
countrymen, fets him even above Phadrus.

The latter, rather than content himfelf with what De la
Fontaine had left, chofe to be an inventor. He has fue-
ceeded. His fables are many of them very happy, though
fome think them too full of thonght and reafoning. His
verfification is infinitely mote correct than that of La
Fontaine, and tore fuitable to the fubjeét than that of Le
Noble.

We have likewife fome fables much efteemed of Mr. Gay
and Mr. Moore.

Fase is alfo ufed for the plot of an epic or dramatic
poem, or the action which makes the fubjeét of fuch a poem
or romance. See Porm, Daama, Eric, and Action.

The fable, according to Ariftotle, is the principal part,
and as it were the foul of a poem. It muft’be confidered as
the firft foundation of the compofition, or the principle
which gives life avd motion to all the parts. In this fenfe
the fable is defined, ‘*a difcourfe invented with art, to
form the manners by inftruétions difguifed under the allegory
of an a@tion.”” The fable is perfeét or imperfe@, as the
action which it relates is more or lefs fo. For the requifite
qualifications of this a&tion, fee Action.

The fable of every poem, according to Ariftotle’s divifion,
is either fimple or implex. It is called fimple when there
isno change of fortune in it; ad implex, when the for-

tune

FABLE.

tune of the chief actor vhanges fram bad to good, or from
good to bad. The latter isthought to be the malt perfe& ;
probably becaufe it is more proper to ftir up the paflions of
the reader, and to furprife him with a greater variety of ac-
cidents. The implex fable is, therefore, of twa kinds,
In the firft the chief acter makes his way through a long
feries of dangers and difficulties, till he arrives at honour and
profperity, as we fee in the tlory of Ulyfes, In the fecond,
the chief aétor in the poem talls from fome eminence of ho-
nour and profperity into mifery and difgrace, Thus, in
the Paradife Loft, we fee Adam and Eve finking from a
flate of innocence and happinefs into the moft apject condi-
tion of fin and forrow. The moft interetting tragedies
among the ancients were founded on this Jatt fort of implex
fable, particularly the tragedy of Cédipus, which proceeds
upon 2 ttory, if we may believe Ariitotle, the moft proper
for tragedy, that could be invented by the wit of man.
Mr. Addifon, however, is of opinion, (Spe@ator, N~ 297,)
that this kind of implex fable, in which the event is un-
happy, although it is the moft perfeét in tragedy, is not fo
proper for an heroic poem, Milton feems to have been
fenfible of this imperfection in his fable, and ‘has therefore
endeavoured to remedy it by feveral expedients, particu-
larly by the mortification, which the great adverfary of
mankind meets with upor his return to the affembly of
infernal fpirits, as it is defcribed in a beautiful pallage
of the tenth book; and likewife by the vifion, in which
Adam at the clofe of the poem fees his offspring triumph-
ing over his great enemy, and himfelf reftored to a happier
paradife than that from which he fell. _

The epic fable, according to Boflu, is confined to the ra-
tional kind ; i. e. the actors and perfons are to be gods and
men; and yet it admits of great latitude; it may be either
grave, illuftrious and important, or low and popular ; either
whole or defeétive, in verfe ur in profe ; much epifodified,
or brief; rehearfed by an author, or reprefented by ators
on the ftage; all which are fo many circumftances which
do not make any alteration in the nature and effence of the
fable.

The charaéters that {pecify the epic fable are thefe: it
is rational and probable; it imitates a whole and an im-
portant action ; and it is long and related in verfe: none of
which properties affect the nature of the fable, or make it
lefs a fable than thofe of A®fop.

The fable, aceording to Ariitotle, confifts of two effential
parts, wz. truth, as its foundation ; and fGtion, which dif-
guifes the truth, and gives it the form of fable. The truth
is the point of morality intended to be inculcated ; the fic-
tion is the action, or words under which the inftruction is
covered.

To make a plot or fable, the firft thing, according to
the great critic juft mentioned, is to pitch on fome moral
inftru€tion to be exemplified.

£. gr. I would exhort two brothers, or other perfons,
who have fome common intereft, to live in amity, in order to
preferve it, This is the end of the fable, and the firft thing
T have in view. In order to this, I endeavour to impreis
this maxim on our minds, that « ill underttanding ruims fa-
milies and all kinds of feciety.’”. This maxim is the moral
or truth which is to be the ground of the fable; which
moral truth is now to be reduced into aétion, and a ge-
neral action to be framed from feveral fingle and real ac-

tions of fuch as were ruined by ill underftanding.

Thus, e.g. I fay, that certain perfons united together for
the prefervation of fomething that belonged to them in com-
mon, coming to difagrec, their divifion left them open to
an enemy who ruined them: fuch is the firlt plan of a fable.

Vou. XIV.

The aétion prefented by this narration has four conditions ;
it is univerfal, imitated, feigned, and contains a moral truth
under an allegory.

The names given to the feveral perfons begin to fpecify
the fable. &fop ufes thofe of brutes. Two dogs, fays he,
appointed to watch a flock, fall out, fight, and leave alt
open to the wolf, who carries off what he pleafes.

If you would have the action more fingular, and render
the fable rational, take the names of men. Pridamant and
Orontes, brothers by a fecond venter, were left very rich by
their father’s will; but difagreeing about the partition of
their effects, they engaged themfelves fo far againft each
other that they took no care of their common intereft againit
Clitander, their eldeft brother by the firft venter; which
latt, artfully enflaming their quarrel, and feigning he had
no view but to fome moderate augmentation, which might
be made him without opprefiing them, in the mean time,
gets the judges on his fide, and the other perfons iatrufted
with the affair, procures the will to be ailirmed, and be-
comes entitled to the whole eftate about which the brothers
were at variance. Now, this fable is rational; but the
names being feigned as well as the things, and befides, the
perfous being only of a private rank, it is neither epic nor
tragic. However, it may be employed in comedy, it being
arule laid dowa by Ariftotle, that epic and tragic poets only
invent things, but comic poets invent both names aud things.
See Comepy, &c. .

To accommodate this comic fable more to the mode and
talte of the town, fome Dorinda mutt be imagmed to have
been promifed to Clitander; but her father, finding him dif-
inherited by the will, changes his refolution, and will have
her marry one of the rich, fenfelefs young brothers, whom
fhe defpiles, é&c.

But to return. The fiction may be fo difguifed with the
truth of hittory that there fhall not appear any fi€tion at all.
To effect this the poet looks back into hiftory for the names
of fome perfons to whom the feigned aétion either really or
probably did happen, and relates it under thofe knowa
names, with circumflances which do not change any thing
of the ground of the fable.

As tor the fable, it matters but little whether the per-
fons be called dogs, or Orontes and Pridamant, or Robert
of Artois and Ralph de Neffe, or Achilles and Agamemnon.

Arittotle obferves, that the fable of an epic poem fhould
abound in circumftances that are both credible and aftonifh-
ing; in other words, the fable fhould be filled with the pro-
bable and the marvellous. If the fable is only probable, it
does not differ from a true hiftory; if it is only marvellous, it
is no better thanaromance. The great fecret, therefore, of
heroic poetry, is to relate fuch cireumftances as may produce
in the reader at the fame time both belief and aftonifhment.
This is brought to pafs in a well-chofen fable, by the ac-
count of fuch things as have a€tually happened, or at leaft
of fuch things as have happened according to the received
Opinions of mankind. Milton’s fable is a matfter-piece of
this kind; as the war in ‘heaven, the condition of the fallen
angels, the ftate of innocence, the temptation of the ferpent,

‘and the tall of man, though they are very aitonifhing in

themfelves, are not only credible, but regarded by many
as objects of faith. Another method of reconciling mira-
cles with credibility is by a happy invention of the poet ;
as in particular, when he introduces agents of a fuperior na-
ture, who are capable of effeting what is wonderful, and
what is not to be met with in the ordinary courfe of things,
Ulyfles’s fhip being turned into a rock, and JEneas’s fleet
into a fhoal of water-nymphs, though they are very furprifing
accidents, are neverthelefs probable, when we are told that

H they

FABL FE.

they were thus transformed by the gods, It is this kind
of machinery which fills the poems both of Homer and
Virgil with fuch cirewmftances as are wonderful, but not
impoffible, and fo frequeutly produce in the reader the mott
pleafing paffion that can rifle in the mind of man, which is
admiration. '£ we look into the fidtion of Milton’s fable,
though we find it full of furprifing incidents, they are
generally fuited to our notions of the things and perfons
deferibed, and tempered with a due meafure of probability.
We fhould, indeed, except the ** Limbo of Vanity,’? with
his epifodes of ‘* Sin” and “ Death,’ and fome of the
imaginary perfons in his ** Chaos.’? Theie paflages are
aftonifhing, but not credible; they are the defcription of
dreams and fhadows, not of things or perfons. ‘The ap-
pearance of probability is fo abfolutely requifite in the
greater kinds of poetry, that Ariftotle obferves the ancient
tragic writers made ufe of the names of fuch great men as
had a€tually lived in the world, though the tragedy pro-
ceeded upon adventures in which they were never engaged,
on purpofe to make the fubjec more credible. In a word,
befides the hidden meaning of an epic allegory, the plain
literal fenfe ought to appear probable. The ftory fhould
be fuch as an ordinary reader may acquiefce in, whatever
natural, moral, or political truth may be difcovered in it by
men of greater penetration.

We fhall devote the fequel of this article to fome remarks
on the fable of the Iliad, as being the fineft plan of an epic
poem in the world, and at the fame time the mott ufeful
fyftem of the precepts of the art, it being hence that Arif-
totle was furnifhed with all his refleGtions: referving for
other articles obfervations on the fable of thofe poems to
which we have referred under the article Epic Poem.

In every difcreet undertaking the end is the firft thing
propofed ; and by this the whole work and all its parts are
regulated ; confequently, the defign of the epopeia being
to form the manners, it is with this firft view the poet mutt
begin. Now, the philofopher dwelling on virtues and vices
in general, the inftru€tions he gives ferve equally for all
fates and all ages; but the poet has a more immediate re-
gard to his countrymen, and the prefling occafions of his
fellow-citizens. On this view it is that he choofes his
moral, which he ts to infinuate into the people by accommo-
dating himfelf to their peculiar cuftoms, genius, and incli-
nations. See how Homer has acquitted himfelf in thefe
refpects.

He faw the Greeks, for whom he wrote, divided into as
many ftates as cities, each whereof was a body apart, and
had its government independent of the reft. Yet were thefe
different {tates frequently obliged to unite intoone bodyagaintt
their common enemies. Here then were two forts of govern-
ment too different to be commodioufly treated in one poern ;
the poet accordingly had recourfe to two fables; the one
for all Greece, confidered as confederated together, only
confifting of independent parts; the other for each par-
ticular eftate, fuch as they are in time of peace, and
without the firft relation. ‘The firft is the fubject of the
liad, the fecond of the Odyfley. ,

For the firft kind of government all experience agrees,
that the only thing which can render it happy, and its de-
fien fuccefsful, is a good underftanding, and due fubordi-
nation among the feveral chiefs that compofe it; and that
mifunderftandings, a defire of fway, &c. are the inevitable
bane of fuch confederacies. The beft inftruction, there-
fore, that could be given them, was to fet before their eyes
the deftruétion of the people, and even of the princes them-
felves, through the ambition and difcord of the latter.
Homer, therefore, for the ground or moral of his fable, chofe

this great truth, that the mifunderftandings of princes ruia
their ftates. ‘¢ I fing,’ fays he, * the wrath of Achilles,
fo fatal to the Greeks, and which deftroyed fo many heroes,
occafioned by a difagreement between king Agamemnon
and that prince.”

To enforce this truth, he reprefents divers confederate
ftates firft at variance and unprofperous; then reconciled
and victorious ; all which he thus includes in one univerfal
action. Several independent princes league again{ft a com-
mon enemy ; he whom they choofe as their leader affronts
the braveft of all the confederacy; upon which the offended
prince withdraws, and refufes any longer to fight for the
common caufe. This mifunderftanding gives the enemy fo
much advantage, that the confederates are ready to relinquifh
the enterprife. The difaffe€ted perfon himfelf becomes a
fharer in the calamities of his allies, one of his chief friends
and favourites being killed by the chief of the enemies.
Thus, hoth parties grown wife by their own injury, are
reconciled. Upon which the valiant prince, joining again
in the war, turns the fcale to his own party, and kills the
enemy’s chief.

Such is the firft general’p!an of the poem. To render
this probable and more interetting, circumftances of time,
place, perfons, &c. are to be added; that is, the poet
looks into hiftory or tradition for perfonsto whom fuch ac-
tions may with truth or prebability be attributed.

He pitches on the fiege of Troy, and fuppofes the aétion
to have pafled there. The brave, choleric chara€ter, he
calls Achilles; the general, Agamemnon ; the chief of the
enemies, Heétor, &c. To infinuate himfelf into his rea-
ders, he accommodates himfelf to their manners, genius,
views, and to render his fable more intereiting, makes his
chief perfons, and thofe who remain victorious, to be
Greeks, the fathers of thofe very people. The courfe of
the work is filled up and extended with other ufeful leffons
and inftruGions. 7

That the epopccia in all its glory is juflly and ftrifly a
mere fable in the fame fenfe as the fictions of /Efop are, is
fhewn by TF. Boffu, in a parallel between the fable of the
Iliad and that of A&fop already mentioned. The moral in-
ftruction is vifibly the fame in both ; fo is the fiction. All
LAs difference lies in the names and qualities of the per-
ons.

Homer’s are kings ; he calls them Achilles, Patroclus,
&c. and the general good to be preferved, he calls the
Greeks. /fop, after his manner, gives his perfons the
names of beatls ; the dogs are confederated, the wolf is their
enemy ; and what Homer calls Greeks, /Efop calls fheep.
One fays, that while the confederate princes were at va-
riance, Hedtor rufhes on the Greeks, and makes them pay
dear for the folly of their fovereigns (delirant reges, pleétun-
tur Achivi) ; but that the allies, brought by misfortunes
to themfelves again, re-unite, repulfe Hector, and kill him.
The other, that while the dogs are together by the ears
the wolf falls on the fheep; and that the dogs feeing the
havoc he makes, join together, drive him away, and kill
him.

The two fables were capable of a ftill nearer refemblance.
Homer has extended his by long f{peeches, defcriptions,
comparifons, and particular ations ; that of Aifop might
be amplified after the like manner, without corrupting or al-
tering it. It is neceflary only to relate what caufe fet
the dogs at variance, and fhew the rife of the fatal wrath in
all its cireumftances ; to make fine defcriptions of the plain
wherein the fheep fed, and of fome neighbouring wood
where the wolf was fheltered ; to give thisenemy whelps
to rear, make them follow their fire in fearch of prey, and

defcrile

————_—

FAB

defcribe the carnage they made at divers expeditions. Nor
fhould the genealogy of the heroes be forgotten ; the wolf
fhall boaft himfelf a defcendant of Lycaon, and one of the
dogs be fprung in adire& line from Canicula ; which lait
would be the proper hero of the peem, as being hot, and
apt to be enraged. He would reprefent the perfon of
“Achilles to admiration ; and the folly of fome Ajax, his
coufin, would afford a good proof of fo divine an extraétion.
Nothing more were required to engage heaven in the caufe,
and divide the gods ; which, no doubt, have as much right
in Alfop’s republic as in the ftates of Homer. Witnefs
Jupiter taking care to give a king to the nation of the
frogs.

The reader has here field enough for an epope@ia ; if he
have any thing of fancy and expreffion, and do but take
care to repeat as often as Homer does,

Toy D amausiGouevG- wporePn modes wrus.

See In1ap and Opyssey.

FABOMIT Laxe, in Geography, a lake of Canada.
N. lat. 52° 28'. W. long. 88° 15/.

FABRA, a town of Italy; 9 miles N.N.W. of Orvi-
eto. i

FABRAGAS, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ; 13
miles weft of Gerona. :

FABRE, Joun Cravupe, in Biography, a French ec-
elefiaftic, was born at Paris in the year 1688, where he
received his education, and was admitted to the degree of
bachelor in theology by the faculty of Paris. He after-
wards filled the office of profeffor in feveral feminaries in
France. He died at the advanced age of 85, highly re-
gretted by his brethren and friends for his candour, talents,
and learning. He was author of very many works, among
which is a Latin and French. diétionary, in 8vo. He
gave a new edition of the fatirical dictionary of Richelet in
two vols. fol. ; for the execution of fome of the articles he
was obliged to fubmit to exile fora few years. On his re-
turn he publifhed a continuation of the ecclefialtical
hiftory of the abbé Fleury; and a tranflation of all the
works of Virgil, accompanied with notes and diflertations.
He gave alfo a profe tranflation of the fables of Phedrus,
and afummary of M. de'Thou’shiftory. Moreri.

FABRETTI, Rapxazr, a celebrated antiquarian,
was born of a good family at Urbino, in 1619. He ftu-
died jurifprudence im his native city, and after graduating
he went to Rome, and became diltinguifhed for his great
erudition, and for his knowledge of {tate affairs. He was
nominated to feveral diplomatic itations, in which he ac-
quired ‘much reputation. His leifure hours were fpent in
the ftudy of antiquities, and particularly in the examination
and colleétion of all the infcriptions, and ancient monuments
difperfed through Latium, for which purpofe he traverfed
the whole of that province alone, and on horfe-back, leay-
ing no part unexplored. In 1680, he pubhthed a work,
« De Aguis et AqueduAibus veteris Rome,’? which
obtained for him high credit among the literati. His next

‘work was a diflertation © De Columna Trajani,’? 1683,

which contained the particulars concerning the naval and
military eftablifhments of the ancients. In 1699 was .pub-
lifhed at Rome his great work, entitled « Inicriptionum
Antiquarum Explicatio ;” of this, it las been faid, « that
it was the firft colleétion which was not filled with fai-
tious inferiptions.”” The author died in the following year,
univerfally regretted. His cabinet of ancient monuments
Was depofited in the old palace of the dukes of Urbino.
Nouv. Dict. Hitt.

FABRI, Joun, a phyfician of diftinGion at Rome

Yr aAB

during the papacy of Urban VIII., was born at Bamberg
in Franconia. He took the degree of doctor of medicine
at Rome, where he fettled himfelf, and afterwards became
profeffor of medicine, and botanift to the pope. Fann was
particularly diftinguifhed by his knowledge of anatomy and
natural hiftory, of both of which fciences he difplayed an
extenfive knowledge, in his ‘¢ Commentary on the Natural
Hittory of Mexico,” written by Francis Hernandez. This
work contains efpecially fome curious faéis relative to the
anatomy of monfters, and to comparative anatomy. He is
faid to have been the firll to oppofe the generation of cer-
tain beings from putrefaction ; and he defcribed with great
accuracy the ftomachs of ruminating animals. He publifh-
ed alfo an effay «* De Nardo et Epithymo,” in which he re-
futes fome opinions of Scaliger.

Fasri Honoré, anindnuitrious and learned Jefuit, was
born in the diocefe of Bellay in the year 1606 or 1607.
He fora long time held the chair of profeflor of philofo-
phy in the eollege de la Trinité at Lyons; but in confe-
quence of his profound knowledge of theology, he was
called to Rome, where he was made a penitentiary. He
died in that city on the oth of March, 1683. He wasa
man of moft extenfive and univerfal knowledge, and ftudied
medicine and anatomy with confiderable ardour. He af-
fumed the credit of the difeovery of the circulation of the
blood, and- father Regnault, and other credulous perfons,
have fupported his aflumption, on the grounds that he
had maintained the faét of the circulation in a difcufiion in
1638 : but Harvey had publifhed his difcovery in 1628.

The works of this Jeluit confit of an apology for the
Peruvian bark, inanfwer to Plempius, which he publifhed
at Rome in 1655, under the title of § Pulvis Peruvianus
Yebrifugus Vindicatus ;”? and two other effays, one, ** De
Plantis, et Generatione Animalium,”’ the other, ‘© De
Homine,”’ publifhed at Paris in 1666, and at Neuremberg
in 1677.

FABRIANO, Gentite Da, wasa painter who ren-
dered himfelf famous in the early ftage of the art after its
reftoration. He was born at Verona in 1332, and was a
difciple of Giovanni da Fiefole, His moit confpicuous
work was a picturein the great council chamber of the
ftate of Venice, executed by order of the doge nate,
who regarded the work in fo extraordinary a degree of
elteem, that they granted him a penficn for life, and con-

and fe

{late to beftow.

Many of his pitures adorn the pope’s palace of St. Gio-
vanni Laterano, and the churches in Florence, Urbino, Pe-
rugia, Sienna, and Rome. One of them in the church of
Santa Maria Nuova, placed over the tomb of cardinal Adi-
mari, reprefenting the Virgin and child, with St. Jofeph
and St. Benedi&, was highly commended by Michael An-
gelo ; whom Vafari reprefents as being accuftomed to fay
that in painting the hand of Gentile was correfpondent with
his name. He died in 1412, 80 years old.

Farrtano, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the mar-
quifate of Ancona, at the foot of the Apennines, containing
feveral rich monatteries; called one of the four caflles of Italy,
and celebrated for its excellent paper; 33 nules S.W. of
Ancona.

FASRIC, the future or conitruGion of any thing, par-
ticularly of a building.

The word is formed of the Latin, fedrsia, which origt-
nally fignifiesa finith’s fhop, or forge.

In Italy, the word fabric is appled to:any confic
; Il 2 baildn

sr

FAB

building ; in France it rather figniiies the manner of build-
ing.

ore ie Lands, are lands given towards the maintenance
rebuilding, or repair of cathedrals or other churches, men-
tioned in the AG of Oblivion, 12 Car. II. cap. 8.

In ancient times almoft every one gave by his will more
or lefs to the fabric of the cathedral or parifh-church where
he lived. t

FABRICIA, in Botany, (io named by Gertner in
honour of the celebrated John Chriftian Fabricius, late
profeffor of Rural Economy in the Danifh univerfity of
Keil, a pupil of Linneus, from whoie manuicript notes
profeffor Gifeke derived much and important afliftance in
his edition of Linnzus’s leGtures on the Natural Orders of
plants, publifhed in Latin at Hamburgh im 1792. This
able man is, however, far more known as the founder of a
new, fyftem in Entomology, in which he purfued the Lin-
nean idea, with refpe&t to quadrupeds and birds, of making
the organs of feeding fubfervient to the purpofes of arrange-
ment. But however this principle may lead to a natural
fyftem in thofe tribes, in infeéts it often fails, becaufe in
their perfe&t ftate eating is by no means their primary or
neceflary occupation. See Enromorocy. Gertn.v. 1,
175. t. 35. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 265. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v.2. g51- Clafs and order, Icofandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. He/peridee, Linn. Myrti, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth turbinate, half inferior, attach-
ed to the germen, with five deciduous teeth. Cor. Petals
five, rounded, concave, equal, feffile, inferted into the rim
of the calyx. Stam. Filaments numerous, diflinét, awl-
fhaped, inferted into the rim of the calyx, fhorter than the
petals ; anthers roundifh, incumbent. /Pi/?. Germen half
fuperior, turbinate, its bafe attached to the calyx; ftyle
cylindrical, Short, erect ; {tigma cap tate. Peric. Capfule
orbicular, depreffed, umbilicated, of eight or ten cells,
opening vertically ; partitions fiom the centre of each
valve, meeting at the column. Seeds one or two in each
cell, compreffed, with a membranous, rounded, terminal
wing. :

Ef. Ch. Calyx half fupericr, wih five teeth. Petals
five, feffile. Stigma capitate. Capfule of many cells.
Seeds winged.

bf. This genus is next akin to Leptofpermum, from
which it differs in having numerous cells to the capfule, and
very eflentially in having winged feeds, which are only one
or two, not many, in each cell. Both were confounded
with Philadelphus by Dr. Solander, merely becaufe he never
happened to have examined the latter, and referred them
to it, during his voyage, trufting to future opportunities of
inveftigation, asin many other inftances. For fuch apparent
inaccuracies therefore the memory of this excellent man 1s
no way refponfible

The fpecies of Fabricia at prefent known are two.

1. F. myrtifolia. Gertn. t. 35. f. 4. Capfule of ten
cells. Calys-teeth nearly orbicular.— Native of New Hol-
land. Stem fhrubby. Leaves fcattered, an inch and half
long, obovato-lanceolate, entire. Flowers folitary, on
fhort flalks, apparently terminal.

2. F. levigata. Capfule of eight cells. Calyx-teeth
triangular.—Native of New South Wales near Port Jack-
fon. Itis now not uncommon in green-houfes about Lon-
don, where it fometimes flowers. Stem fhrubby. Leaves
fcarcely an inch long, obovate, obtufe, rather glaucous.
Flowers white, axillary, folitary, on fhort thick ftalks.

FABRICIO, Geronimo, in Biography, more commonly
known by the name of Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapen-
dente, was born at the town of this name, in the territory

t
?

© A.B

of Orvieto, in Italy, in the year 1537. His parents were
but poor, yet they found the means of procuring him a
good education. He wasfent to Padua, where he acquired
a knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages, and, after
having gone through the ufual courfe of philofophy, he
began the ftudy of anatomy and furgery under Gabriel
Fallopio, one of the moft intelligent profeffors of his time,
His progrefs under this excellent tutor was fuch as to
acquire for him a character not lefs diflinguifhed than that
of his mafter, whom he afterwards fucceeded in the profef-
for’s chair, in which he taught the fame fciences for nearly
half a century, in the univerfity of Padua. During the
whole of this long period ke maintained an uniform character
for eloquence and found knowledge, and continued to excite
great intereft in his leGtures. He died univerfally regretted
in 1619, at the age of 82 years.

The kindnefs and difinterefted generoity of Fabricio
gained him the efteem of the principal families of Padua.
The republic of Venice conferred many marks of their
attention on him: they built a {pacious anatomical amphi-
theatre, on the front of which his name was inferibed ; they
alfo decreed him an annual {tipend of a thoufand crowns,
and the honour of a ftatue, and created him a knight of St.
Mark. But the celebrity which he obtained for the uniyerfity
of Padua by his talents, afforded hima gratification above
that which accrued from all thofe flattering favours.

His attention was chiefly dire@ted to anatomy and furgery,
both of which his refearches materially contributed to
elucidate. He is faid to have been the firft to notice the
valves of the veins, having demonitrated their ftru€ture
in the year 1574. The honour of this difcovery has alfo
been given to Paul Sarpi; but Albinus and Morgagni are
of opinion that he was anticipated by Fabricius. Thefe
anatomitts, however, were ignorant of the ufe of this
valvular apparatus ; but Fabricius has given excellent views
of its ftru€ture in his engravings. He was exceedingly
methodical in his writings, firft defcribing the ftru€ture of
each part of the body, and then its ufes. Valuable as his
anatomical writings were, however, his furgical works
obtained for him a ftill higher reputation. The improves
ments which he introduced into the practice of his art, in
confequence of his accurate anatomical knowledge, and the
confiftent form which he gave to it, have, in fa&t, gained him
the appellation of the father of modern furgery. His
works are numerous: the frit, intitled ** Pentateuchus
Chirurgicus,’’ publithed at Francfort, in 1592, contains
five differtations on tumours, wounds, ulcers, tra¢tures, and
luxations: 2. “ De Vifione, Voce, et Auditu,’’ Venice,
1600. 3. “ Tractatus de Oculo, viftifque Organo,” Pa.
dua, ‘601. 4. “ De Venarum Obftiolis,” ibid. 1603.
5- * De Locutione, et ejus Inftrumentis,”’ ibid. 1603. It is
faid that, in one day, all the Germans deferted the fchool of
Fabricius, becaufe, in explaining the mechanifm of the muf-
cles of {peech, he had ridiculed their mode of pronuncia-
tion. 6. * Opera Anatomica, que centinent de formato
Feetu, de formatione Ovi et Pulli, de Locutione et ejus In-
ftrumentis, de Brutorura loquela,’? Padua, 1604. The
effay on the langnage of brute animals, in this work, is cu-
rious, and worthy the atteation of naturalifts. 7. © De
Mulculi Artificio, et Offum Articulationibus,” Vicentia,
1614. 8. “ De Refpiratione et ejus Inftrumentis, libri duo,”?
Padua, 1615. 9. ‘* De Motu locali Animalium fecundum
totum,’”? Padua, 1618. ro. ** De Gula, Ventriculo, et In-
teitinis, Tractatus,”? ibid. 1618. 11. ‘ De Integumentis
Corporis,”’ ibid. 1618. 12. “ Opera Chirurgica in duas
Partes divifa,” ibid. 1617. This work, in which all the
difeafes of the body, which are cureable by manual opera-

: tion,

FAB

tion, are treated, paffed through feventeen editions, in dif-
ferent languages. 13. ‘¢ Opera omnia Phyfiologica et Ana-
tomica,” Leipfic, 1687. 14. ‘The whole of his works
‘were alfo publifhed at Leyden, in 1723, and in 1737, im
folio. We have mentioned only the original editions of the
works of Fabricius ab Aquapendente, moft of which have
been feveral times reprinted.

FABRICIUS, Caivs,a Roman commander, diftinguifhed
for valour and great integrity, was conful the firit time B. C.
282, when he gained a complete victory over the enemies of
his country, and gained fo large booty, that after liberally
rewarding his foldiers he brought four hundred talents to
the public treafury on the day lic triumphed, and this glory
was all the recompence he referved for himfelf. He 1s
particularly diftinguifhed for his condué as ambaffador to
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who attempted to gain him over
to his caufe by magnificent prefents. Thefe the general re-
jected with indignation and contempt, which excited the fur-
prife of the monarch, who was accuftomed to fuppote every
man venal that approached a court. He was, however,
more altonifhed at the virtue of Fabricius, who, when his
opponent in the field, refuted the offer of the royal phyfician
to poifon his mafter, and caufed the treachery to be made
known tothe king. Fabricius, in the year 275, ferved the
office of cenfor, and difplayed that rigour againft luxury
which had been cuftomary among the ancient Romans.
What he enjoined by precept and the authority of his office,
he gave weight to by hisown example. He contemned riches
during the whole of his life, and died fo poor that a dowry
was given to his daughters out of the public treafury.
Ont of pure refpe& to his memory, a law of the 12 Tables
was difpenfed with, which prohibited burials within the city.
To fimplicity of manners he added confummate {kill asa
general, and an extenfive knowledge of whatever related to
public affairs. Univer. Hilt. Plutarch.

Fasricius, Grorce was born at Kemnitz, ia Mif-
nia, in 1516, and entitled to notice in this work on account
of his poetical talents. He publifhed twenty-five books of
facred poems, printed at Bafilin two vols. 8vo. 1567. He
wrote “ The art of poetry in feven books ;’? * A defcrip-
tien of Rome and Travels,” in plain profe: likewile
« Rerum Germanie magne et Saxonie univerfa memora-
bilia,”? 2 vols. fol. «¢ Saxoniailluttrata feu Origines Saxonice,”’
2 vols, fol. and “ Rerum Mifnicarum,”’ fol. He publifhed
a collection of the Chriftian Latin poets, with alterations.
He died in 15715 and is much extolled by his countrymen
for eafe and purity of ftyle ; aud fo nice was he in the choice
of language, that in his facred poems he refufed to employ
aterm which referred to Pagan mythology. Moreri.

Fasaicrus, Jonn Arsert, who is celebrated for his
great erudition, was born at Leipfic in 1688, and left a
helplefs orphan at a very early age. His education was not
neglected, and having borrowed of his {clool-maiter
the Adverfaria of Gafpar Bartheus, he was fo aftonifhed at
the learning difplayed in that work, that he determined,
though at that time only 16 years old, to rival the author
in his erudition. On his return to Leipfic, in 1686, he

entered vigoroufly upon the fludy of theology, and began to

coneeive the project of his great work, and made collections
forthe purpofe. His firft publication was entitled « Mifcel-
laneous: remarks on the feventy Interpreters of the Old
Teftament.” During the next feveral fucceflive years he

*. diftinguifhed himfelf as a preacher, a writer, and an able

difputant in theology. In 1693 he went to Hamburgh, and
undertook the fuperintendance of the Library of John
Frederick Mayer; devoting all his leifure to literary purfuits.
In 1697 he publifhed the frit edition of the « Bibliotheca

FAB

Latina,” in a fingle volume 8vo. In 1699 Fabricius was
elected to the vacant chair of eloquence at Hamburgh, and
foon afterwards took the degree of doétor of theology, and
married the daughter of a {chool mafter at Hamburgh, whom
he eventuaily fucceeded, and notwithitanding the extent of
his private ftudies, no man was more affiduous in the inftruc-
tion of his pupils, to whom he devoted ten hours a day for
many of the firft years in which he was engaged in that
occupation. He died in the year 1736 in his 68th year,
leaving behind him works that muft perpetuate his name
fo long as learning is in efteem. Of thefe the principal
are :— Biblictheea Greca,’? in 14. vols. gto. 2, Bib-
lictheca Latina,” in two vols. 4to. The former is an
extenfive and accurate account of the works and lives of
Greek authors, with extraéts from their moft rare and
curious books: the latter is a fimilar work with regard
to Latin writers. 3. “ Bibliotheca Latina Ecclefiaftica,”
or a colleétion of Latin writers concerning ecclefiafti-
cal affairs. 4. *¢ Codex Apocryphus Novi Teftamenti,’?
3 vols. ‘This isa curious compilation of all the falfe gofpels,
&c. current in the early ages of Chriftianity. 5. ‘*Biblio-
graphia Antiquaria,” in two vols. containing a notice of all
the Hebrew, Greek, Roman, and eccletiaftical antiquities.
Tabricius was a very modeft man, and mild in his difpofition,
and itis thought that he was fcarcely ever furpaffed in a
knowledge of bocks, fo that he obtained the title of Biblio-
thecarius Republics literariz.? Moreri.

There is no hiltorian, biographer, or artift, who has been
in fearch of Greek and Reman literature ard fcience but
hashad great obligationsto theindefatigable laboursslearning,
accuracy, and good talte of this moft excellent writer, who
is one of the few that can never have been confulted unpro-
fitably. So ample is the information he affords on every
fubjeét which he treats, that the enquirer is not only fure of
finding what he feeks, but itill more fure of its authenticity
and exactitude, when found.

Fasricius, Wititam, better known by his furname
Hildanus, was born at Hilden, a. village of Switzerland,
whence he wasthus furnamed,onthe 25thofJuly,1560. Like
his predeceffor of the fame name, Fabricius of A quapendente,
he became one of the mot eminent furgeons of his age, and
contributed not a little to the improvement of the art. He
repaired to Laufanne in the year 1586, where he completed
himfelf in the art of furgery, under the inftruGion of Grif-
fon; an intelligent teacher in that city. Here he purfued
his refearches with indefatigable induftry, and undertook
the cure of many difficult cafes, in whieh he was fingularly
fuccefsful. He combined a knowledge of medicine with
that of his own art, and began to practife. both at
Payerne in 1605, where he remained ten years, ard in
1615 fettled himfelf at Berne, in confequence of an inyi-
tation from the fenate, who granted hima pention. Here he
enjoyed the univerfal efteem of the inhabitahts. But- in the
latter period of his life he was prevented by fevere and fre-
quent attacks. of the gout from rendering his fervices to
his: fellow-citizens svith his accuftomed affiduity.. At
length,, however, this malady left him, and he was feized
with an afthma, of which he died‘on the 14th of February,
1634, at the age of feventy-four.. His works were written
in the German language, but moft of them have been tranf-
Jated into the Latin. He publithed five “ Centuries of
Obfervations,”? which were colle&ted after his death, and
printed at Lyons in 1641, and at Strafburgh in 1713 and
1716. Thefe ‘ Obfervations’’ prefent aconfiderable number
of curious fa&s, as well as defcriptions of a great number of
inftruments of his invention. His colle&ed treatifes were
pyblithedin Latin, at Frankfort, in 1646, and again in 1682

iz

KAB

in folio, under the title of “ Opera Omnia.”
man edition appeared at Stutgard in 1652.
Eloy.

Fazricrus, James, areminent phyfician, was born at
Roftock on the 28th of Auguil, 1577. Following the
advice of Hippocrates, he joined the itudy of the mathe-
matics with that of medicine, and was a pupil of T'ycho
Brahé. His medical ftudies were not confined to his own
country ; for he travelled through England, Germany, and
the Low Countries, in order to obtain the inftructious of the
mott celebrated profeffors ; and afterwards repaired to Jena,
where he was diftinguifhed by the extent of his acquirements,
and obtained the degree of do€tor at the age of 26. He
foon gained extenfive empleyment in his profeflion,
and at length received feveral lucrative and honourable
appointments. He filled the ftations of profeffor of
medicine and of the mathematics at Roftock during
forty years, was firft phyfician to the duke of Meck-
lenburgh, and afterwards retired to Copenhagen, where he
was appointed chief phyfician to the kings of Norway and
Denmark, Chriftian IV. and Frederick II]. He died at
Copenhagen on the 16th of Auguft, 1652, in the feventy-
filth year of his age ; and his remains were carried to Rof-
tock for interment, by his fons-in-law and daughters.

His works are entitled,—1. “* Periculum Medicum, feu
Juvenilium Feture priores,?? Hale, 1600. 2. ‘* Urofcopia,
feu de Urinis Traétatus,’’ Roftochii, 1605. ° 3. ** De Ce-
phalalgia Autumnali,” ibid. 1617. 4. ‘¢ Inftitutio Medici
practicam aggredientis,”? ibid. 1619. 5. ** Oratio Renun-
ciationi novi Medicine Doétoris premifla, de Caufis Cruen-
tantis cadaveris prafente Homicida,”’ ibid. 1620. 6. “« Dif-
fertatio de Novo-antiquo Capitis Morbo az Dolore, cum
aliis Difquifitionibus Medicis de diffic. nonnul. Materiis
Praéticis,”? ibid. 1640. Eloy. Manget. Biblioth. Med.
Pract.

Fasricius, Purtir Conrp, profeflor of medicine in
the univerfity of Helitadt, was the author of feveral ufe-
ful works on the fubje@ts of anatomy and furgery, which
have obtained for him the praife of the judicious Haller.
His firft treatife was entitled « Idea Anatomes Practice,”’
Wetzlariz, 1741, and contained fome new directions re-
fpeéting the art of injection, a defcription of feveral branches
of the portio dura of the feventh pair of nerves, &c.
2. * Sciagraphia Hiftoria Phyfico-Medicx,”? Wetzlariz,
1746, in which are fome good obfervations relative to the
abufe of the operation of trepanning. 3. ** De Cognitionis
Anattomofeos Vaforum infigni Ufu,’? Helmettadi, 1750.
4. © Obfervationes ncnnulle Anatomice,’”’ 1754. 5. “ Syl-
loge Obfervationum Anatomicarum,” 1759. Haller. Bibl.

Fasricius, Joun Lewts, a learned Swifs divine, was
born at Sckauffhaufen in the year 1639. Great care was
taken of his education, and he obtained the ufual degrees.
In 1656 he was admitted to the exercife of the miniftry, and
created profeflor extraordinary of the Greek language at
Heidelberg. In thefe charaéters, and as tutor to the baron
de Rothenchild, and to the eleétoral prince, he difplayed fo
much integrity and wifdom, that he was, in 1664, nominated
to the honour of ecelefiaftical counfellor to the elector, who
made ufe of his great talents in a political embafly to Schaff-
haufen. He was afterwards employed in Switzerland by
William III. king of England, and the States General, to
affift the Englith envoy to the cantons, and to watch over the
interefls of the Dutch republic. He was likewife fuccefs-
fully engaged in other diplomatic bufinefs, and having com-
pleted the work which he undertook he returned to Hei-
delberg, and from thence he went to Frankfort, where he
died in the year 1697. He acquired much reputation for

And a Ger-
Mangetus.

FAB

political talents ; and for theological learning ; but he was
deftitute of that Chriftian charity which his religion fhould
have taught him, and was aétive in the perfecution of the
Unitarians who were driven out of Poland, becaufe they ‘re-
fufed to renounce their principles. His works are nume-
rous, and written in the Latm language ; they are entitled,
“ De Viis Dei, an et quofque fint fimiles Viis Hominum ;”?
* De Ludis Scenicis ;’? ** De Controverfia circa Perfonam
Chrifti,” &c. Moreri.

Fasricirus, Cuarves, a painter of portrait and pieces
of perfpeétive, born at Delft in 1624. His promifing ta-
lents had raifed confiderable expetations, which were un-
happily fruftrated by his fudden and early death in 1654,
which happened by the blowing up of the great powder
magazine fituated near his houfe.

FABRICO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the prin-
cipality of Corregio ; nine miles N. of Corregio.

FABRIS, Lucca, in Biography, a young finger of
Naples with a foprano voice, who, at the age of twenty-four,
the laft of his life, was the delight and wonder of the
Italian theatre. His voice and manner of finging were
equally perfeét, and he was able to contend with the cele-
brated Guadagni when at the fummit of his glory; till a
fatal effort to fing a very high and difficult paflage, which
a Neapolitan compofer had injudicioufly and cruelly given
him to execute in the great theatre of San Carlo, coft him
his life. It is afferted that this mafter, merely to encourage
him to try to furpafs another finger, compofed an air beyond
his natural compa{s and powers of execution ; and though
the unfortunate Fabris protefted to him that he could only
attempt it at the rifk of his life, the mafter infifted on his
performing it; by which he burft a blood-veffel, that
brought on a hemorrhage, which all the art of medicine
and furgery being unable to ftop, foon put an end to his
exiftence !” Effai fur la Muf. tom. ili. p. 317. This me-
lancholy cataftrophe is related here, not without a hope
that it may a little alarm and affuage the ambition of our
fair country-women who never hear a mufical phenomenon,
without trying night and day to rival thofe powers which
nature gives to fo very few, and at which art can never
arrive without endangering the health and exiftence of thofe
who afpire at impoflibilities.

Fasrts, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Greece, over=
againft Attica.

FABRISTAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Mazanderan; 50 miles E. of Cafbin.

FABROT, Cuarres AnniBat, in Biography, a learned
jurit, was born at Aix, in Provence, in the year 1581, and
after a liberal education he-took the degree of do€tor of
laws in 16c6, and was admitted an adyocate in the parlia-
ment of Provence. He was afterwards elected profeffor of
law at Aix, and from thence he went to Paris, where he
printed his notes on the Greek paraphrafe of Juitinian’s In-
ftitutes. This work obtained for him the patronage of the
chancellor Seguier; with a penfion, He remained in the
metropolis for the purpofe of tranflating the Bafilics or col-
leGtion of Roman laws in ufe in the eaftern empire, which
he finifhed in feven vols. folio, with the title of Bafilicon.
He edited other learned works, which he enriched with
valuable notes. His application was almoft inceffant, and
is faid to have fhortened his days, though he did not die
till he had attained his 78th year. Moreri.

FABULINUS, in Myrhology, the god of {peech, was
the tutelary deity of children, and invoked by them,
when they began to {peak.

FABULOUS, denotes fomething that has a relation to
fable. Varro divides the duration ef the world into two

I ealier

.

FAB

earlier ftates or periods, called the dark and fabulous.
Sce AGE.

TFasurous Philofophy of the Greeks was introduced
‘among them by the firft founders of their ftates. Having
ebferved, in countries already fetiled, the effet of that
mode of delivering the doctrines of religion to the people
under the difeuife of fable, which univerfaily prevailed in
Egypt, and which was not unknown to the Pheenicians,

- Thracians, and other barbarous nations, they found it par-
ticularly fuitable to their defign of bringing flates newly-
formed under the yoke of authority. ‘It was not poflible,””
fays Strabo, {l.i.) “ to lead a promifcuous multitude to
religion and virtue by philofophical harangues ; this could
only be effected by the aid of fuperftition, by prodigies and
fables. The thunderbolt, the egis, the trident, the {pear,
torches and {nakes, were the inftruments made ufe of by
the founders of ftates to terrify the ignorant vulgar into
fubjection.”” Indeed, it cannot be doubted, that the firft
authors of the Grecian fables intended them to be vehicles
of inftruétion. But it is now become almoft impraCticable
to decipher their meaning; becaufe we are imperfectly
acquainted with the hiftory, opimions, manners, and other
circumftances of the times, when Grecian mythology was
formed, and from what a variety of fources it was d:rived.
Of thefe the two principal were, the cuftom of ranking
public benefactors, after their death, among the gods (Plin.
Hilt. Nat. 1. it. c. 17.) and the practice of applying allego-
ries and fables to natural objeéts and appearances. (Dion.
Halic. Antiq. 1.4.) The origin of the world, and the pro-
duétion of natural bodies, wer¢ very early clothed in fable,
in the cofmogonies of the Egyptians, Pheenicians, Thra-
cians, and other nations; aid thefe were afterwards imi-
tated by the Greeks. (See Cosmocony.) Another cuf-
tom, which has very much contributed to caft a veil of ob-
{curity over the fabulous philofophy of the Greeks, is that
Weed serailed among them in early times, of giving their
mythological doétrines a poetical drefs. Thefe were com-
monly chofen as fubjeéts of verfe, and every poct enlarged
and moulded the ancient fables, according to the fertility
and luxuriancy of his own fancy. See the articles Prome-
gHEUS, Linus, Orrxeus, Musxus, Ampnion, Me-
LAmpPus, Hrsiop, Epimenipes, and Homer. See alfo
Cuaos and Txurocony.

FABURDEN, in Mufic, is an-old_Eaglith term, and
ufed at the beginning of difcant, to exprefs what has fince
heen ftyled counterpoint. If this {pecies of harmony had
its admirers, it had likewife its enemies, when it was intro-
duced independent of the Gregorian chant, or when this
chant was corrupted by it ; and if many {tatutes remain for
celebrating fettivals «cum cantu, et difcantu, a haute voix,
a chant et a dechant,”’ there are others to cenfure the art,
and keep it within eertain bounds, It was thought fo
licentious at the beginning of the fourteenth century, that
the ufe of it was prohibited in the mafs by a bull of pope
John XXIT. 1322. However, there is at the end of
it this favourable claule ; “ It is not our intention wholly
to prevent the ufe of concords in the facred fervice, parti-
cularly on great feitivals, provided the ecclefiaftical chant
or plain-fong be carefully preferved.’? he Abbé Lebeuf
oblerves, that thofe who drew up this bull, which’is in-
ferted in the body of canon laws, erroneoufly confined dif-
cant to fourths, fifths, and eighths, from the perufal of

» ancient authors on the fubject of mutic, particularly Caffio-

dorus, where they had found the following definition:
¢ Symphonia eft temperamentum fonitus gravis ad acutum,
vel acutiad gravem, modulamen efficiens, five in voce, five
in percuffione, five in flatu. Symphonie fuat fex: prima,

FAC

diateflaron: fecunda, diapente: tertia, diapafon : quartas
Giapafon et diatefferon : quinta, diapafon et diapente: fexta,
diapafon et diapafon.”” «* Symphony, or mufic in confo-
nance, is the mixing grave founds with acute, or acute
with grave, either in finging or playing upon ftringed or
wind inflruments. Symphonic concords are fix ; the fourth,
fifth, and eighth, with their oftaves.” It is hardly poffible
to read this paflage, and not give up the contelt concern-
mg ancient counterpoint; or, at leaft, reduce it to that
meagre kind, of which an example has been given in the
firft volume, (Eift. Mufic by Burney, p. 145.)

lt is eafy to fuppofe, fays the Abbé Lebeuf, that the
defign of thofe who fir permitted chants in faburden to be
fung in the churches of France, was to difti'zuith feftivals
and holy times, by the ornaments and graces with whith
they were fung ; as, in others was done by allowing par-
ticular portions of the fervice to be performed in faux-
bourdon, or counterpoint. Traité Hiflorique fur le Chant
Eccles. See FAauso-porpone.

FAC, in Stalian Mufic, is an abbreviation of facciata, a.
fide, or page. See Carra.

FACADE, io Architedure. See Face.

Facave Clif, or Mural Afcent, in Geology, is a term for
the precipitous face of a rock ; thefe, in fome few inftances,
are occafioned by the ftrata below having funk down at a
filure or fault, in others, on the fea fhore, they are occa-
fioned by the waves having undermined and let down the
ftrata, and fucceflively waihed away the fame; but more
commonly facades are occafioned either by the violent ex-
cavation which vallies have undergone, or by the abruption
of the ftrata in certain diftrids, as Dr. W. Richardfon calls
it (Phil. Tranf. 1808), but which had previoufly been
called in our work denudation, which fee. Accordian to
the obfervations of Mr. Farey, nearly all the lime-itone
facades in the Derbyfhire mountains appear to have been
the {kirts of veins, and their beiig coated with the {pars
peculiar to vein-fkirts, feems to have preferved them from
mouldering down or decay, in moft initances.

FACATA, or Fucare, in Geography, a fea-port of
Japan, in the ifland of Ximo, where the Jefuits had formerly
a confiderable eftablifhment, and a church; 27 miles
W.N. W. of Taifero.

FACAUT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
63 miles N. N. W. of Cogni.

FACE, the furface or firft fide which a body prefents to
the eye. See Surrace. ;

Face, in Anatomy, denotes the fame part of the body as
thefame term fignifies in common language. Our arrangement
of the anatomical department of this work has rendered it
neceflary to defcribe the various parts of the face in different
articles. The mouth, lips, and cheeks are deferibed in the
article DeGuuririon; the eye-brow, eye-lids, and eyes in
the article Eyer ; and the nofe in the article Nosy.

Face is particularly ufed for the vifage of an animal, and

-efpecially of a man, as being in him the ouly part of the

body that ordinarily appears to the eye.

The Latins call it facies, vultus, os, Sc.

The great variety obfervable ia men’s faces, voices, and
hand-writings, furnifhes a noble argument of a Provi-
dence,

The human face is called the image of the foul, as being
the feat of the principal organs of ienfe; and the place
where the ideas, motions, &c. of the foul are chiefly fet
to view. Pride and difdain are fhewn in the eye-brows,
modefty on the cheeks, majefty on the fore-head, &c, It
is the face which fhews the fex, age, temperament, health,
or dileafe, &c.

The

PA

The face, confidered as the index of the paffiona, habits,
&c. of the perfon, makes the fubjec&t of phyfoguomy,

Face, or Facade, in Architedure, 1s fometimes ufed
fir the front of a building, or the fide on which the chief
entrance is; as alfo for the fide it prefents to a itreet, garden,
court, &c. and fometimes for any fide oppofite to the
eye.

Da sats Facia, or Fafcia, alfo denotes a flat mersber
having a confiderable breadth, and but a fmall projeéture.

Such are the bands of an architrave, larmier, &c. See
Fascia.

Fact of a Stone, is the furface or plain part which is to
lie in the front of the work. The face is ealily known
wifen the ftone is fealped, as being always oppofite to the
ba&k, and the back going rough as it comes from the

uarry.

The workmen generally choofe to make one of thofe
fides theface which, when in the quarry, lie perpendicular
to the horizon, and confequently the breaking, and not the
cleaving way of the ftone.

Face of a Gun, in the Artillery, the furface of the metal
at the'extremity of the muzzle of a piece.

Face, in Afrology, is ufed for the third part of a fign,
Each fign is fuppofed to be divided into three faces: the
ten firft degrees compofe the firft face; the ten following
ones the fecond ; and the laft ten the third. Venus is in
the third face of Taurus; that is, in the lait ten degrees
thereof.

Face ofa Plant. See Hasir.

Face of a Lajlion, in Fortification.
Military Senfe, and Basvion.

Face of a Place, denotes the interval between the points
of two neighbouring baltions, containing the curtain, the
two flanks, and the two faces of the battions that look to-
wards one another.

This is otherwife called the ¢enaille of the place.

Face Prolonged, is that part of aline of defence rafant,
which is between the angle of the epaule or fhoulder of a
baftion and the curtain ; or the line of a defence rafant di-
minifhed by the face of the battion.

Face, Lxternal, Facies externa, ia Ichthyology, is uied
to exprefs a general form or figure in certain fifhes, by means
of which they agree with fome and difagrée with others ;
aad according to which likenefs or diffimilitude fome authors
of the Jate ages have arranged them into genera. This ge-
neral figure in fifhes conlifts in the fhape of the head and
body, and the fhape, fize, and proportion of the fins and
tail, and though very obvious, is very indiftin@ ; it being
in many cafes, where two fifhes have the fame general ex-
ternal face, yet hard to fay, on a clofe examination, in
what it is that the likenefs confifts. The authors who
founded the diltinction of the genera of fifhes on thefe ex-
ternal refemblances ran into very great errors; for it is not
enough in a generical diftinction for the chara&er to be ob-
vious, but it muft alfo be precife and determinate. What
this facies had in the firlt of thefe requifites is often wanted
inthe laft ; and, in general, it has been found to be no true
bafis of dittinétion.

Many fith have the facies externa, or general appearance
fo much alike, as to be eafily coupled at fight into the fame
genus; and that juftly, as they really belong to the fame
when more precilely referred to it, according to their natu-
ral and more effential charagter. Of this kind ace the gadi,
the clupex, the falmons, the petromyze, the coregones,
the pleuroneéte, the rays, and many of the cyprini. In
thefe the facies externa 1s of real ufe, as it is an obvious
mark, and leads to the road of truth; but there are befide

See Face, in a

them in their real characters.

CE.

thefe many other fifhes which, though they are truly of
the fame genus, yet differ extremely in their feveral external
appearances, fo that any method founded on the facies ex-
terna mutt feparate them, though nature had really joined
The tench and the trutta
lacuttris, or lake-trout, are in regard to their facies externa
extremely alike one to the other, yet here this obvious chae
racter deceives us; for the tench is a fpecies of the cypri-
nus, and the other a true and genuine falmon, two genera
of fifhes effentially and very widely diffcrent, though this
method of judging by the external appearance would have
coupled together fifh belonging to them both, In the fame
manner the fcorpena and cottus are very like one to the
other in their external appearance ; but when nicely ex.
amined, according to the rules of ichthyology, they are
found to belong to two very different genera, aud to have
very little real likenefs. From thefe, and numerous other
examples of a like kind, it evidently appears, that as the
facies externa cannot be depended on for eftablithing the ge-
nera of fifhes, fome more eflential characters mult be ea-
quired after for the regular and natural completion of this
neceflary bufinefs. Therefore, the geserical chara&ters of
fith are to be fought after in their external and invariable
parts, and they are to be arranged into families and genera,
according to the agreement of thefe in number, fituation,
ficure, and proportion. Among all thefe, the characters
taken from the number of the parts, where that is certain
and invariable, are moft valuable, as they moit readil
offer themfelves to the eye, and are leaft of all liable to
errors,

Face, in the Manege. See CHANFRIN.

Face, in a AZilitary Senfe, means that front which is
fhewn by a body of troops, or the general bearings of any
particular defences in a fortified place: in the former in-
ftauce, reference is had to the line of front, and not to any
change of individual pofition, whether by turning (i. ¢.
facing ) to the right or to the left, for the purpofe of march-
ing by files; nor does an echellon movement in any wile
alter the meaning, it being even underftood that the line of
pivots, om which the wheel was made, denotes thé true
front or face of that part of a line; though to an enemy
there will be prefented an equivocal definition, or difplay,
in confequence of the tendency of an echellon movement
to produce a rapid change of front. For a further infight
into this part of our fubje&, we refer our readers to
EscuEetion and EvoruTion.

The face of any lines, or fortified works, is to be afcer-
tained by a confideration of what proportion of any real
figure, or of any imaginary one, the feveral defences may
occupy. Thus, in a fquare, there will be four diftinét
faces; in a pentagon, (or figure of five fides,) there wilt
be five; ina hexagon, (or figure of fix fides,) there will
be fix; and thus of any number of portions into which a
circle, an ellipfis, (or oval,) or any other perimeter, or
circumference, may be divided. In all thefe we judge by
the chords, fubtending the feveral portions refpectively,
without adverting to their béing either equal or fimilar, as
they fhould properly be in all works coming under the de-
fignation of ‘ regular fortification,’ of which an ample
defcription has been given under the head of Construc-
rion, JVilitary. It may be proper in this place to obferve,
that our beft engineers make it a rule not to extend a face
beyond certain limits, proportioning the width of the
curtain to the magnitude of the area to be enclofed. Con-,
fequently, larze areas, which give a greater circumference,
are neceffarily defended by more faces thau thofe of fimaller
compafs, whereby the flanked angles of the baftions be-

come

FACE,

@ome more obtufe, it being evident, that the angles of a
triangle infcribed in a circle will be more acute than thofe
of a f{quare, (under fimilar circumftances,) thofe of a
fguare more acute than thofe of a pentagon, and thus,
ad infinitum.

The firft fyftem of Monfieur Vauban is that generally
afted upon : it divides fortification into three claffes, namely,
the little, the mean, and the great. The exterior fide of
the little gives from 120 to 175 toifes (or fathoms) ; that
of the mean includes from 175 to 185 toifes; and that of
the great ranges from 185 to 260 toifes. lence, we
readily eftimate the number of faces into which the cir-
cumference of an area fhould be divided, obferving, that
whenever any portion of that circumference impofes on us
along fide, that is, above 280, but not exceeding 340
toifes, there muft be formed two faces, covering fuch long
front, or face. This is done by adopting each extremity
of the latter asa centre, and defcribing from them refpe¢t-
ively an arc, having 180 toifes for the radius; the inter-
fection of thofe arcs oppofite the centre of the front will
be the point of union of two faces, of which the ends of
the front, whence the arcs were drawn, willbe the other
extremities.

If the front fhould exceed 360 toifes, it fhould be di-
vided into as many portions, from 175 to 185 toifes each,
as the ground may permit ; each fuch portion being con-
fidered a feparate face, and to be defended by flat baftions.
Tt has, however, been always confidered expedient to pro-
teé& all fuch difproportioned faces, by means of whatever
outworks may be molt applicable to local circumftances.
Thus, if there be three fuch conjun& faces, the centre one
fhould be covered by a horn-work, of which the flanks
ought to be thrown at fuch an angle as might not admit of
their aGting in behalf of the befiegers, fhould they fucceed
in wrefting them from the garrifon. If only two conjunét
faces are to be defended, the central baftion fhould be well
covered by exterior defences ; fuch as a counter-guard, well
flanked by lunettes, tenaillons, a fleche, &c.; fo as to
give full effe& to the defences, but without fubjecting
them to become obnoxious thereto, when poffeffed by the
enemy.

The faces of any particular work, fuch as a raveline, or
a baftion, are thofe parts which form an angle projecting
outwards from the place, tewards the efplanade, or coun-
try: confequently, the faces of works that are mutually
parallel, muft have the fame line of fire, or afpeét ; and,
m the fame degree, flank all other works ftanding at an
angle of not lefs than 60° nor more than 120°.

Face of the Mea/fures, in Mining, is that part of a mine
bounded by the length-way or principal vertical joints, or
natural cracks of the meafures. In coal mines, thefe prin-
cipal joints are called fline back, or face joints, and are ge-
nerally parallel to each other; and, according to the recent
obfervations of Mr. Farey in Derbyfhire and Notting-
hambhire, thefe feem to tend towards the fame point of the
compats, without regard to the direétion in which the mea-
fures may dip or incline ; fo that the face of the work in
the collieries there, is generally towards the two o’clock
fun, or its oppofite direGtion, which feems a curicus cir-
cumftance, and may prove of importance, if more extended
obfervations fhould thew it to be a general faét: the leffer
joints which crofs the flines, almoft at right angles, are called
, énd-joints, or cutters, which fee.

Face, Fr. in Mufic, is ufed to diftinguith the different
forms of the triad, or ways of taking the common chord ;

8 a 5
as 1° face ?, 2°* face 3, and 3°° face 4 3 or, as we should

Vou. XIV.

fay, firft flage or lation of a chord, &c. A chord has as

many faces or forms as it has notes. ‘The chord of the 7th

to G, for inftance, may be played four feveral ways on a

keyed inftrument, placing the thumb om the loweft note,
8

Blepe Wh
as’ Z.°8, 3.5
92) 179) aga 32

3 65 halos : :
Face, the Human, to the painter and fculptor is an

objeét of the utmoft importance among their various ftudies.
In endeavouring to convey in their reprefentations of the
human figure the influence of thofe emotions of the mind
which arife from the fubje& adopted, and which are fup-
pofed to occupy the bofoms of the perfons reprefented,
much is done by the general action of the figure ; but it is
the expreflion or aétion of the features of the face which
identify the paffion, convey the fulleft idea of its influence,
and literally “ give to airy nothing a local habitation and a
name.”? A regard of the eye, a motion of the lip, or of
the noftril, fometimes {peaks a language more forcibie than
words. An intimate acquaintance therefore with the ftruc-
ture of thofe filent monitors, the features of the face, with
the beft proportions either for their expreffion or beauty,
appears to be abfolutely neceflary to obtain excellence in the
art of reprefenting the different expreflions caufed by their
variations.

It will be neceffary, in order to treat this fubje& fully,
to trace the growth of the human face from its ilage of
childhood to its maturity and decline, each {tage having its
peculiar variations, and the knowledge of each being re-
quifite for the exhibition of the painter’s and {culptor’s art.

That kind of character which marks the years of childhood
is fo clearly difcernible, that it admits of no difpute. The
form of the faces and features of children is as peculiar to
themfelves as the fimplicity of their minds; yet we fre-
quently obferve, even in very young ones, certain indications
of gemus or ftupidity, which ripening time afterwards juf-
tifies. ‘The form of the faces of children inclines to the
circle, in contradiftinétion to that of the adult, which is
eval, or rather egg-fhaped, with the apex downwards.
The features, when young, are alfo round and foftened ; the
iris of the eye is very large in proportion to the face. Mr.
Hogarth, in his ‘* Analyfis of Beauty,’ obferves, “ that
it ever continues the fame fize, fo that you may fometimes
find it in a new-born babe as large as in a man fix feet high:””
it ferves, therefore, as a ftandard to meafure the growth of the
other partsof the face. The nofe is flat, the cheeks plump
and round, making the mouth appear flattened in the face ;
the ears are large, and the whole expreffion heavy. During
infancy the .faces of boys and girls have no confiderable
difference, but as they grow up the features of the boy
take upon themfelves more marks of peculiar character, and
grow fafter in proportion to the iris of the eye than thofe
of the girl, thus fhewing the diftinGtion of fex in the face.
A manly featured boy derefore has his features larger than
ordinary in proportion to the iris, whilft thofe who have

_the contrary look younger and more childifh than they

really are.

In the progrefs of the face to maturity the features lofe
much of their roundnefs, and partake more of the oval,
the nofe rifes, the cheeks retire, the mouth forms, and the
difpofition of the mind begins to fhew itfelf in the air of the
face, and more efpecially we now perceive a difference ia
the fexes, in the more fpeedy advance of the female te-
wards that form which conttitutes beauty.

————"* By degrees

The human bloffom blows, and every day

Soft as it rolls along fhews fome new charms,

"The father’s luftre, or the mother’s bleom.”’ -

. at

FAC Es

That diftinguifhing peculiarity, the growth of the beard,
alfo takes place in the male ; now indeed with us (the in-
“habitants of fouthern Europe,) under fentence of excifion,
but once univerfally efleemed the proudeft diftin&tion of
man, and cultivated with all imaginary care by faints and
heroes. See Brearp.

Arrived at maturity, the face poffeffes the whole charac-
ter of the man, both phyfical and intellectual, and either
fhines diftinguifhed by its character of fenfe or beauty; or
appears odious in its groffnels and deformity.

But the viciffitudes to which all the productions of this
world are fubjeét forbid a permanence of that maturity, and
having now no ferther progrefs to make in advance, the
beauties of the face gradually change, wither, and die. Im-
perceptibly at firft alteration takes place in the features,
they lofe their foftnefs and fullnefs; lines fteal upon the
cheeks and forehead; the colour of the face declines, and
the coutitenance becomes more and more marked with the
repetitions of the actions and expreflions of the paffions.
Advancing in life the change becomes more vilible, and at
length even rapid ; and the continued aGtion of the mufcles
of the face increafing the marking of its various parts, they
become more angular, and broken into many forms; the
projections of the bones become more apparent by the
finking in of the cheeks, from the lofs of the teeth,
which caufes alfo the lips to difappear, by folding over the
gums; and when the teeth are all gone, the mouth clofing,
brings the jaws nearer together, and fhortens the {pace be-
tween the nofe and chin; tll at lafttime triumphant, over-
comes all that defignated the vigour and fenfe of man, or
the beauty and amtability of woman, and renders thofe who
bore fo much refemblance to each other in infancy, again
fimilar in intelle& and in perfon; till the laft earthly fcene
elofes and mingles them in their common duft.

The varieties of the human countenance are not confined
to thefe diftin@ive marks of the different periods of its exift-
ence. Every country, every climate, has its peculiarity; it
would require a copious diflertation to defcribe all the pe-

euliarities that are nationally characteriftic ; a few of the
principal ones will anfwer our purpofe. (See P/ate III.
Painting, figs. 1, 2, 3» 4, and 5.) Among them none
are fo obvions as the difference of the negro and the white
man, in colour more particularly ; for as to form, though
the thick lips, broad flat nofe, the want of beard, and the
woolly texture of the hair of the former, are powerfully dif-
tin& from the appearance of the European; they are not
more fo than are the features of the Tartar or the Chinefe,
who have round faces pointed at the chin, {mall eyes, with
the outer angle inclining upwards, giving ftrongly the cha-
rater of cunning. In the North another race of men are
found likewife diftin@ in their faces as well figure. The
Laplander, and his oppofite in North America, the Efqui-
maux Indian. Hideous deformity to the eyes of an Eu-
ropean characterizes tneir countenances, large, fiat, and broad
faces; broken and funk nofes; thick eye-brows drawn
back towards the temples; high cheek bones ; thick lips;
and large mouths, confpire to dilguife the “* human face
divine,” as the poet has termed it, and conceal the expreflion
of all that is amiable or inviting.

The fucceflive approaches to union of thefe countries
produce alfo the fame fucceflion of approach in counte-
nance. Fromthe Eaft; the Chinefe, the Hindoo, the Per-
fian, the Turk, the Hungarian, the German, &c.: and from
the North, the Laplander, the Ruffian, the Pole, the Ger-
man, &c. have each their diftin@ clafles of feature gradually
receding from, and approaching to, each other: and on the
fouthern fide of Africa, the union of the features of the

7

Negro and Chinefe are found in the Hottentot (Barrow’s
Inland Tour from the Cape of Good Hope.) Add to thefe
the different features of the various tribes of North and
South America, and fome idea may be formed of the almoft’
infinite varieties of the human face. To fuch a wonderful
extent is this carried, that it is probable that from the firft
formation of man to the prefent time, no two human beings”
have been exa¢tly fimilar in feature and form of face.

ray
}

This fpeculation, however, is carrying the matter much
farther than is abfolutely neceffary for the purpofe of the.
hiftorical painter. Though it is not amifs to be thus in-
formed on this head, yet as it has been faid, and juftly too,
‘‘ that his principal bufiaefs is to paint man, not men ; the_
generic chara€ter, not the individual fpecies,”’ we will point
out thofe proportions of the face which are allowed to be
the mott effective in exhibiting beauty or manly character.
Yor this we mult turn our eyes to the Greeks, who appear
to have fyftematically arranged their ideas aad practice in
the production of their ftatues.

Audran, in a work publifhed in Paris, has given the fol-
lowing comparative fcale of proportions of the faces of the.
Apollo Belvidere, and of an antique Venus, from actual mea-
furement. ‘Taking the length of the nofe, which he calls
a part, and dividing that in twelve parts, which he calls.
minutes, he ftates the faces of the Apollo and of the Venus
to have each three parts from the growth of the hair on the
forehead to the bottom of the chin. Dividing the lower
part into three, the uppermoft gives the line of divifion of-
the lips; the other parts are propertioned as follow :

Apollo. Venus.
peeane sp. ns
Width of the face from ear toear - 2 2 |2 2
Theeye, feen in front ~ =" = == 6 53
Space between the eyes +=: - = = 6 ‘bos
Eye in profile, and the pupil in width 2 2
Width acrofs the noftrils - - - - a2 | 6s
Nofe‘tn' profile? se) So. sts ae 64 6
Width of mouth infront - - = 9 72.
—_———_- in profile - - = 42 32.
From the noftril to the ear, in profile - 1 -84/1 6
Length of theear = - - - + 1 I

See Plate 1. Painting, figs 1, 25 35 4+

The greater part of the Greek ftatues of the higher clafs
have nearly the fame proportions, and in fculpture thefe
rules are moft ufually adhered to, particularly where the
fubje@ is either a perfonification of divine or heroic cha-«
rater, which are indeed the only proper fubjeéts for the
difplay ofthis art. But painting having a wider range, both!
in fubjeét and aétion, cannot always be bound by them, and
in many views of the face it would be abfolutely impoffible
to apply them. As the praétice of the painter calls for
more individuality than that of the feulptor, fo is he more.
or lefs at liberty to difpenfe with thefe proportions in a de-'
gree; and it muft never be forgot that men of different cha-
raters have differing countenances, their péculiar. expref-
fions requiring, or rather, perhaps, producing, different pro-
portions.. The painter who makes all his faces of the fame
flandard can never excite an intereft in his works, or ever.
enjoy the praife of felecting with judgment, or feeling the
produGtions of nature for his imitation. This diverfity in
the form of the faces and features arifing from internal cha- .
raéter is the bafis of phyfiognomy, to which, for farther
illuftration upon this fubjeét, we refer the reader. wo

The general proportions mentioned above are, neverthe-
lefs, of effential feivice-to the painter; for if they cannot”

. iB:

FAC

be faid to have a binding influence over him to caufe
him to adhere to them alone, they ferve him excellently
as arule to {werve from, conftantly checking his caprice,
and preventing his running into too common-place an
imitation of nature, and producing caricature, inftead ef
that charaéter, confiftent with the dignity of ftyle, which
fhould accompany all grand works aiming at fuperiority of
effect.

In drawing the face there are fome regulations which
facilitate the progrefs of it. Having made the oval, or

eneral fhape of the head, it is ufual to draw a perpendicu-
‘is line down the centre when feen in front, and that is

-croffed by an horizontal one in the middle, tor the flation
of the eyes. The perpendicular line being divided into
four equal parts, the three lower ones give the {pace for
the face, and according to the above-mentioned rules all
the various parts may be fet off upon thefe lines, it being
remembered, that the eyes, nofe, and mouth, are always pa-
rallel, and the bottom of the ears on a level with that of the
nofe; and in whatever view the face may be required to be
drawn, thefe lines, though varying in their dire¢tions, will
ftill be of ufe in determining the pofitions of the features,
Ina head looking downwards thofe which were horizontal
in adire& front view will be found to become concave, or
the inferior part of a circle, and the reverfe takes place in
one looking upwards ; and the impoflibility of the painter
applying in every eafe the rules of proportion will be clearly
feen, when it is known, that in moft views of the face fome
of the features are feen fore-fhortened, (fee Fore-sHorTEn-
tnG,) and of courfe others appear larger in line than their
natural fize.

When a face is dire&ted to the ground, the forehead and
the nofe will appear far too Jarge for the cheeks and chin ;
and by their projeGtion hide fomewhat of the other parts of
the face. That of the forehead and eye-brows conceals
part of the eyes; the nofe hides the mouth partially, or
totally, according to the degree of depreffion of the face,
or elevation of the view: the mouth, if not itfelf rendered
invifible, hides apart of the chin; and on the contrary, in
the elevation of the face, the upper lip hides the fpace be-
tween it and the nofe ; the bafe of the nofe conceals its
length, and the eye-brows in part conceal the forehead as
we fee under them, confequently they project before it in
the view.

_In all thefe cafes, as has been already obferved, it is im-
poffible to apply the rule, but the artift will do well always
to keep it in view, as it will facilitate his labour, and ge-
neralize his charaéters, without confining him too ftriély,
or preventing his refearch after the more grand and juft im-
preflions of phyfiornomical chara&er, or accidental effects
of paffion or expreffion 5 which give the higheft value to
works of art.

For the variations that take place in the face of a man
whofe mind is under the influence of the tronger paffions,
fee Expression, in Painting, and Puystocnomy for the
vatiations of the lines and features indicative of the pecu-
liarities of natural charaGter in mankind.

Of thofe peculiarities in the chara&ters of countenance,
found among the higher clafs of the Greck ftatues, we have
fpoken under the word Beauty, as relative to the arts of
defign ; of their oval fhape in front ; of the Araight, or near-
ly ftraight line in profile formed by the forehead and nofe ;
of thin, full lips, and round chin. Thefe are the forms
which were felegted by thofe elegantly minded and wile men,
the Greek artifts, as mott impreflive of grandeur and of
beauty in the human face, and the propriety of this felec-
tion ftill remains unimpeached, though it is very rarely ap-

FAC

proached by Nature, and perhaps has never been completely
produced by herin one countenance ; yet as thefe various
features were found feparately in her works, and viewed
with gratification, the artifts judiciovfly united them ; thua
outfhining in perfeétion the model they imitated, and pro-
ducing another more pure for her imitation, which fhe has
never yet been found to equal; fo that to be as beautiful
as the Venus in the language ofthe poets, is to poffefs that
quality in a fuper-human degree.

In the produGtions of nature the human face varies ia
every direétion from this definitely beautiful form. In
our own nation (where countenances are not in gene-
ral lacking either in fenfe or beauty, and often poflefling
both toa very confiderable degree,) we find among them
fome faces tending to the round, others to the longer pro-
portion, fome are flat, others prominent, fome fquare,
others indefinitely fhaped ; the features in fome are large
in proportion to the face ; in others, fmall and clofe tose-
ther, occupying only the centre of the face ; or elfe, far
apart,and with large fpaces between them. (See P/afe II.
Painting, figs. 1, 253; 4.) Uhefe, with other variations of the
like kind, are highly neceffary to be obferved by the por-
trait painter, or the fculptor, occupied in producing indi-
vidual refemblance : and endeavouring to form .in the mind
a clear idea of the peculiar clafs of arrangement of fea-
ture inthe face before them, isthe readieft and fureft way
of producing its like on the canvas or marble. See Por-
TRAIT Painting.

FACELLI, ‘in Geography, a town of Naples, in La-
vora; 18 miles N.E. of Capua.

FACET, or Facetre, alittle face or fide ofa body,
cut into a great number ofangles.

Multiplying-glaffes are cut in facets, or facet-wife. Dia-
monds are alfo cut in facets or tables.

In brilliants there are two forts, fkew, or fkill-facets, and
ftar-facets. Skill-facets are divided into upper and under.
Upper fkill-facets are wrought on the lower part of the be-
zil, and terminate in the girdle.

Under fkill-facets are wrought on the pavillions, and ter-
minate in the girdle.

Star-facets are wrought on the upper part of the bezil,
and terminate in the table. Jeffries on Diamonds. See
Dramonps.

Facets of a hill, in Geology, or face of ahill, are thofe
parts which prefent a plane or flat furfaee. It has often
been remarked, that hills and mountains have generally one
flat fide, and which, in mott cafes, faces towards the eaft ;
and a careful examination convinces us that the fame is occa-
fioned by this plane being the uppermoft ftratem of matter
ot which the hill is compofed. In examining the geology
ofa diftria, itis of the utmoft confequenceto attend to the
facets ofthe hills, becaufe they invariably point out the po-
fition of the ftrata, and fhew us° where to look for the uni-
form top of the ftrata, and where to expeé to fee the edges
and alternation of different ftrata, expofed to view, wherever
the’ vegetable foil and alluvial depofits are removed. Some
few hills and mountains are compofed of volcanic matters,
fucceffively and pretty evenly diitributed on their furfaces,
but the number of fuch hills is exceeding final! ; other hills
owe their origin, in afew inftances, to alluvial depofits of
the ruins of ftrata, thrown together without order, or any
difcoverable law ; but itis far more common io alluvial coun
tries to find ftratified hills, with heaps of gravel and allu-
vial matter on them, generally raifing them higher than
they were before; but fome parts of the facets of the
{trata are generally in fuch cafes fill to be difcovered.

FACETANUS Lacertvs, in Zoolazy, the name of a

I2 peculiar

Fac

peculiar fpecies of lizard, called at Rome and Naples the
tarantula.

FACIA, in Architecture. See Fascia,

FACIAL Arrery, in, Anatomy, is fynonymous with the
external maxillary. See ArTERY.

Faciat Nerve, is the portio dura of the feventh pair.
See Nerve.

Faciau Veins. See VEIN.

FACIES Hiprocrarica, in Medicine, is when the nof-
trils are fharp, the eyes hollow, the temples low, the tips of
the ears contraGted and cold, the forehead dry and wrinkled,
and the complexion pale or livid.

The facies Hippocratica is chiefly obferved towards the
period of phthifes and other confumptions, and is held a
{ure prognoftic of death. If it appears within three days
after the attack of an acute difeafe, it is deemed to indicate
death.

FACILE Harsour, in Geography, a harbour of New
Zealand, in Dusky Bay, on the weft coaft of Refolution
ifland, recommended by Capt. Cook to thofe who are fail-
ing fouthward. S. lat. 45° 40’. E. long. 166° 18'.

FACING, in £ngincery, is the name for afmall thick-
nefs ot the common earth, foil, or ftuff of a canal, laid in
front of the fide-lining or puddle, on the floping fides
C F and IG, figs. 14 and 15, Plate I. of Canals. Its
ufe is to hold up the puddle, while the fame is working
and chopping in the a of puddling, and afterwards to
guard the puddle from being penetrated by the hitchers and
poles ufed by the bargemen. See Canav.

Facine, in Military Language, is that part of the uni-
form of a profeffional man, whether commiffioned, non-
commiflioned, or private, which is contrafted with the co-
lour of his coat, &c. and this relates as much to the col-
lar and the cuffs, as to thofe parts ufually called lapels,
which fold back from the throat down to the waift. With
the exception of one or two regiments, all our military
corps are diftinguifhed by facings of various colours ; all
bearing any royal deputation being of garter-blue, as are
alfo the feveral corps of marines. For the moft part, yel-
low, buff, white, grey, and light green are in ufe; a few
may be feen of black, pompadore, or fcarlet. Few regi-
ments wear lapels, but confine themfelves to the ule of
capes and cufls of the appointed colour, to which their re-
gimental ftandards, and the feveral omamental parts of
equipage invariably conform. It has been confidered a rule,
though not adhered to in modern times, that whenever a
regiment lofes its colours, its facings fhould be difconti-
nued until the corps may have regained its credit by taking
the colours of fome oppofing corps. This does not relate to
that kind of privation refulting from a furrender, whether
in the field, orin a fortified ee but merely to the ad of
abandoning the field in fuch diforder as fubjeéts the enfigns
to that moft heart-breaking misfortune, which, to the
honour of the Britifh army, may be faid not to be fa-
miliar to our fervice.

The mode iow in ufe, of making lapels, or facings, to
fold over to fuch extent as fhould afford comfort to the fol-
dier, cannot be too much conimended ; we are furprifed to
fee any deviation from a_ practice fo evidently conducive
not only to health, but to that compacinefs which facili-
tates the various movements of the relock. Confidering
the breaft and ftomach to be peculiarly fubje@t to derange-
ment, from expoiure to inclement weather, 1t appears to
usa defideratum, that in lieu of the many expeufive, but
frivolous parts of a fi Idier’s equipment, {ome device fhould
be adopted, whereby }oth e> ceffive heat, and pinching cold,
fhould be precluded at pleafure from parts fo eafily affected

FAC

\
thereby ; if our information be correét the total ab fence
of facings, fuch as might occafionally be either buttoned
back, or be lapped over, a deficiency to be feen in many
inttances, has been the occafion of very ferious illnefs, and
of no brief obituary lift, among feveral of our expedi-
tions,

Facinc, Facade, or Revetement, in Fortification, means
that portion of mafonry, or other binding, given to ram=
parts, with the view to prevent the foil of which they are
compofed from crumbling or giving way. When of ma-
fonry, the wall fhould be five feet thick at the top, with
an increafe or talus, equal to one-fixth of its height: but-
treffes, called counter-forts, fhould be built within, at
about fifteen feet apart, to ftrengthen the facing. In or-
der to prevent efcalade, the facing is yenerally made full
twenty-feven feet high, from the bottom of the ditch te
the cordon. When the facing is carried up as high as the
foles of the embrafures, it is called a whole revetement ;
but when confined to the ditch only, it is termed a half-re-
vetement. ‘Thefe muft depend on the nature of the foil,
the facility of ubtaining materials, the time that can be be-
ftowed, the importance of the poft, &e. Where difficul-
ties occur, as alfo in temporary works, the facings are

made with turf; in which cafe they are faid to be gazoned. -

For field-works, and efpecially in the condu@iag of fieges,
fafcines, which are faggots made of various materials, are
very generally employed, and are found to anfwer the in-
tention. (See Fasciwe.

Facina, in Ship Carpentry, denotes letting one piece into
another with a rabbet.

FACINI, Pietro, in Biography, a painter of hiftory,
born at Bolognain 1560. He began to paint when already
grown up to manhood, at the advice of An, Caracci, whey
on feeing a whimfical defign of his in charcoal, concluded he
would be an acquifition to his fchool. OF this advice he
had reafon to repent, not only becaufe Facini roufed his
jealoufy by the rapidity of his progrefs, but becaufe he faw
him leave his fchool, become his rival in the inftruGion of
youth, and even lay fnares for his life. Facini had two cha-
racteriftics of excellence, a vivacity in the attitudes and heads
of his figures, that refembled the ftyle of Tintoretto, and a
truth of carnation which made Annibal himfelf declare that
his colours feemed to be mixed with human flefh.

Beyond this he has little to furprife ; his defign is weak,
his bodies vaft and undefined, his heads and hands ill fet on,
nor had he time to corre&t thefe faults, as he died young, in
1602. At St. Francefco, in Bologna, is an altar-piece of
his, the Marriage of St. Catherine, attended by the four tute-
lary faints of the city, and a number of infant angels, which
fhews the beft of his powers. His children capeliings, or at
play, in the gallery Matvezai, and elfewhere at Bologna,
are equally admired; they are in the manner of Albani,
but with grander proportions. Fufeli’s Pilkington.

FACIO, ur Facias, and ut des, in Law. See Cons
SIDERATION.

FACK, in a Ship. See Faxe. ’

FACKER See, in Geography, a lake of Carinthia; 3
miles S.E. of Villach.

FACTEUR, Fr. in Mechanics, a maker ; asin mufic,; a
flute or fiddle-maker, an organ-builder. How great a de-
mand there was for flutes in Athens, may be conceived from
a circumitanre mentioned by Plutarch in his life of Ifocrates.
This orator, fays he, was the fon of Theodorus, a flute-
maker, who acquired wealth fufficient by his employment
not only to educate his children in a liberal manner, but alfo
to bear one of the heavieft public burdens to which an Athe-
nian citizen was liable, that of furnifhing a choir or area

OF

FAC

for his tribe, or ward, at feftivals and religious ceremonies,
Each tribe furnifhed their diftin@ chorus; which confifted
of a band of vocal and inftrumental performers, and dancers,
who were to be hired, maintained, and dieffed during the
whole time of the feftival ; an expence confiderable in itfelf,
but much increafed ly emulation among ‘the richer citizens,
and the difgrace confequent to an infenor exhibition, The
fluGtuations of trade and public favour have rendered the bu-
finefs of boring flutes far lefs profitable at prefent than it
was inthe time of Theodorus. But then we have had a
harpficherd-maker in our own country (old Kirkman) who
died worth 100,000/. and who was as able to maintain a
ehoiras Theodorus, or any dean and chapter of a cathedral.

FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a ftate to dilturb
the public repofe.

The moft celebrated fa€tions were that of the Guelphs and
Gibelins, who kept Italy in alarm for many ages; and with
us that of the Whigs and Tories.

’ Faction was originally an appellation given to the di-
vers troops or companies of combatants in the games of the
circus.

OF thefe there were four, v/z. the green faction, the blue
faGion, the red fa@tion, and the white fa€tiou. “Phe em-
peror Domitian ts faid to have added two others, wx. the
purple and the yellow.

Thefe faétions, with their liveries and badges, were at
Tength abolifhed ; the emulation which was at firft between
them growing to fuch a height, that in Juftinian’s time
40,000 men were killed in a contelt between the green and
blue factions.

FACTITIOUS, fignifies any thing made by art, in
eppofition to what is the produce of nature.

FACTO, De. See the article De Facro.

FACTOR, in Agriculture, is a term which in fome places,
efpecially in the northern parts of the kingdom, fignifies an
agent or perfon who has the overlooking and management
cf an eftate for another. Perfons of this defcription are
fomething more than bailiffs, and have commonly a know-
ledge of the law, in fo far as landed property is concerned.

Factor, in Commerce, an agent or perfon who aéts and
negociates for a merchant by commiflion; called alfo com-
miffioner, and on fome occation broker, and throughout the
Levant, coagis.

Fa@tors are either charged with the buying or the felling
of goods, or with both.

Thofe of the frft kind are ufually fixed in places
of confiderable manufaétories, or cities of great trade.
Their office is to buy up commodities for merchants refid-
ing elfewhere ; to fee them packed, and fend them to the
perfons for whom they were bought.

Facrors of fale are ufually eftablifhed in places where
there is a great vent. To thefe, merchants and manu-
fa€turers fend their goods to be fold for them according to
the price and other conditions exprefled in the orders deli-
vered them; and they are authorized by a letter of attor-
ney, with a falary or allowance for their care.

The wages or allowances for felling are ufually clear of

_ all expences of carriage, exchange, remittanees, &c. except-
ing poftage of letters, which are never put to account.

Mhetors fhould ftri@ly obferve the orders of their’ princi-
pals, or elfe they are liable to the damage accruing from
the negleé& of them. When factors have unlimited com-
miffion to do for their conftituents the beft they can, they
are excufable, though their tranfaciions are attended with
lofs to their principals; but no faGor, who has merely a
commiffion to fell, &c. for another, is excufable for entruit-
ing avother perfon beyond the ete time allowed in the fale

FAC

of the commodities which he difpofes of ; in fuch a cafe he
is anfwerable to the principal out of his own eftate. (1 Bulft.
102.) In commiffions at this time, it is common to give
the faétor power, in exprefs words, to difpofe of the mer-
chandize, and deal therein as if it were his own; by which
the faétor’s actions will be excufed, though they occafion
lofs to his principal. Goods remitted to a fa€tor ought to
be carefully preferved, and he is accountable for all lawful
goods that fhall come to his hands; yet if the faétor
buy goods for his principal, and they receive damage after
in his poffefiion, not through his negligence, the principal
fhall bear the lofs; and if a faétor be robbed, he fhall be
difcharged in account brought againft him by his principal,
(4 Rep. 83.) If a faétor fells on the ufual trutt to a per-
fon of good credit, who afterwards becomes infolvent, he is
difcharged3 but not if the man’s credit was bad at the time
of fale. A faétor fhould always be punétual in the advices
of his tranfaCtions, fales, purchafes, freichts, ard draughts
by exchange: he fhould never deviate from the orders he
receives in the execution of a commiffion for purchafing
goods, either with refpect to price or quality : if goods that
are bought are fent to a different place from that to which
they were ordered, they become the faétor’s, uniefs the
merchant allows them,

tract of the factor fhall oblige the principal to the perform-
ance of the bargain; and the principal is the proper perfor -
to be profecuted on non-performance ; but if the faGor
enters into a charter-party of affreightment with a matter
of a fhip, the contra& obliges him only;:unlefs he lades
aboard generally his principal’s goods, then both the princt-
pal and lading become liablé for the freight, and not the-
factor. (Goldib.137.) It is a general rule, that where a
factor, who is authorized to fell goods in hisown name,
makes the buyer debtor to himfelf, thouch he is not an=
{werable to his principal for the debt, if the money be not
paid; yet he has aright to receive it; if it‘ be paid, and his
receipt is a difcharge to the buyer. The fa€tor may*conr-
pel fuch payment by a@ion, and’ the buyer cannot defead
himfelf by faying, that the principal was indebted to hin
more than the amount. (Cowp. 255,6.) Where goods are
fold by the fa&tor at his own rifk, for which he has an addi
tional allowance, the vendor is not anfwerable to the owner.
(Stra. 1182.) Though a factor has power to fell, and
thereby bind his principal, yet he cannot bind or affe& the
property of the goods by pledging them as a fecurity for
his own debt, though there be the formality ofa bill of par-
cels and a receipt. (Stra.1178.) A factor that fells a
commodity under the price ordered by his principal fhall be
obliged to make good the difference ; and if he purchafes
goods for another at a limited price, and they rife in value,
and he fecures to himfelf the advantage, he is obliged to
fatisfy his principal for damages ; or if he makes any advan-
tage of the fale of goods which his principal dire&ed him to
purchafe, the principal (hall recover it from him, and he is
liable to be amerced for the fraud. When fa&tors have ob-
tained a profit for their principal, they mutt be cautious how
they difpofe of it; for if they aé&t without commiffien they
are refponfible ; and if a merchant remits goods to his fa&tor,
and about a month after draws a bill on him, and the fa@or
having effects in his hands, accepts the bill, but the principal
breaks, and the goods are feized in the fa@or’s hands, on
behalf of the creditors, it has been judged that the fa@or
mult anfwer the bill, and come in as a creditor for f much
as he was obliged by reafon of his acceptance to pay,
If one employs a fator, and entrufts him with the difpofat
of merchandize, and the faQtor reeeives thetmouey, and dies,
indebreg

FAC

indebted in debts of a higher nature, and it appears by evi-
dence that-this money was vefted in other goods, and re-
mains unpaid, thofe goods fhall be taken as part of the
merchant’s and not of the factor’s eftate ; but if the fa€tor
has the money, it thall be coufidered as the factor’s eftate,
and mutt firft anfwer the debts of fuperior creditors, &c.
(4 Salk. 160.) Ifa perfon employs a faétor to fell goods,
who {ells them on credit, and before the money is paid dies
indebted more than his eftate will pay, this money thall be
paid to the principal merchant, and not to the faétor’s ad-
miniftrator, deducting his commiffion ; fora fator is only
as truftee for his principal. (2 Vern. 638.) Bills remitted
to a factor or banker, while unpaid, are in the nature of
goods unfold ; and if the faétor become bankrupt muft be
returned to the principal, fubject to fuch lien as the fa€tor
may have thereon. (2 Blac. Rep. 1:54.) A fattor has a
lien on goods configned to him, not only for incident
charges, but as an item of mutual account, for the general
balance due to him, fo long as he retains the poffeflion ; if
he parts with the poffeffion, he parts with his lien. (1 Burr.
489. 1 Blac. Rep. 4.) If he be furety in a bond for his
principal, he has a lien on the price of the goods fold by
him for his principal to the amount of the fum for which he
is bound. (Cowp.25..) A factor has no lien on goods
for a general balance, unlefs they come into his a@ual pof-
feffion ; and if in confideration of goods being configned to
him he accept bills drawn by the confignor, and pay part of
the freight, and become infolvent before the bills are due,
and before the goods get into his a¢tual poffeffion, the con-
fignor may ftop them in tranfitu. (1 Term Rep. 11g.) If
a faétor accept bills drawn by his principal upon the faith
of-confignments agreed to be made by the principal to the
factor, and both of them become bankrupts before a cargo
configned came into poffeffion of the fa&or ; the factor’s
affiznees have no property in fuch cargo, and cannot recover
the produce of it againft the affignees of the principal, if the
latter have fold it, and received the purchafe-money. (1 Term
Rep. 783. 4 Bro. P.C. 47.) The confignor may ftop
goods in tranjfitu before they get into the hands of the con-
fignee, in cafe of the infolvency of the confignee ; but if the
confignee affign the bills of lading toa third perfon fora
valuable confideration, the right of the confignor as againtt
fuch affignee is divefted, There is no diftin@tion between a
bill of lading indorfed in blank, and an indorfement to a
particular perfon, (4 Bro, P.C. 57. 2 Term Rep. 63. 1H.
Blac. Rep..357. 2 Term Rep. 674. 3 Term Rep. 465.)
Téa factor fell goods as his own, by indorfement of the bill
of lading, though no delivery is made, the goods being et
fea, the vendor fhall keep pofleffion, unlefs fraud appears be-
tween him and the factor. (4 Burr, 2>46. 1 Blac. Rep. 629.)
A factor who has money in hand belonging to his princi-
pals, and who neglects to infure a fhip and goods according
to order, fhall make good the damage if the fhip mifcarry ;
and if he make any compofition with the infurers after in-
furance without orders, he is anfwerable for the whole in-
{urance. As fidelity and diligence are required from the
faGtor, fo the law requires the like from the principal : if,
therefore, a merchant remits counterfeit jewels to his faGtor,
who fells them as true ones, and fultains lofs or damage by
imprifonment or other punifhment, the principal fhall not
make fatisfaction to the factor but to the party who pur-
chafed them. Bufinefs of this kind is called commiflion-
bufinefs ; and traders in this way have cuvrent as well as
commiflion accounts conftantly between them, and draw on,
remit to, and fend commiMions to each other only by the
intercourfe of letters, which, among men of ‘honour. are
as obligatory and authoritative as all the bonds and ties of law.

FAC

Factors, in Arithmetic, is a name given to the two num-
bers which are multiplied one into another that 1s, the
multiplicand and multiplier; fo called becaufe they are
to facere produétum, make or conflitute the product.

FACTORAGE. The faGtorage or wages, called alfo
commiffion, is different at different places, and for different
voyages: at a medium it may be fixed at about three per
cent. of the value of the goods bought, befide the charge of
package, which is paid over and above. When factors
make themfelves an{werable for the debts of thofe perfons
with whom they deal, the charges of commiffion or
factorage are, of courfe, enhanced. -

FACTORY, a place where a confiderable number o:
factors refide, to negociate and officiate for their mafters or
principals.

The term is chiefly ufed in {peaking of the Eaft Indies,
and other parts of Afia, Turkey, Italy, Portugal, &c,
whither the European nations fend their fhips every year,
and where they keep fa€tors to buy the commodities of the
country, and fell thefe brought from Europe.

Factory is alfo a denomination applied in fome of our
manufacturing counties to the places where particular proe
ceffes of the manufacture are carried on.

FACTUM, in Arithmetic, the produ& of two quan-
tities multiplied by each other.

Factrum, in Zaw. See Fair.

FACULA, in Affronomy, a name given by Scheiner,
and others after him, to certaia {pots on the fun’s difk thas
appear brighter and more lucid than the reit of the body.

The word is Latin, beinga diminutive of fax, torchs and
fuppofed to be here applied from their appearing and diffi-
pating by turns. ‘

The faculz or bright {pots differ very confiderably from
the macule or dark fpots, in light, colour, figure, mag
nitude, and duration. : :

Hevelius affures us, that July the zoth, 1634, he obferved
a facula that took up a third part of the fun’s diameter ;
and from the obfervations of the fame Hevelius we learn,
that the macule frequently change into facule; but the
facule into maculz rarely, ifever. Some authors even con-
tend that all the maculz degenerate into facule before they
quite difappear.

Huygens, however, declares he was never able to difcover
any facule, though the macule occurred to him very fre-
quently. All the foundation he could fee for the notion of -
facule, he fays, was, that in the darkifh clouds which fre-
quently furround the maculz, one fometimes difcerns little
points or {parks brighter than the reit. ;

Many authors after Kircher and Scheiner have generally
reprefented the fun’s body full of bright, fiery {pots, which
they conceive to be a fort of volcanoes in the body of the
fun; but Huygens, and others of the lateit and beft ob-
fervers, finding, that the bett telefcopes difcover nothing of
the matter, agree to explode the phenomena of faculz.
Their caufe thefe authors attribute to the tremulous agita-
tion of the vapours near our earth; the fame as fometimes
fhews a little unevennefs in the circumference of the {un’s
difk when viewed through a telefeope. Stri€tly, then, the
facula are not eructations of fire and flame, but refractions
of the fun’s raysin the rarer exhalations, which, being con-
denfed in the neighbourhood of that fhade, feem to exhibit
a light greater than that of the fun. See Spors. ;

FACULTY, a power or ability of performing an a€tion,
The term is much ufed by the ancient philofophers, and
ftill retained in the fchools for explaining the aétions of
natural bodies. Thus, to account for the aét of digeition,
they {nppofe a digeftive faculty in the ftomach; to acco

or

FAC

for motion, they imagine a motive faculty in the nerves,
&e. which is only a fub{tituting of one name of an unknown
phenomenon for another.

The Facuuries or powers of the foul are commonly
reputed two, viz. the underftanding and will,

Facutry is alfo applied in the Schools, to the divers
parts or members of an univerfity, divided according to the
arts or f{ciences taught or profefled there.

There are four faculties in mo{t univerfities ; that of arts,
which includes the humanities and philofophy, and is much
the moft ancient and extenfive; the fecond is that of theo.
logy ; the third, medicine ; and the fourth, jurifprudence, or
laws. See each under its proper article.

The degrees in the feveral faculties in the univerfities are
thofe of Bachelor, Mafter, and Door.

The Facuury is frequently ufed abfolutely, and by way
of eminence, for that chiefly ftudied and taught in any
particular place.

Facutry, in Law, denotesa privilege or fpecial power
granted to a man by favour, indulgence, and difpenfation,
to do that which regularly by law he cannot ; as to eat flefh
upon days prehibited, or to marry without banns firft afked,

ic ;

) Facuuries, the Courtof. See Court of Faculties.

| Facuirty of Advocates, in Scotland. See ApyocarTe.

FACUSIM, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Niphon; 55 miles N.E. of Meaco.

.FADELA, a town of Fez; 28 miles S.W. of Salee.

FADEN-HOTUN, a town of Corea, on the river
Oula. N. lat. 41° 3/. Eslong. 125° 44!.

FADLA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed ;
180 miles N.E. of Mecca.

FADOAL, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian ocean.
S. Jat. 5° .51'. E. long. 132° 37".

FACES, in Phyfiology, the réfidue of the food, which
is expelled from the body, after the nutritious’ parts have
been abforbed by the inteitines. See Dicestion.

Faces, in Chemifiry. . Excrement, feces, or fecal mat-
ter, is the indigeftible refidue of the food, both liquid and
folid, mixed or combined with bile and other fecretions,
during its paflage through the alimentary canal.

The eager and unwearied fearch after gold, which diftin-

uifhed and difgraced the ancient alchemilts, rendered them
fable to be impofed upon by the flighteft and moft foolifh
coincidences and analogies: hence doubtlefs it was that the
cafual and flight refemblance in colour between gold and
the mott difgufting of all fubftances led them to fubmit
human ordure to various chemical procefles, with the expecta-
tion of obtaining from it an oil which fhould’ have the pro-
perty of fixing mercury. The details of moft of thefe
experiments have fuffered the oblivion which they merited,
and the difcovery of pyrophorus by Homberg is the only
known fa€t of any importance which has refulted from
them. This preparation, which is now obtained by a per-
feGtly inoftenfive procefs, was firft procured from the matter.
remaining in the retort after dry diftillation of human ex-
crement. :

Inthe year 1806 a laborious inveftigation of this fub-

ftance was undertaken by Berzelius with a view of illuftrating

the chemical hiftory of the provefs of digettion, from which
we have féleGted the following particulars. Recent excre-
ment appears to contain neither acid nor alkali in an uncom-

bined ftate. Its odour is peculiar and remarkably fetid, but

by time it becomes fenfibly fourifh, When of a medium

~ confiftence it lofes about three-fourths of its weight, by

being dried in a water bath. Ivis diffufible in water by
‘agitation and maceration, and if flrained through a linen

jes on ©!

cloth in this flate, it may be divided into a fomewhat tur-
bid fluid and an infoluble refidue. This latter is of a grey-
ifh brown colour, and a very permanently fetid odour.
When dried it appears to confift principally of the undi-
getted refidue of vegetable, and perhaps_alfo animal food.
It amounts to about 7 per cent. of the entire matter. The
{trained liquid by ftanding depotits a flimy matter of a yel-
lowifh-green colour, which is feparable from the more fluid
portion by filtration. It appears to confilt, firft of a mat-
ter foluble in alcohol, and much refembling the refin of bile ;
fecondly, of a matter infoluble in alcohol, but foluble in wa-
ter, poflefing many of the properties of mucus, and readily
putrefyiag at the fame time, exhaling the odour of urine;
thirdly, of a greenifh-grey refidue infoluble in water and
alcohol, and affording by incineration filex and phofphat of
pot-ath.

The clear liquor, after feparation of the flimy matter, is
of a light yellow colour, which, by expofure to the air,
becomes brown and turbid. By, gentle evaporation it de-
pofits cry!tals of ammoniaco-pho{phat of maguctia.

The conftituent parts ef the remaising fluid are, 1, albue
men; 2, refin of bile combined with foda; 3, a peculiar
fubftance of a reddifh browa colour, that appears te be
refin of bile fomewhat altered.

The proportions of the above fubftances, according te
Berzelius, are the following :

Water = — 4 ve 5 = 73.3
Vegetable and animal undigefted refidue - 7.9
Bile - - - - - - - 0.9
Albumen - 3 = = 2 ot fafa
Extractive matter - = = mae
Carbonat of foda ™ a = - 09
Muriat of foda - - : = we ory
Sulphat of foda - - = = = .0.05
Ammon. phofphat of magnefia - - 0.05
Phofphat of lime = - - ts Ont
Slimy matter = 3 = = - 14.0
100.0

The excrements of ftall-fed cattle have been examined by
M.M. Thaer and Einhof. The colour of this fubftance
is yellowifh green; its odour is fomewhat like that of muffle.
It contains no excefs of acid or alkali; when fubmitted to
the agency of fulphuric acid there is a difengagement and
production of acetic acid. ;

100 parts of recent excrement are reduced, by drying on
a-water-bath, to 28. aT eens ¢

When diffufed through waterand ftrained, there remains
behind a yellowifh fibrous matter, which appears to be
vegetable fibre but little altered. The folution depolits, by
ftanding, a flimy fubftance, to which the feces owe their
peculiar odour and colour. It is infoluble in water or al-
cohol; when heated it gives out an odour like that of ox-
bile. It is fearcely affeGed by the alkalies; but fulphuric
acid developes from it acetic acid, and the oxymuriatic acid
renders it yellow. y

The fluid remaining, after feparation of the above Jimy
fubftance, is at firft colourlefs, but, by expofure to the air,
becomes firft of a wine yellow, and then of a brown colour,
When evaporated to drynefs, there remains a brownifh mat-
ter, of a bitterifh tafte, infoluble in alcohol, but foluble in
water. It is not precipitated by infufion of galls; it foon
becomes putrid, exhaling an ammoniacal odovr, and during
combuttion exhibits the ufual charaéteriftics of animal mate

ter.

B AcE

ter. .The fixed parts, after incineration of eight ounces
ef the entire excrement, were as follow;

Lime - - - - - - by Eze
Pholphat of lime - - - - - 12.5
Magnefia - - - - - clvieeea
Iron - - - - - - =! U5.
Alumine with fome manganefe ° - 34.
Silex - - - - - - - 52.
Muriat and fulphat of potafh - ay lee

The excrements of carnivorous animals have not hitherto
‘been examined. The dung of dogs (called album Grzcum)
merits notice on account of its remarkable efficacy in fome
-of the procefles of leather-dreffing. The great confumption
of dung of all kinds is in agriculture as a manure. It is
alfo largely employed in the conftruiion of artificial nitre-
‘beds. The dung of the larger domeftic graminivorous
quadrupeds is dried and made ufe of as fuel in thofe coun-
tries that are deftitute of coal and wood; the foot arifing
‘from this combuiflion is the fubftance from which the
Egyptians procure fal ammoniac by fimple fublimation; and
itis probable that a fimilar advantage might be taken of it
in other couutries.

FAECHDT, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Ill, near Guemar, in the department of the
Upper Rhine.

FAECULA. See Fecura.

FAENZA, in Geography, a city of Italy, and capital of
the department of the Amone, the fee of a bifhop, fuf-
fragan of Ravenna; anciently called Paventia, It was
ravaged by Totila, king of the Goths, in the 6th century,
and in the 13th ruined by the emperor Frederick IT. be-
eaufe it efpouled the intereft of the pope; but afterwards
reftored by Manfredi. It afterwards fell under the power of
the Venetians, the Bolognefe, and, at length, under that of
the church. In 1708 it was taken by the Imperialifts; in
1796 by the French, and afterwards by the troops of the
pope, who garrifoned it. In 1797 the pope’s troops were
defeated and expelled. Although it has an old fortrefs,
it has no other defence betides a plain covered curtain with
its ditch. It had formerly 15 or 16 churches, or convents.
The cathedral ftands in the great {quare, and is adorned
with a handfome fteeple five {tories high, with baluftrades.
Near the church is a fountain, the bafon of which is fur-
rounded by four fine lions of brafs, and encompafled with
a wrought iron rail. Faenza was famous for its pottery,
which took its name from that of the town. It is 20 miles
§.W.of Ravenna. N. lat. 44° 18'. E.long. 11° 51’.

FOE, an iftand of Denmark, in the Baltic, near the
north coaft of Laland, about 12 miles in circuit, with two
or three villages. N. lat. 54° 52’. E. long. rr° 20,

FAERNO, GasrikEx, in Biography, a Latin poet and
philologift, was a native of Cremona. His great learning
obtained for him the employment of correétor and revifor
of the books in the Vatican library. He was afterwards
patronized by the cardinal de Medicis, both while he was
eardinal, and vhen he was elevated to the popedom by the
name of Pius 1V. Faerno employed all his influence in
fupport of men of worth, integrity, and learning ; but he
did not long enjoy the opportunity of being thus ufeful ;
he died in.the prime of life, in 1561, much refpected for
the amiablenefs and fimplicity of his‘chara&er. His chief
work, as a literary man, is entitled « Fabule centum ex
antiquis au@toribus deleét.”? Faerno was a tkilful critic,
aid took pains in collating the beft MSS. of ancient authors.
He edited the Philippics of Cicere and the comedies of
‘Terence. Moreri.

FAG

FAILS, Vanper. See Lexy.

FZESTING Men. See Fasrermans,

FHSULA, Fiesout, in Ancient Geography, 2 town
of Etruria, N.E. of Florentias; whence, it is faid, the
Augurs paffed to Rome. Catiline made it a place of arms.
‘The Goths, when they entered Italy under the confulate
of Stilicon and Aurelian, A.D. 400, were defeated near
this town.

FZETOR. See Forror.

FAFAA, in Geography, one of the {mall Friendly
iflands, four miles N, of Obferyatory point, on the coaft of
Tongataboo.

FAG, is ufed for a knot or excrefcency in cloth. Stat.
4 Edw. IV. cap. 1. The fag-end of a piece of cloth, or linen,
is that in which the weaver ends his piece, and works up his
wortt materials.

Fac-end, in Sea Languages denotes the end of any
rope or cord which is become untwifted and loofened by fre-
quent ufe; to prevent which, the ends of ropes are gene-
rally well-faftened by winding a piece of {mall line or pack-
thread around them, which operation is called whipping.

FAGAGNA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Friuli,
eight miles W. of Udina.

FAGAN, in Conchology, Adanfon denominates the
Area fenelis fagan in his Hift. Senegal.

FAGARA, in Botany. The name feems to be of
Arabian origin, and not, as the learned profeflor Martyn
fuppofes, from Pay, to eat. Linn. Gen. 16c. Schreb. 80.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.666. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 2. Juff. 374.
Gertn.t. 68. Bauh, Pin. 412. Ger. em.1548. (Pterota;
Brown. Jam. 146. t. 5. f.1. Euodia; Forit. Gen. ti7.)
Clafs and order, 7etrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Du-
mofe, Linn. Terebintaceis affine, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, very fmall, in four
deep, concave, permanent fegments. Cor, Petals four, ob-
long, concave, equal, fpreading. Stam, Filaments four,
longer than the corolla; anthers ovate. Pi/?, Germen fu-
perior, ovate; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the co-
rolla; fligma of two bluntifh lobes. Peric. Capfules one,
two, four, or five, ovate, of one cell and two valves. Seeds
folitary, roundifh, polifhed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Petals four. Capfules fu-
perior, of two valves and one cell. Seeds folitary.

A genus of aromatic, fometimes prickly, fhrubs, ‘with
ternate or pinnate leaves. Willdenow has twelve f{pecies,
found in various of the warmer parts of the globe, none of
them in Europe.

Linnevs confounded with his /. Prerota, which is
Browne’s Jamaica plant, the #. Avicenna, Cluf. Exot. 185.
Lob. Ic. v. 2. 133. Lamarck Encycl. v. .2. 445, which
is the original officinal one, a native of China, Lamarck
faw a fpecimen of this laft, gathered by Father d’Incarville,
in Juffien’s herbarium, and corrected the above error. The
qualities of this fruit are fomewhat aromatic and acrid,
whence it was formerly thought an ufeful ftomachic, or
{timulant, but it is now entirely laid afide in practice.

Facara, in the Materia Medica, the name of a fruit re-
fembling the cubebs found in the Philippine iflands. The
part of this fruit which contains the principal virtue is the
outer rind; this is tender and blackifh, and of an aromatic
and fomewhat acid tafte. When the berries are ripe they
eafily break, and difclofe a black, fhining, folid kernel, void
of tafte fand frell. The berries, according to Avicenna,
are heating and drying, and good for acold weak ftomach,
to help digeftion, and are aftringent to the bowels. They
were once much ufed, but of late are fearce known in the

fhops.
FAGER-

FAG

FAGERHULT, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the province of Smaland; 35 miles N.W. of Calmar.

FAGGOT, in Agriculture, is a bundle of any fort of
fmall wood tied up clofely together by means of a with,
or other kind of ligature. They are moftly made up from
the cuttings or thinnings of under-woods, coppices, and
hedges, being fold in many diftri€ts to the bakers, for the
purpole of heating their ovens. They ufually fetch a good
price in many fituations, efpecially near large towns. In
making up thefe bundles the workmen trim off the fuper-
fluous f{preading branches from the fides and ends, which
givesthem aneater appearance. Thefe trimmings are put in
themiddles of the faggots which are to be made up, by which
they appear to greater advantage.

Thefe trimmings are of little or no ufe in the fag-
gots, and ought to be left on the ground; for being fmall,
they would foon rot there, and would manure the ground
fo as to be of more advantage to the next growth than is
eafily imagined. The leaves of the trees falling to the earth,
manure it very much; but this is nothing to the advan-
tage of thefe little pieces of wood; any rotten wood, but
in a moderate quantity, will turn a common bad earth into
good garden mould ; and the growth of the young trees is
more forwarded by this manure where it is left, than by any
other means that can be ufed toit. We always fee the land
where wood-ftacks have ftood enriched to a furprifing de-
gree by them, and the fame advantage will occur wherever
wood of any kind is left to moulder and rot upon the ground.
That fort of fmall wood which is bound up in faggots is
called faggot-wood, and fometimes bufh-wood. Faggots
for fuel are required by 43 Eliz. cap. 14, to contain in com-
pafs, befides the knot of the bond, twenty-four inches of
affize ; and every faggot-{tick within the bond fhall contain
full three feet of affize, except only one ftick, which is to
be but one foot long, to flop or harden the binding.

Faccor, or Fagot, in Fortification. See Fascine.

Faccot of Steel, exprefles the quantity of 1zolb.
weight.

Tiger, in the times of Popery in thefe kingdoms, was
2 badge wore on the fleeve of the upper garment by fuch as
had recanted and abjured what was then deemed herefy ;
being put on after the perfon had carried a faggot, by way
of penance, to fome appointed place of folemnity. The
leaving off this badge was fometimes interpreted a fign of
apotftacy.

Faccors, among Military Men, are ineffective perfons
who receive no regular pay, nor do any regular duty, but
are hired deeabtinelly to appear at a mutter, to fill up the
companies, hide the real deficiencies thereof, and cheat the
king of fo much pay, which goes into the officer’s pocket.

FAGIANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Otranto; fix miles E.S.E. of Tarento.

FAGIUS, Paut, in Biography, a learned German di-
vine, was born at Reinzabern, a town in the Palatinate, in
the year 1504. In the courfe of his education he recom-
mended himfelf to the notice and efteem of his preceptors
by great dilicence in his ftudies. At a very early period he
was diftinguifhed for his proficiency in the learned languages
and in the Hebrew tongue. He became intimate with
Bucer,. and the other celebrated reformers. At the age of
twenty-three he was obliged to engage in the bufinels of
{chool-mafter, in which he acquired great reputation, but
he was bent on the work of the miniftry, to which he looked
as the confummation of his wifhes, and in 1537 he was in-
vited by the fenate of Ifne to undertake the paftoral office
in that town, and for feveral years he difcharged the duties
connefted with it with high reputation. Here the plague

Vo Le XIV.

FAG

broke out with violence, during the ravages of which he
difplayed a noble and benevolent fpirit, by reproving the
rich, who, from their apprehenfions, were led to defert the
poor and the afflicted ; by eftablifhing a fund for the relief
of the diftreffed, and by engaging the magiftrates to make
fuch wife and humane regulations as contributed to leffen
the horrors of that dire calamity: and it is related, to his
great honeur, that Fagius never quitted the fcene of in-
feétion, but devoted his whole time to the fervice of the
affiiGted, perfonally vifiting them, and affording them every
relief in his power. He was, however, {pared by the hand
of Providence, although he faw multitudes falling on his
right hand and on his left. The plague reached to Straf-
burg, and numbered Wolfgang Capito among its vidtims,
whom he afterwards fucceeded in the minifterial funétions :
and at the fame time he exerted all his powers in publifhing
fuch works as eminently conduced to the promotion of the
interefts of religion and literature. In 1546 Frederic II.,
elector palatine, fent for him to Heidelberg, to conduét the
meafures proper to bring about a reformation of religion
in his dominions, a proje&t which, from fome unfavourable
circumflances, was obliged to be fulpende’, He returned
to Strafburg, refumed his minifterial and literary employ-
ments, and affifted Bucer and Martyr in the duties of the
profefforfhip of theology. In 1548 he was obliged, by the
treatment whieh the Proteftant divines experienced from the
emperor, to quit Strafburg, and he fled for fafety to Eng-
land with Bucer, both of whom had received preffing invi-
tations from Cranmer, archbifhop of Canterbury. They
refided for fome time at Lambeth, and it was intended that
they fhould proceed from thence to Cambridge, where they
were to be employed as profeffors, and engaged in coms
pleting a new tranflation of the fcriptures. Fagius died,
before he had made any progrefs in the work, in 1550, at
the age of 45. During the infamous reign of Mary, his
remains, and thofe of Bucer, were dug up and burnt, a
paltry kind of revenge, and worthy of thofe who infli€ed
it. His works are chiefly theological, and conneéed with
biblical literature. Moreri.

FAGLOE, in Geography, one of the Faroer iflands, in
the North fea.

FAGNANDO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Amona; 10 miles S. of Faenza.

FAGO, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 18 miles N.W.
of Taca.

FAGONA, in Anatomy, a conglomerate gland, called
alfo thymus.

FAGONIA, in Botany, fo called by Tournefort, in com-
pliment to Monf. Fagon, principal phyfician to Louis XIV.
and a great patron of botany. He was one of the chief
promoters of Tournefort’s journey to the Levant, which he
ftrongly and repeatedly recommended to the confideration
of hisfovereign. Tourn, Inft. 265.t. 141. Linn. Gen. 212.
Schreb. 289. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.565. Mart. Mill. Dié.
v. 2. Juff. 296. Gertn. t. 113. Clafs and order, De-
candria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rutacee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five lanceolate, up-
right, {mall, deciduous leaves. Cor. Petals five, alternate
with the calyx, rounded, equal, with claws about as long
asits leaves, the limb fpreading beyond their points. Stam.
Filaments ten, fimple, awl-fhaped, {mooth, ere@t, longer
than the claws ; anthers roundifh. Pf. Germen fuperior,
with five angles; ftyle awl-thaped, as long as the ftamens ;
ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule ovate, with five deep fur-
rows, and as many obtufe prominent angles, of five com-
preffed cells, and ten valves. Seeds folitary, ovate, fmooth.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves, Petals five, rounded,

K

with

PAG

with claws, Stamens fimple.
valves and five cells. Seeds folitary,

1. F.cretica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 553-
«: Spinous. Leaflets lanceolate, flat.”
Crete, beft preferved in .the green-houfe, or even ftove.
Siem often procumbent, branched, divaricated. Leaves op-
polite, ternate, ftalked, dark green; Jeaflets all feffile, nearly
equal, acute, rough-edged. — Stipulas {pinous. Flowers
folitary, from the forks of the flem, or terminal, of au ele-
gant purple, with yellow ftamens. Linnaeus compares them
to thofe of a AZalpighia, which they fomewhat refemble,
but without any real affinity.

2. F. hifpanica. “ Not fpinous.”
Biennial. !

3. F. arabica. ‘ Spinous. Leaflets linear, convex.’
Found by Shaw ia Arabia, who defcribes it with very
long prickles.

4. F. indica. Linn. Mant. 238. Burm. Ind. t. 34. ie
“‘Spinous. Leaves fimple, oval.” Gathered in Perfia by
Garcin. Annual, with yellow flowers.

FAGOPYRUM. See Potyconum.

FAGOTTINO, Jtal. in Mufic, a little baffoon.

FAGOTTO, che Italian name for a baffoon, is derived
from the manner in which it is tied up when taken to pieces,
at which time it refembles a faggot, or bundle of ticks ;
and its French appellation is derived from its low pitch,
Bas-son. ;

FAGRAEA, in Botany, fo named by Thunberg in ho-
nour of his friend and countryman Jonas Theodore Fagre-
us, M.D. whofe highly complimentary and florid effufions
are prefixed to the Flora Japonica. Thunb. Noy. Gen.
part 2. 34. A&t. Holm. ann, 1782. 132. t. 4. Schreb. 112.
Murr. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 198. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 830.
Juff. 150. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2. Clafs and order, Pentan-
dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Gentiane, Juff. and not poci-
nee, ashe and Thunberg made it.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
in five obtufe, rounded, imbricated, equal fegments, mem-
branous at their margin. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ;
tube round, gradually dilated upward, pervious, naked at
the mouth, nve times as longas the calyx ; limb {preading,
in five elliptic-oblong, obtufe, oblique, equal {egments,
about one-third as long as the tube. Stam. Filaments five,
capillary, equal, inferted into the tube, rather fhorter than
the limb; anthers incumbent, ovate, two-lobed, furrowed,
externally convex. Pi/!. Germen fuperior, roundifh; ityle
fimple, thread-fhaped, the length of the corolla; fligma
peltate, orbicular, flat. Peric. Berry ovate, flefhy, coated,
of two cells. Seeds orbicular, fmooth.

EM, Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla funnel-fhaped ; limb
oblique. Berry coated, of two cells. Seeds globofe. Stig-
ma peltate. ‘

1. F. zeylanica, the only known fpecies, was gathered by
Thunberg inthe ifland of Ceylon, between Columbo and
Galle. The /fem is fhrubby, with, thick, leafy, fmooth,
obtufely quadrangular branches. Leaves oppolite, crofling
each other in pairs, on very fhort dilated foot-ttalks, obo-
vate, obtufe, entire, {mooth, fomewhat flefhy, a {pan long,
and three inches wide, tapering,at the bafe. Stipu/a {mall,
cloven, crowning the infide of each footitalk, juft above its
infertion. Flowers terminal, three together, in a fort of
umbel, with f{mall, acute, oppofite bradeas, and thick,
round, flefhy, {mooth ftalks. Of their colour we have no
account, but they are large and handfome, about three
inches long, with the afpect of a Gardenia, to which ge-
nus Juffieu, with great appearance of probability, guefied
the genus might belong, and confequently to his natural or-

Curt. Mag. t. 241.
Annual, native of

Native of Spain.

FAG

Capfule fuperior, of ten der of Rudiacee, A fine {pecimen, however, preferved un-

named inthe herbarium of the younger Linneus, has ena-.
bled us to correct, as we hepe, what has been faid before us
upon this fubjeé&t. By this fpecimen the affinity of the-
plant to Lifianthus is evident. Its ftipulation is like the
little intrafoliaeeous rim or border, obfervable in the larger
{pecies of that genus, which perhaps deferves the fame name 3,
but in the Fagrea a pofitive cloven intrafoliaceous flipula
is vifible. . We cannot, however, dete¢t much of a bitter
tafte in this plant, nor is that flavour ftrong in Liffan-
thus. 5S,

FAGUS, from Qzy:, to eai, becaufe its fruit, or at
leaft that of an oak which bore the fame name, is fuppofed
to have made a part of the food of mankind in the earl
ages ofthe world. Linn. Gen. 496. Schreb. 647. Willd,
Sp. PL v. 4. 459. Mart. Mill. Dié&t. vy. 2 Sm. Fl. Brit.
1027. Juff. 409. Gertn. t. 37. (Caitanea ; Tourn. t. 352.
Gertn. t.37. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 460.) Clafs and or-
os Monoecia Polyandria. Wat. Ord. Amentacee, Linn.

uff.

Gen. Ch. Male Ca/. Perianth bell-fhaped, in five, fix
orfeven deep, equal, acutefegments. Cor. none. Stam~
Filaments from five to twelve or more, capillary, longer
than the calyx ; anthers ovate-oblong, vertical, of two-cells,
burfting longitudinally —Female Ca/. Involucrum of one
leaf, in four deep, acute, externally muricated fegments,.
containing two or. three flowers, permanent ; perianth (ac-
cording to Gertner) fuperior, of five or fix fmall, linear,.
equal, withering leaves. Cor. none. Pi/t. Germen fome-
what triangular, of three or fix cells, with the rudiments of
two feeds in each; ftyle hort, in three or fix deep divi-
fions ; ftigmas fimple, oblong. . Peric. none, except the en-
larged, thick, prickly involucrum. Seeds two or three,
ovate or triangular, pointed, coriaceous.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx bell-fhaped, five-cleft. Corolla
none. Stamens five to twenty. Female, Calyx four-cleft.
Corolla none. Styles in three or fix deep divifions. Nuts.
two or three, invefted with the leathery prickly calyx.

Obf. Some authors feparate Ca/lanea from Fagus, chief-
ly becaufe the male flowers in the former are difpofed
in a {purious fort of catkin, but it is by nomeansa ‘¢ naked
catkin,’’ neither can the fame part be termed corolla in this
inftance and calyx in the other. See the various writers
quoted above. ‘

The {pecies are five, ie *

1. F. Caflanea.. Chefnut. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1416. Engl.
Bot. t. 886. (Caftanea vefca; Geertn. v. 1, 181, Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 4. 460.) . ‘* Leaves lanceolate, fharply ferrated,
{mooth beneath. Prickles of the fruit compound and en-
tangled.””— Native of the warmer, rather mountainous parts
of Europe, where it often compofes large forefts, It is one
of the largeft and moft long-lived of European trees, fomes
times enduring more than a thoufand years. The name
Caflanea, whence come all its modern appellations, is faid
to be derived from Kejzu<, a town in Theflaly, the neigh-
bourhood of which abounded with thefe trees. The timber
is extremely durable, at leaft under cover : the foliage um-
brageous, rich and beautiful. In the landfeapes of Salvator
Rola chefnut trees are very confpicuous, but moft painters
prefer the oak for beauty. The nuts produced in England
are much fmaller than in Spain or Italy. They are
ufed in thofe countries as a fubftitute for flour, in bread or
puddings, but chiefly by the poor. —The dark of the trunk
abounds in deep reticulated fiffures. Leaves alternate,
ftalked, fix or eight inches long, veiny, {mooth and fhining,
with numerous fharp fhallow Tooatnres Flowers in long
pendulous yellowith {pikes ; the males unpleafantly fcent-

3 , ed 5

FAG

4 produced in May, The fruit ripens rather late in au-

tumn.

: 2. F. pumila. Chinquapin. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1416. Sm.
Inf. of Georgia, t. 57- Leaves lanceolate, fharply fer-
rated, downy beneath. Prickles of the fruit fimple and
ftraight.—Native of North America, from Maryland to
Plorida. A tree fcarcely above fourteen feet high, known
‘by the white backs of its faves. The nuts are eatable.

3. FE. fylwatica. Beech. Lion. Sp. Pl. 14:6. Engl. Bot.
t. 1846.— Leaves ovate, obfoletely ferrated, fmooth.
Prickles of the fruit fimple, wavy —Common in Europe,

. efpecially ona rich calcareous foil, bloffoming in April or
May. Grafles do not thrive beneath its fhade, but feveral
of the Orchidce ave there in perfection. ‘The wood ishard,
but neither tough nor lafting in the open air. This tree
makes excellent cut hedges for fhelter, as the leaves remain,
though faded, through the winter, and the twifted branches
form a very firm fence. The nuts, called Beech Matt, are
eaten by hogs. An oil has been extracted: from them,
which is {weet, and Hill ‘the poet had a project for bring-
ing it into general ufe for feveral purpofes, but his {cheme
failed. The /eaves are alternate, {preading, about two
_inches long, ovate, wavy rather than ferrated, fhining,
finely fringed. Flowers in.ovate, long-ttalked, hairy heads,
the males lateral, the females. terminal. Nuts with fharp
dilated angles, the pecs of their coye »y,amiple and=pliant.
—_ e-leaved-heech is.a variety. .- R

eg eee “AmseFican Beech. Ait. Hort. Kew,
v. 3. 362. Sm. Inf. of Georgia, t. 75- ‘* Leaves ovate,
pointed, downy beneath, widely ferrated. —Native of
Korth America. Mefirs. Lee and Kennedy are recorded as
having introduced it into our gardens in 1766. Leaves
broader, and much more diftinétly ferrated than in the laft.

it fmaller, tawny.

at F. Le epeaticae ini dete Beech. G. Forft. Magell.
32. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 460.—Leaves ovate, {mooth, dou-
bly and obtufely ferrated, reticulated with veins.—Native
of Terra del Fuego. A fhrub, with fpreading irregular
branches. Leaves f{earcely an inch long, ovate, mottly
abtufe, thick and rigid, fmooth, doubly and bluntly fer-
rated, reticulated with innumerable veins; their bafe run-
ning down into the footftalk. Flower-falks f{cattered,
above an inch long, fingle-flowered. Calyx reddifh. dn-
thers long and narrow. Fruit canknown. The young
branches are downy, and young leaves glutinous.—We fuf-

“pe& that the Betula antardica of Solander, enumerated by
G. Forfter, among others from the Bankfian herbarium, at
the end of his paper on Magellanic plants, is no other than
this Fagus. His Celafirus venuflus we know to be our
Efcallonia ferratasr See Escarvonta. ;

Facus, iw Gardening, contains plants of the tree kind,
of which the fpecies cultivated are ; the common beech-
tree (F. fylvatica) ; the common chefnnt-tree (F. caftanea) ;
and the-dwarf chefrut-tree, or Chinquapin (F. pumila.)

It is remarked by Martyn, that fome fuppofe there are
two {pecies of the common ‘becch tree, the mountain beech,
and the wild beech; “ the firft of which has a whiter wood
than the fecond; but that this difference arifes only from
the foil.” -) Fe :

- The murferies have two varieties, one with yellow, and
the other with white-{triped leaves. Andin Germany there
js another variety common with dark red leaves, which is
called the purple beech. In woods there is likewife a fort
with a rougher bark, which is termed hay beech by wood-

men in general. ‘ ; ;
And of the fecond fort there is a variety cultivsted with

gold-itriped leaves, which is yery ornamental. ;

FAG

Method of Culture.—Thefe trees are capable of being
increafed without much difficulty in the methods defcribed
below.

Modes of Culture inthe Beech hind. —Thele are eafily raifed
by fowing the well-ripened feed, or maft, on beds of fine
mould prepared for the purpofe, either in the early autumnal
or fpring feafon, in flight drills, or broadcai, covering
them well in by raking. When the plants come up they
fhould be kept perfeétly clean from weeds, and, after two
years’ growth, be planted out in nurfery, rows, two icet, or
two feet and a half apart, and from a foot to eightcen or
twenty inches diftant in the rows ; in which fituation they
fhould be kept properly cleared from weeds, and have the
intervals of the ground well dug over annually, in the au-
tumn or very early {pring.- Some advife cutting the rox
under with a fharp fpade at the depth of four or five
once or twice while in the feed-bed. When they hav
tained the growth of four or five feet in height, they
proper for being planted out in plantations, fhrubberies
and other places, where they are to grow for ornament.or
timber.

The varieties with ftriped leaves are to be continued by
budding or grafting on common beech ftocks, taking care
not to plant them where the foil is of the very rich kind.

Modes of Culture in the Chefnut kind.—Thefe trees are
capable of being increafed by fowing or planting the nuts,
which have been well ripened here, or fuch as have been
brought from abroad, without being dried in kilns, in the
early {pring, on beds of frefh earth, ia drills two or three
inches deep, and about a foot afunder, placing them three
or four inches diftant, and covering them wellin. When
the plants appear, they fhould be kept clear from weeds,
and, after they have had two years’ growth in thefe beds,
they fhould be removed into nurfery rows in the beginuing
of autumn, being planted two feet and a half from row to
row, and from one to two feet diftant in the rows, great
care being taken not to injure their roots in taking them up,
unlefs they happen to have tap roots, which muit be cut off
in a careful manner.

After they have remained in this nurfery four or five
years, and have been kept perfectly free from weeds, by
hoeing or flightiy digging over the intervals between the
rows, they will be in a proper ftate for being finally planted
out as ornamental fruit, or foreft trees. When they are ine
tended to be planted for the fruit, they fhould be more fre-
quently tranfplanted before they are finally fet out where
they are to grow, but they are not of much importance in
this view, as the fruit does not always ripen wellin this part
of the country.

The varieties with variegated or blotched leaves muit be
continued by budding or inarching them on itocks of the
common kind, which anfwer perfectly well.

And the third fort may be raifed in the fame manner
from nuts brought in fand from America, and have the
fame method of culture afterwards as the others. =

The firft fort is-frequently made ufe of as timber-trees,
and in forming hedges, and the others as ornamental trees
in lawns, clumps, borders, and other parts of pleafure-
grounds, where they have a fine effet. They fucceed on
almoft any foil, but the bef on thofe of the loamy kind:
They form good fences on the borders of the fea in many
fituations, as well as for protection or fhelter in gardens and
other places.

FAGUPAL, in- Alythology, a temple of Jupiter, fe
called from fagus, the deech, a tree facred to Jupiter; bes
canfe, asfome day, the temple was ereéted in the neighbour-
hood of a foreft of beech ; and on this account they lay that

K2 part

> a¢

FAH

part of mount Efquiline, which was formerly called Mons
Appius, was afterwards called fagutalis ; and that Jupiter
Fagutalis was the fame with Jupiter of Dodona.

FAHACA, in Ichthyology ; the Arabians call the Tetro-
don lineatus by this name, according to Haffelquift.

FAHALFAHARA, in Geography, a town of Perfia,
in the province of Mecran ; 100 miles N. W. of Kidge.

FAHAU, one of the Carolina, or New Philippine
iflands, in the Pacific ocean.

FAHLERZ, in Mineralogy, is an ore of copper, which
fee. :

FAHLUN, in Geography, a town of Swedeii, in the
province of Dalecarlia, fituated in the midft of rocks and
hills, between the two large lakes of Run and Warpen, and
containing 1200 houfes, and, including the miners, 7090
inhabitants. Excepting two churches of brick, roofed
with copper, anda few other houfes of the fame materials,
the buildings are principally of wood and of ftone.
This town owes its celebrity to the copper mine on its
eaftern fide. The great antiquity of this mine is proved by
the earlieft records of Sweden, and particularly in the
charter of Magnus Smek, which renews its privileges, and
confiders it as exifting from time immemorial ; hence we
may fairly conclude that it muft have been worked eight or
nine hundred years. The mine is private property, and con-
filts of 1200 shares, each worth 150 rix-dollars (37/. 10s.)
The ore is divided four timesa week into 11 equal heaps,
eight of which are diftributed among eight of the proprie-
tors, and the remaining three are fold by auction; one of
which is appropriated to the repairs of the works, another
to pay the falaries of the miners and other workmen, and
the third, which formerly belonged to the king, is now em-
ployed in defraying the expence of new excavations. In
this manner the ore is equally divided, until all the pro-
prietors have had their refpective fhares ; _and then the
rotation begins again. The copper of this mine is not
found in veins, but in mafles, and the bed does not extend
an Englifh mile in circumference. ‘The matrix of the ore,
or rock, is the Saxum of Linnzus and pyrites of iron.
The richeft part of the ore may perhaps yield 20 per cent.
of copper ; but 2s the poor atid rich parts are blended, they
give only two per cent. when firft brought from the mine,
and 12 per cent. when once fmelted. Twelve hundred
workmen are employed, 600 miners, and the fame number
in roafting and {melting the ore, making charcoal, and other
works above ground. The mouth, of opening of tire mine,
is perhaps the largeft in the world, being 1200 feet in dia-
meter, or near 4 of an Englifh mile in circumference. The
defcent is by fieps cut in the rock, and floping fo gently
that horfes may be employed in bringing up the ore. The
galleries are from fix to ro feet high, and fuificiently fpa-
cious. The perpendicular depth of the mine from the top
of the chafm is rozo feet. Coxe’s Travels, vol. v.

FAHNELEN, Fawexen, or Vanlsten, «mong the
Germans, a kind of greater fiefs which the emperor alone
could confer.

This was done by the delivery of a flandard, whence
they had the name of fahnelen; i. c. feude vexilli. We
find them mentioned in the golden bull of the emperor
Charles IV. ann. 1356: ‘ Feudis principum exceptis, &
illis que vanlehen vulgariter appellantur, quorum inveftitu.
ram & collationem foli imperatori, vel regi Romano {pecia-
liter refervamus.”” Du-Cange Gloff. Lat. in voc. :

The word is more ufually written fabalebn.

FAHR, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Wurzburg, five miles S, S. W. of Gemunden,

4

FAT

FAHRAG, a town of Perfia, in the province of Fare
fiftan; 180 miles N. E. of Schiras.

FAHRENHEIT, Gasrrer Dantet, in Biography,
a native of Hamburgh, known for the thermometer which is
graduated according to a ftandard invented by himfelf. The
time of his birth and that of his death are not accurately
known. About the year 1720 the improvement in thermo-
meters, of ufing mercury inftead of fpirit of wine, was
brought into ufe, and in 1724 Fahrenheit publifhed “A
differtation on Thermometers.”? The fcale he employed is
chiefly ufed in this country, and in this, the freezing point
is marked 32°, and the boiling point 2.2°, and the interval
between thefe points is divided into 180 equal parts, the
remainder of the tube, below 32° and above 212°, is divided
into fimilar parts as faras it extends, Fromoorzero, below the
freezing point, the degrees are marked — or minus. Thus
mercury freezes and becomes folid and malleable at —40° or
at 72° below the freezing, a degree of cold never expe-
rienced naturally but inthe very northernmoft parts of the
world. See Tuermomerer, Faeezinc-Mixrurg.
Nouv. Hift. Di&.

FAHRLAND, 2 town of Germany, in the New Mark
of Brandenburg; four miles N. of Potzdam.

FAID, or ferp, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Nedsjed, 140 miles N. E. of Hagiar. N, lat. 26° 54’.
E. leng. 40° 50% . a

FAIDA, in our OLY Writers, is ufed for malice or dead-
jy feud. Leg. Hen. 1. cap. 88, ‘

FALIDIT, Anserm, or Gavstrm, in Biography, a
‘Troubadour, whe had been much efteemed by our Richard
when he was count of Poitou, and refided at the court of
Provence during the life of his father Henry II. and whe
accompanied him <2 Paleftine, in the holy war, has left a
poem on the death of his benefactor, which we found in the
Vatican, among the MSS. bequeathed to that library by
the queen of Sweden, No. 1659, with the original mufic,
by tho bard himfelf, who was as mich admired by his cone
teniporaries for fetting his poems to mufic, as writing them :
having been faid, in the old language of Provence, to have
compofed de bons mots, ¢ de bons fons, good words, and
good tunes. He feduced from a convent at Aix, and mare
ried, 2 beautiful nun, with whom he travelled on foot from
one court toanother, many years. This lady, befides her
perfonal charms and aecomplifnments, hed a remarkable fine
yoice, and was much admired for finging her hufband’s
fongs. ‘The melody to the verfes on the death of Richard
is the moft ancient which we have been able to find to
Provengal words.

FAID®, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Uri, fituated on the Telino ; it is the refidence
of a bailiff, whe remains in office four years with almoft une
limited power; 12 miles N. of Bellinzona.

FALFO, or Barro, a fea-port town of Cochinchina,
fituated in 2 bay of the Chinefe fea. It isa place of great
trade, and has an annual fair, which continues about four
months. N. lat. 15° go’. Es long. 198° 1o0!.

FALLDA, 2 town of Portugal, in the province of Tras
los Montes ; feven miles S. of Braganza.

YFAILIS, in Heraldry, a French term, denoting fome
failure or flaw in an ordinary, as if it were broken, and a
iplinter taken from it.

FAILS, in Mining, are thort flat pieces of wood, laid
on the crofe pieces or ftemples, acrufs a vein, for i a
floor, on which to lay the refufe of the mine, or for
making a gate or gang-way, &c.

FAILURE, or Faiine, a fpecies of bankruptcy, po-
pularly called breaking or ftopping payment,

Fainvas

FAI

Farture of Record, in Law, is ufed when an adion is
brought againit a man who alledges in his plea matter of
record in bar of the aétion, and endeavours to prove it by
the record. The plaintiff replies, nu/ tie! record ; that is,
he denies there is any fuch record. Upon which the de-
fendant has a day given him by the court to bring it in ;
and if he fails to do it, he is faid to fail of his record, and
the plaintiff fhall have judgment to recover. ‘Terms de Ley.

Farture of the Strata, in Geology, is a term which Mr.
Kirwan ufes (Geol. Eff. p. 162) feemingly to denote the
finking down or deprefflion of mafles of itrata; in which
fenfe it anfwers to the effect produced by a fau/t; fee that
article.

FAINT, or FAint-Action, in Law, is as much as
Seigned aétion ; that is, fuch an aGtion as, though the words
of the writ be true, yet, for certain caufes, the party has
no title to recover thereby. By which it differs from falfe-
a@tion, which is that wliere the words of the writ are falfe.
Yet fometimes the two are confounded.

Faint Pleader, a fraudulent, falfe, or celiufive manner
of pleading, to the deceit of a third perfon ; againft which,
among other things, was made the ftatute 3 Edw. I.
cap. 29. ‘ ath ‘

Faints, in the Difillerz, the weak fpirituous liquor
that runs from the {till in rectifying the low wines after the
proof fpirit is run off. pon

Faints denote alfo the laft runnings of all {pirits diftilled
bythealembic. The clearing the worm of thefe is fo effential
a point in order to the obtaining a pure fpiit by the fuce
ceeding diftillatien, that all others are fruitlefs without it.

FAINTING. See Syncope.

FAIOUM. See Fayoum.

FAIR, a public place, where merchants, traders, and
other perfons, from divers parts, meet on fome fixed day in
the year, to buy and fell commodities, and to paitake of
the diverfions ufually accompanying fuch aflemblies = or it
denotes the concourfe of perfons affembled on iuch occa-
fions. See Marker.

The word fair is formed of the French foise, which fig-
nifies the fame thing ; and foire fore derive from the Latin
forum, market; others from the Latin ferie, becaufe
fairs were anciently always held in the places where the
wakes, or feafts, of the dedications of chuxches, called
feria, were alfo held ; and becaufe it is incident to a fair,
that perfons fhall be privilcged from being moleited or ar-
refted in it, for any other debt or contraét than what was
engaged for in the fame. (Cee ftat. 17 Ed, TV. c. 2. made
perpetual by 1 PR. III.c. 6. See alfo fiuis.2 Ed, TIT.
e.15. 5 Ed. Ill.c.5. 27 Hen. Vi.c.5. 1&2P.&
M.c. 7. 13 Eliz. c. 21.) The Romans cated them
nundine. Eric Puteanus has a pretty little treztife on the
fairs of the Romans, “ De Nundinis Romanorum,” which
he calls nova fafforum facula. ,

Fairs can only be eftablifhed by virtue of the king’s
grant, or by long and immemorial ufage and prefcription,
which fuppofes fuch a grant (2 Init. 220. 3 Mod. 123) ;
he is alfo the {ole judge where fairs and markets ought to
be kept; and if any perfon fet up a fair without. the king*s
authority, a gue warranto lies againft him; and the per-
fons who frequent fuch faics, &c. may be punifhed by fine
to the king. Faire are gencrally kept once or twice in the

ax; and it has been obferved, that, as they were firft oc-
cafioned by the refort of people to the feaft of dedication,
they are kept, in moft places, on the fame day with the
wake or feflival of that faint to whom the church was de-
dicated; and for the fame reafon they were held in the church-

yard, till reftrained by flat. 13 Ed. IY, ft, 2.6. 6. (2 Init,

FAI

221. Blount.) The reafon of their being held near fome
cathedral, church, or monaftery, on the anniverfary dedi-
cation of the church, or on the feftival of the faint to whom
it was dedicated, feems to have been as follows. When
bifhops and abbots obferved that crowds of people aflembled
from all places to celebrate the feftivals of their patron
faints, they took advantage of this circumitance, and ap-
plied to the crown for charters to hold fairs at thofe times,
for the accommodation of ftrangers, and with a view to in-
creafe their own revenues by the tolls which their charters au-
thorized them to levy at thefe fairs. Hence the multitude of
attendants increafed, fome of whom were aCiuated by relis
gious, and others by commercial views. Many precautions
were takea to preferve good order, and to prevent theft
and cheating in thefe ecclefiaftico-commercial fairs, fome of
which are not a little fingular, When a fair was held
within the precinéts of a cathedral or monaftery, it was nut
uncommon to oblige every man to take an oath at the gate,
before he was admitted, that he would neither lie, nor fteal,
nor cheat, while he continued at the fair. (Murator. t. 2.
Differt. 30.) Many of thefe ecelefiattical fairs are ftill kept in
all Popith countries ; and many of our own fairs are ftill held
on the fame faint’s days to whofe honour they were origi-
nally inftituted. Every fair is fubjeét to the regulation of
the court of piepowder. The duration of fairs is deter-
mined by proclamation, by ftat. 2 Ed. III. c. 15 ;. and if
a perfon fhall fell any goods after the time of the fair ex-
pires, he fhall incur a forfeiture of double the value of the
goods fold, one-fourth to the profecutor, and the reft to
the kings (5 Ed. III. c. 5.) Any citizen of London
may carry his goods toany fair or market in England at his
pleafure. (See ftat. 3 Hen. VII. c. 9.) If any perfon is
intitled to hold a fair or market, and another is fet up
within the diftance of a third part of twenty miles, either
on the fame day, or a different day, it isa nufance, and an
aétion on the cafe lies; and alfo againft perfons diflurbing
{uch as are coming to buy or fell in the fair or market, fo
that the perfon holding the fair, &c. lofes his toll, (fee
Toux,) or receives prejudice in the profits arifing from it.
(2 Rol. Abr. 140. 2 Saund. 172. 1 Mod. 69. 1 Role
Abr. 106. 2 Vent. 26. 28.)

Owners and governors of fairs are to take care that every
thing be fold according to juft weight and meafure ; for
which purpofe they may appoint.a clerk of the fair or
market, who is to mark and allow all fuch weights, and te
take his reafonable and juft fees. (4 Inft. 274. Moor. 523.
1 Salk. 327.) Fairs and markets are forfeitable franchifes ;
axif the owners of them hold them contrary to their chare
ter, as by continuing them longer than the charter admits,
by difufes, and by extorting fees and duties where none are
due, or more than are juftly due. (2 Init. 220. Finch 164.
3 Mod. 10%.) As to their intereft, it arifes chiefly from
tolls. See Tout.

Fairs abroad are either free, or charged with tolls and
impofitions. The privileges of free fairs confiit chiefly,
1. In that all traders, &e. whether natives or foreigners,
are allowed to enter the place, and are under the royal fafe-
guard and protection in coming and returning, they and
their agents, with, their goods, &c. 2. In that the faid
perfons, and their effects, are exempt from all duties, impo-
fitions, tolls, and fervitudes. 3. ‘That merehants in going
to, or returning from, the fair, &c. cannot be arretted,
or their goods topped, &c. It is the fovereign alone that
has a right, by his letters patent, to eftablifh fairs, whether
free, or fubject to duties, and the other ordinary laws and
penalties.

Several fairs are held in the open fields, or on heaths and

commons,

FAIR.

commons, under tents, booths, and barracks, ereGted for
the purpofe ; as Stourbridge-fair, &c. others in places
walled in for the purpofe, and formed into regular ftreets,
lanes, &c. for the occafion; as the fair of St. Laurence
at Paris.. Laftly, others are held in the open places and
ftreets of cities; as Briitol-tair, the fair of St. Ger-
mains, &c.

Fairs, particularly free fairs, make a very confiderable
article in the commerce of Europe, efpecially that of the
Mediterranean or inland parts; as Germany, &c. where
the continual paflage and re-paflage of veffels are imprac-
ticable.

The moft celebrated fairs ja Europe are thofe: 1. Of
Francfort, held twice a year, in {pring and autumn; the
firft commencing the Sunday before Palm-Suday, aud
the other in September. Each is declared by found of bell,
and lafts three weeks ; the firfk of which is called the week
‘of acceptance, and the fecond the week of payment ;
though many bills of exchange are now payable in the
third week, but this muft be mentioned, becaufe every bill
payable in the fair is, without fuch a claufe, deemed payable
in the fecond week. They are famous for the fale of all
kinds of commodities, but particularly an immenfe quantity
of curious books, no where elfe to be found; and from
whence the bookfellers throughout all Europe ufed to
furnifh themfelves. Before each fair there is a catalogue of
all the books to be fold at it, printed and difperfed, to call
together purchafers, though the learned have generally
complained of divers unfair practices therein, as fictitious
titles, names of books purely imaginary, &c. befide great
taults inthe names of the authors, and the titles of the real
books. 2. The fairs of Leipfic, which are held thrice a
year; one beginning on the firft of January, another three
weeks after Eafter, and a third after Michaelmas ; they laft
twelve days each, and are, at leaft, as confiderable as thofe
of Francfort. 3. The fairs of Novi, a little city in the
Milanefe, under the dominion of the republic of Genoa.
There are four of thefe in the year; commencing on the
firft of February, the fecond of May, the firft of Augutt,
and fecond of November. Though the commodities bought
and fold here be very confiderable, yet, what chiefly con-
tributes to render them fo famous is the vaft concourfe of
the moit confiderable merchants and negociants of the
neighbouring kingdoms, for tranfacting affairs, and fettling
accounts in matters of bank and exchange. Each of thefe
ufually lafts eight days. 4. The fairs of Riga, whereof
there are two in the year; one in May, and the other “in
September. They are much frequented by the Englith,
Dutch, and French fhips; as alfo by others from all parts
of the Baltic. The beft time for the fale of goods at Ri-
ga is during the fairs. Since the building of the famons
city of Peterfburgh, thefe fairs have fuffered fome diminu-
tion, 5. The fair of Archangel ; during which, all the
trade foreigners have with that city is managed. It con-
tinues a month, or fix weeks at moft; commencing from
the middle of Auguit. The Mafcoyite merchants attend
here, from all parts of that vaft empire; and the Englith,
Dutch, French, Swedifh, Danifh, and other fhips in the
port of that city, on this occafion, ordinarily amount to
three hundred. But this is no free fair, as the reft are: the
duties of exportation and importation are very ftrictly paid,
and on a very high footing. 6. The fair of St. Germain,
one of the fuburbs of Paris, commencing on the third of
February, and holding till Eafter ; though it is only free
for the firft fifteen days. It is frequented by traders with
various forts of cloths and ftuffs; and the goldfmiths, jew-
ellers, and toy-men of Paris, have well furnifhed and hand-

2

fome fhops in it. #2 The fairs of Lyons, which Monf.
Du Cheine, in his « Antiquity of Cities,’”? would infinuate,
from a paflage in Strabo, were eftablifhed by the Romans;
though it 1s certain, the fairs, as they now itand, are of a
much later date. There are four in the year, each lafting:
twenty days, and free for ever. They begin on the firit
Monday a‘ter Low Sunday, the fourth of Auguit, the
third of November, and the firft Monday after Eafter,
8. Fair of Guibray, a fuburb of the city of Falaife, in the
Lower Normandy, It is faid to have been eftablifhed by
our William the Conqueror, in confideration of his being
born at Falaife, It commences on the fixteenth of Auguft,
and lafts fifteen days; free by charter, and longer by cuf-
tom. g. Fair’of Beaucaire, held partly in a city of that
name, in Languedoc, and partly in the open country, uz-
der tents, &c. It commences on the twenty-fecond of
July, and only continues for three days ; yet it is the great-
eft, and moit célebrated, of all the fairs in that part of
Europe, both for the concourfe of {trangers from all parts
of the world, and for the traffic of all kinds of goods: the
money returned, in thefe three days, amounting fometimes
to above fix millions of livres: Befides thefe, there are, or
there were, before the late revolution, in France, feveral
other fairs of confiderable note ; as the four fairs of
Rheims, the two of Rouen, two of Bourdeaux, two of
Troyes, two of St. Dennis, that of Caen, of Dieppe, and
of Toulon, &c. :

The fairs of Porto-Bello, Vera-Cruz, and the Havannah,
are the moft confiderable of all thofe in the Spanifh Weit
Indies. The two firft lat as long as the flota and gal-
leons continue in thofe parts ; and the laft is opened as foor
as the flota, or galleons, arrive there, upon their return
for Spain ; this being the place where the two fleets join.

The principal fairs in Great Britain are, Stourbridge-
fair, near Cambridge; the two fairs of Briftol; that of
Exeter, Weft Chefter, Edinburgh, Weyhill, and Burford
fairs, for fheep; Pancrafs fair, in Staffordthire, for fad-
dle-horfes ; Barnet fair, near London, for lean and Welfh
black cattle; St. Faith’s, in Norfolk, for Scots runts 5
Yarmouth fithing fair for herrings ; Ipfwich butter fair ;
that of Woodborough Hill, near Blandford in Dorfetthire,
famous for weit-country manufactures, Devonthire kerfeys,
Wilthhire druggets, &c. two cheefe-fairs at Atherfton and
Chipping Norton; befides many more fairs and weekly marj
kets in different parts of the kingdom. See Market.

Farr, in Sea Language, is ufed for the difpofition of the
wind, when it is favourable to a fhip’s courfe, in oppofi-
tion to that which is contrary or foul. The term tair is
more comprehenfive than large, and includes about fix-
teen or eighteen points of the compafs; whereas large is_
confined to the beam or quarter, that is, to a wind
which croffes the keel at right angles, or obliquely from
the ftern, but never to one right a-ftern. Falconer’s Marine
Dic. e

Fair-Way, the path or channel of a narrow bay, river,
or haven, in which fhips ufually advance in their paflage up
and down ; fo that if any veffels are anchored therein, they
are faid to lie in the fair-way. Falconer.

Fair-Curve, in Ship Building, is a winding line, ufed in
delineating fhips, whofe fhape is varied, according to the
part of the fhip which it is intended to deferibe.

Fair Maids of Kent, in Gardening, a common name
given to afpecies of ranunculus. See Ranuncunvs. ,

Fair-Foreland, or Vogel-Hook, in Geography, the N.W
point of Prince Charles’s ifland, in the Northera ocean}
N. lat. 78° 52’. ;

Farr J/fland, or Fara, an ifland in the North fea,

lying

FAT

Tying between Shetland and Orkney, 24 miles from the
former, aud 30 from the latter. It is more than three miles
from north-eaft to fouth-weft, and nearly two miles in
breadth, confifting of high and barren rocks, which are in-
terfperfed with tome fheep paitures. It has two harbours
tor fmall boats, and contains about 1690 inhabitants, who
chiefly fubfift by fikhing, On the coait of this ifland the
duke of Medina Sidonia, any of the Spanifh Ar-
a, was fhipwrecked, A. D. 1588.
oh Beory a river of Canada, which runs from Wapaf-
faa to lake St. John. ,
arr Pleading, in Law. See Beav-pleader.

Fair Ape, in Zoology. See Simia Argentata,

FAIRVAX, Rozerr, doctor in muiic, in Biography,
an eminent Englifh compofer during the reigns of Henry
VII. and Henry VIII. He had his doétor’s degree
at Cambridge, and_was incorporated at Oxford in the year
1511. He was of the York{hire family of Fairfax, and a
very valuable mufical MS. is preferved which once apper-
tained to the fubject of this article, and was afterwards in
the pofleflion of general Fairfax, upon whofe demife it
made a part of the Thorefby collection, at the fale of which
it was purchafed by John White, the Quaker, of Newgate
ftreet, who exclufively dealt in ttraw hats for ladies.
He wasa great collector of fearce and curious things of all
kinds, among which the mufic book of Dr, Fairfax was a
rarity, with the loan of which we were obligingly indulged,
Tt confifts of a colleétion of the moft ancient Englith fongs,
to which the mufic has been preferved. The writing 1s
very clear and intelligible for the period when it was tran-

- feribed, though the time of the mulical characters, from the
want of bars, and the ufe of ligatures and prolation, with a
mixture of red notes for diminution, is fometimes difficult to
afcertain. We feored the whole of this curious Ms. by
which we were enabled to judge of the progrefs which had
been made in fecular mufic by our countrymen, at the be-
ginning of the 16th century ; which, to fay the truth, was
not very great ; the leading and fundamental laws of har-
mony were not violated ; sths and Sths in fucceffion were
feduloufly avoided; but there appear no defign, no grace,
jnyention, or melody. The« compofers of thefe fongs are
William of Newark, —— Sheryngham, Edmund Turges,
Tutor, or Tudor, Gilbert Banetter, —— Browne, Richard
Davy, William Cornythe, junior, fir Thomas Phelyppes,
aad avert Fairfax. But little is known now concerning
thefe muficians, except that Turges is a name which occurs
among the muficians of Henry VI. Tudor was author of
feel compotitions in the mufic book of prince Henry,
afterwards Henry VIII. Corny fhe was of Henry VIL.’s
chapel; and Fairfax was admitted to a doctor’s degree in
mufic, at‘Cambridge ; but as he is not ityled doétor in this
MS. we may reafonably fuppole his compofitions in it to
have been anterior to his receiving that honour in the uni-
verfity. ‘

Mott of thefe muficians feem to have been merely fecular
compolers, as we have met with none of their names, eX
cept that of Fairfax, among thofe for the church. The
mufic of thefe ditties is fomewhat uncouth ; yet it is {till
better than the poetry: but this may be accounted for, by
the frequent changes of our national language, which was
never ferioufly cultivated till the reign of queen Elizabeth.
The Saxons, who difpoffefled the Britons of the greateft

art of the ifland, we find, from Bede’s account of Cxd-
mon, had poetry, though not rhyme, in the feventh century ;
for he repeatedly calls the compofitions of Cedmon carmina,
poemata, and in one place verfus. No traces, however,
of rhyme, or metre, can be found.in our language, till fome

FAT

years after the conqueft, at which time French was forced”
upon us, and till the reign of Edward IIE. it was the
practice in all fchools to conftrue Latin into Norman
French; a language which was fafhionable at our court,
even before the time of William the Conqueror ; as Edward
the Confeffor, who had. been brought up in the court of
Normandy, encouraged many Normans to follow him into
England.

In the thirty-fixth year of Edward III., however,
a law was made, “ That all pleas in the court of the king,.
or of any otber lord, fhall be pleaded and adjudged in
the Englith tongue; and the reafon recited in the preamble
was, that the French tongue was too much unknown.’?
And yet for near fixty years afterwards the proceedings in
parliament appear to have been in French.

The Englith of Robert of Gloucefter, who flourifhed
about 1265, during the reigns of Heary. III. and Edward L.,.
is more Saxon than Norman ; however, it would not be
very difficult to read, if the charaters in which it is printed
had been thofe in prefent ufe, inftead of Saxon, with which
it abounds. he language of Trevifa, 1385, is not very
unintelligible, if the x be regarded as a g, for which we
believe it was originally meant. About the firft year of.
Henry VI., 1422, French and Englith feem pretty equally
balanced, and to have been ufed indifferently ; however,
very little improvement was made in our language and
verification from the time of Edward IV. to that of Henry:
VIII. Indeed, few Englith fongs are to be found whicly
were fet to original mufic during that period; it haying
been the fafhion for the great to fing none but French words,
as appears by the mufic book of Prince Henry, fon of
Henry VII., in which all the fongs are in French, Italian,
or Latin.

Tt was fo much the cuftom for our old poets to write new
words to old tunes, that there was little bufinefs for a com-
pofer. Thefe tunes, like thofe of the Improvifatori of
Italy at prefent, being very fimple, and little more airy than
the chants of the church, required no teaching, and were
an eafy and ready vehicle for the bard who wifhed to get at
the heart of his audience, or at leaf to engage its atten-
tion by the blandifhments of his own art, not thofe ofanother.
For metrical romances, and hiftorical ballads of great lengths
this kind of plain and familiar melody was belt adapted ;
as it had f{carce any other effect than juft to render the tone
of the narrator’s voice a little longer and louder, and con-
fequently more articulate and diltin@ than in common {peech.

Faixrax, Epwarp, an Englith poet,. was fon of fir
Thomas Fairfax, of Denton, in Yorkfhire ; by fome writers
he has been reprefented as illegitimate, but later biographers,
upon apparently good authority, have refuted the affertion.
His education was liberal, and his literary acquirements very
confiderable. He entered into no profeffion, but is fup-
pofed to have rendered himfelf ufeful to his brother lord
Fairfax, by the education of his children, and in the ma-
nagement of his eftate. He publifhed a work on “ Demo-
nology,”? in which he treats on witchcraft, and fhews
that he was not free from the credulity and fuperttition of
the age in which he lived. He is known as a poet bya
tranflation of ‘* Taffo’s Godfrey of Bouillon,’ which was
dedicated to queen Elizabeth, in the year 1600. The
tranflation is given in ftanzas of eight lines, and he ren-
dered the original line by line. Mr. Fairfax wrote.a hiftory
of Edward the Black Prince, and fome eclogues; of the
firft, nothing is known, and of the others, only the fourth,
which was printed in the “ Mufe’s Library,”? 1737. He
died about the year 1632, leaving behind him a fon named
William, who tranflated Diogenes Laertius. Biog. Brit.

Fairrarx,

FAT

Farrrax, Tuomas, lord, general of the Parliament’s
army in the civil wars of Charles I. was eldeit fon of
Ferdinando lord Fairfax, and born in 16:1. He was
educated at St. John’s college, Cambridge ; from thence he
went to Holland, and ferved as a volunteer with the
Euglifh troops under Horatio lord Vere, with whom he
wes at the taking of Bois-le-Duc. On h’s return he re-
tired to the country, and married the daughter of lord
Vere, by whom he was afterwards inftigated to take a de-
cided part againft the royalifls. Whea aétual hottilities
broke out, he was made general of the korfe under his
father. At firft they fultained feveral fignal defeats.
Their valour, enterprize, and zeal were, however, very
confpicuous, and when the army was new-modelled, Fair-
fax was unanimoufly appointed to fucceed the earl of Effex
as general ; and in the year 1645, when the two parties met
at Nafeby, he gained a complete and molt deciiive viétory
over the royal army. It was his characéter to be animated,
during aétion, with a fpirit which did not feem to belong to
his ordinary temper, and which rofe to enthufiafm. He
purfued his fuccefs with vigour, and was every where tri-
umphant, and, to his honour it is {poken, he uniformly con-
dudted himfelf with hemanity, and exhibited a ftudious con-
cern for the interelts of literature, fo that on the furrender
of Oxford he diligently preferved the Bodleian library and
other places from pillage. It is recorded, that the univerfity
fuffered vaitly let's from the rebels, as they were then called,
than from the royalitts.

After this Fairfax joined the army agitators, advanced to
London, and joined in the reftoration cf the feceding mem-
bers, which deflroyed all parliamentary independence. He
behaved with refpect towards the king, and feemed defirous
of reftoring him to the throne ; neverthelefs he concurred in
the declaration of the army to fupport the vote of the com-
mons for no farther addrefles or application to him. He
fucceeded his father, in March 1€48, in his titles, and thus
united the hereditary dignity of the peerage with the ho-
nours which he had acquired by his bravery. He now refumed
his arms, and aéted with his ufual vigour. He was engaged
in the fiege of Colchetter, which had been occupied by the
infurgents; this place held out eleven weeks, when it fur-
rendered without conditions. On this occafion lord Fairfax,
contrary to his general charaGler, ordered two brave men,
fir Charles Lucas and fir George Lifle, whom he confidered
as foldiers of fortune, to be thot. Returning to London,
he took up his quarters at Whitehall, and prepared the way,
by over-awing and purging the parliament, for the king’s
trial. He was among the firft of thofe nominated for the
king’s judges, but he refufed to act, and it was expected he
would have interfered to prevent the execution, but it was
faid that he was kept back in prayer and conference at ma-
jor Harrifon’s apartments till the fatal blow was ftruck.
Ire foothe his relentment he was appointed general in chief
of the forces in England and Ireland; and under this com-
miffion he fuppreffed the levellers, who were become for-
midable in Oxfordthire. In 1650 the Scottifh nation de-
clared for Charles II, when it was determined to make war
upon that country, and Fairfax was looked to for this pur-
pofe, but chofe rather to lay down his arms, and retired
into the country with a penfion of soco/. per annum. At
the eve of the reftoration he determined to make his peace
with the exiled king, and was at the head of the committee
appointed te wait upon him at the Hague, to invite him to
return and refume his office. He was well received, and
having performed the commiffion entrufted to him, he re-
tired into the country, where he died, in 1671, in the fixtieth
year of his age. Lord Fairfax was of a manly afped,

FAY

gloomy but gentle in his difpofition, fincere, open, difinte-
refted, liberal in his fentiments, a lover and patron of learn-
ing, but poffeffing moderate talents, and unfit for taking a
lead in any affairs but thofe of the army. Biog. Brit.

Fairrax,in Geography,a county of Virginia, in America,
about 25 miles long, and 18 broad, on the W. bank of Po-
towmack river. It contatus 7239 free inhabitants, and 6078
flaves ; the chief town is Alexandria. The court-houfe,
which has a poft-office, is 14 miles from Wathington. —Alfo,
a poft-town in Franklin county, Vermont, E. of Georgia,
and on the bank of the river La Moille, containing 756 in-
habitants ; about nine miles from lake Champlain.

FAIRFIELD, the fouth-wefternmoft county of Cone
necticut, bounded W. by the ftate of New York, E. by
New Haven county, N. by Litch‘eld, and S. by Long
Ifland found, It is divided into 13 townfhips, of which
Fairfeld and Danbury are the chief; and contains 38,208
inhabitants, including 276 flaves. It is feparated from
New Haven county and part of Litchfield county by Strat-
ford river. The other parts of the county are watered by
feveral {mall ftreams. Several harbours and {mall ifles lie
along the found, in the towns of Greenwich, Stamford,
Norwalk, Fairfield, and Stratford. The face of the coun-
ty is rough, and the foil is good.—Alfo, a poft-town and
port of entry of Conneticut, and capital of the above county,
the «* Unquowa”’ of the Indians, pleafantly fituated on Mill
run, a little above its entrance into Long Ifland found,
22 miles S.W. by W. of New Haven, and 64 from New
York. It contains about 200 houfes, and 3730 inhabitants,
a neat congregational church, and a court-houfe. About
4 miles N.W of the centre of the town is the beautiful pa-
rifh of Greenwich, in which is a flourifhing academy. This
town was fettled from Weathersfield in 1639. It carries
on a contiderable trade to the Weft Indies.— Alfo, a county
in the flate of Ohio.—Alfo, a townfhip in Kennebeck
county, Maine, on the S.E. bank of Kennebeck river, S. of
Canaan and oppofite to Hancock, 7 miles from fort Hali-
fax, and 225 miles N.E. of Bofton. It contains 852 inha-
bitants.—Alfo, a new townfhip in Herkemer county, New
York ; containing 2065 inhabitants.— Alto, a poft-town in
Franklin county, Vermont, E. cf St. Albans; containing
git inhabitants. It is 13 miles S. of the Canada line, and
as far from the neareft part of lake Champlain.—Alfo,
a townfhip in Wafhington county, New York, containing
591 inhabitants.— Alfo, a townfhip in Cumberland county,
New Jerfey, on Cohanzy creek, and at the head of Black
creek ; 25 miles E. by S. of Salem, in Salem county.—
Alfo, a townfhip in Weftmorcland county, Pennfylvania,
containing 1363 inhabitants.x—Alfo, a diftri& of South Ca-
rolina, between Wateree river, which feparates it from Lan-
cafter county, and Bread river, which divides it from New-
bury and Union diltrifs. Its chief town is Winnfbo-
rough.

FAIRFORD, a market town in the hundred of Bright-
wells Barrow, Glouceiterfhire, England, is fituated on the
banks of the river Colne ; and derives its name from an old
ford over that river near its confluence with the Thames.
The celebrity of this town has arifen more from the beauty
of its church, and the very fine painted glafs of which that
is the repofitory, than from any other circumftance. The
church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, is a fine fpecimen of
the ityle of architecture that prevailed about the clofe of
the fifteenth century. It confifts of a lofty nave, a chan-
cel, and fide aifles, with a tower rifing from the centre. The
internal architeture is extremely fine and highly embel-
lifhed: the aifles are divided from the nave by light fluted
pillars, fultaining four arches on each fide, with a range of

windows

FAT

windows above them in the upper part of the nave. The
aifles are continued parallel with the chancel, with which is
a communication by two arches of equal height. A beau-
tiful oak fcreen furrounds the chancel, ornamented with
finely carved tabernacle-work, and having ftalls in the fame
ftyle. On the north fide of the altar are three niches, or
fubfellia, ufed in the Catholic times by the officiating priefts.
This elegant church, 120 feet in length, and 55 in breadth,
owes its erection to John Tarne, an opulent merchant of
London; who, about the year 1492, is recorded to have cap-
tured a veflel beund from a Flemifh port to Italy and laden
with painted glafs, which, agreeably to the expentive piety
of the times, he determined to put up in a large edifice ex-
prefsly built for its reception. The ylafs was difpofed in
twenty-eight windows, with four or more compartments in
each: but in feveral of them the figures are now mutilated
or difplaced. The principal fubje&s are feriptural, and
difplay the moft important events in the life of our Saviour,
with a few of the more remarkable tranfactions recorded in
the Old Teftament. The church contains a variety of mo-
numents and fepulchral inferiptions. In the north aifle is a
table tomb of Italian marble to che memory cf John Tame,
pe beneficent founder of this edifice, and Alice his
wife.

The town confitts of two ftreets ; the buildimgs in general
are neat and regular; here are three bridges over the
river Colne. Among many charitable in{titutions is a free-
{chool, eftablifhed by the produce of money expended in the
purchafe of lands, and bringing in about fixty pounds an-
nually, purfuant to the bequells of the Hon. Elizabeth
Fermor, and Mary Barker, fpinfler, Two fairs are held an-
nually, and a weekly market on Thurfdays; originally
granted by Henry III. in 1263, and renewed and confirmed
by a charter procured in £688, through the intereft of An-
drew Barker, efq. Fairford is 79 miles diftant from Lon-
don: the population of the parifh in 1801 was returned at
1326; and the number of houfes at 273.

Near the church was anciently a manorial refidence,
erected by the earls of Warwick, and called Beauchamp and
Warwick court. This appears to have been rebuilt by the
Tames, as Leland mentions “ a fayr manfion-place of the
Tames, hard by the chirche-yarde, builded thoroughly by

*John Tame and Edmund Tame: the back thereof goithe
to the very bridge of Fairford’? This edifice was pulled
down by Andrew Barker, efq. who, with the materials,
erected at a few farlongs diftance, the prefent manor houfe,
which is a {pacious and convenient building, fituated ina
pleafant park, and now inhabited by John Raymond
Barker, efq. who has confiderably improved it.

Two miles north from Fairford is Quenington, or Queen-
ington, a {mall village, remarkable for the architeGure of
its church, which is a fmall low building, difplaying
veftiges of great antiquity ; though it has apparently un-
dergone confiderable alterations during the two la(t cen-
turties. F

About three miles from Fairford is the grand canal which
unites the rivers Severn and Thames. Rudge’s Hiltory of
Gloucetterfhire, 2 vols. 8vo. Bigland’s ditto fol.

FAIRHAVEN, atown of America, in Briftol county,
Maflachufetts, lying on the N.W. fide of Buzzard’s bay,
and on the eaftern fide of Accufhnet riyer, oppofite to Bed-
ford. N. Jat. 41° 34’. W. long. 7o° 50'—Alfo, a confi-
derable port-town in Rutland county, Vermont, N.W. of
Poultney, containing 4:1 inhabitant.; and 51 miles N. of
Bennington. —Alfo, a bay on the N.W. coait of Spitzber-

a. N. lat. 79° 50. E. long. 69°.

FAIRHEAD, a cape of Jreland, en the northern eoait

Von. XIV.

ee

of the county of Antrim, oppofite to the ifland of Rag-
hery. It forms part of that interefting bafaltic region, {fo
frequently referred to in geological controverfies. It is
fuppofed to be the Robogdium Promontorium of Ptolemy,
and its Irifh name is Ben-more, or the great promentory, a
name to which it feems well entitled. It and the promoa-
tory of Bengore ftand at the diftance of eizht miles from
each other: both formed on a great and extenfive feale, both
abrupt to the fea, and abundantly expofed to obfervation ;
and each in-its kind exhibiting noble arrangements of the
different fpecies of columnar bafaltes. Fairhead raifes its
lofty fummit more than five hundred feet above the fea,
forming the eaitern termination of Ballycaftle bay. It
prefents to view a va{t mafs of rude columnar ftones, the
forms of which are extremely grofs, many of them ex-
ceeding two hundred feet in length, and the texture fo
coarfe as to refemble an imperfeét compaé granite, rather
than the uniform fine grain of the Giant’s caufeway bafaltes.
At the bafe of thefe gizantic columns lies a wild wafte of
natural ruins, of an enormous fize, which, in the courfe of
fucceflive ages, have been tumbled down from their foun-
dation by ftorms, or fome more powerful operations of
nature. Thefe maffive bodies have fometimes withitood the
fhock of their fall, and often lie in groups and clumps of
pillars, refembling many of the varieties of artificial ruins,
and forming a very novel and ftriking landfcape. A favage
wildnefs characterizes this great promontory, at the foot of
which the ocean rages with uncommon fury. Scarce a fin-
gle mark of vegetation has yet crept over the hard rock to
diverfify its colouring, but one uniform greynefs clothes the
{fcene all around. Upon the whole it makes a fine contrak
with the beautiful capes of -Bengore, where the varied
brown fhades of the pillars, enlivened by the red and greea
tints of ochre and grafs, caft a degree of life a: d cheerfulnefs
over the different objeéts. Dr. Hamilton fays that, from
attentive obfervation, there is reafon to imagine that this
enormous pile refts on the foffils ufually attendant on beds
of fea-coal; and that the ftrata of the Ballycaftle coal pits
extend entirely under the promontory of Fairhead. This
cape is'in long. 6° 2'. W. from Greenwich, lat. 55° 44’ N.
Hamilton’s Antrim.

FAIRLEE, a townfhip of America, in Orange county,
Vermont, on the W. bank of Conneéticut river, 16 miles N.
of Dartmouth college. This townfhip, which is hilly but
having a good foil, is divided into E. Fairlee, containing
435 inhabitants, and W. Fairlee, including 371.

FAIRLEY, a town of Scotland, in the county of Ayr;
rr miles N.W_ of Irvine,

Fairey Road, a narrow ftrait of Scotland, in the frith
of Clyde, between the iflands of Cumora and the county of
Ayr.

FAIRNESS Sounp, a harbour on the W. coat of
Eday, one of the Orkney iflands.

FAIRUYOSAND, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan, oa
the Heermund; 20 miles S.W. of Boft.

FAIRWEATHER, Care, a cape on the N.W. coat
of America, in N. lat. 58°36’. W. long. 138°.—Allfo, a
cape on the E. coaft of Patagonia. S. lat. 51°34’. W. long.
68° 25'.— Alfo, a mountain on the W. coait of North Ame-
rica; foo miles S.E. of Admiralty bay. N. lat. 59°.
W. long. 137°.

FAIRY, a term frequently occurring ia ancient tradi-
tions and romances, denoting a kind of genii, or imaginary
deities, coaverfant on earth, and diftinguifhed by abundance
of fantattical ations and offices, either good or evil.

The fairies, according to ‘thefe traditions, are peculiar
{pecies of divinities, that have but little relation te any of

IL. thole

FAIR Y.

thofe of the ancient Greeks and Romans, unlefs, perhaps,
to the larve; though others will not have them ranked
among deities, but fuppofe them an intermediate kind of
heings, neither gods, nor angels, nor men, nor devils.

‘They are of oriental extraction, and feem to have been
invented by the Perfians and Arabs, whofe hiftory and re-
ligion abound with tales of fairies and dragons. The Per-
fians call them Peri, and the Arabs Ginn; having a pecu-
liar country which they fuppefe them to inhabit, called
Ginnifian, and, by us, Fairy Land. Our famous country-
man Spenfer’s malter-work, the Fairy, Queen, is an epic
poem under the perfons and charaéters of fairies,

Fatey Circles; or Rings, an expreffion by which, cer-
tain {pots, frequently, to be obferved upon the grafs in the
fields, are commonly denoted, The {pots couiift of grafs
more green aud more Juxuriant than the refit of the ficld.
The figure of the {pot is fometimes circular; viz. an area
either circular, or enearly circular, is peculiarly luxuriant
throughout its whole furface ; but it more commonly cou-
fifts of a circular or nearly circular zone of luxuriant grafs,
including a {pace of the Jame kind of coloured grafs as that
which furrounds the zone. In this latter, and by far more
frequent cafe, the circular zone is feldom complete, gene-
rally confilting of an arch or fegment, part of which often
bends its direction in an irregular manner.

The fize of thefe {pots varies confiderably. When the
fpot is luxuriant throughout, its diameter generally is very
{mall ; but the circular zones, which are from two inches to
a foot or more in breadth, are the arches of very different
circles, the radius of their curvature varying from a few
inches to ten fect and upwards.

Thefe fingular appearances have been long noticed, not
only by fhepherds and Jabourers in the field, but likewiie by
philofophers and naturalifts, who have endeavoured to exa-
mine all their peculiarities, for the purpofe of inveltigating
their nature and origin.

With refpe&, to the old vulgar opinion relative to the
ongin of thefe fpots, we need not fay any thing, the ab-
durdity of it being pretty well manifeited by their denomi-
nation ; but of the {cientific opinions it is incumbent upon
us to give a diltinG and fatisfactory account.

Two different opinions have been principally advanced
by philofophers with refpe& to the origin of thefe {pots,
and hoth opinions are grounded upon experiments and ob-
fervations. ‘The fairy cirelés were for a long time fuppofed
to be the effets of lightning ; but they were afterwards at-
tributed to the growth of fungi: and this latter opinion
feems upon the whole to be the moft probable, efpecially
in the manner in which it has been lately illuftrated by
Dr. Wollatton.

One of the early volumes of the Philofophical Tranf-
actions coutains the following obfervations of Mr, Jeflop.

« T have,” he fays, “ often been puzzled to give an ac-
count of thofe phenomena which are commonly called fairy
circles. have feen many of them, and thofe of two forts :
one fort bare, of feven or eight yards in diameter, making a
round path, fomething more than a fuot broad, with green
grafs in the middle ; the others ke them, but of feveral
bigneffes, and encompafled with a circumference of grafs,
about the fame breadth, much frether and greener than that
in the middle. But my worthy friend Mr. Walker gave
me full fatisfaétion from his own experience: it was his
chance one day to walk out among fome mowing grafs (in
which he had been but a little while before) after a great
itorm of thunder and lightning, which feemed by the noife
and flafhes to have been very near him; he prefently ob-
ferveda rqund circle, of about four or five yards diameter,

2

the rim whereof was about a foot broad, newly burnt bare,
as the colour and brittlenefs of the grafs roots did plainly
teflify. He knew not what to afcribe it unto but to the
lightning, which, befides the odd capricios remarkable in
that fire in particular, might, without any wonder, like all
other fires, move round and burn more in the extremities
than the middle. After the grafs was mowed, the next ~
year it came up more frefh and green in the place burnt than
in the middle, and at mowing-time was much taller and
ranker.’?

Dr. Prieftley, at the end of his Hiflory of Eletricity,
where he relates his original eleétrical experiments, defcribes,
amougtt others, the effets which were produced by the
difcharges of a battery upon feveral fubftances, efpecially
upon metallic furtaces, which he fometimes covered with
water. The experiment which principally relates to our
prefent fubjeét is as follows.

“ I then laid,” the docior feys, “* more water upon the
copper, but fo as only to moillen it 3 for the furface, being
convex, would not allow it to be in any great quantity 5
and upon taking the explofion, I found no circle, but feveral
beautiful circular {pots melted very deep, ene of which was
much larger than the ret. Thefe experiments feem to fhew
that the ele&tric matter meets with a confiderable refiftance,
in pafling through water, which coafines its excurfion more
thao the air; and that, by fuch a condenfation, its force is
greatly increafed, fo as to leave deeper impreffions upon the
metal than when it had pafled only through the air. In
like manner, if two pieces of metal be placed nearly in cons
tact, or if they be light, and one of them lie upon the other,
the impreflion made upon both of them by the difcharge
of the battery pafling through them will be confiderably
deeper than it would have been if the ele€tric matter had
not been confined to fo {mall a compafs as the points in
contact.

“To account for the formation of thefe concentric cir-
cles nothing feems to be neceffary but the fuppofition of
the elafticity of the eleéric fluid, whereby its particles
repel one another. For then, fuppofing a quantity of
electric matter to iffue from one piece of metal to another
through the air, it will endeavour to fpread, but will be
confined in its paflage by the furrounding ele&ric medium
and the flrong attraction of the oppofite metal. If this.
piece of metal have a fiat furface, or one that is nearly fo,
the fluid will be attraéted by it pretty equally, within a
certain fpace, fo that the mutual repulfion of its particles
will have room to exert itfelf, and produce a diyifion of the
whole quantity : and as this repulfion is the fame in all di-
rections, the effe€& mutt be its throwing itfelf into a circle,
or feveral concentric circles, on its entering the oppofite
piece of metal, and confequently melting it in that form.
For the fame reafon, the circles themfelves-will confift of
feparate dots, each of which might have been canfed by the
fluid in another hollow circle, but being fo {mall the fufion
of the metal could not fhew that circumftance.”

Anda little farther on the door fays, ‘* communicating
this experiment to Dr. Price, he fuggefted to me, that the
circles, called fairy rings; which confit of grafs of deeper
green in palture fields, and which have by tome been ima-
gined to be occafioned by lightning, might be analogous to
the circles above-mentioned, but that they want a central.
fpot. I have fince examined one of thefe rings. It was
about a yard in diameter, the ring itfelf about a quarter of a.
yard broad, and equally fo in the whole circumference ; but.
there was no appearance of any thing to currefpond to the
central {pot.’” ;

Notwithitanding thefe experiments and thefe conjeGures, |

ie

FAT

it was not long after the publication of Dr. Prieftley’s
Hiftory of Eleétricity, that the fairy circles began to be at-
tributed to the growth of fungi; for Mr. Cavallo, in the
firft edition of his Treatife on Eleétricity, which was pub-
lifhed in the year 1777, defcribes the method of forming, by
means of the eletrical apparatus, fuch rings as were difco-
vered by Dr. Prieftley, and which have ‘been already de-
feribed ; after which he fays,

«T have given thefe {pots the’appellation of fairy circles, on
‘account that they bear fome refemblance to the {pots fo
called, which are often obferved upon the grafs in the
fields. Thefe, which we may call natural fairy circles in
‘the fields, it has been thought to be effected by lightning,
“on account of their bearing fome refemblance to the above-
mentioned circles produced by electricity ; the fuppefition,
however, feems not very probable; for the fpots in the
fields, called fairy circles, have no central {pot, no concen-
tric circles, neither are they always of a circular figure ; and,
ws T am informed, they feem to be rather beds of muth-
rooms, than the effets of lightuing.”

Inthe year 1807 Dr. Wollafton prefented a paper to the
Royal Society, containing various valuable obfervations
relative to the fairy circles, and from this paper, which is
coatained in the volume of the Philofophical Vranfactions
for the above-mentioned year, we fhall now tranfcribe fuch
paflages as feem abfolutely neceffary to illuftrate the fubje&
of this article.

s¢ That,” he fays, ‘¢ which firft attracted my notice, was
‘the pofition of certain fungi, which are always to be found
‘growing upon thefe circles, if examined in a properfeafon.
In the cafe of mufhrooms, I found them to be folely at the
~exterior margin of the dark ring of grafs. ‘The breadth of
the ring in that inflance, meafured from them towards the
centre, was about twelve or fourteen inches, while the
mufhrooms themfelves covered an exterior ring about four
‘or five inches broad.

« The pofition of thefe mufhrooms led me to conje@ure
that progreffive increafe, from a central point, was the pro-
bable mode of formation of the ring. I was the more in-
clined to this hypothefis, when I found that a fecond fpe-
cies of fungus prefeated a fimilar arrangement, with refpe&
to the relative pofition of the ring and fungi ; for I obferved,
that'in all inftances the prefent appearance of fungi was
upon the exterior border ofa dark ring of grafs. I thought
‘it not improbable that the foil, which had once contributed
‘to the fupport of fungi, might be fo cxhaufted of fome pe-
culiar pabulum neceflary for their production, as to be ren-
dered incapable of producing a fecond crop of that fingular
clafs of vegetables. The fecond year’s crop would confe-
quently appear in a fmall ring furrounding the original cen-
tre of vegetation, and at every fucceeding year the de-
fect of nutriment on one fide would neceffarily caufe the
new roots to extend themfelves folely in the oppofite direc-
tion, and would oceafion the ‘circle of fungi continually to

* proceed by annual enlargement from the centre outwards.
An appearance of luxuriance of the grafs would follow as
a natural confequence, as the foN of an interior circle would
always be enriched by the decayed roots of fungi of the pre-
ceding year’s growth.” :
© Inthe fequel Dr. Wollafton relates fome obfervations of
Dr. Withering, who had already attributed thefe {pots to
the growth of fungi, but he confined his conjecture to one
Apecies only of avaric ; (viz. the Ag. orcades of his arrange-
ment. ) “ I am fatisfied,”’ Dr. Withering fays, that the bare
and brown, or highly clothed and verdant circles in patture
fields called fairy-rings, are caufed by the growth of this
agaric.”’— Where the ring is brown and alinoft bare, by

‘

rAtl

digging up the foil to the depth of about two inches, the
{pawn of the fungus will be found of a greyifh white co-
lour; but where the gvafs has again grown green and rank,
I have never found any of the {pawn exiting”? Dr. Wol-
lafton then continues in the following manner. *¢ Had,” he
fays, «© Dr, Withering frequently repeated this examination
of the foil, he would have correéted the laft remark, which
is not univerfally trac, as the grafs may at fome period be
found Iuxurtant even over the undecayed {fpawn. During
the erowth of the fungi, they fo entirely abforb all m:tri-
ment from the foil bencath, that the herbage is fora while
deftroyed, and a ring appears bare of grafs, farrounding the
dark ring. Ifa tranfverfe feGtion be made of the foi! beneath
the ring at this time, the part beneath the fungi appears
paler than the foil on either fide of it, but that which is
beneath the interior circle of dark grafs is fouad, on the con-
trary, to be confiderably darker than the general furround-
ing foil. But in the courfe of a few weeks after the fan.ri
have ceafed to appear, the foil where they ftocd grows
darker, and the grafs. foon vegetates again >
vigour; fo that I have feen the furface covered with dark
grafs, althouzh the darkened foil has not execeded half an
inch in thicknefs, while that beneath has continued white
with fpawn for about two inches in depth.

; ie Yor the purpofe of oblerving the progrefs of various
circles, I marked them three or four years in {neceflion, by
incifions of different kinds, by which I could difti zuifh
clearly the fucceffive annual increafe, and I found it to vary
in difterent circles from eight inches to as much as two feet,
The broadeft rings that I have feen were thofe of the com-
mon mufhroom (Ag. campeftris); the narroweft are the
mott frequent, and are thofe of the champignon (Ag. or-
cades of Dr. Withering.) The mufhroom accordingly
makes circles of largeft diameter, but thofe of the champig-
non are moft regular. There are, however, as many as
three other fungi that exhibit the fame mode of extenfion,
and produce the fame effect upon the herbage. Thefe are
the Ag. terreus, Ag. procerus, and the Lycoperdon bo-
vifta, the laft of which is far more common than the two
laft mentioned agarics.

“There is one circumftance that may frequently be ob-
ferved re{pecting thefe circles, which can fatisfactorily be
accounted for, according to the preceding hypothefis of the
caufe of their increafe, and may be confidered as a contirma-
tion ofitstruth. Whenever two adjacent circles are found
to interfere, they not only do not crofs each other, but both
circles are invariably obliterated between the points of
conta& ; at leaft in more than twenty cafes 3 I have feen no
one inftance td the contrary. The exhauftion occafioned
es ne the progrefsof the other, and both are

Farry-Stones, or Fairy Night-caps, in Natural Hi

41

with peculiar

Rory
are the vulgar names, in fome parts of England, for the
impreflions of Echini whieh are found plentifully imbedded
in the chalk {trata, and are often ploughed up on the fur
face of fuch ftrata, See Dr. Woodward’s © Method of Fof-
fils,” p- 11, or Parkinfon’s « Organic Remains,” vol. 1.p. 4.
See alfo W. Martin’s “ Outlines of the Knowledee of Ex-
trancous Fotils,? p. 93: .

FAISAN of B uffor, in Or

I AIsSANS, Iste ve, Jer beafants, or //fe of Confer-
ences in Geogra; > a fmall ifland in the river Bidafloa, ce-
lebrated for being the place where the peace of the Pyre-
neés_ was d in 3669, between France and Spain,
and for the joterview between the kings of France and Spain,
on the martiage of Louis XIV., the firit nanie it received
from the number of t 1 there, and the lait

phealants found
hon

o>)

gy. See-Prasiancs,

La

F A;T

from the circumftance of the interview. It is twomiles dif.
tant from Fontarabia.

FAISTENBERGER, Awnrtuony and Josern, in
Biography, two brothers, landfcape painters; they both
imitated Gafper Pouflin with confiderable fuccefs, and their
works are fo much alike, that with difficulty the difference
is difcernible. They wrought together at the court of
Vienna in feveral large works, and were likewife employed
by many of the princes of the empire. Anthony died in
1722, aged 44.

FAIT, Facrum, in Law, is ufed for a writing lawful-
ly executed to bind the parties thereto. See Deep.

FAITH, Fives, in Antiquity, as denoting honefty or
fidelity, was deiied by the Romans, and reprefented with
an ereét open air, and dreffed in a thin robe, fo fine, that
one might fee through it. ‘This deity is alfo repre-
fented as very old and grey-headed; and fhe appears on
medals as giving her hand, and fometimes only by two
hands joined together. The oath made in the name of
this deity, or ‘Jupiter Fidius,’? who was the fame, was
of all oaths the moft inviolable. The temple of Faith
ereéted by Calatius was in the capitol, near that of Ju-
piter; and if we admit the teftimony of Dionyfius Ha-
licarnaffenfis, and that of Plutarch, the firft who ereéted a
temple to this deity was Numa Pompilius. He like-
wife ordered the priefts, whom he fet over the worfhip
of this deity, to wear white veftments when they offer-
ed facrifices. Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis, (1. ii. c. 5.) has
ftated the reafons why Numa Pompilius gave Faith a
place among the venerable Roman divinities. This was
done in order to engage the people to obferve mutual
fidelity and truth in their contraéts with one another.
With this view he deified Faith, and confecrated a temple
to this divinity. Hence Faith came to be fo revered, and
held in fuch awe, as to have greater influence with the Ro-
mans than witneffes and oaths. Hercules was reprefented
as prefiding over Faith pledged in contraéts: and the oath
taken on {uch occafions was thus conceived, “ Medius Fi-
dius,”’ i. ¢. “ Ita me Deus Fidius adjuvet,” So help me
Medius Fidius, or Hercules. ‘* Swear to me,” fays Plau-
tus in one of his comedies, by Medius Fidius.

Faitu, in Philofophy and Theology, that affent which we
give to a propofition advanced by another, the truth of
which we do not immediately perceive from our own reafon
or experience ; or, it is a judgment, or aflent of the mind,
the motive whereof is not any intrinfic evidence, but the
authority, or teftimony, of fome other, who reveals or re-
lates it.

Hence, as there are two kinds of authorities and teftimo-
nies, the one of God, and the other of man, faith becomes
diftingu'thed into divine and human.

Fairx, Divine, is that founded on the authority of
God; or, it is that affent we give to what is revealed
by Ged.

“The objects of this faith, therefore, are matters of revela-
tion, which fee.

Fairs, Human, is that whereby we believe what is told
us by men. The object of this faith is matter of hu-
man teftimony aud evidence. See Evipence and Tesrti-
MONY. *

Faith, again, may be diftinguifhed into implicit, and /ci-
entific.

Fairn, Implicit, or Blind, is that whereby we give our
affent to a propofition advanced by another, of whofe
knowledge and veracity we have no certain and evident
reafon, or proof. ‘This is only opinion, under another
name.

FAT

We may obferve here, that the terms implicit faith are
ufed in two different fenfes. "With us Proteftants, at leaft
in this country, no more is commonly meant by them than
the belief of a doétrine, into the truth of which we have
made no inquiry, on the bare authority of fome perfon or
fociety declaring it to be true. But this pre-fuppofes fome
knowledge, or fome conception of the doétrine itfelf. In
this acceptation of the term implicit, it merely denotes that,
in lieu of evidence, one refts on the judgment of him or
them by whom the tenet is affirmed: and no other igno-
rance is implied but that of the proofs. But the implicit
faith, recommended by the fchoolmen, is a very different
thing, and is conftituted thus: if you believe that all the
religious principles, whatever they be, which are believed
by fuch particular perfons, are true, thofe perfons who
hold the principles are explicit believers, but you are an
implicit believer of all their principles. Nor is your belief
the lefs efficacious, becaufe you are ignorant of the prin-
ciples themfelves. The tranfcendent excellency of implicit
faith confifts in this: that you have it then in the highet
perfection, when, in regard to its objet, you know ne-
thing, and have heard nothing at all. This is as if we fhould
call one an implicit mathematician, who knows not a tittle
of mathematics, nor even the definitions and axioms; but is
convinced of the knowledge of fome other perfon, who is
really, or whom he fuppotes to be an adept in that fcience.
«© To believe implicitly,”? fays Bona, ‘ is to believe in ge-
neral univerfally all that holy mother church believes ; fo as
to diflent from her in nothing, nor difbelieve any of her ar-
ticles.”’ It is of no confequence, according to the {cho-
laftic do€tors, what a man’s explicit faith may be ; he may
be an Arian, a Socinian, an Anthropomorphite, a Poly-
theift, in fhort, any thing ; he cannot err, whilft he has an
implicit faith in the church. Implicit faith has been fome-
times ludicroufly ftyled ‘ fides carbonaria,””? from the noted
ftory of one who, examining an ignorant collier on his reli-
gious principles, afked him what it was that be believed.
He anfwered, ‘I believe what the church believes.’?
“What then,’”? rejoins the other, ‘¢ does the church be-
heve??’ He readily replied, “‘ the church believes what I
believe.’ The other defirous, if poffible, of bringing him
to particulars, refumes his inquiry : ‘ Tell me then, I pray
you, what it is which you and the church both believe ???
The only anfwer the collier could give was, “ Why truly,
fir, the church and I both believe the fame thing :” this is
implicit faith in perfection, and, in the eftimation of fome
celebrated doctors, the fum of neceffary and faving know-
ledge in a Chriftian. Campbell’s Leétures on E. H.
Leet. xxiii.

Fairn, Scientifical, or feeing, is that by which we give
our affent to a propofition advanced by one who can neither
deeeive, nor be deceived ; which may be properly referred
to {cience and knowledge. ;

Divine faith, ceteris paribus, is ftronger than human
When we are fully convinced, that any propofition comes
from God, faith becomes affurance, or {cience ; it being an
ingredient in our idea of God, that he can neither deceive,
nor be deceived ; but when there is any doubt, whether the
propofition is declared by God, the faith can be no ftronger,
or weaker, than the reafons on which it is founded ; divine
faith, therefore, may either be ftrong, weak, or none at all.
Again, the reafons or motives of believing men may be of
fuch weight and force, that being perfectly underftood,
they may equal a mathematical evidence ; and then the
human faith is fearce inferior to the divine ; there being,
as it were, an equal neceflity of giving our affent on each
fide. ‘

Hence,

FAI

Hence, it is eafily obferved, that all our faith or belief
has its foundation on reafon, which cannot deceive us, if we
make a due ufe of our liberty, and do not acquiefce, till
that neceffarily compels us.

All our prefent religious faith is really human, as de-
pending on the fecondary teftimony of men ; of whofe ve-
racity, however, we have the ftrongeft proofs. The

rophets, or thofe to whom God immediately revealed his
will, believed him, becaufe they knew he could not deceive,
We at this day believe them, or rather their writings, for
ether reafons; wiz. the fame which oblige us to believe all
well-attefted hiftories. (See Evipence.) Befides the two
fpecies of faith, human and divine, the Romanifts make a
third, or intermediate kind, called

Fairu, Ecclefiafical, which is the aflent orthodox per-
fons give to certain events decided by the church, and en-
joined to be believed by all. As, when the church declares
that fuch a book contains heretical doétrine, &c.

This term, ecclefiaftical faith, was firft introduced by
Mr. Perefixe, to diftinguifh the faith whereby we believe
matters of divine revelation, from that whereby we believe
matters of ecclefiaftical determination.

Fairu, in Pradical Theology, makes the firft of the the-
ological virtues, or graces.

Faith in God, in this fenfe, denotes fuch a:conviGtion of
his being, perfections, charafter, and government, as pro-
duces love, truft, worfhip, obedience, and refignation.
Faith in Chrift, as it has been defined by fome, is a mere
affent to the Gofpel as true; according to others, it fig-
nifies fuch a perfuafion that he is the Meffiah, and fuch a
defire and expeétation of the bleffings which he has pro-
mifed in his Gofpel to his fincere difciples, as engage the
mind to fix its dependence upen him, and fubje& itfelf to
him in a'l the ways of holy obedience ; and thus defined it
is a very extenfive principle, and includes in its nature and
infeparable effects the whole of moral virtue. In this fenfe
it has been faid, that under the Gofpel a man is juftified by
faith. Faith, likewife, in refpeét to futurity, is a moral
principle, implying fuch a conviétion of the reality and im-
portance of a future ftate, as is fufficient to regulate the
temper and conduct.

A theological writer of confiderable reputation, who is
of opinion that the New Teftament teaches, with the clear-
eft evidence, a double juflification, (which fee,) or falvation,
maintains a diltinGtion of faith, correfponding to his ideas of
juftification, Accordingly he fays, that the faith which
gave aright to the firft juftification, or an admittance into
the kingdom of God in this world, was confiftent with a
man’s perifhing eternally : becaufe he might be admitted in-
to the church upon a profeffion of ¢hat faith, and yet remain
a wicked perfon, and be loft for ever. This was evidently
the cafe with Simon the forcerer, (Ads, viii. 21.) of whom
itis faid, though ‘his heart was not right in the fight of
God,” and he was in the ‘ gall of bitternefs, and bond of
iniquity,” (v. 23.) that ‘ he believed and was baptized,’
(v. 13.) Confequently, that faith muft be the general faith,
which is common to all Chrifians, good and bad ; or faith
confidered fimply and feparately from the fruits and effects
of it. It was that general profeffion of faith in Chrift Je-
fus, as.the Mefliah and Saviour of the world, (which in-
cluded a -profeffion of repentance, and which indeed ought
t» have been fincere,) upon which the apottles baptized the
firft converts. In this fenfe, “* we are all the children of
God by taith in Jefus Chrift,”” (Gal. iii. 26.) This faith
may be called the fir/ faith. (See 1 Tim. v. 12.) And it
is the continued profeffion of this faith in Chrift, which
gives usa continued right toa place in the church. For, if

pears to be diftinguifhed.

FAI

we caft off this firf faith, we renounce our profeffion, we
ceafe to be Chriftians ; or, we no longer belong to the pecu-
liar family of God. Of this Arf faith St. James fpeaks,
(chap. ii. 14—26.) and he very juftly pronounces it infuffi-
cient, being alone, for our final falvation or juftification. In
order to haz, this general and profeffed faith muft grow into
a principle in the heart, working by love, overcoming the
world, and bringing forth all the fruits of righteoufnefs in
this life ; otherwife the fi-/? faith, and ff juttification, will
come to nothing. This is the working faith, (Gal. v. 6) ;
faith perfeGted by works, (Jam. ii. 23.); the continued
faith (Col. i, 23.) ; the growing faith (2 Theff. i. 3. 2 Pet.
eG se Com ace ls) the Jiedfaf, or eftablithed faith
(Col. ii. 5.) 3 unfigned faith (1 Tim. i. 5.) The firf faith
is the common faith of all Chriflians ; this latter faith is
peculiar to real Chriltiass. The ff? may be a dead,
inactive faith, (Jam. ii. 17. 20. 26.). The orher is living
and active. The fir/? is a profeffion; the other, an opera-
tive principle. A man may haye the jirf faith, and perith ;
by the other, we “believe to the faving of the foul.”
(Heb. x. 39.) The jirf faith may be a foundation without
a fuper-itrudture ; the ofher is faith duilt upon and improved.
(2 Pet. i. s—8. Jude, 20.) This diftinétion of faith feems
to be agreeable to the following texts. Rom.i.17. 1 John,
v. 135 in the latter of which the frff and /econd faith ap-
Taylos’s Introdu€tion to his
Paraphrafe, &c. on the Romans.

The diftinétion above fated will ferve to reconcile the de-
clarations of St. Paul and St. James concerning faith and
works, which fome have pretended are contradictory ; or,
they may be otherwife reconciled by confidering that
St. Paul puts faith for the whole of Chriftianity, in contra-
diftin@ion to the law of Mofes, and the works which he de-
clares to be unneceffary for juftification, are the rites and
ceremonies of that law. On the other hand, by faith,
St. James means a bare affent to the truth of the gofpel ;
and the works which he declares to be neceflary for juitifi-
cation are the moral duties enjoined by the gofpel, and
which are produced by faith. St. Paul, therefore, fays, the
religion of Chrift, if believed and obeyed, is fufficient to juf-
tify. St. James fays, the bare belief of the religion of
Chrift, without conformity to its precepts, is not fufficient
to juftify. Thefe two propofitions are perfe@tly confiitent
with each other; and the feeming contradition in the paf-
fages themfelves arifes from the circumftance juft mentioned,
namely, that the two apoitles, in reafonifig againft different
errors, ufe the fame words in different fenfes. See Bifhop
Tomlin’s Elements of Chriftian Theology, vol. ii. p. 262.

Faitu, Articles of. See ArtIcres.

Faitx, Confeffion of. See ConrFession.

Farru and Homage, in the Feudal Law. See Feaury.

FAITHFUL, an application which the Mahometans af-
fume to themfelves. See Mussutman.

FAITHFULNESS, in Zyhics, isan agreement bet ween
a man’s promifes and-his actions.

FAITTIERE, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a
fpecies of fhell-fifh; called by many amthors, by a much lefs
determinate name, concha imbricata. The French have
thus called it, from the word faitage, which, in the fame
language, fignifies the roof of a houfe. Whe fhell is of the
bucardium, or-ox heart-kind, and has feven longitudinal ribs,
and a great’many lamine running tranf{verfely acrofs them,
fo that’ it greatly refembles the roof of a houfe, where the
rafters and crofs-beamsare feen while it is not covered with
tiles.

FAITOURS is ufed in ftat. 7 Ric. II. cap. 5. for evil-
doers; and may be interpreted idle livers, from (fays the

author

FAK

author of the Terms de Ley) faitardife, which fignifies a
kind of fleepy difeafe, proceeding from too much fluggifhnefs.
Tu the fore-mentioned ftatute it feems fynonymous with va-
rabond.

FAKAUL, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Caramania; 4 miles N. of Cogni.

FAKE, or Facx, in the Sea Language, one round or cir-
ele of a cable; otherwife called a coil.

FAKENHAM, in Geography, a {mall market town in
the hundred of Gallow, Norfolk, England, is fituated on
the flope of a hill near the river Yar. The buildings are
neat and compact. “Che church, dedicated to St. Peter,
is a large, commodious ftructure, confilting of a nave, two
aifles, chancel, porch, and lofty fone tower; the latter hasa
fine weltern docr-way with a large window divided into fix
lights, and fubdivided by a horizontal mullion’ and tracery
mouldings. In the church is an o¢tangular font, richly
ornamented on every fide with religious emblems. The
quarter-feffions for this part of the county were formerly
held alternately here and at Walfingham ; but fince the turn
has been removed hence to Holt, the feffions-houfe has been
ufed as a fchool. he fheriffs’ open court for the whole
county is ftill kept on an adjoining hill. Fakenham is 108
miles diftant from London ; contains 237 houfes, and 1236
inhabitants; has two annual fairs, and a weekly market on
Thurfdays, which is eftcemed the beit for corn in the county,
and is regularly attended by the merchants from Wells and
other contiguous ports. Blomefield’s Topographical Hif-
tory of Norfolk.

FAKIR, or Faquir, a kind of dervife, or Mahometan
religious, who travels the country, and lives on alms.

The word fakar is Arabic, and fignilies a poor or needy
perfon. It is formed of the word Apa» fakara, to be in
need.

D’Herbelot makes fakir and dervife the fame thing.
The Turks and Perfians ufe the name dervife for any poor

erfon, whether he be fo out of neceffity or choice ; and the
Arabs apply fakir in the fame fenfe. Whence, in fome
Mahometan countries, the religious are called derviles; aud
in others, particularly throughout the ftates of the Great
Mogul, fakirs.

The fakirs fometimes travel fingle, and fometimes iu
companies of two or three hundred. When they go in
companies, they have a fuperior, who is diftinguifhed by
this habit. Each fakir bears a horn, which he blows at
his arrival in any place, as alfo at his departure; and a
kind of fcraper or trowel, to {crape the earth in the place
where he fits, or lies down. When they go together, they
divide their alms equally amongit them; give what is left
every night to the peor: and never referve any thing for
the morrow.

There is alfo a kind of idolatrous fakirs, who follow much
the fame practice. D’Herbelot reckons in the Indies eight
hundred thoufand Mahometan fakirs, and twelve hundred
thoufand idolatrous ones ; to fay nothing of divers extraor-
dinary f{pecies of fakirs, particularly penitents, whofe morti-
fication and penance confift in very odd obfervances. Some,
. gr. remain night and day, for many years, in certain
uneafy poftures. Others never ft or lie down to fleep,
but fuftain themfelves by a rope, hung down for that pur-
pofe. Others bury themfelves in a ditch, or pit, for nine
or ten days, without eating or drinking. Others keep their
arms lifted up to heaven fo long tll they cannot let them
down again if they would. Others lay fire on their heads,
and burn the fealp to the very bone. Others roll them-
felves naked Gn thorns. ‘Tavernier, &c.

In Bengal, where they are very numerous, they are the

FAL

refufe of fociety, and live altogether en the alms beftowed
upon them by the fuperftition of the people. They go, fays
Stavorinus, entirely naked, and are wholly devoid of fhaite,
On their fhoulders they carry a thick club, the end of which
is wound round with rags of cloth, of different colours. It
is dangerous to meet them in folitary places, or in the woods;
for they make no f{cruple of knocking down, and murder-
ing any one that has any thing of value about him. They
ftrew their hair, which hangs down their backs, with afhes,
and fometimes wallow in afhes. They generally take up
their abode in fhady places, either in the open air, or in old
and ruinous buildings, without any thing to repofe upon, or
to cover themfelyes. The genuine fakirs make vows’ of pe-
nance 3 and Stavorinus fays, that he faw one of them, who
had impofed upon himfelf a filence of i2 years.

Ancther clafs ef fakirs retire into mofques, live on alms,
and devote themfelves to the {tudy of the law, the reading
of the Alcoran, &c. to fitthemfelves for moulas, or doGors.
People of quality fometimes affume the character of fakirs.
The famous Aurengzebe himfelf, before he afcended the
throne, gave out, that he intended to commence. fakir,

FAKIRA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Ximo; 15 miles S. of Nagafaki.

FAKOENT, a town of Walachia, on the Danube;
21 miles N.N.E. of Railovat.

FALACA, a kind of batlinado icfliGed on the Chrif.
tian captives in Algiers. The falaca is properly a piece
of wood, about five feet long, bored with two holes,
through which the feet of the patient are put, who is laid
on his back on the ground, with his arms tied. Two men
are employed to give him fifty or an hundred ftrokes with a
cudgel, or buil’s pizzle, on the foles of his feet. A very-
trifling faut often incurs this fevere punifhment. ;

FALACER, in Adjthology, the name of a Roman deity
recorded by Varro. :

FALAISE, in Geography, a town of France, and princi-
pal place of a diftri¢t, in the department of Calvados, fi-
tuated oy the Ante. The town is divided into two parts,
one containing 8000 inhabitants in yo communes, and the
other 6002 in go communes ; ona territorial extent of 2373
kiliometres. It has manufaétures of ferges, linens, and lace,
This was the native place of William the Conqueror. It
lies 18 miles S. of Caen. N. lat. 48° 55’. W. long: 0° 7/.
—Alfo, a {mall town in the department of the Dyle; 16
miles $.E. of Tirlemont.

FALARI, a town of Italy, in the Patrimonio; 10 miles
N.E. of Sutri.

FALARICA, in Antiquity, a kind of dart or miffive
weapon, of fingular fervice to the Saguntines in their con-
teft with the Carthaginians. This dart was difcharged by the
partics poited in wooden towers, upon the enemy. ‘Thefe
wooden towers were called “ falz,’’ from which was de-
rived the name of the weapon. Towards the end it had a
{quare piece of iron, bound about with tow, befmeared with
pitch. The iron head, refembling that of the Roman pilum
or javelin, was three feet long, that it might be capable of
penetrating the itrongeft armour, and, through it, of doing
execution. As the combuttible part of it was fet on fire
before it was difcharged upon the enemy, and this fire mutt
have been greatly encreafed by the air fanning it in its mo-
tion, it could sot fail to do mifchief, and to excite terror.
This dart was fometimes difcharged out of the baliita with
an inconceivable force, and did not only deitroy men, but
likewife frequently confumed the wooden towers of the
enemy, at which it was levelled. Liv. lib. xxi. Eun. apud
Felt. in voc. /alarica.

FALARIL Farart, in Ancient Geography, a town of

Italy,

FAL

Italy, in Etruria, E. of Tarquinii, and very near the Tibere
The ancients reprefent it as a well fortified city, The inha-
bitants often took up arms againft the Romans, but when it
was fubdued by them, they eftablifhed a colony in it.

FALASJAM, a country of Africa, W. of Abyffinia.

FALCADE, in the Manege. A horfe makes falcades,
when he throws himfelf upon his haunches two or three
times, as in very quick curvets, which is done in forming a
itop, and half-ftop. A falcade, therefore, is the action of
the haunches, and of the legs, which bend very low, as in
curvettes, when you make a {top or half-ftop.

They fay, this horfe {tops well, for he makes two or three
falcades, and finifhes his {top with a pefate. This horfe
has no haunches, he will make no falcades. The faleades
are fo much the prettier, as in making them his haunches
are low. Stop your horfe upon the haunches, in making
him ply them well, fo that after forming his falcades, he may
refume his gallop without making a pelate, that is, without
ftopping or making one time. And thus he will make an
half iftop. See Hauncnes and Time.

FALCANDUS, Hueu, in Biography, a Sicilian hif-
torian of the 12th century, was fuppofed to have been a
Norman by birth. He publifhed his hiftory about 1199,
of which the fubjeé is the exploits of the Normas in Si-
cily, and the calamities which it underwent from 1154 to
1169, under the two kings William I. and 11. This work
has been feveral times printed. Moreri.

FALCATA, in our Old Writers, was ufed for the grafs
frefh mowed, and laid in fwathes.

FALCATED, one of the phafes of the planets, popu-
larly called horned.

The altronomers fay, the moon or any planet is falcated,
when the enlightened part appears in form of a fickle, or
reaping-hook, by the Latins called fa/.

The moon is faleated whilft fhe moves from the third
quarter to the conjunétion, and frem the conjunétion, or
from new moon, to the firft quarter; from hence to
oppofition or full, and from full to the third quarter the
enlightened part appears gibbous, and the dark falcated.
See Moon.

FALCATOR, in our Old Writers, the fervile tenant
who performed fervice of falcature.

FALCATURE, Farcarura, fignifies one day’s
mowing of grafs; a cuftomary fervice to the lord by his
inferior tenants. Kennet’s Gloff. in voc.

FALCKENBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Hollftein; feven miles W.S.W. of Nordtorp.

FALCKENBURG, a town of France, in the depart-
ament of Mont Tonnerre ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Deux Ponts.

FALCO, in Ornithology, a genus of Accipitres, the bill
of which is hooked, and furnifhed at the bafe with a cere;
head clofely covered with feathers; tongue bifid at the ead.

The falcons are diftinguifhed from the vultures in feveral
effential refpe&ts, notwithftanding the fimilarity in their ge-
neral appearance and manners of life. The billin the vulture
is of amore lengthened form, or ftraight, being only
hooked at the apex ;. in the falcon the curvature of the bill
commences nearly at the bafe; the head of the vulture is
alfo bare of feathers, and the neck retra&tile ;. they differ be-

des in other particulars,.but the two tribes may be’ clearly
afcertained by the above characters. The falcons are very
generally difperfed throughout the globe,. being inhabitasts
of almolt every climate, while the vulture is confined to the
warmer regions. Both prey on {maller birds, quadrupeds,
reptiles, and fome fpecies on fifth: thefe the vulture feems to
prefer in a putrid ftate, as it is rarely known to attack living
animals.unlefs urgently prefled by hunger; but the falcon, on

FAL

the contrary, rejeéts its food in this ftate, delighting to feizeits
prey alive, and devour it recent. The falcon, like the vule
ture, is capable of enduring abftinence for a confiderable
period without experiencing any material inconvenience. It
has been obferved of the falcon tribe that they affociate
only in the breeding feafon, and then only in pairs for the
purpofe of perpetuating their offspring ; their neft 1s fome-
times formed of a few {ticks and herbave on the bare ground;
moft commonly, however, they feek fome convenient {pot
on the fuminits of rocks or hills, and the larger kinds the
loftier pinnacles of mountains.

_A confiderable variation prevails with regard to the co-
lours as well as markings of the plumage in the falcon tribe
at different periods of their growth, and hence writers who
have treated on this family have been occafionally mifled,
and induced to deferibe aa-diltingt {pecies what are in reality
no other than the fame bird in different tranfitions of plu-
mage, Some material errors of this kind have already been
detected, and others of a fimilar nature will, no doubt, be
difcovered likewife, as we become better acquainted with
the hiftory of this tribe than we are at prefent. The falco
genus, in poiat of {pecies, is very numerous.

Species..

Harryya. Head crefted with-long feathers; body va
tiegated beneath. Gmel. Vultur harpyi2, Linn. Aguila
brafilienfis criflata, Brifl. Aquile criflate genus, Raj.
Yzqguauhtli, Hernand. Crefled eagle, Will. Oranooko eagle,
Brown. Crefled vulture, Lath.

Size rather exceeding that.of the turkey; the plumage
above mixed with black ; the,head is covered with feathers,
and aderned with a creft of four feathers, two placed on
each fide; the middle ones are two inches long;. thofe at'the
fides rather fhorter, and the whole are moveable at the will’
of the bird. The hind part of the neck is fulvous; body
beneath white; tail fafciated with brown and black; vent
and thighs with bleck and white; the legs are covered with
white feathers, and {potted with black. Linnzus- defcribes
the legs in his fpecies harpyja as being naked. This crea-
ture inhabits South America, and is: faid to poffefs fuch
amazing {trengh that it is able to cleave a man’s {kull at one
firoke of the bill.

Jacguint. Feathers of the head long and numerous ;:
feet naked; body fnowy white. Gmel. Vultur coronatus,
Jacquin Beytr. Crowned vulture, Lath.

Native of the mountains of New Granada; in fize nearly
refembling the former. The back, wings, greater part of
the neck, and bill, black; head reddifh afh, with a crefted
tuft of long feathers,.which ftand ere@ when the bird is irri--
tated; tail long, whitifh, with tranfverfe black bands; feet
and toes yellow ;. claws black.

Avsicitta. Cere and legs yellow; quill-feathers white,
the middle ones tipped with black. Lion. guile albicilia,
Brifl. Grand pygargue, But. Cinereous' eagle.

Found in Europe and the fouthern parts of Ruffia; the
fize is equal to that of the turkey, and-its food confifts
chiefly of fith and fmall birds:

Coronatus. Cere ferruginous; feet white, {potted
with black, downy; breaft rufous; fides banded with black
Gmel. Aguila africana criflata, Brifl.. CGrscuned eagle,

Edwards.
The body is brown above, with the

Inhabits Guinea.
edge of each feather pale brown; beneath white, with ro

black fpots; breait rufous; the fides fafciated with ble

ark : : <.
tail deep grey, tranfverfely banded with black ; toes bright
orange.» ‘The feathers’on the top of the head, and forming
acreit.

FALCO.

Curvsartros. Cere yellow; legs downy, yellowith
rutty ; body variegated brown, and rulty; tail black, waved
at the bafe with cinereous. Linn. Le grand aigle, Buff.
Gold adler wirfing, Golden eagle, Lath,

The length of this bird is three feet; breadth, when the
wings are expanded, feven feet ; the hill is blue; the cere
and legs yellow; the head and neck bright ruft colour;
body and tail dark brown. It delights in mountainous fitu-
ations, and occurs throughout Europe and Siberia. | The
golden eagle is a bird of prodigious ftrength and courage,
and preys on all the fmaller tribes of animals and birds, and
is fometimes known to carry off the lambs from the flocks
of fheep in the mountain paftures; it flies to an amazing
height in ferene weather.

Ossirracus. Cere and legs yellow; legs fomewhat
downy ; body ferruginous ; tail-feathers white on the inner
fide. Linn. Aquila offfraga, Brifl. Sea eagle, Will.

Size of a large turkey, and inhabits Europe and North
America; this bird lives chiefly on fh.

LeucocasTer. White; back, wings, and tail dull
brown ; tip of the tail white; bill and legs yellow. Gmel.
White bellied eagle, Lath.

Inhabits North America. The length is two feet nine
inches; the bill brownifh yellow, large, and much hooked ;
the head, neck, breaft, belly, thighs, and vent white; back,
wings, and tail dark brown; legs yellow, and very ftout;
claws black. Defcribed from a fpecimen formerly in the
Leverian mufeum. Native place fuppofed to be the iflands
in the South feas.

Japonensis. Cere dufky ; legs yellow ; body brown.
Gmel. Japonefe hawk, Lath. f

Defcribed from a fpecimen in the Bankfian collection,
meafuring one foot eleven inches; the bill is narrow, at the
ate blue, tip black, and beneath yellowifh ; the forehead
buff colour ; the reft of the head and body brown, with
the tips rufty ; throat white, ftreaked with black, and fur-
rounded with a black ring ; feathers of the breaft and belly
yellowifh-white at the edges ; quills dark, and on the inner
web of each feveral ferruginous {pots placed tranfverfely 5
tail deep brown, and all the feathers fpotted each fide of
the webs with ferruginous, except the two outermo&, which
are plain on the outer web; claws rather large, hooked,
and black.

Frerox. Cere green; body above brown; back, belly,
and tail-coverts fnowy, variegated with chefnut {pots ; tail-
feathers equal, brown, with four paler bands. Gmel. Nov.
Comm. Petr. Fierce eagle, Lath.

Was found abundant, according to Gmelin, near the city
of Aftrachan, in the winter of 1769. The length is about
two feet, and its difpofition. highly fierce and rapacious, ‘as
it would not feed on the carcates of dead animals, ‘The bill
is lead colour; eye-lids blue; the head and neck ferrugi+
nous mixed with whitifh ; quill-feathers twenty-fix in num-
ber, black, beneath white ; tail-feathers twelve, equal, and
beneath white; legs white, thick, and rough, and claws
crooked.

Sinensis. Cere and legs yellow; body above red-brown,
beneath yellowith. Gmel. Chinefe eagles Lath. ‘

Native of China, and other parts of Afia. In fize cor-
refponding nearly with the common eagle acrofs the wing
a dufky band; two bands and tip of the tail dufky.

Amegicanus. Cere, and woolly legs pale yellow ;
head, neck, and breaft dufky-cinereous ; tranfverfe band
onthe cheeks, back, betly, wings, and tail black. Gmel.
Black cheeked eagle, Ar&. Zool.

Size of the common eagle ; inhabits North America.

Cueevra. Somewhat crefted, aud fufcous; body brewn ;

wing-coverts {potted with white ; td white ; tail with a
broad white band. Lath, Cheela falcon.

Length exceeding two feet ; the {pecies inhabits India,
where it is not uncommon, and is known by the name of
Cheela.

Astaticus. Legs yellow, half downy; body brown
above, white beneath; breaft ftreaked ; tail-feathers filver
grey ; external ones with five pale bands. Lath. Afratie
‘alcon.
f Native of Chinas fize that of the honey-buzzard. The
bill is black ; quill-feathers grey with black bands; upper
tail-coverts white ; legs downy on the fore part.

Novaz Houranpiaz, White ; cere, orbits, and legs pale
yellow ; hind claw twice as long as either of the reft.
Falco Nove Hollandia, Gmel. New Holland white eagle,
Lath.

Deferibed on the authority of Dr. G. R. Forfter. The
{pecies inhabits New Holland, is twenty inches in length,
and has the bill and claws black.

Avusrtratis. Deep brown; cere yellow; tail black
with the tip yellowifh. Gmel. Staatenland eagle, Lath.

Length twenty-five inches; the fpecies inhabits Staten
Land, and has a peculiar note, refembling the cry of the
common hen.

Guavucopis. Cere and legs citron yellow ; legs fome-
what downy; back and breaft brown; head and crown
yellowifh-white with brown ftripes; quill-feathers black.
Gmel.

Found among the mountains of Germany ; its length one
foot nine inches. The bill is glaucous; noftrils large, oval,
and befet with briftles ; front with brown lunate marks ;
legs fhort, and covered with foft feathers,

Mer vanonortus. Cere, and woolly legs pale yellow >
head, hind part of the neck, belly, and wing-coverts ferru-
ginous; throat, breaft, back, and quill-feathers black.
Lath. Ind. Orn, Falco niger, Gmel. Black backed cagle,
Brown.

Size of the golden eagle; bill and claws black ; bafe of
the tail to the middle white ; the extreme part black ; claws
black. Native place unknown.

Leucoryruos. Cere livid cinereous; legs pale whitifh,
flightly downy ; body clouded brown ; crown with a tri-
angular white fpot; throat white. Gmel. guila leuco-
rypha, Pallas. White crowned eagle, Lath.

Frequents the fouthern parts of Siberia. This bird is
larger than the ofprey, and in feveral refpeéts refembles it ;
the wings are dufky black, within white; tail long, ftiff,
equal; claws very large and black.

Tuarus. Cere and legs pale yellow ; body of the male
whitith with black {pots; female grey ; crown crefted:
Falco tharus, Gmel, Chilefe eagle.

Defcribed by Molina as an extremely common fpecies in
Chili, where it builds in the highett trees, forming its neft
of twigs, wool, hair, and feathers; and lays five eggs.
This bird feeds on carrion, poultry, &c. ‘The female is
rather {maller than the male.

Mocitnix. Cere pale yellow; legs woolly, and with
the reft of the body dusky ferruginous; back. mixed
with white. Aguila mogiluik, Gmel. Nov. Comm. Petrop,
Ruffian eagle.

Inhabits the defarts near Tanais ; the bill, pupil, claws,
and quill-feathers black; tail equal; tail-feathers black,
with dufky grey bands; tawny at the tips.

Cristatus. Head crefted; back, throat, and wings
black ; belly white ; tail with four parallel cinereous bands.
Gimel. Crefled falcon, Dillon. Caracca falcon, Lath. “s

1ze

.

FALCO.

Size of a turkey ; upper mandible much hooked, lower
ftraight.

Hatiztus. Cere and legs blue; body above fufcous,
beneath white ; head whitith. Gmel.

Levertanus. Legs yellow; head fufcous and white in
altersate {trix ; body above fufcous, beneath white 5 wings
duil brown. Gmel. Leverian falcon, Aré. Zool.

Native of Carolina; fize of the buzzard.

Lacoprus. Cere and downy legs yellow 3 body black,
fpotted with white; tail-feathers white, towards the tip
black. Gmel. Graa-fail, AG. Nidrof. Rough-legged fal-
con. ©

This rare {pecies inhabits Europe, and has been obferved
in Britain ; a {pecimen fhot near London occurs in the ¢ol-
leétion of Mr. Donovan.

Groenranpica. Cereandlegslead-colour; body above
brownifh, beneath whitifh with longitudinal brown ftreaks.
Gmel. Greenland falcon, Ar&. Zool. Falco fufeus 2, Faun.
Gren. Falco lagopus 2, Lath.

By fome writers this bird is confidered as a variety of the
former ; the crown is brown with irregular oblong {pots of
white; front whitith ; cheeks blackifh; tail above dufky,
eroffed with paler bars, beneath whitifh.

Antituarum. Bodyentirely brown. Briff. Mansfeny,
Hift. Antilles.

Native of the Weft Indies. The fpecies feeds on fmaller
birds, fnakes, and other reptiles; and is about eighteen
inches in length. j

Pennarus. Cere and legs yellow; body above varie-
gated with blackifh brown and dirty grey, beneath brown.
yellow, with longitudinal blackifh lines; feet feathered to
fal toes. Gmel. Lulco pedibus pennatis, Brifl. Booted

‘aleon. ‘

Length about twenty inches; the bill blackifh; head
and neck yellow-grey with blackifh lines ; tail brown, to-
wards the tip blackifh, with the apex grey ; claws black.
Defcribed by Briffon from a fpecimen in the mufeum of
Madame de Bandeville ; its native place unknown.

Maritemus. Cere and legs yellow; body and tip of
the tail white; fhanks reddifh mixed with white. Gmel.
Javan eagle.

A large {pecies, meafuring in length near four feet ; it
lives on the fea coaft of Java, and feeds on fifh and car-
rion. ;

fEcrrtius. Cere yellow; legs half downy and yel-
low ; body above cinereous, beneath ferruginous ; wings
above brown ; tail forked, as long as the body, and barred
with brown, Gmel. Falco cincreo-ferrugineus, Forfkal.
Arabian kite, Lath.

Frequent in Egypt. Length cighteen inches ; bill yel-
low; tail-feathers black towards the tip; wings beneath
grey-brown ; tail cinereous; claws black.

_ Nitoricus. Cere and legs yellow ; body above reddifh

brown with tranfverfe black rays; tail forked, as long as
the body ; wings variegated with brown, grey, white and
reddifh. Sonnini. Wilotic fainn.

Length twelve inches; the bill black, at the bafe grey ;
feathers of the head black in the middle, of the fides of the
head varied with black, grey, and red; throat grey; upper
part of the breaft reddifh with black longitudinal {pots ;
reft of the body beneath grey, tinged with red; legs
{potted with black.

* Mitvus. Cere yellow; tail forked; body ferruginous ;
head whitifh. Linn. AMilvus regalis, Brill. Milan royal,
Buff. Hiiner-geyer, Licht. Weifer Milan, Gunth, Kite,
Will. Donoy. Brit. Birds, &c.
The kite is common in mott of the hilly parts of Britain,
Vou, XIV.

and is found in Sweden, Germany, and other parts of Eu.
rope, and alfo in Afiaand Africa, but upon the beft autho-

rities appears to be unknown as an inhabitant of the Ame-

rican continent. In England it remains throughout the

year; as it approaches the more northern climates it becomes

migratory, pafling the winter in milder climates. The kite

is a bird of large dimenfions, in length exceeding two feet.

The {maller kinds of birds, and other animals of inferior fize,
are its ufual prey ; and poultry efpecially, in queft of which

it is often feen hovering on the wing over farm-yards in the

country ready to dart down upon the ftraggling young and
carry them away. The egg of the kite is blueifh white, in-
clining to red at one end.

In the laft edition of the Syftema Nature-three fuppofed
varieties of this {pecies are enumerated, as 2 milvus vertice et
gula caftaneis, Gmel. having the head and throat chefnut; y
accipiter kor{chun, S.G. Gmel. found in the deferts at
Tanain in the Ruffian dominions ; the bill of which is blueifh
black ; ‘cere greenifh ; area of the eyes white; fides of the
head pale brown ; head and throat chefnut ; 2 milvus jai-
cenfis; Lepechin, with the coverts of the back violet; fea-
thers marked at the top with a white fpot.

Aver. Cere and legs yellow; above fufcous black ;
head and beneath whitifh; tail forked. Gmel. Milous
niger, Briff. Milan noir, Buff. Black geld, Sibbald.
Braunermald geyer, Kram. :

Smaller than the common kite, and inhabits Europe.

Austriacus. Cere and legs yellow; legs fomewhat
downy; body above chefnut, beneath brickduft colour
{potted with brown; tail forked. Gmel. Lrauner-geyer,
Kram. duflrian kite:

Inhabits the woods of Auftria, and feeds on fmall birds
and dormice; in point of fize refembles the common kite.

Brasixiensis. Legs yellow; body rufous with white
and -yellow dots; tail variegated with white and brown.
Gmel. Circus bra Hicofits Briff. Milvus brafilienfis, Cara-
cara, Ray. Bra/fitian kite, Will.

Native of Bratil; its fize is that of the common kite,
and it is exceedingly deftruétive to poultry. Length nine
inches.

Furcatus. Cere ob{cure ; legs yellowith; body above
fufcous, beneath white, tail forked and very long. Gmel,
Milvus carolinenfis, Brifl. Falco peruvianus, cauda furcatay
Klein. Milan de la Caroline, Buff. Scvallow-tailed hawk,
Catefby. Szwallow-tailed falcon, Ar&. Zool.

An elegant {pecies, and of larger fize than the common
European kite ; it inhabits Carolina inthe fummer months,
where it is called the fnake hawk. ‘The principal food of
this bird confifts of infe&ts.

Urusitinca. Cere and legs yellow ; body fufcous and
ferruginous varied; wings black mixed with cmereous ; tail
white, the tip black fpeckled with white. Gmel. Urudi-
tinga, Ray. Brafilian cagle.

Briffon defcribes this as being about the fize of a half
grown duck, and as a native of Brafil.

fEguinoctiatis. Legs pale yellow; head, neck, and
back black-brown; breait reddifh; wing-coverts and
foulders chocolate ; tail black ; the feathers, except the
two middle ones, marked with the letter V in white.
Gmel. L£guino&ial eagle.

Native of Cayenne; length twenty-one inches; bill pales
claws pale, with the tip black.

Ortentatis. Legs lead-colour; body fufcous; eye-
brows ferruginous; wings and tail {potted with whites
Gmel. Oriental haewé, Lath.

Length feventeen inches ; the bill is black, beneath, yoke

Ow §

FALCO.

ac body beneath fub-ferruginous ; the {pecies inhabits
apan.

Inpicus.. Cere and legs yellow ; body reddith fufcous ;
front and rump white; belly ftreaked with whitifh; tail
Pepe with five black bands. Falco indicus, Gmel. Javan

awk.

Size of the laft; bill black, bafe yellow; hind head
whitifh.

Ponticertanus. Cere blueifh; body chefnut ; head,
neck, and breaft white, with a longitudinal brown line in the
middle of all the feathers. 4quila ponticeriana, Briff.
Aigle de Pondichery, Buff. Pondicherry eagle.

About the fize of the jer-falcon, the length one foot
feven inches. The fpecies is held facred among the natives
on the coaft of Malabar, where it inhabits.

Bureo. Cere and legs yellow; body fufcous ; abdo-
men pale with fufcous {pots; tail fulcous and banded.
Linn. Za bufe, Buff. Maafe geyer, Gunth. Pojana fe-
cunda, Zinnan. Buzzard, Will.

The buzzard is a native of Europe and preys on {mall
birds, reptiles, the inferior tribes of quadrupeds, and infects ;
its length is twenty inches. Not uncommon in Britain.

Arivorus. Cere black ; legs half naked and yellow ;
head cinereous; tail witha cinereous band, and white tip.
Linn. La bondrée, Buff. Pojana,Zinnan. Honey buzzard,
Lath. Donov. Brit. Birds.

Inhabits Europe, and preys on mice, lizards, frogs,
{mall birds, and infects, efpecially bees, whence its name; the
male birds are very uncommon, the female extremely rare.
The length of this {pecies is one foot eleven inches.

Varizcatus. Legs yellow, body fufcous, beneath
white with fufcous fpots; head and neck whitifh with
ferruginous-brown ftriz ; tail pale brown, with paler bands
crofling each other. alco variegaius,Gmel. Buzzardet,
Ar&. Zool. Speckled buxzard, Lath.

Length twelve inches ; the bill duiky with black clawa.
This {pecies inhabits North America.

Jamaicensis. Cere and legs pale yellow ; body above
brownifh yellow varied with fufcous. Gmel. Jamaiea
buzzard, Lath.

Inhabits Jamaica ; the fize of the common buzzard, and
rare.

Boreatis. Cere and legs pale yellow; body above brown,
beneath white ; tail pale rufty, witha tranfverfe rufty band
nearthe tip. Gmel. Red sailed falcon, Ar&t. Zool.

Size of the laft, and inhabits North America.

Rurus. Legs yellow; body rufous, above inclining to
brown ; tail cinereous. Gmel. Circus rufus, Briff. Lifch-
goyer, Frifch. La harpaye, Buffon. Harpy falcon.

Native of France and Germany.

fEnucinosus. Cere greenifh; body grey; crown,
chin, arm-pits, and legs yellow. Linn. alco beticus, Ge-
rin. Circus paluftris, Bill. Bufard, Buff. Fauxperdrieux,
Belon. Z/ nibbio, Zinnan. Moor-buzzard, Will.

Length twenty-one inches ; the fpecies inhabits Europe,
where it frequents marfhy places, and fubfifts principally on
fifh, aquatic birds, and rabbits. Some variation is obfery-
able in the plumage of different individuals of this fpecies.

Scravonicus. Cere yellow; legs downy ; body brick-
duft colour, fpotted with black; head and neck whitifh.
Kram. Sc/avonian buzzard.

Native of Sclavonia ; its fize that of the common cock.

Marerinarus. Cere blueifh; body above variegated
brown and rutty, beneath rufty, with irregular oval brown
f{pots; tail-feathers barred with blackith, edged with white,
Falco marginatus, It. Pofegan. Croatian buzzard.

Rather lefs than the former, and alfo inhabits Sclavonia
and Croatia.

Rusicinosus. Fufcous; beneath whitifh-yellow ;
breaft with a yellow fpot; tail-feathers with four dull
red bars. It. Pofegan.

Bill black ; head whitifh yellow ; wing-coverts white at
the tip; legs pale yellow. The fpecies inhabits Sclavonia,

Javanicus. Cere black, in the middle yellow; legs
yellow ; head, neck, and breaft chefnut; back brown.
Wurmb.

Inhabits the maritime parts of Java, and feeds on fifh.

Spapiceus. Cere yellow; body chocolate mixed with
rufty ; beneath white at the fides; legs feathered to the
toes. Falco /padiceus, Phil. Tranf. Bay falcon, Lath.

This and the Placentia falcon ( Lath.) are fuppofed to be
varieties of the fame fpecies. The firft is from Hudfon’s
bay, the other from Newfoundland. The Bay falcon preys
on ducks, which they feize as they rife out of the water ; its
length is twenty-two inches.

Oxssoretus. Legs yellow, body brown; beneath
flightly {potted with white; tail-feathers in the middle
pale brown. Gmel. Plain falcon.

Length two feet; bill black, nape {potted with white ;
native of Hudfon’s bay.

Nov# Zeranpiz. Cere and legs yellow; body
ferruginous brown; beneath ftriated with rufous; tail
fafciated with pale yellow; thighs ferruginous. Lath.
New Zealand falcon.

The female meafures twenty three inches in length, the
male eighteen. Its bill is blue, as are alfo the naked orbits
of the eye; in the female the orbits are blue.

Lineatus. Cere and legs yellow; body ferruginous
brown, varied with white and paleerufty lines ; tail-feathers
dufky brown, with two tranfverfe dirty white bands and
tips. Gmel. Red /houldered falcon, Ar&. Zool. Barred-
breafted buzzard, Lath.

Native of North America; fize that of the common
buzzard.

Rusricorus. Cere, eye-lids, and legs yeliow ; body
waved with cinereous and white; collar white. Linn.
Collared falcon.

Inhabits Sweden, and, according to Linnzus, is the fize of
the common hen.

Macrourvs. Cereand legs pale yellow ; bill blackith ;
body above cinereous, beneath white; inner parts of the
wings cinereous, tips white. Lepechin, &c. Long-tailed
falcon.

The length of this bird is nineteen inches ; tail nearly
nine inches ; it inhabits Ruffia, and is known by the name of
Lun.

Cayennensis. Legs blue; head and neck blueifh-
white ; back and wings dufky afh, throat, breaft, and belly
whitifhe Gmel. Petit autour de Cayenne, Buff. Cayenne
‘falcon.

A Native of Cayenne ; the bill is blue ; irids yellow.

Patumsarius. Cere black, edged with yellow; legs
yellow ; body brown ; tail-feathers with pale bands ; eye-
brows white. Linn, &c. Affur, Brifl. Groffer gepfeilter,
Falck, Frifch. L’aflore, Cetti. Gofhawk.

Formerly ufed in falconry, and highly efteemed for that
purpofe ; the fpecies is twenty-two inches in length; the
bil blue with the tip black; irids yellow; head brown;
body beneath white, waved with black ; tail long, cinereous,
white at the tip, and claws blueith. The gofhawk is fcarce
in England, in Scotland not uncommon, and is there con-
fidered very deftruGive to game. ‘The fpecies inhabits
various parts of Europe, and extends to Afia and America.

GENTILIs.

FALCO.

Gentitis.
brown fpots; tail with four blackifh bands.
montanus, Ray. Faleongentil, Will. &c.

Inhabits the mountains of Europe and North America,
and occurs rarely in England ; the fize excels that of the

ofhawk, and the fpecies preys on partridges. ‘The bill is
fede colivir « irids yellow; head reddifh with oblong black
{pots ; tail dotted with white ; claws black.

Communis. Body brown; the feathers edged with
rufty ; tail with darker tranfverfe bands ; bill blueifh ath ;
cere, irids, and legs yellow. Linn. Accipiter fufcus, Frifch.
Faucon, Buff. I falcone cetti. Common falcon.

The common falcon is about the fize of a moderate fowl,
and nearly eighteen inches in length. Whether this be
the primitive ftock from whence the following fuppofed
varieties, enumerated by falconers, have originated, we cannot
pretend to determine; and fhall only obferve that it is
admitted as fuch by writers of repute.

Cere and legs yellow ; body cinereous with
Linn. Falco

Varieties.

Hornotinus 8. Inclining to cinereous. Gmel. Falcon
fors, Buff. Yearling falcon, Lath. The young of the com-
mon falcon.

Gibbofus y. Back gibbous. Ray. Faucon haggard ou
bofu, Buff. Haggard falcon, Will.

So named when grown old, from drawing its head clofe
between the fhoulders, as though it were hump-backed.

Leucocephulus 8. Head white, with fmall brown fpots.
Briff. Rauh-fufs-geyer ; gelbbrauner geyer, Frifch. White
beaded falcon.

In this variety the bill isafh-coloured ; cere pale yellow ;
back and wing-coverts {potted with brown, rufous, grey,
and whitifh indifcriminately ; beneath grey with brown
{pots, each {pot encircled with rufous; feet feathered to
the toes; legs yellow; claws black. There is another
variety in which the head, neck, and breaft are white, with
minute fufcous {pots only.

Albus +. Entirely white. Ray. Weifer falk, Weiffer
geyer, Frifeh. White falcon, Will.

Several varieties of this kind are defcribed ; in fome the
back and wings are marked with a few black {pots, and the
tail barred; others have the white plumage marked with
{earcely vifible yellow f{pots.

Ater 2. Uniformly blackifh brown. Briff. Falco
columbarius nebbi dius, Ray. Black hawk, Edw.

Buffon admits this to be a diftin& {pecies, and names it
le Faucon Paffager. ;

Nevius » Wings{potted. Briff. '

Fufcus 3. Dark brown. Braunfahler geyer, Frifch.
Brown falcon.

Ruber +. Spotted with black and red,
Ray. Red falcon, Will.

Indicus x. Beneath reddifh fulvous. Falco ruber indicus,
Briff. Falcones rubri indici Aldrovandi, Ray. Red Indian
falcon. '

ftalicus >. Breaft pale yellow with ferruginous {pots ;
wings near the tip {potted with white. Briff. Jtalian
falcon.

Found in the Alps.

The varieties above-mentioned are widely difperfed
throughout Europe, and North America, China, and other
parts of Afia.

Gynratco. Cere blue, legs yellow ; body fufceus ; be-
peath faf{ciated with cinereous ; tail at the fides white. Linn,
Jer-falcon.

Inhabits Europe.

Falco rubens,

Istanpicus. White, with fufcous fpots; tail-feathers
white; outer edges {potted with brown. Lath.

Native of Iceland.

Perecrinus. Cere and legs pale yellow ; body above
blue, cinereous, ftriped with brown; beneath reddifh-white,
with blackifh ftripes; tail dotted with white. Gmel. Pe-
regrine falcon, Donoy. Brit. Birds, &c.

Breeds in the mountainous parts of Britain, and was for-
merly employed in the fports of falconry. The fpecies is
found in various parts of Europe, Afia, and America.

Versicotor. Cere yellow; head and body above white,
with pale reddifh fpots, beneath white ; breafta little fpotted
with ferruginous. Gmel. Spotted falcon.

Three diftin@ fpecies of the falco tribe have been de-
{cribed by different Englith writers, under the name of the
{potted falcon. The firft bird to which this name was af-
figned is {maller than the other two, and differs confiderably
in plumage ; the fecond is the fpotted falcon of Pennant ;
and the third the {potted falcon of Lewin and Walcot.
The errors of the latter-mentioned writers have originated
from mifconceiving the {pecimen firft defignated by the title
of the {potted falcon, and which for this reafon ought with
propriety to be confidered as the original, Each of the
individual {pecimens defecribed by thofe refpective writers
were preferved in the late Leverian mufeum, and are at pre-
fent in the poffeflion of Mr. Donovan.

Barsarus. Cere and legs pale yellow; body blueith,
with fufcous 'fpots; breaft immaculate; tail fafciated.
Linn. Falco tunetanus, Ray. Barbary falcon, Will.

Length one foot five inches; the {pecies inhabits Bar-
bary.

S.Jouannis. Cere and feathered legs yellow; body
brown ; above with black and dirty white oblique lines ;
beneath with white and yellowith f{pots; tail barred, and
white at thetip. Gmel. S¢. John’s falcon, Ar&. Zool.

Native of Newfoundland.

Sacer. Cere and legs blue; back, breaft, and primary
wing-coverts {potted with brown; tail with kidney-fhaped
fpots. Briff. Sacre, Buff.

A large fpecies, meafuring in length two feet ; it inha-
bits Europe, and extends to Tartary. The fpeckled par-
tridge-hawk of the Aric Zoology is fuppofed to be a
variety of this bird.

Nova Terra. Cere and legs yellow; body above
brown, beneath and hind head ferruginous ; tail variegated
with paler and darker lines. Gmel. Newfoundland falcon.

Length twenty inches; legs half-feathered ; the {pecies
inhabits Newfoundland.

Stevraris. Legs blue; body blackifh, with radiate
{pots ; beneath intermixed with black and white. Briff.
Falco cyanopus, Klein. Blue faoted, Will. Starry falcons
Lath.

Native of Europe. Size of the peregrine faleon ; wings
fhorter ; tail longer ; irids golden.

Hyematis. Cere yellow; head and back black brown;
neck ftreaked with white; Ireaft and belly white, with
cordated {pots. Gmel. Winter falcon, Ar&. Zool.
ern falcon, Lath.

Inhabits New York during the winter feafon. Length
eighteen inches ; in the male the wing-coverts are duiky,
edged with dull white, the exterior one orange ; tail with
brown and black bars, and white at the tip; bill black ;
feet long and flender.

Ruomseus. Legs yellowith; body above grey, beneath
brown, with rhombic f{pots; tail-feathers with eleven ob-
lique black bands. Lath. Rhomboidal falcon.

The length of this bird is nineteen inches; the bill is lead

M2 colour;

Noria-

FA LC 'O,

colour; head and neck black ; back and wings grey, with
black bands ; tail grey, and fafciated with black ; native of
India, about the river Ganges. . ,

Nicricotuis. Legs yellow; body rufous, with black
bars; crown and neck ftreaked with black; tail-feathers
blackifh at the tips. Lath. Black-neched falcon, Lath.

Native of Cayenne; its length one foot eleven tiches ;
bill black, and a black ftreak behind the eyes.

Axvsicotiis. Legs yellow; head, neck, fore part of the
back, ‘breaft, and belly white; wings black, with white
{pots; feathers between the fhoulders marked with fquare
black {pots. Lath. MWhite-necked falcon.

Length twenty-two inches; quill-feathers fpotted with
white from the bafe to the middle. Inhabits Cayenne.

Mevanoreucos. Legs pale yellow; body white; head,
neck, back, fhoulders,-and quill-feathers black ; wing-co-
verts and tail white. Gmel. Black and white Indian falcon,
Ind. Zool.

Defcribed’ by Sonnerat as a native of Ceylon, under the
title of faucon 4 collier des Indes. ‘(he length is fixteea
inches; its irids are yellow; orbits fpotted with white ;
bill, claws, and middle wing-coverts blackith.

Cirruatus. Cere and feathered legs pale yellow; bifid
creft on the hind head pendulous ; body above black ; be-
neath ftriated black and white. Lath. 2e/co indicus cri/fa-
tus, Briff. Cirrhatus, Ray: Faucon hu; des Indes, Buff.
Grefted Indian falcon, Will.

Size of the gofhawk} the bill dark'blue ; irids yellow ;
neck tawny; tail with cinereous aid black bands placed
tranfverfely ; claws black. A fuppofed variety, has a black
band acrofs the breaft, and another on the wing.

Meripionauis. Cere and chin yellow; head and neck
rufous, with dark ftreaks ; belly whitifh, with narrow black
bars ; four middle tail-feathers with one, the outer with fix
pale bars. Lath. Rufous-headed falcon.

Length nineteen inches ; the fpecies inhabits Cayenne.

Mevanops. Cere and legs pale yellow; body black,
with white fpots; beneath white; head and neck white,
with black {trie ; orbits black ; quill-feathers black, with a
white band in the middle. Lath. Svreaked falcon.

Size of a rook, and inhabits Cayenne.

Cacuinnans. Cere and legs pale yellow ; eye-brows
white ; body varied with brown and whitifh ; crown white,
with a black ring. Linn. Laughing falcon, Lath.

Inhabits South America, and emits a laughing found
when obferved. The back, wings, and rump are brown ;
neck, chin, breaft, and belly, wich the under parts of the
wings white ; tail with yellow and black bands.

Surrrator. Cere and legs pale yellow; body whitifh-
brown ; eye-lids bony. Linn, Surtnam falcon, Lath.

Native of Surinam. ‘

Biventatus. Bill bidentated and fufcous; body lead
colour; breaft and abdomen rufous; vent white; quill-
feathers with many, tail with three bars of white. Lath.
Notched falcon.

Jative of Cayenne ; length fourteen inches.

Formosus. Cere and legs pale yellow ; throat and neck
purple ;, body above blue, tinged with red ; abdomen flefh-
colour. Ztaleo formofus, Vath. Falco aquilinus, Gmel.
Petit aigle d’? Amerique, Buff. Red-throated falcon.

The length of this beautiful fpecies is eighteen inches.
The bill is blue and ftraight at the bafe ; irids orange ; legs
yellow ; claws black. Inhabits Cayenne and South Ame-
rica, The female is five inches longer than the male, the
body blacker, purple on the neck more obfcnre, and the
potterior part of the thighs with the vent white.

Axsscans. Cere and legs pale yellow; body brownifh,

beneath whitifh; quill and ftail-feathers blackifh. Gmele
White lanner.
Iahabits Europe, and is by fome believed to be the fame
with the common lanner,
Lanarius. Cere pale yellow; legs and bill blue; body
eath marked with black longitudinal {pots. Lian. Le
» Buff. Lannerc?t, Alb. Lanner, Ars. Zool. Brown

ther lefs than the buzzard, and inhabits Europe 5 very
in Britain. ;

Crantus. Cere white; legs fulvous);
a white I

body blue-grey ¢
y over the eyes, and furrounding the chin (male).
Palea ¢ s, Linn. Falco torquatus (maf.),-Brifl, ~ Falco
accipite af.), Ray. alco albanella, Germ, Falco sine-
reusy Vrifch. Oifeau Si. Martin, Buff. Hen Harriers
Lath. Donov. Bre Birds, &c:

‘Cere lees yellow; hody cinercous; abdomen pale,
with oblong rufous {pots ; orbits of the eyes white (female).

‘ale rgus, Linn. Falco torquatns (fem.). La foubufe,
. Ring tail, Lath. Donoy. Br. Birds, &e.

The above are the two fexes of the fame fpecies ; the
mele is feventeen inches i: length, the female nineteen inches
anda half; the {pecies is found ia Europe and Siberia.

Huvsonius. Cere-and legs yellow; back brown; eye-
brows white ; fpeculam onthe wing blueifh. Linn, Wings
tailed hawk, Edwards. White-rumped bay falcon, Lath.

Length one foot nine inches and a half; the bill black ;
body beseath white, with rufous-brown fpots. -The*Hud-
fon’s bay-ring-tail of Latham is fuppofed by that writer, in
Ind. Orn. to be the fame with the above, and beth, together
with the following, are imagined to be varieties of cyaneus.

Burront. Cere blue; legs yellow; body blackith
chefnut; beneath reddith buff; eye-brows yellow; tail
with pale and dufky brown fpots. Gmel. Cayenne ringtail,
Lath.

Inhabits Cayenne.

Ucicinosus.. Cere and legs orange, body above
brown, bebeath fhining rulty ; tail with four black bands.
Gmel. Adar/h hawk.

Briffon confiders this as a variety of falco cyaneus, and
in this opinion he is countenaaced by fome other writers ;
it differs principally in being larger, and in having a black
ftreak through the eye, independently of the above-mention-
ed charaGers, “The Marfh hawk is reprefented as a fierce
bird, and inhabits Jamaica. ;

Caripvs. Legs yellows body brown-black, beneath
white, with black lunvles; tail with obfolete bars. Lath.
Behree falcon.

This fpecies inhabits India, and is called Behree; its
length is nineteen inches.

Nitipus. Leadcolour; beneath white, with cinereous
bands; tail-feathers blackish, with two narrow tranfverfe
white lines. Gmel. Plumbeus falecn.

Native of Cayenne; length thirteen inches and a half ;
legs yellow. ;

Tinnuncutus. Cere.and legs yellow; back rufous -
with black dots ; breaft ftriated with fufcous ; tail rounded.

Linn. Cenchris, Klein. La Crefferelle, Bull. Kefiril,
frannel, or windhover, Will. Lath. Donov. Brit. Birds,
&c. 7

The male is fourteen inches in length, the female much
larger ; the former has the head and tail grey, and the
back and wings purplifh red, with black {pots; in the fe-
male the head is reddifh with black itreaks; back, tail, _
and wing-coverts rufty with black lines. The Species was
formerly employed in the {ports of falconry for young par-*
tridges, and {mall birds. The hawk, called Pepervier des
alouettes

FALCO.

a by Briffon js fuppofed to bea variety of the female
eftril.

Sparvertus. Cere and legs pale yellow ; head fufcous ;
crown and abdomen red; wings blueifh. Linn. 2/falon
peetnent Brifl, Lfmerillon de Cayenne, Buff. Little falcon,
Catefby.

Native of Carolina, Virginia, and St. Domingo; the
Jength eleven inches, bill and irids yellowifh; head blueifh
ath; crown, body above, and wing-coverts brown-orange,
‘with black tranfverfe lines; tail red-brown, with dots of

black ; legs yellow; head of the fuppofed female furrounded -

with feyea blackith fpots,

- Dominicensis. Cere and legs pale yellow; head ci-
nereous ; body above red-brown, beneath dirty white, and
both fpotted with black ; eight middle tail-feathers chefout,
towards the tips black, and at the extremity white. Gmel.
Asfalon ep aien ps: Brifl. £merillon de St. Domingue,
oe New York-merlin, Lath. and St. Dominga falcon,

ath.

Inthabits St. Domingo, The bill is yellow, with the tip
black ; irids yellow ; outer tail-feathers of the male white
on the outfide and tips; infide chefaut, with a tranfverfe black
{pot towards the tips ; of the female the outfide white,
with five black fpots; claws black. The male alfo differs
in having the upper part lefs numeroufly {potted than in the
female, and the throat and fore part of the neck more inclin-
ing to red-brown.. In the Ind. Orn. of Latham fparverius
and dominicenfis are admitted to be of the fame f{pecies, the
firil as male, the other female.

Nisus. Cere green; legs yellow; abdomen undulated
with grey; tail with blackith bands. Linn. Aecipiter,

Brill. Nijus firiatus fagittatus, Frifeh. Le /parviere, Cetti.
Lpervier, Bull. Sparrow hawk, Will. Dounov.

* Thetwo fexes of this hawk are exceedingly dillimilar ;
the male is twelve inches in length, and the female fifteen.
In the male the plumage verges to dove colour, like the fe-
male it is marked ou the breaft with, tran{verfe lines, but
which are lefs abrupt, and numerous than in the other fex ;
and the under parts are alfo darker. Both fexes are pale
above the eyes, and the bill and legs blue. The fparrow
hawk commits valt havoc among the young of, poultry and
game, as well as pigeons, and all the {maller tribes of birds,
The {potted fparrow hawk of Latham, l’epervier tacheté
of Briffon, is a variety of this {pecies.
with the plumage perfe@ly white, or milky white, occurs
occafionally. Gmelin defcribes one of this kind asa dif-
tin@ variety ‘ accipiter corpore toto lacteo unicolore.”
The fame circumftance is however obfervable in birds of every
defcription.

Bouemicus. egs yellowifh; body above cinereous ;
bencath white; orbits white; five exterior quill-feathers
black. Gmel. Meufe-habicht, miffilauce, Mayer. Bohemian

‘aleon.

Inhabits the mountains of Bohemia, and preys in the
evening on mice. Length about one foot.

Fuscus. Cere cinereous; legs yellow; body black,
waved; above cinereous-brown, beneath whitish. Gmel.
American brown hawk.

Size of the {parrow hawk ; bill lead colour ; tail cinereous
with three tranfverfe pale brown bands; tip paler; claws

black. °
’ Piscator, Somewhat crefted ; head ferruginous ; body

~ cinereous; margin of the feathers fufcous ; beneath yellow-
ith, with longitudinal fafcous {pots. Lath, aucon pecheur,
Damp. Fi ing falcon.
Native of Senegal, and fubfiftson fifh; the bill and irids
are yellow ; legs fufcous.

The {parrow hawk.

Bavius. Legs pale, head and body above brown, be-
neath white, with yellow lunar fpots; tail pale browns
with four dufky lines, Falco badius, Gmel. Brown hawk,
Brown IIluftr.

Inhabits Ceylon ; length thirteen inches ; bill blue, irids
yellow.

Dusivus. Cere, irids, and legs yellow ; body fufcous,
beneath white, ftriated with fufcous ; tail-feathers cine-
reous, with four black bands. Gmel. Dubious falcon,
Lath

Length ten_inches, and inhabits Carolina.

Ozscurus. Cere and legs yellow; hind head and neck
{potted with white ; body above fufcous ; beneath whitifh
lineated with black ; tail with fufeous bands. Felco obfcurus,
Gmel. Dufhy falcon, Aré&t. Zool.

Smaller than the laft, andinhabits New York. The bill
is blueifh ; head dull fufcous ; tail fhort ; legs with the tip
white

CotumBariuvs. Cere, irids, and legs pale yellow 5
body fufcous ; beneath whitifh, ftriated with fufcous ; tail
with four narrow black bands. Linn, &c. Accipiter caro-
linenfis, Brifl. Epervier des pigeons, Buff. Pigeon hawk,
Catefby.

Length teninches, the bill whitihh, with black tip; legs
yellow, and cizws black; the fpecies is a native of Carolina,
and other parts of North America, and’ is called the {mall
bird hawk by the inhabitants of Hudfon’s bay. It feeds on
{mall birds, and fhrieks hideoufly.

Vocirerus. Legs yellow; body cinereous grey, be-
neath white ; larger aad leffer wing-coverts black. Gmel.
Petite bufe criade, Son. Criard falcon.

Frequent among the rice plantations on the coaft of Co-
romandel, where it is fuppofed to prey on the frogs which
abound in thofe places; when-difturbed, it uttersa loud
cry, and has hence obtained the name of criafd. Its fize
isthat of a pigeon; the irids.are yellow, and the orbits red
and naked.

Supercitiosus. Cere and eye-lids pale yellow; body
fufcous, with whitifh waves ; quill-feathers rufty, with
black bands. Lian. Guiana falcon, Lath.

Size of the magpie, and inhabits Surinam and Guiana.
The fecondary tail-feathers are whitifh at the outer edge ; the
tail black, with two broad bands, aud cinereous tip 3; vent
white, with a few black ftreaks; bill and claws black.

Vesprertinus. Cere, legs, and eyelids pale yellow ;
vent and thighs ferruginous. Linn. Kober, Decouv. Jn
grian falcon.

Native of Ingria, Ruffia, and Siberia; on the banks of
the Baikal very common, and known by the names of ko-
ber and derbnitkchoek; it flies chiefly in the evening or night
time, and feeds on quails, {mall birds, reptiles, &c. The
fizeisthat of the pigeon ; the body blueifh, fufcous ; belly
blueifh white; head fufcous; bill yellow; legs naked.
The neft is built on the tops of high trees, and not unfre-
quently it takes poffeffion of the magpie’s neft inftead of
conftruGting one for itfelf.

VesPERTINOIDES. Cere, legs, and eye-brows pale yel-
low ; thighs black ; neck, breatt, and belly browniih, with
white fpots, Falck, Kc. Permian falcon.

Inhabits Permia and Bafchkiria, in Siberia; fize half
that of vefpertinus.

Macnirostris. Cere and legs yellow ; body fufcous ;
abdomen white, with ferruginous itriz ; quill-feathers black
and white banded. Gmel. Epervier @ gros bec de Cayenne,
Buff. Great-billed falcon. 2

Larger than the fparrow hawk, and inhabits Cayenne.

Jonannxensis. Legs pale yellow; body ferruginous,

8 with

FAL

with linear black dots; throat pale yellow ; quill-feathers
blackifh fufcous ; tail cuneiform and white. Lath. Johanna
falcon.

Inhabits the ifland of Johanna, in India; its fize uncer-
tain, the {pecies being defcribed from a manufcript in*the
poffefiion of the late Dr. Fothergill.

Sussputzo. Cere and legs yellow; back fufcous ; nape
white; abdomen pale, with oblong fufcous fpots; vent
and thighs rufous. Linn. Falco barletta, Ger. Hobreau,
Prifl. Baum-falck, Gunth. Hobby, Will. Lath. Donov.
Br. Birds, &c.

Native of Europe, and extending as far as Siberia.
Length twelve inches; the bill blue; orbits yellow; lateral
tail-feathers with blackifh bars; claws black. Preys on
larks, and other {mall birds. A variety of this bird has the
body above blueifh black; cheeks white with a black line
reaching through them from the crown.

Lirxoratco. Cere yellow ; body cinereous fufcous ;
beneath reddifh with longitudinal fufcous ftreaks ; tail-fea-
thers blackifh toward the tips, and at the extremity white.
dhe lithofalco, Ray. Le rochier, Buff. Stone falcon,

ill.

Size of the keftril, and inhabits Europe ; bill lead-colour,
irids yellow.

Montanus. Legs pale yellow; body cinereous brown,
beneath whitifh; head black; throat fpotted; tail at the
bafe cinereous, in the middle blackifh, at the tip white.
Gmel. Falco montanus, Ray. Mountain falcon, Will.

Briffon defcribes this bird as being lefs than the peregrine
falcon, and as a probable variety of the ftone falcon; the
*¢ faucon de montagne cendrée”’ of the fame writer is con-
ceived to be another variety ; the latter is twenty-one inches
in length; the bill is black; iris yellow; general colour
cinereous; paleft on the wing-coverts; beneath white ;
legs luteous.

Avrantius. Bill and legs lead colour; body blackith ;
back, bafe, and tail with white interrupted bands ; breaft
fulvous ; thighs ferruginous. Lath. Orange-breafted hobby.

Native of Surinam, and in length fifteen inches. The
bill is whitifh at the bafe ; throat with round white {pots ;
lower tail-coverts rufty ; legs long and flender ; claws black.
There is a variety in which the body is more dufky; the
chin white, and throat orange ; this is two-thirds the fize
of the former. Another of the fame magnitude as the lat-
ter fmall variety has the legs tawny ; body above blueith-
black with blueifh ftreaks, and ftreaked beneath with
white.

Prumseus. Cere dufky ; legs yellow ; body cinereous ;
upper part of the back black-lead colour; tail feathers
underneath with three white fpots. Lath. Spotted-tail
hobby.

Size of the fparrow hawk ; bill and claws black ; head
and neck cinereous ; legs fhort. Native of Cayenne.

fEsaton. Cere and legs yellow; head ferruginous ;
body above blueifh-afh with rufty {pots and ftripes; beneath
yellowifh white with oblong fpots. Gmel, &c. Cenchris,
Frifch. Accipiter Jmerillus, Ger. Merlin, Will. Donov.
Br. Birds, &c.

The merlin inhabits various countries in Europe, and the
fouthern part of Afia, but appears to be every where rather
uncommon. ‘The f{pecies is of a {mall fize, being {carcely
larger than a blackbird : it was neverthelefs formerly em-
ployed in the {ports of falconry, and was not confidered in-
ferior in point of {pirit to any of the hawk tribe. Merlins
have been known to breed, though very rarely, in North
Britain ; in lefs temperate regions they migrate foutherly

FAL

at the approach of winter. The bill is blueifh; tail marked
with alternate dufky and reddifh ftreaks ; claws black.

There are feveral varieties of this {pecies: one kind has
the front cinereous ; crown, back, and wing-coverts chef-
nut ; temples with a triangular {pot of white, edged with
black ; tail chefnut with black ftripes, beneath varied with
black and white. The Caribbee variety is rather larger than
athrufh; it is rufous above with black fpots, beneath white
with longitudinal fpots of black. Briffon confiders this as
a variety of the merlin, and names it l’emerillon des Antilles.
The natives of the Antilles call it gry gry. The true fal-
coner’s merlin, according to Buffon, refembles the hobby
in figure, except that the wings are fhorter, and in colour
and other refpe€ts accords with the ftone falcon. This,
however, feems very doubtful, as Salerne obferves, for
{portimen have commonly confounded all birds of the hawk
tribe inferior in fize to the buzzard, under the name of
merlin, and there are, for this reafon, feveral birds which
have an equal claim to the fame title, as well as the ambi-
guous variety mentioned by Buffon,

Minutus. Cere brown; legs yellow; body beneath
white; tail-feathers brown, banded with black. Linn.
Accipiter minor, Brifl. Minute falcon.

Inhabits the ifland of Malta; length eleven inches; the
bill and claws are black ; body above brown, varied with
rufous ; beneath with tranfverle brownifh red ftreaks ; belly
with lanceolate fpots.

Cezrutescens. Cere, eye-lids, legs, and body beneath
pale yellow ; back blueifh black ; temples furrounded by a
white line. Linn. Falco bengalenfis, Briff. Little black
and orange Indian hawk, Edw. Bengal falcon. Length fix
inches and a half ; inhabits Bengal.

Recutus. Cere greenifh; legs obfcure yellow ; ruff
ferruginous ; body above lead colour, beneath whitifh with
rufty {pots. Pallas. Siberian falcon.

A rare {pecies difcovered by Pallas in Siberia ; the irids
are brown ; crown brown with black lines ; wings white at
the edges, varying beneath ; tail-feathers lead-colour to-
wards the tip, beneath with pale bands, edges black, tips
white. Lefs than fix inches in length; and preys on
larks,

Tinvs. Legs yellow; body cinereous fufcous; beneath
whitifh with blackifh bands ; crown whitifh. Lath. Tiny
falcon.

This minute fpecies, formerly in the Leverian mufeum,
is fix inches in length, or rather lefs ; the bill dufky ; legs
yellow. The tail in this fpecimen wanting.

The jer-falcon, the gentil falcon, the common falcon, the
peregrine, and the gofhawk, were the principal {pecies ufed
in the diverfion of Fafconry, which fee.

Facon, in Gunnery. See Faucon.

Farcon //lands, in Geography, two or three {mall iflands
near the coatt of Conneéticut, in Long Ifland found. N. lat.
41° 10!. W. long. 72° 4o!.

Farcon, in Ornithology. See Fauco.

FALCONARA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Citra; nine miles W. of Cofenza.

FALCONE, Da Benevento, in Biography, an ancient
chronicler, filled an high office under pope Innocent II.
about the middle of the 12th century. He was afterwards
chief magiftrate of Benevento. He wrote a chronicle of
the affairs of the kingdom of Naples from 1102 to 1140,
which is efteemed a faithful and very ufeful record. It is
found in Muratori’s and other hiftorical colleGtions. Moreri.

FALCONER, a perfon who brings up, tames, and
makes, that is, tutors and manages birds of prey; as falcons,
hawks, &c. The grand feignior ufually keeps fix thoufand

1 - falconers

FAL

falconers in his fervice. ‘The French king had a grand fal-
xoner, which was an office difmembered from that of great
hunt, grand veneur. The duke of St. Alban’s is hereditary
grand falconer of England.

Hiflorians take notice of this poft as early as the year
1250. One great bufinefs of the falconer is to confider the
quality and mettle of the birds, to know which to fly early,
and whichlate. He muftalfo be bufy and cleanly in freeing
them of lice, nits, and vermin. Every night aiter flying
he fhould give his bird cafting ; nor muft he forget to water
her unlefs fhe have been bathed. After this, fhe muft be
put in a warm room, having a perch, with a candle burning
by her; where fhe is to fit unhooded, that fhe may prune
and pick herfelf. Next morning fhe fhould be weathered,
&e.

. Farconer, Wittitam, in Biography, was born in a
village in Fifefhire, Scotland, and left, at an early age, an
orphan. He was brought up a failor, and in that capacity
he fpent the greater part of his life, in a very low ftation.
We do not know how he acquired a tafte for literature, but
while ferving on board a man of war he attracted the no-
tice of Campbell, author of Lexiphanes, who took him for
his fervant, and became his literary inftruétor. He pub-
lifhed, in 1751, a poem on the death of Frederic, prince of
Wales, which was but little noticed, and he was left to ftrug-
gle with the hardfhips of his profeffion. Like many other
poets, he feems to have been the fport of ill fortune, for he
éalls himfelf ‘a haplefs youth, whofe vital page was one
fad lengthened tale of woe.’? He fuffered fhipwreck ina
voyage from Alexandria to Venice, a circumftance that pro-
duced a poem to which he is indebted for celebrity : it is
entitled “* The Shipwreck.”? He dedicated this little work
to Edward, duke of York, by whofe intereft he obtained
the lucrative employment of purfer to the Royal George.
‘This poem confifts of three cantos: the {cene of the firlt is
Near the city of Candia, and the time about four days anda
half; the fcene of the fecond hes in the fea between Cape
Frefchia in Candia, and the ifland of Falconera; the time
from nine in the morning till one the following morning ;
the fcene of the third ftretches from that part of the Ar-
chipelago which lies ten miles to the northward of Fal-
conera to Cape Colonna, in Attica; the time from one till
eight in the morning. The verfification of this poem is
varied and melodious; its defcription, being drawn from
reality, is ftrong, glowing, and often original. It is, never-
thelefs, fo technical, as fometimes to be too ob{cure for com-
mon readers; but it has the advantage of communicating
new ideas, which is no common quality in cultivated verfe.
After Mr. Falconer’s promotion in the {ea-fervice, he enlifted
in the field of fatyrical controverfy, as one of the king’s
friends, and wrote a fatyrical poem, entitled, “* The Dema-
gogue,’”? in which Mr. Pitt, Wilkes, Churchill, and the
oppofition in general, were treated with virulence. In 1769
he publifhed “ The Marine Dictionary,” a work of
confiderable merit, and to which many modern Cyclo-

edias have been indebted. This was his laft performance,
or in the fame year he embarked on board the Aurora,
bound to the Eait Indies, where Falconer propofed to fet-
tle. The veffel was never heard of after fhe left the Cape
of Good Hope, and it is fuppofed fhe perifhed with all her
crew. Lives of the Poets.

FALCONERA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the duchy of Mirandola; four miles N.E. of Mirandola.
N, lat. 36° 57'. IE. long. 24° 1'—-Alfo, a town of Italy,
in the department of the Panaro; four miles N. of Mi-
randola.

FALCONET, in Gunnery. See Fauconer.

FAL
FALCONIERI, in Geovraphy, a {mall iflandin the Me.

diterranean, near the coaft of Sicily.

FALCONRY, or Fauconry, the art of taming, ma-
naging, and tutoring, birds of prey, particularly falcons
and hawks; and employing them with advantage in the
purfuit of game ; called alfo hawking. This art is now in
a great degree fuperfeded through moft parts of Europe by
the more certain and ready fervices of the gun.

The word is formed of falco, falcon, or faucon, the bird of
moft ufe and efteem in this kind of fport.

Falconry, though the principal amufement of our ancef-
tors, was either wholly unknown, or very little praétifed,
among the Greeks and Romans. All their writings do not
furnifh fo much as a proper name to call it by; fo far are
they from teaching us the terms. Ariftotle (Hift. Anim.
1, ix. c. 6.) merely mentions fome rude practice of this art in
Thrace; and /Blian (Hift. Anim. 1. iv.c. 26.) {peaks of
hawks and crows among the Indians (fee alfo Pliny H. N.
].ii. c.8.); but little or no mention of true falconry oc-
curs before Julius Firmicus, in the days of Conftantius, fon
to Conftantine the Great. If the Romans, fays the learned
Rigaltius, had well underitood their airy chace, they would
have abandoned or lefs regarded their Circenfian recreations.
In the European world the Germans and the French feem
to have been the firft who devoted themfelves to the feience
of falconry.

It is the French language alone that has particular words
for all the parts of falconry and hunting; and from them
moft of our terms, as well as what we know of the art itfelf,
are borrowed.

The art of falconry, fays Beckmann, who maintains
that it was known to both the Greeks and Romans, feems
to have been in the greateft perfeftion, and to have been
much in vogue with the principal: courts of Europe, in the
12th century. Hence fome have, therefore, afcribed the
invention of it to the emperor Frederic I., and others to
Frederic II. But when the invention of gun-powder was
introduced, hawks were difcarded, and the diverfion of fowl-
ing was very much reftricted to fhooting.

“© In our own country,” fays Mr. Pennant, “I cannot
trace the certainty of falconry till the reign of king Ethel-
bert, the Saxon monarch, in the year 760, when he wrote to
Germany for a brace of falcons, which would fly at cranes
and bring them to the ground, as there were very few fuch
in Kent. It feems highly probable, that falconry had its
rife in Scythia, and pafled from thence to the northern parts
of Europe. Tartary is even at prefent celebrated for its
fine breed of falcons; and the fport is in fuch general
efteem, that, according to Olearius, (tom. i. p. 217,218.)
there was no hut hut what had its eagle or falcon. The
boundlefs plains of that country are as finely adapted to the
diverfion, as the wooded or mountainous nature of moft part
of Europe is ill calculated for that rapid amufement.”’

In England falconry feems to have continued in high ree
pute till about the time of the Ufurpation, after which it
appears to have gradually declined. This diverfion was
purfued with fuch ardour fo late as the reign of James I.
that fir James Monfon is faid to have given a thoufand
pounds fora caft of hawks; and the laws were very ri-
gorous that tended to preferve this pleafure. Inthe 34th of
Edw. III. it was made felony to iteala hawk; and to take
its eggs, even in a perfon’s own ground, was punifhable with
imprifonment for a year and a day, befidesa fine at the king’s
pleafure; and in the reign of queen Elizabeth the impri-
fonment was reduced to three months; but the offender was
to find fecurity for his goed behaviour for feven years, or
to remain in prifon tillhe did. We may here obferve, that
almoft

FAIZO-O,N RY.

atmoft every kind of falcon, from the largeft to the fmallef,
may be trained to falconry; even eagles themfelves have
here been ufed for the chace of the roebuck, the antelope,
the wolf, fox, &c. Falcons of the larger kind, as the jer-falcon,
the peregrine, and the gofhawk, were ufed for the flight after
the heron, the wild goofe, the-crane, the hare, &c. ; and the
common falcon for game in general; while thofe of the
{maller kind were often inftructed to fly at the partridge and
the quail, The Iceland falcon is, according to Mr. Pen-
nant, inthe highelt efteem, and will laft ten or twelve years
(fome falcons are {aid to continue in full vigour for twenty
years); whereas thofe of Norway, and other countries, are
feldom fit for the {ports of the field after two or three years’
ufe. The feats performed by the jer-falcon may be num-
bered among the nobleft inthe practice of falconry. Sca-
liger afferts, that he faw fome which belonged to Henry,
king of Navarre, ftrike down a buzzard, two wild geefe,
divers kites, a crane, andafwan. Among the betft of hawks
for falconry isalfo the gofhawk; thefe were ufed by the em-
peror of China in his fporting progrefles attended by his grand
falconer, and athoufand fubordinate perfons in his train.
The emperor often carried a hawk on his hand, to let fly at
any game which might prefent itfelf, and which were ufually
pheafants, partridges, cranes, or quails. ‘This diverfion was
witneffed by Marco Polo in the year 1269. The flight of
a ftrong falcon is wonderfully {wift. To this purpole it is
recorded that a falcon, belonging to a duke of Cleve, flew
out of Weftphalia into Pruffia in one day; and in the county
of Norfolk a hawk has made a flight at a woodcock near
thirty miles in an hour.

Hawks in general prove courageous or cowardly all their
lives, as they are firft quarried ; and if they are taken out of
the eyrie before they are fully fummed and well penned,
their wings will never grow to perfection. Their legs alfo
will grow crooked, and their train will be full of taints.
Falcons of one and the fame kind are called by the fportf-
men by very different names, and efteemed of feveral differ-
ent kinds, according to the places and time of their reclaim-
ing, and the countries from whence they came. ‘Thus
the names mewed-hawk, ramaged-hawk, foar-hawk, and
eyefle, firt commenced ; and thefe are again divided into
large hawks, wean hawks, and flender hawks. All thefe
have different mails and plumes, according to the country
from whence they come; feme are black, fome brown;
they have alfo each its different difpofition, fome being beft
forthe field, and others for the brook orriver. Different
names are alfo given to falcons according to their different
age and time of taking. The falcon is called an’ eyefle, as
long as fhe remains in the eyrie; thefe are always trouble-
fome in their feeding ; they cry very much, and they are not
entered without great difficulty ; but being once well en-
tered, they prove excellent hawks for the heron and all the
large fowl, and are very hardy and full of courage. The
fecond name given this bird is the ramage-falcon. ‘This
-name fhe retains from the time of her leaving the eyrie, during
the months of June, July, and Auguft. Thefe are always
hard to be manned; but being reclaimed, they are not in-
ferier to anyhawk. The third is the foar-hawk, fo called
in September, Oétober, and November. Thefe birds
keep tor a whole twelvemonth the firft feathers, which they’
have on when they leave the eyrie, and do not molt
them. Thefe are therefore called the foar-feathers. The
fourth is termed the murzarolt or carvift, quafi carry-fitt ;
for they may .at this time be almoft continually carried on
the fit. They.are thus called from January to the middle
of May. ‘Thefe are ufually great baters, and very little
eaters; they are fubject to feveral troublefome dilorders,

particularly to the filanders, more than any other hawk, and
they are very feldom brought to be good for any thing.
The fifth name is the entermew. They are called by this
name from May till December, becaufe all that time they
are calting their coats, Thefe would be excellent hawks if
they could be trufted; but they are unfleady. They mutt
be kept hard under, and the falconer muft make his fiit their
perch. The hawk newly taken muft be feeled, have all new
furniture, and mutt be often ftroked with a ftick to acenf>
tom her to be gentle. She'mutt alfo have two good bells,
that fhe may be well heard when fhe ftirs or {cratches ; and
her beak and talons muft be cut a little, but not fo near as
to make them bleed. If there be a foar-falcon taken that
has already croffed the feas, fhe is ufually very hard to be
broken; but that being well done, fhe is the beft of all
hawks. Her food muft be good and warm, and it muft
be given her at leaft three timesaday. It fhould be pigeons,
larks, or other live birds; for fhe muft be broke by de-
grees from her accuftomed manner of feeding. The hawk
muft always be fed with hoop and Inre, that fhe may always
know when you will give her meat. She muft then be
gently unhooded, and two or three bits being given her,
fhe muft be hooded again; and in the night let her rooft on
a perch near fome perfon’s bed, that fhe may be often waked
inthe night. When by thefe means fhe becomes tame and
gentle, her ufual food may be changed, and a fheep’s heart
given her. Alter.this fhe may be unhooded in the day
time, but not in company, and after giving her a bit or two,
fhe muft be hooded again, and then a little more given her.
After this, by degrees, fhe will be taught to eat before
company, and then the bufinefs of taming her will foon be
accomplifhed, Till fhe is thoroughly manned, fhe mutt be.
borne continually on the fill, and fed in company, giving her
in the morning about fun-rife the wing of a pullet, and.
every morning the foot of a hare or rabbit cut eff above the
joint, flead, and laid in water, which having {queezed give it
her with the pinion of a hen’s wing. It is beft to give the
hawk wafhed meat, and after this plumage, according as fhe
feems to be foul withif. She is then to be hooded, and no-
thing more fhould be given her till fhe gleams after cafting;_
but when fhe has gleamed and catt, fhe fhould then have
fome hot meat given her, toward evening efpecially, and be
made to eat in company. When fhe is well reclaimed, man-
ned, and fharp-fet, fhe may be fed on the lure.

But three things are to be confidered before your lure
be fhewed her. 1. That fhe be bold and familiar in com-
pany, and not afraid of dogs and horfes. 2. Sharp-fet
and hungry, having regard to the hour of morning and
evening when you would Ture her. 3. Clean within, and
the lure well garnifhed with meat on both fides. When
you intend to give her the length of a leafh, you muft ab-
fcond yourfelf ; fhe muft alfo be unhooded, and have a bit
or two given her on the lure, as fhe fits on your fit. That
done, take the lure from her, and fo hide it that fhe may
not fee it; when fhe is unfeeled, caft the lure fo near her,
that fhe may catch it within the length of her leafh ; and as
foon as fhe has feized it, ufe your voice as falconers do,
feeding her.upon the lure on the ground.

After having lured your falcon, in the evening give her
but little meat, and let this luring be fo timely, #4 you
may give her plumage, &c. next morning on your fit ;
when fhe has cait and gleamed, give her a little beaching
of warm meat about noon, tie a creance to her leafh, go
into the field, there give her a bit or two upon the lure,
and unfeelher. If you find fhe is fharp-fet, and has eagerly
feized on the lure, let a man hold her, to let her off to the
lure ; then unwind the creance, and draw it after you a good

way,

FALCONRY.

way, and let him who has the bird hold his right hand on
the taffel of her hood, ready to unhood her as foon as you
begin to lure; to which if fhe come well, ftoop roundly
upon it, and haftily feize it ; let her caft two or three bits
thereon ; that done, take her off the lure and deliver her
again to the perfon that held her; and, going farther off
the lure, feed her as before ; and fo daily farther and farther
off the lure. Afterwards you may lure her in company,
but do not fright ber: and having ufed her to lure on the
foot, do it alfo on horfeback 3 which may be fooner accom-
plifhed, by caufing horfemen to be about you, when you
lure her on foot : it is alfo fooner done, by rewarding her
upon the lure on horfeback among horfemen. And when
fhe is grown familiar this way, let fomebody a-foot hold
her, and he that is on horfeback mutt call, and caft the
lure about his head, while the holder takes off the hood by
the taffel ; and if fhe feize eagerly on the lure without
fear of man or horfe, then take off the creance, and lure
at a greater diftance. Laftly, if you would have her love
dogs as well as the lure, call dogs when you give her
lumage. See Hawkxina.

The Abbé le Pluche, in his defcription of falconry, re-
prefents it as one of the nobleft, and alfo the mott profitable
of pleafures. For the various kinds of this diverfion, the fal-
con, the jer-falcon, the lanner, the faker, the gofhawk,
the merlin, and the fparrow-hawk are ufed ; but in general
the falcon and hawk are more frequently ufed than the rett.
The falcon, jer-faicon, and gofhawk are in great repute ;
and are trained up to various flights, fome of which are
pointed againft the heron, others againft the kite, the cur-
lew, or the owl. The hawk is ufed in low flights, and is
fagacious and fuccefsful in attacking the partridge. The
manner of training up hawks, and employing them in the
field, is very agreeable. Such as are taken in the nett are
called « Rias,’? and fuch as are taken when full-grown,
and at full liberty, are called «* Haggards,” or old birds.
When hawks are too wild, they are neither fed, nor fuffered
to fleep for three or four days and nights, and are never left
alone; by which means they come familiarized to the fal-
coner, and obedient to all his commands. An unquiet hawk
has been fometimes placed in a {mith’s fhop, where, by the
continued noife of the hammering, he has been made gentle
and traGtable. The principal care of the falconer is to ac-
cuftom thefe birds to fettle in his filt, to {pring when he
throws them off ; to know his voice, his finging, his whittle,
or any other fignal he givesthem, and to return to order on
his fit. At firft they are tied with a ftring about 30 fa-
thoms in length, to prevent them from flying away ; from
which they are not releafed till they are completely difci-
plined, and return at the proper call or fignal. Yor this
purpofe they muft be lured. The lure isa piece of red
hulk er wool, on which are fixed a bill, talons, and wings.
To this is likewife faftened a piece of that flefh on which
the bird feeds, and the lure is thrown out to him. When
they intend to reclaim or recall him, the fight of food bring's
him back ; and in time the voice will be fufficient. The
various plumage with which the lure is fet off is called a
« Drawer.”? _When they accuftom the hawk to fly at a
kite, a heron, or a partridge, they change the drawer ac-
cording to the kind of game to which he is to be devoted.
When this is a kite, they fix the bill and feathers of that
bird to the lure ; and fo of the reft: and in order to entice
the bird to his object, they faften beneath the drawer or
plumage the flefh of a chicken, or other fowl, occafionally
feafoned with fugar and fpices, together with marrow and
other delicacies. Thus he is prepared for {pringing at real
game, which he does with /urprifing precipitation. Having

Vou. XIV.

been accuftomed to a month’e exercife in a chamber or
garden, the bird is tried in the open fields, when little bells
are faftened to his feet, in order to be informed of his mo-
tions. He is always capped or hooded, that he may fee no
obje& but his game ; and as foon as the dogs either ftop or
{pring it, the falconer unhoods the bird, and toffes him into
the air after his prey. His various motions in the air furnifh
much diverfion ; at length he defcends and launches upon
his prey with the rapidity of an arrow, and bears it to his
matter, who recalls him. By thefe fi: ft effays, he is pre-
fented with the neck and entrails of the prey which he has
brought. Thefe gratuities, and the carefies of the falconer,
animate the bird to the performance of his duty, and pre-
vent him from “ bearing away his bells ;’” that is, from
flying off, and not returning, which, however, 1s fometimes
the cafe.

When falcons are taught to fly at rabbits, hares, &c. it
is called ** flying at the fur ;”” and fome are inftruGed to
fly at the fur and the plume, or to the purfuit of hares and
rabbits, as well as of pheafants and partridges, &c. Torthis
purpofe, when the falcon is very tame, they either take a
live hare, and break ove of its legs, or elfe a here’s fkin
ftuffed with itraw ; and having fixed to ita piece of chick-
en’s flefh, or fuch food as the falcon is moft fond of, they
tie this {kin, with a long cord, to the girth of a horfe, and
as the fkin is thus draggedalong, the bird imagines it to be
ahare in flight, and is allowed to dart upon it; and is thus
taught to diltinguifh the animal, Falcons of the larger
kind have been taught to fly at the roebuck, and even at the
wild boar, and the wolf. With this view they fhould be
accuftomed to feed, when young, from out of the fockets
of the eyes of a wolf’s or boar’s head; the whole fkin of
the animal being ftuffed, fo as to make it appear alive.
While the bird is feeding, the falconer begins to move the
figure gradually ; in confequence of which the bird learns
to faiten itfelf fo as to ftand firm, notwith{tanding the pre-
cipitate motions which are gradually given to the ftuffed
animal. He would lofe his meal if he quitted his hold,
and therefore he takes care to fecure himfelf. When thefe
firft exercifes are finifhed, the fkin is placed on a cart,
drawn by a horfe at full {peed ; the bird follows it, and is
particularly feeding ; and then, when they come to fly him
in the field, he never fails to dart on the head of the firft
beaft of the kind he difcovers, and begins to {coop out the
eyes. This puts the animals iato fuch diftrefs, that the
hunters have time to approach, and difpatch it with their
{pears.

In order to obtain birds fit for inftruGtion, they fhould, if
poffible, be taken from the neft; but as this is not always
practicable, the wild and full-grown bird mult undergo the
troublefome procefs of education. Falcons, like all other
birds, may be taken by means of nets, fuch as are ufed in
catching larks ; but the main difficulty is that of initra@ing
the bird. If a falcon is purfuing his prey in the air, he
will. not defcend to an immoveable and lifelefs bait on the
grouud. é

As this is the cafe, the experienced falconer fixes in the
centre of his neta pulley, or a {trong iron wire bent into a
ring, through which he pailes a ftring, 30 or go fathoms
long, and at its extremity ties by its legs a live pigeon,
which he carries with him into his hut or cover; and asthe
falcon fometimes flies fo high as not to be feen, the falconer
is informed of his motions by meaus of a butcher-bird,
which is fattened by a {tring tied to a flick fixed near the
net. This bird by its movements indicates the kind of hawk
which is hovering above ; if it be a buzzard, or any kind of

lluggifh hawk, the butcher-bird’s motions are but fli

FAL

but. if it fuddenly flies down and hides itfelf, it isa fign that

_fome Jarge kind of faiconis above. The falconer, therefore,
Jets out the pigeon, whofe apparent ftate of liberty attracts
the fight of the falcon. If it approach readily, the man
withdraws the pigeon, and, after a very fhort interval, lets
it out again. ‘This fecond appearance of the pigeon never
faiis to invite the falcon, which darts upon it as his preys
and is confequently caught in the net, which the man
inftantly draws over it. The above-defcribed method of
taking falcons, and, indeed, the art of falconry in general,
feems to have been held in no high ee Linneus,
fince, by way of note to his fpecife character of * falco
gentilis,’”’ he adds ‘ ars capiendi falcones columba et lanio,
inftituendi, venandi gazellas, ardeas, avicuks, &c. propriis
artificibus commiffa, in Juxuriam magnatum, ridenda etiam
a ftulto.”’

Among the oldeft writers on falconry we may reckon
Demetrius, who, about the year 1270, was phyfician to the
emperor Michael Paleolopus. His book, written in Greek,
was firlt printed at Paris in 1612, by Nicholas Rigaltius,
from a MS. in the king’s library, and with the Latin tranf-
lation-of Peter Gyllius. (See Fabr. Bibl. Gree. ]. i. c. 25.
vol.i. 155.) A curious precept occurs in the book of De-
metrius, which requires {porti{men to fay their prayers
before they go out to the field. Some other works, of un-
known antiquity, were printed at the fame time.

The writers of reputation on falconry are Defparon,
Franchiere, Tardiffe, Artelouche, Dalagona, Latham, &c.
M. de S. Martha has put the principles of the art into fine
Latin verfes, in bis Hierafcofophion, five De Re Accipi-
traria, libri tres.

There is alfo a treatife on hunting, hawking, and heral-
dry, printed at St. Alban’s by Caxton, and attributed to
dame Julian Barnes. Beckmann’s Hilt. of Inventions, &c.
yol. i. Shaw’s Zoology, vol. vii. part. i.

FALCZI, or Fartscui, in Geography, a town of Mol-
davia, on the Pruth ; 32 miles E. N, E. of Birlat.

FALDAGE, a term which was formerly employed to
fignify an old privilege referved by different lords of manors
to themfelves, for fetting up fheep-folds or pens in any
fields within their manors, for the purpofe of having them
better manured, not only with their own, but likewife with
their tenants’ fheep. It was alfo frequently termed /*da
faldac, and in fome particular old charters fold-/oca, which
in fome places implied a fold courfe, or free-fold.

FALDE'LLA, in Surgery, rolled or twifted lint, ufed
for compreffes.

FALD-FEE, or Fey, in Rural Economy, is a term
which was formerly ufed to denote a rent or fee paid by
certain cuftomary tenants for the liberty of folding their
fheep upon their own lands.

FALDUSTOR wasanciently ufed to fignify the higheft
feat of a bithop, inclofed round with a lattice.

FALDWORTH, among the Old Writers, was ufed to
fignify a perfon of age, fufficient to be reckoned of fome
decennary.

FALE, in Geography, a river of England, in the county
of Cornwall, which rifes about five miles S.E. from
St. Columb Major, and russ into the fea at Falmouth.

FALEMIL, ariver of Africa, which runs into the Sene-
gal; 20 miles W. of Gallam.

FALERA, a town of Switzerland, in the Grifons;
four miles N. N. E. of Lantz.

FALIGE, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach ; five miles S.S. E. of Hof.

FALIN, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which runs into
the fea of Japan. N. lat. 43° 5’. E. long. 133° 164

FAL

FALIOS, a town of A fiatic Turkey, on the Black fea ;
24 miles W. of Amafrek.

FALKANAU, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Neiffe ; four miles S. of Grotkau.—Alfo, a town of Bohe-
mia, in the circle of Saatz, on the Egra, in which are
manufactures of alum, fulphur, and vitriol; 12 miles N. E.
of Egra. N. lat. 50° 9’. E. long. 12° 37'.

FAILKENAW, atown of Pruffia, in Oberland, 22 miles
S. E. of Marienwerder.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in Erme-
land; nine miles S. W. of Marienburg.

FALKENBERG, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 10
miles N. of Oberwoltz.—Alfo, a fea-port town of Sweden,
in the province of Holland, fituated at the mouth of the
Athron, on the Scaggerac. The chief employment of the
inhabitants is fifhing, 52 miles N. of Helfingborg. N. lat.
56° 50'. E. long. 12° 19'—Alfo, a town kok in
the county of Lippe; two miles S. of Horn,—Alfo, a
town of Saxony; five miles N. W. ef Leibenwerda.—Alfo,
a town of the Middle Mark of Brandenburg ; feven miles
E. N. E. of Farftenwald.— Alfo, a town of Silefia, called
Niomodlin, in the principality of Oppeln; 14 miles W. of
Oppeln. N. lat. 50° 35’. E.long. 17° 22’.

FALKENBURG, a town of Brandenburg, ia the New.
Mark, on the Drage ; 124 miles N. E. of Berlin. N. lat.
53° 28. E.leng. 16>. See alio Fauquemonr,

FALKENHAGEN, a town of the duchy of Pome-
rania; five miles S. of Ramelfburg.—Alfo, a town of the
Middle Mark of Brandenburg; 40 miles E. of Berlin. N. lat.
52° 25’. E.long. 14° 30’.

FALKENSTEIN, Joun Henry, in Biography, was
born in 1682. He received his education at fome of the
Dutch or German univerlities, and was, in the year 1714,
appointed direétor of the academy of Erlangen. After this
he entered into the fervice of John Anthony, bifhop of
Eichftadt, by whom he was employed to write a hiftory of
the bifhopric. By the death of his patron he loft his em-
ployment in the year 1730, and was taken into the fervice
of the margrave of Anfpach. In this fituation he remained
till the time of his ceath in Feb. 1762. He was buried
inatomb, which he caufed to be built in his life time, and
which he often vifited. Falkenftein wrote much, but his
works contain a deal of matter collected without tafte and
judgment, but which will be found ufeful to the future
hittorian. His principal performances are, ‘* Antiquitates
Nordgavienfes,” or refearches refpecting the antiqnities
and every thing remarkable in regard to the town of Nord-
gau; in three vols. fol. ; ‘* Delicie topographice Norim-
bergenes,” or a geographical defeription of the imperial city
of Nuremberg, &c.; ‘* Antiquitates Sudgavienfes,”’ or an
hiftorical defcription of thofe diftriéts which in the feventh
and eighth centuries were known under the general name
of Sudgau, &c. Gen. Biog.

FAvKensTEin, in Geography, a town of Auftria, with
acaftle, the proprictor of which has a right to coin money ;
10 miles N, W. of Zifterfdorff.—Alfo, a town of Auttria,
10 miles S, of Aigen.—Alfo, a town of Upper Bavaria, on
the Inn; 24 miles S. W. of Traunftein.—Alfo, a {mall
county of Germany, ceded to France by the treaty of
Campo Formio, and confirmed by the peace of Luneville.
It contains the town of Winweiler, a town of its own name,
and about 15 villages. The inhabitants are partly Roman
Catholics, but chiefly Lutherans.—Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, in Lower Bavaria, 13 miles N. of Straubing.—Alfo,
a town of Germany, in the Vogtland, called Elleford ;
two miles S. of Aarbach.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of Mont Tonnerre, but in the county of Fal-

kenitein ;

F AL
kenftein ; 24 miles W. of Worms, and 27 N. E. of Deux

Ponts.

FALKIA, in Botany, fo named by Thunberg in com-
memoration of John Peter Falk, profeflor at Peterfburgh,
whom he celebrates as a highly meritorious ard very found
botanift. Linnzus in his Supplementum fays profeffor Falls
was a Swede, and tamous tor his botanical tour in the
eaitern parts of Ruffia. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 17. Linn.
Suppl. 30. Schreb. 237. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 248.
Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 2. Juff.132. Clafs and order, Pen-
tandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Borragineis affine, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped, with
five angles, in five ovate, bluntifh, equal fegments. Cor.
of one petal, twice as long as the calyx, funnel-fhaped,
fpreading, plaited, its margin in ten regular fegments.
Stam. Filaments five, thread-fhaped, ereét, rather fhorter
than the corolla and inferted into its tube; anthers ovate,
comprefled. Pi/f?. Germens four, fuperior, {mooth; ftyles
two, capillary, divaricated, the length of the corolla;
fligmas capitate, obtule. Peric.none. Seeds tour, globofe,
in the bottom of the calyx.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, inferior.
petal, plaited, funnel-fhaped, with ten fegments,
four, naked.

1. Forepens. Linn. Suppl.2rr. Ait, Hort. Kew. v. r.
325. (Convolvulus Falckia; Thunb. Prod. Cap. 35.)
Native of watery places at the Cape of Good Hope.
Stems perennial, woody, creeping, branched, leafy. Leaves
on long ftalks, cluitered, beart-fhaped, obtufe, entire, rather
flethy, flichtly downy. F¥owers on fimple, folitary, ax-
illary ftalks, white or pale flefh-coloured, exaétly like thofe
of a Convolvulus, to which genus profeflor Thunberg has
now reduced this plant. Confequently his own defcription
of the fruit, as given aboye, mult be exceftively erroneous.
‘The learned editors of the Hortus Kewen/fis had long ago
corrected another miftake in the number of the ftamens,
which they found to be five only, as analogy would lead us
to expect ; not fix, except from occafional luxuriance.

FALKIRK, in Geography, a confiderable town in the
fhire of Stirling, Scotland, is fituated on an eminence near
the river Carron on the high road from Edinburgh to
Glafgow, and commands an extenfive profpeét of the ad-
jacent country. It was formerly a royal borough; but is
now governed by a baron-bailie, appointed by the lord of
the manor. This town is noted for feveral fairs, and three
celebrated tryfts, at which are fold on an average 60,c00
head of black cattle, and a great number of fheep and
horfes. Yalkirk is 12 miles diftant from Stirling, and 24
from Edinburgh ; the whole parifh, which includes feveral
villages, was returned, in 1801, as containing 1767 houfes,
and 8838 inhabitants. The great cana}, which forms a com-
Taunication between the Britifh ocean and the north chau-
‘nel, interfeéts this parifh. A degree of celebrity attaches
to Falkirk from a battle fought in its vicinity July 22, 1298,
when the Scots, under fir William Wallace, were defeated
by the Englifh under Edward I. ; and the town was again
‘diftinguifhed by an engagement between the royal and rebel
forces January 18, 1746.
~ FALKLAND, a town in the fhire of Fife, Scotland,
‘was erected into a royal borough in 1458. The govern-
‘ment is velted in three bailies, 14 counfellers, a treafurer, and
‘town clerk. The town is neatly built, and plentifully
fupplied with water by leaden pipes : and carries on a con-
fiderable manufacture of coarfe linens and Ofnaburghs. The
vicinity abounds with coal and lead-ore. Falkland is 15
miles diflant from Edinburgh, and about the fame diftance
from Perth; the population of the parifh was returned in

Corolla of one
Seeds

‘

FAL

1801 as 2241, inhabiting 460 houfes. This town was
formerly the refidence of the kings of Scotland, and the
remains of the palace, though in ruins, evince its former
magnificence.

Favxranp’s Jflands, a group of iflands, fituated in
the fouthern Atlantic ocean, esftward of the ftraits of
Magellan. The firlt difcoverer of ‘thefe iflands is faid to be
Captain Davies, the affociate of Cavendifh, in 1g92. In
1594 fir Richard Hawkins faw land, fuppofed to be the
fame, and from obferving fires he concluded that it was
inhabited. In honour of his miftrefs, queen Eli th, |
called it ** Hawkins’s Maiden-land.” Lone afte:

”? and by the Spaniards they are den

luinos.”” The two principal iflands of t
which is about 40 miles {quare, were probably diftinguifhe

by the name of Falkland’s iflands by captain Strong, or
Strahan, in the year 1639, in honour of vifcount Falkland ;
and thisname has been continued ever fince. Roggew2in,
who pafied by thefe iflands in the year 1721, called them
‘South Behira,”’ and they have likewife been called ‘I flands
of St. Lewis,”’ ‘+ Pepys’siflands,’”? and ‘* Sebaldde Wert’s
ilands.”” The name of “ Pepys’s’’ ifland was given to this.
land by Cowley, who had only a diftant view of it in
January 1683, who erroneoufly makes its latitude to be
47. But the true pofition ard extent of thefe iflands, aud
every circumftance which could render their exiftence of any
confequence, remained abfolutely undecided till commodore
Byron vifited them in 1765. Lord Anfon conficered
Pepys’s ifland and Falkland’s ifles as diftin places, diltant
from each other about 5 degrees of latitude. But Byron’s
refearches have reétified this capital error; and it is now
decided, beyond all contradiction, that as captain Cook ob-
ferves, “ future navigators will mifpend their time, if they
look for Pepys’s ifland in latitude 47° ; it being now certain
that Pepys’s ifland is no other than thefe iflands of Falkland.”
Byron took poffeffion of Port Egmont, (which fee,) and
all the neighbouring iflands, January 1765, for his majefty
king George IIT., by the name of Falkland’s iflands; and
captain Macbride, who followed him thither two years after,
having circumnavigated their coaits, and taken a compleat
furvey, a chart of Falkland’s iflands has been conftructed

with fo much accuracy, that the coafts of Great Britain it
{elf are not more authentically laid down upon our maps.
“We found,” fays captain Macbride, “a mafs of iflands and
of broken lands, of which the foil was nothing but a bog,
with no better profpeét than that of barren mount:
beaten by ftorms almoit perpetual. Yet this is fiimmer;
and if the winds of winter hold their yatural proportion,
thofe who lie but two cf&bles’ length from the fhore mutt
pafs weeks without haviig any communication Ho. Je
1763 the French having loit Canada, turned their attention
towards thefe aflands, with a view to an American fettle-
ment; and the account of Bougainville’s voyage for that

.purpole, publithed by Pernétty, cantains ample details con-

cerning thefe iflands. From thefe we learn, that there is
little herbage except on the N.E. and E., the fouthera an-
tarctic winds being extremely celd. The rocks are of
quartz, with fome pyrites and traces of copper. Grey and
reddifh flate is common, ‘with red and yellow ochre. Ix
thefe iflands, the foil and climate of which are unfavourable,

there is a confiderable variety of fowls and fh; and the
plants feem fomewhat to refemble thofe of Canada. The

walrufs, and other animals of the feal kind, frequent the
thore’.’ Although Byron made a fmall eftablithment at
Port Egmont, it was found to be of little or no alu

N2

FAL

in the year 1774 it was ceded to Spain. Thefe iflands,
which feem to be unfit for the habitation even of favages, oc-
cafioned {ome ridiculous difputes ; and this circumftance is
the more extraordinary, as they are covered with reeds and
mofs, and are fubject to perpetual fogs, and furious tem-
pelts from the antarctic pole. The extreme cold cannot be
relieved by fire, as there is no material for fuel, though Cow-
ley fays, that it abounded with woods ; and even a fhip in
the port is covered with perpetual fnow. The penguins
fupply a fcanty and miferable food. S. lat: 51° 6! to 52°
30'. W. long. 56° 30! to 62” 16’.

Farxvanp’s Sound, a tlvait or bay, feparating the two
largeft of the Falkland iflands.

FALKOPING, atown of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
56 miles E. of Uddevalla. N. lat. 58° 12'. E. long. 13°
26’.

FALL, ariver of Scotland, which rifes in the S.W.
part of Perthfhire, and runs mto Loch Lomond.

PFauu /ndians,' Indians of North America, who occupy a
territory, through which runs Red Deer river in N, Iat.
between 51° and 52°,and between s10° and 115° W. longi-
tude. Thefe Indians, calledalfo“ Big-bellied Indians,”? amount
to about 600 warriors. They feem to have migrated from the
fouth-eaftward, and belong to a people who inhabit the plains
from the north bend of the Miffifoury river, N. lat. 47° 32'.
W. long. 101° 25', to the fouth bend of the Afliniboin
river, tothe number of 700 men. Some of them occa-
fionally come to the latter river to exchange drefled buffalo
robes, and bad wolf-fkins for articles of no great value.
Thefe Fall Indians, intermixed with the Affiniboins, refign<
ing the territory next lake Winipic, and abont its fource, to
the Algonquins and Knifteneaux, occupy the more central
parts of the country. They do not exceed 500 families.
‘They are not beaver-hunters, like thofe laft mentioned, but
confine themfelves to the hunting of the buffalo, and trap-
ping wolves, which cover the country. What they do not
want of the former for raiment and food, they fometimes
make into “ pemmican,’? or pounded meat, while they melt
the fat, and prepare the {kins in their hair, for winter. The
wolves they never eat, but produce a tallow from their fat,
and prepare their fkins; all which they bring to exchange
forarms and ammunition, rum, tobacco, knives, and various
baubles, with thofe who go to traffic in their country.
Mackenzie’s Voyage, &c. Introd.

Fat River, a town of America, in Briftol county, Maffa-
chufetts, lately the foutherly part of Freetown, incorporated
in 18033 5o miles S. of Botton.

Favs, atownthip of Bucks county, in Pennfylvania;
containing 1680 inhabitants.

Faux, Defcent, in Phyfics, the tendency of any heavy
body towards the centre of the earth.

Galileo firft difeqvered the ratio of the acceleration of fall-
ing bodies; vx. that dividing the whole time of falling
into equal parts, the body will fall thrice as far in the fecond
moment as in the firft; five timesas farin the third; feven
times in the fourth, &c. and fo on in the order of the uneven
numbers. See ACCELERATION.

Faut of bodies, for the caufe of the.

Faux of bodies, for the laws of.
rion, DescenT, and Force.

Fari, Water. See CATARACT.

Fat isalfo ufed in a moral fenfe: as the fall of Adam,
See Oricinat Sin ; the fall of the Roman empire, &c.
Authors contend, that Plato hada notion ef Adam’s fall,
which he had learnt from Mofes. Eufebius, De Preparat.
Evangel. lib. xii. cap. 11. quotes a fable from Plato’s Sym-

See Gravity.
See AccELERA-

Feat

pof. wherein he thinks he finds the whole hiftory allegorical-
ly related.

Faux, in Mujfic and Poetry. See CADENCE.

Fary, in Agriculture, a meafure of length, which in
fome places fignifies the fame as the rod; but in others, as
the northern parts of the kingdom of Scotland, it denotes
a meafure which contains fix of the ells of that country,
each of which is equivalent to thirty-feven two tenths Eng-
lifh inches. See Measure, and WeicurTs and Mea-
SURES.

It isa meafure alfo frequently made ufe of in the appli-
cation of marle, and other fimilar earthy fubftances to land,
ef{pecially in the northern counties, in which cafes, from
two to four or five falls are confidered a proper fet. See
Marte.

Yau, a fuperficial meafure, is the Scotch pole of land
= 36 Scotch ells, =342.25 Scotch feet, =38.027 Scotch
yards, = 345.96 fquare Englith feet, = 38.44 fquare Eng-
lith yards, =1.27 Englith perches.

Fart, afolid meafure,; is ufed in Lancafhire in meafur-
ing marle, and isa cube, whofe fide is four yards, =64
cubic yards,

Fat, among Seamen, denotes the rope that conneéts the
blocks of a tackle ; and fometimes it fignifies that part of
the rope of a tackle which is haled upon. They fay alfo that
a fhip hath falls when fhe is not flufh, but hath rifings of
fome parts of her decks more than others. Alfo, a fhip is
faid to fall off, when, being under fail, fhe keeps not fo near
the wind as fhe fhould do.

Fact not of, at fea, a word of command from him that
conducts the fhip, fignifying as much as keep the fhip near
the wind.

To Fav aboard of, is to firike or encounter another fhip,
when one or both are in motion ; or to be driven upon a
fhip by the force of the wind or current.

To Fauu a-flern, is to be driven backwards, or to re-
treat with the {tern foremoit ; and is expreffed of the mo-
tion of a fhip, either under fail or at anchor.

To Fat calm, expreffes a total ceflation of the wind,

To Fauu down, is to fail or be conducted from any part
of a river, towards fome other part nearer its mouth or
opening.

Farr, Cat. See Cat-heads.

Fart of the Leaf, in Vegetable Phyfiology, is that fpon-
taneous feparation of the leaves of trees and fhrubs from their
branches, which regularly takes place every autumn in fuch
{pecies as are, for that reafon, termed deciduous, and which
happens, fooner or later, to all leaves whatever. (SeeDe-
cipuous.) Leaves commonly undergo confiderable changes
before they fall, ceafing to grow for a long time previous
to their decay, they become gradually more rigid and lefs
juicy, often parting with their pubefcence, and always
changing their healthy green colour to more or lefs of a
yellow, fometimes a reddifh hue. American trees and
fhrubs in general, and fuch European ones as are botanical.
ly related to them, are remarkable for the rich tints of red,
purple, oreven blue, which their leaves affume before they
fall. Hence the autumnal foliage of the woods of North
America is, beyond all imagination, rich and fplendid. In
tropical countries, though many trees lofe all their leaves
regularly in the rainy feafon, or winter, the generality are
evergreen, parting with them in fucceffion only, fo as néyer
to be naked. Even thefe trees, however, if injured by
tranfplantation, or any other caufe not iefotitet fatal,
caft their leaves prematurely, by an effort of the vitat
energy, which is thus able to withdraw itfelf with more

vigour

F A.L
vigour into the moft important organs. On this principle
we have, under the head above cited, explained the fall of
leaves as a floughing, or cafting off difeafed or exhaufted
arts. S.
: FALLACY, Farvacia, a deception, or falfe appear-
ance,. or report.

The Epicureans deny that there is any fuch thingas a
fallacy of the fenfes. According to them, all our fenfa-
tions, and all our perceptions both of fenfe and phantafy,
are true; they add, that fenfe itfelf is the firlt grand crite-
rion of truth. hat the fenfes are never deceived, they ar-
gue from their being incépable of all ratiocination and re-
membrance: hence they can neither add, take away, cou-
ple, nor disjoin ; they cannot, therefore, infer, conclude,
or invent ; and confequently they cannot deceive by apy ia-
ference or invention, ‘This the mind may do, but not the
fenfe, whofe bufinefs is only to apprehend what is prefent,
e. gr. colours; not to difcern or diitinguifh between this
body and that, But a thing that barely apprehends, with-
out pranouncing any thing, cannot deceive : add, that there
is nothing to conviét our fenfes of falfehood. The right eye,
e. gr. cannot convict the left; nor Plato’s eyes thofe of
Socrates ; fince the reafons or pretenfions of each are equal ;

and the purblind perfon fees what he fees as much as the
lynceus. Nor can a fenfe of one kind convict another ; as
the fight thefmell ; becaufe their objets are different, and
confequently their reports or judgments are not of the fame
things. Thus, again, if I feea {tick ftraight when out of
the water, but when in it, crooked, my perception is alto-
gether as true inthe latter as inthe former cale; i.e. it is
as true that I have the perception or idea of the crook-
ed ftick as of the ftraight one ; and this idea isall that the
fenfe fuggelts, fo that it does not deceive. Liattly, reafon
cannot fhew our fenfes miftaken, fince all reafoning depends
on previous fenfations, and the fenfes muft firtt be true, be-
fore any reafoning, founded thereon, can be fo. ‘Thus the
Epicureans, whole fy{tem is ftrongly confirmed by what we
haye already laiddown from Dr. Berkeley, concerning ex-
iftence.

The Cartefians, on the other hand, are continually ex-
claiming agaiaft the fenfes, as the great fources of all de-
ception, Every thing with which our external fenfes pre-
fent us, they fay, fhould be fufpected as falfe, or, at bett,
dubious, till our reafon has confirmed the report. They add,
that our fenfes, as being fallacious, were never given us by
nature for the difcovery of the truth, but only to point
out what things are convenient or hurtful to our bo-
dies.

The Peripatetics keep a middle courfe : they hold, that
ifa fenfible objeét be taken in its common and generical view,
the fenfe cannot be deceived about it; for the fight can {ee
nothing but what is vifible, nor can it err in perceiving
what is vifible, qguatenus fuch. But they add, that if the
object be taken under its fpecific view, the fenfe may be
miftaken about it ; viz. froma want of the difpofitions ne-
ceflary to a juft fenfation; as a diforder in the eye, or
fomething uncommon in the medium, &c.

Fauvacy, in Logic, or fyllogiflic fallacy, is a captions
argument, called alfo a fophifm. :

Fallacies either arife from words or things: the found-
ation of an illufion and fallacy in words is ambiguity,
which is of two kinds; vx. fimple homonymia, and am-
phibology.

The Kinds of fallacy in things are very numerous ;
but they may be reduced to feven general heads; viz.
ignoratio elenchi, petitio principiil, falfa gaufa, inter-

FAL

regatio multiplex, limitatio vitiofa, accidens, et confe-
uens,

a FALLAFAJEEA, in Geography, one of the Friendly

iflands, inthe Southern Pacific ocean. S. lat. 20° 30'. E.

long. 185° 16’.

FALLATTY, a town of Abyfiinia ; 56 miles W.N.W.
of Gondar,

FALLEN, a [mall river of the county of Longford,
Treland, which runs into the Shannon, a few miles north
of Lanefborough.

Farven City, or Old Jerufalem, a range of rocks among
the Virgin ifles, in the Weft Indies; S. W. of Virgin
Gorda. N. lat. 18° 13’, W. long. 62° 53’.

FALLERN, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland, noted for its mineral fprings; 3 miles from
Wexio.

-FALLERONE, a town of Italy, in the marquifate of
Ancona; 14 miles W. of Fermo.

FALLERSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the prin-
eipallys of Luneburg, on the Ailer; 27 miles S. E. of
Zella.

FALLET, a town of Sweden, in Helfingland; 15
miles N.W. of Hernofand.

FALLING-Stuices, in Engineery, are gates con-
trived to fall down of themfelves, and enlarge the water-way
oa the increafe of a flood, in a mill-dam, or the pound of
a river navigation ; fluices of this fort were fome years ago
to be feer on the Oufe river, below Redford. See
Cava.

Faruinc-in of ffrata, in Geology, isa term ufed by Dr.
Townfon (Philofophy of Mineralogy, p.81.) to denote
thofe finkings of particular and {mall traéts of ftrata which
are in fome places obfervable, particularly where caverns
abound in the ftrata beneath, as Mr. Mawe has obferved
(Mineral. of Derby, p. 126.), in accounting for Elden hole,
and other openings or fwallow-holes in tie peat limeitone
diltrié&t of Derbythire. (See Depression and Assorp-
Tion.) A very remarkable initance of {trata which have
fallen in, that has not, we believe, been noticed by any
writer, is to be feen at Dowall, or Dower, a hamlet of
Hartington parifh, Derbythire, fituate by the fide of the
Dove rivulet, which there feparates the counties of Derby
and Stafford. Dowall is remarkable for the very diflocated
{tate of its ftrata, and for the very fingular conical and wedge-
like hills which it contains. ~ It is fituate upon or very near
to the great fault which almoft furrounds the Derby hire
and Staffordfhire mineral limeftone diftri@, and the fame
feems to have occafioned the falling-in or abforption of
larger pieces of ftrata in this place than are ufually to be
met with. Dove pit, one of the chafms here, ocecafioned by
a funken piece of the fourth lime-rock, is little if at all ia.
ferior to Elden hole in curiofity, although hitherto over-
looked by tourifts. Near to this cavern a funken piece of
ftrata, about a mile in length and 309 yards or more in
width, is feen fo much depreffed, that the limeftone-itrata
remain upon it im the hollow, furrounded on all fides by
high and precipitous hills of the fourth limeitone (fee the
fection and thicknefles of the ftrata here mentioned in Phi-
lofophical Magazine, vol. xxxi. plate 2.) This funk or
fallen piece of ftrata is furrounded by a line of fhake-holes,
or f{wallows, into which the water which colleéts on the fur-
face drops and difappears. Croom hill, near this place,
feems to owe its very fingular wedge-like form to one half
of it having flipped off or funk down, with the fuperincum-
bent {trata on it, and which now occupy the adjoining vale
or bay between the hills. The eafy diftance of this very
fingular place from Buxton, will, we hope, occafion its be

ny

FALLING.

ing frequently vifited and examined in futwre by thafe whe
travel to view nature in thefe her grandeft {cenes.

Variine Spring, in Geography, a branch of James river,
in Virginia, where it 1s called Jack/on’s river, which fee.

Faruinc-of, in Sea Language, denotes the movement or
diveétion of the fhip’s head to leeward of the point whither
it was lately directed, particularly when fhe fails near the
wind, or lies by. See Fart not off

Faruinc-of is alfo the angle contained between her
neareft approach towards the fource of the. wind, and her
fartheft declination from it when trying.

Pauuinc-ert/, in Veterinary Science, isa difeafe to which
horfes are fubjeét, proceeding from ill blood and cold thin
phlegm collected in the fore part of the head, between the
pinnacle and the brain, which, being difperfed over the whole
brain, caufes the horfe fuddenly to fall, and bereaves Lim
for a time of all fenfe. Spanifh, Italian, and French horfes
are more fubject to this difeafe than the Englith.

For the cure of this diforder, bleed the horfe in the neck,
end again in the temple-veins and eye-veins, four or five days
after ; anoint his body all over with a comfortable friétion,
and bathe his head and ears with oil of bay, liquid pitch and
tar mixed together, and keep his head warm, by covering it
with a canvas gp, quilted with wool, and give him a purg-
ing or fcouring,

LPaurinc-/icknefs, in Medicine. See Epiversy.

Fartine Stones. Of thefe bodies, the molt general
opinion now is, that they are really of celettial origin. But
a few years ago nothing could have appeared more out of
the reach of human inveftigation than the analylis of any
part of the folar fyitem beyond the planet we inhabit.
‘The heavenly bodies, revolving at a diftance fo izconceivably
remote, feemed relatively to us to be rather inacceffible
wvifions than objeéts of chemical examination ; the only me-
dium that appeared to connect them with us was that of
fight: to be able to fee them, and be confcious of their ex-
iftence, was the utmoft boundary of human expectation.
How little was it to be expected that beyond this we fhould
ever be able to examine the mot minute fragment of the fide-
rial fyftem; and it muft no doubt be reckoned among the won-
ders of the age in which we live, that confiderable poytions
of thefe heavenly bodies are now known to have defcended
to the earth. So wonderful and unexpected an event was
at firt received with incredulity and ridicule, but we may
now venture to confider the fact as well eftablithed as any
other hypothefis of natural philofophy, which does not ac-
tually admit of mathematical demonttration.

The attention of the philofophers of this country was firlt
called to this fubjeét by the falling of one of thefe mafles of
matter near Flamborough Head, in Yorkfhire: it weighed
about fifty pounds : and for fome years after its defcent was
announced did not excite the intereft it deferved, wor
would perhaps that attention have been paid to it which
was required for the inveftigation of the truth, if a fimilar
and more ftriking phenomenon had not happened a few
years afterwards at Benares, in the Eatt Indies. Some
fragments of the ftones which fell in India were brought
to fir Jofeph Banks by Major Williams, and fir Jofeph being
defirous of knowing if there might not be fome truth in
thefe repeated accounts of falling ftones, propofed that they
fhould be chemically analyfed, to fee if any peculiarity
could be detected in theircompofition. He therefore gave
‘them to Mr. Howard, a gentleman eminently qualified for
this inveitigation, who found, by avery fkilful analyfis, pub-
lithed in the Tranfa€tions (1802), that the {tones collected in
various countries, and to whicha fimilar hiftory is attached,
contained very peculiar ingredients, and all of the fame kind,

The earthy ‘parts of thele were all of them filex and magne-
fia, in which were interfperfed fmall grains of metallic iron.
Upon amore minute examination of the metallic particles
they were found conneéted with another metal, nickel. It
is a curious circumftance, and not remarked, we believe, by
any writer on this fubjoét, that iron and nickel are the only
two magnetic metals ; but whether this cojncidence is ac-
cidental, or relates to their mode of formation, we {hall not
prefure to determine.

The peculiarity of this compofition, which was:the fame
as large mafles of native iron found formerly in Siberia, ex-
cited a fufpicion that they might all have had one common
origin. he great mafs of iron found by Pallas in Siberia,
contained within its fpongy fubftance fmall drops of a
tranfparent body, refembling chryfolite. Mr. Howard was,
therefore, defirous of afcertaining whether thefe tranfparent
particles, though differing in appearance from the ftoues he
had already analyfed, might not contain fimilar ingredients,
and on making proper experiments he found they a&tually
contained the two earths above mentioned, filex and mégne-
fia. Sinee thefe inyeftigations of Mr. Howard: the fub-
ject has attracted very general attention, and moft of the
fragments of ftones faid to have fallen from heaven, and
which have been preferved in the cabinets of the curious
on account of this tradition, have been analyfed, and found
to confilt of the fame ingredients, varying only in their dif-
ferent proportions.

The iron found in thefe-maffes differs from our artificial
iron In containing no charcoal, and the proportion of nickel
preferves it from ruft. The mixture with nickel is not uni-
form in the fame fpecimen, butit is unequally diftributed,
as if it were the efle& cither of preflure or imperfe& fufion.

Several writers, particularly Dr. Chladni on the continent,
and Mr. King of our own country, have been at great pains
to collect the various teftimonies that are to be found in
different authors from the earlicft times, in favour of the
occafional defcent of fragments and fhowers of (tones.

Pliny relates, that a great [tone fell rear Egos Pota-
mos, in the Thracian Cherfonefe, in the fecond year
of the 78th Olympiad. Confidering the immenfe time that
thefe maffes may remain uhdeftroyed, it is not abfolutely
impoflible, if ever that country becomes more civilized than
at prefent, that fome intelligent traveller may find vettiges of
it {till remaining. Anaxagoras the aftronomer is faid to have
predicted this event ; a circumftance that fhould teach us to
receive with great caution the traditionary prediétions of
eclipfes, fuch as that of the fun by Thales, moft of thefe
events, and ethers of the fame nature, having been prediéted
mott probably long after they happened. This weaknefs
was not peculiar to the ancients ; this very fummer (1809)
a belief has been very generally prevalent that the late un-
ufual wet feafon was foretold by Dr. Herichel.

In the year 1706 another large itone is, on the authority
of Paul Lucas, then at Lariffa, faid to have fallen in Mace-
donia: it weighed 72 pounds.

Cardan affires us, that a fhower of at leaft 1200 ftones
fell in Italy, the largeft of which weighed 120 pounds ; and
their fall was accompanied by a great light in the air.

In the Phil. Tranf. for 1718 is a defcription of a fiery
meteor feen at Jamaica, which ftruck the earth, and made
feveral holes. " :

In the Tranfactions for 1725 an account is to be found
of a fire-ball which burft at Mixburg, in Northamptonhhire,
and two holes were made, about a yard deep and five inches

in diameter, in a grayelly foil. An iron ball thot perpendicu-

larly from a mortar did not make a greater impreffion, In
fearching the holes, a very hard glazed {tone was found, ten
, . inches

FALLING.

inches long, fix wide, and four thick, cracked iato two
pieces. A man was killed’ by what is called the lightning ;
he was much wounded, with fome appearance of eleciric
effects.

At Otumpa, in South America, in the Chaco Gualambra,
far from any mines or rocks, a mafs of about 300 gquintals
was found, and which was then fuppofed to be of volcanic
origin. Phil. Tranf. 1788. .

Mr. Southey, in his ‘Travels through Portugal, mentions
the flones that fell m Portugal, 1796.

The caaba, or great black ftone, preferved by the Maho-
Mmetans in the temple of Mecca, had probably a celeftial
origin. IJtis faid to have been brought from heaven by the
angel Gabriel. Of its chemical nature we have no account,
ner would it be very fafe tor a modern chemilt to attempt
to procure a piece to fatisfy our curiofity.

The following are fome of the beft authenticated and moft
iperetting of the accounts lately publifhed relating to thefe
bodies. .

Proces verbal of a fhower of ftones which fell near Avig-
non, in the department of Vaucleufe.

On the 8th of September, 12th year of the republic,
about half pait ten in the morning, there appearing only a
few light clouds in the heavens, and the weather being re-
markably calm, a noife, refembling that of a cannon fired at
the diftance of a quarter of a league, was heard with the
fame force, and attended with the fame circumftances, by a
number of individuals in varieus places, but more particu-
larly ia the country, at the diftance at leaft of feven or eight
leagues from Apt, the principal town of the fourth diftrié
of the department of Vaucleufe. This no'fe, however,
could be the effect only of an unufual explofion, becaufe it
is certain that throughout the whole extent above-men-
tioned, and at that hour, no cannon was fired, nor was there
any explofion of gun-powder. This circumftance, which at
firft furprifed all who were witneffes of it, was accompanied
by a phenomenon ftill more extraordinary. On the fame
day, and at the fame hour, citizen Jofeph Jully, a farmer
in the diilri@ of Apt, and his wife, being about 500 paces
from the country-houfe of citizen Bartholomew de Vaux,
fituated north of the town of Apt, at the diftance of about
a quarter ofa league, in the limits of Saurette, having heard
the noife above-mentioned, immediately afterwards heard
for the {pace of fix or feven minutes a whiftling, which in-
creafed in found as it approached, and announced the fall of
fome folid body. Being terrified, and cafting their eyes up-

wards, the wife of Jully perceived a black fubftance, whofe
fall to the ground both fhe and her hufband heard diftin@ly,
after which the whiftlng ceafed. ‘The wife of Jully ftates,
that this black fubftance mutt have fallen in the vineyard of
citizen de Vaux: the wife of the latter being then in the
fields heard the fame noife and fubfequent whiitling, but
being alarmed fhe ran into the houfe, and neither faw nor
heard the fall of the above fubftance. Her fon, being then
at work 3 or 400 paces from the houfe, alfo heard the noife,
the whiftling, and the found of the fall of a body, which,
however, he did not fee. At the fame inftant, Margaret
Hugues, widow, and Marie Jean, wife of Jacques Julien,
being on the road from Villeurs to Apt, heard the fame
noife, the whiftling, and the fall of fome fubftance in de
Vaux’s vineyard, which adjoins the fame road. After the
found of the fall the whittling ceafed. It appeared to them
that the above fubftance did not fall at more than 30 paces
from them.
As foon as the report was {pread that fome confiderable
fubftance had fallen in the above vineyard, a great eagernefs
was manifefted to fearch for it. ‘The attempt was at firlt

fruitlefs, but on the roth De Vaux’s fon, croffing the vineyard,
perceived, at the diftance of about thirty paces from the”
houfe, a large hole newly made between two rows ot vines,
which denoted the place where the fubftance muft have
fallen. He was confirmed in this opinion when he per-
ccived that fome {mall pebbles near the mouth of the hole
had been ground to powder. He then dug and found an
extremely hard itone, weighing feven pounds fix ounces;
and could not doubt that this was the fubftance, the fall of
which had alarmed the neighbourhood. Phil. Mag. vol..
xvii.

Extract of amemoir of M. De Dree, read in the Na-
tional Inftitute, 11th April, 1803. M. De Dree, being at
Lyons, received the following account from Dr. Petetin.

About four years ago, faid he, during the evening twi-
light, in the month of March, the weather being ferene,.
and not at all cloudy, there paffed over Lyons, nearly in a
direGtion from eaft to weft, a luminous ball, which, as it at-
tracted attention by the ftrong light it emitted in its paflage,.
was almolt generally obferved. He added, that he learned,
a few days after, that this luminous globe had been feen by
fome travellers on mount: Cenis, and he was informed at the
fame time that it had fallen in the environs of Ville Franche-
under the form of an incandefcent ftone, a {mall fragment of
which was fent to him..-

He affured me alfo that a comparifon he then made of
the periods at which the meteor had been obferved at
Mount Cenis, at Lyons, and at Ville Franche, pofitively an--
nounced that it was the fame ball which had traverfed that
line, and fhewn itfelf in thefe three points.

I expreffed to Dr. Petetin adefire of feeing the fragments
of this ftone which he had in his poffeffion, and the do€tor-
jedging,. no doubt, from the anxiety I fhewed to obtain
information refpecting this phenomenon, how much I was
interefted in it, was fo kind as to offer me this fragment in.
cafe he fhould find it.

Twas the more defirous, indeed, to fee the fpecimen of this.
mineral mafs, as I had it'in my power to compare it with
analogous fpecimens, one of which fell near Wold cottage,
in Yorkfhire, on the 13th of December, 1795; and another
near Benares, in Bengal, on the 19th ‘of December, 1798,
a fragment of which I brought with:me a few years ago
from Eondon,, where I received it from court: de Bour-
non, F. R.S.a very celebrated mineralogift.

Some time after, Dr. Petetin fent me the fragment’ in
queftion, and I was much furprifed to find that it had a
perfeét fimilarity to fpecimens of thofe which fellat Benares
and, at Wold cottage, a {imilarity manifeft, not only in re-
gard to the genus of the ftones, but to the mineralogical
{pecies which enter into their compolition, and alfo- in
regard. to the effeéts refulting from their motion in the
atmofplieric fluid.

As I‘had reafon to hope I fhould be able to difcover the
exact fpot where this globe fell, I made refearches in the
neighbourhood of Ville Franche, and was dire&ted towards
the commune of Sajes; at about the diftance of a league
and half to the north-wett of Ville Franche, in the department
of the Rhone, where I learned that moft of the inhabitants
had been witnefs of, and frightened by the arrival of this
luminous body which had fallen in a vineyard within three
hundred paces of the village, and near the houfe of a
vintager, called Pierre Crepier.

I proceeded with two of the inhabitants, be acquainted
with the faét, towards the houfe of Crepier, and on the {pot
where the ftone buried itfelf received every information
refpecting it, and obtained the lait {pecimen which Crepier
had remaining.

3 The

PAL LING.

The following are all the circumftances I colleéted in
regard to this fingular phenomenon, omitting the utelefs
reafoning in regard to its authenticity.

On the 12th of March, 1798; about fix in the evening,
the weather being calm and ferexe, a luminous globe, of an
extraordinary appearance, attracted towards the eait the
eyes of the inhabitants of the commune of Sales, and of the
neighbouring villages, as they were returning trom their
labour ; and by its rapid approach and horrid noife, like that
produced by an irregular and hollow body ‘traverling the
atmofphere with rapidity, threw ail the inhabitants of that
commune into the greatc{t terror, efpecially when they faw
it pafs over their heads at a very little clevation.

According to their report this ball left behind it a long
train of light, and emitted, with au almoft continual crackling
noife, {mall blue {parks, like {mall ftars.

Its fall was obferved by three workmen, who were not
more than fifty paces from it ; one of them was fo much
alarmed, that he dropped his coat and a billet of wood, that
he might efcape as faft as poffible. ‘The other two fled to
Sales, where a general alarm prevailed. Thefe three wit-
neffes agree that the body moved with aftonithing rapidity,
and that after its fall they heard a hifling noife, proceeding
from the {pot where it buried itfelf.

In regard to Crepier he was at home, where he was fo
much terrified with the hiffing of the body and noife of
its fall, that he fhut himfelf up, and fpent the night with-
out daring to go out.

Next morning he was called out by the two workmen
who had obferved it, and they went with M. Blondel,
adjunct of Sales, and feveral other perfons, to the place
where the fubftance buried itfelf. At the bottom of a
hollow, eighteen inches in depth, they found a large, black,
irregular ovoid mafs, entirely covered with a blackifh crutt ;
it was no longer warm, and had the {mell of gunpowder.
It was fplit in feveral places, fo that thrulting a ftick into
one of the fiffures made it fall to pieces, ‘The weight of
this ftone was about twenty pounds.

M Place, amerchant of Ville Franche, affured me he was
a witnefs, as well as many other inhabitants, of the paflage of
this luminous globe over the town; that he heard its
humming noife; that its elevation could not exceed 500
toifes, and that its diretion was from ea{t by fouth to weit
by north.

It fince appears that this meteor was feen by M. Pictet,
and other inhabitants of Geneva, and of the neighbouring
towns as far as Berne; they obferved a luminous body which
fuddenly appeared in the fouthern regions proceeding rapidly
from weft to eaft. This phenomenon was then confidered
as a meteor, but M. Piétet is now perfuaded it is the fame
body which fell at Sales.

M. Biot, the celebrated aftronomer and mathematician,
has drawn up a very accurate memoir of the meteoric mafs
that fell in the neighbourhood of Laigle ; the moft interett-
ing particulars of which we have extra€ted, and are as
follow.

July 20, 1803. I went firft to Alencon, fifteen leagues
weit-fouth-weft of Laigle, and in going thither I learned
that a globe of fire had been. feen proceeding towards
the north; the appearance of this globe had been fol-
lowed by a violent explofion. This took place on the
26th of April, 1802, at one in the afternoon. By the
direGtion of this phenomenon, the day, and particularly
the hour, I judged that this, had been the commencement of
the meteor of Laigle. Xt Alencon nothing had been
heard, in confequence,; no doubt, of the noife which ufually
prevails in a large town, but I learnt_by the. mineralogical

collections of the country that nothing exits in the neigh-
bourhood of Laigle which has any refemblance to the
meteoric ftones. From Alengon I proceeded to Laigle, -
traverfing the villages condu@ed by the accounts given me
by the inhabitants. All of them had heard the meteor on
the day, and at the hour mentioned. In this manner I
reached Laigle, and proceeded to the houfe of our colleague,
Le Blond.

The meteor did not burft at Laigle, but at the diftance
of half a league from it I faw the awful traces of this phe-
nomenon, I traverfed all the places where it had been
heard, and colleé&ted and compared the accounts of the in-
habitants. At laft I found fome of the {tones themfelves
on the {pot, and they exhibited phyfical charaéters, which
admit uo doubt of tke reality of their fall.

If we firft confider the phyfical teftimonies, no meteoric
ftoues had been in the hands of the inhabitants before the
explotion on the 26th of April.

The mineralogical colleétions formed on the fpot with
the ereatel care, for feveral years, contained nothing of the

ind.

The founderies, iron-works, and mines in the neighbour-
hood which I vifited exhibited nothing in their produc-
tions, or their fcorie, which had the leaft affinity to thefe
fubftances. No traces of a volcano are found in the
country.

Suddenly, and only fince the time of the meteor, thefe
ftones have been found on the ground, and in the poffeffion
of the inhabitants, who are better acquainted with them
than any other perfons.

Thefe ftones are only found in a certain extent, in ground
foreign to the fubftance they contain, and in places where,
from their fize and number, it is impoflible they could have
efcaped notice.

The largeft of thefe ftones, when broken, {till exhale
a ftropg fulphureous f{mell from their interior parts.
That of their furface has vanifhed, and the f{malleft exhale
no fenlible odour, fo that the odour of the former feems
likely to be diffipated in the courfe of time.

Traces, which ftrongly atteft the fall of thefe ftones,
never mentioned without terror, are fill fhewn, ‘The in-
habitants fay they faw them defcend along the roofs of the
houfes like hail, break the branches of the trees, and re-
bound on the pavement. ‘The earth {moked round the
largeit of them, and they ftill burnt after they had them
in their hands. ‘Thefe accounts are given, and the traces
fhewn only in a certain extent. It is there only that me-,
teoric ftones are found on the ground; not a fragment is
found beyond that diftrict.

From the aggregate of the teftimonies, we have deduced
the following account of the phenomenon.

On Tuefday, April 26th, 1802, about one in the after-
noon, the weather being ferene, there was obferved from
Caen Pont, Audemer, and the environs of Alencon,
Falaife, and Verneuil, a fiery globe of a very brilliant
fplendour, which moved in the atmofphere with great ra-
pidity. Some moments after there was heard at Laigle, and
in the environs of that city, to the extent of more than
thirty leagues in every direétion, a violent explofion, which
lafted five or fix minutes.

At firft there were three or four reports like thofe of a
cannon, followed by a kind of difcharge refembling a firing
of mufketry ; after which there was heard a dreadful rumb-
ling, like the beating of a drum. The air was calm, and the
{ky ferene, except a few clouds, fuch as are frequently ob-
ferved.

This,noife proceeded from a {mall cloud which had a

A rectangular

FALLING.

rectangular form, the largeft fide being in a dire€tion from
eait to weft. It appeared motionlefs all the time the phe-
nomenon lafted, but the vapour of which it was compofed
was projected momentarily from the different fides, by the
effeét of the different explofions. This cloud was about half a
league to the north-north-eaft of the town of Laigle; it was
at a great elevation in the atmofphere, for the inhabitants of
two hamlets, a league diflant from each other, faw it at the
fame time above their heads. In the whole canton over
which this cloud hovered, a hiffing noife, like that of a ftone
difcharged from a fling, was heard, and a multitude. of
mineral maffes, exa¢tly fimilar to thofe diftinguithed by the
name of meteoric flones, were feen to fall at the fame time.
_ The diftri& in which thefe {tones fell forms an elliptical
extent of about two leagues and a-half in length, and nearly
one in breadth; the greateft dimention being in a dire¢tion
from fouth-eaft to north-weit, forming a declination of about
22”. This direétion, whith the meteor mutt have followed,
is exactly that of the magnetic meridian, which is a re-
markable refult.

The largeft of thefe ftones fell at the fouth-caft extre-
mity of the large axis of the ellipfe, the middle ones fell
in the centre, and the fmalleft at the other extremity. It
‘thereby appears that the largeft fell firft, as might naturally
be fuppofed.

The largeit of all thofe which fell weighed 174 pounds ;
‘the {malleft I faw weighed two gros, which is the thoufandth
part of the former. The number that fell is certainly above
two or three thoufand. .

On the 5th of April, 1804, another ftone of this kind
fell near Glafgow, the particulars of which were very well
afcertained by feveral profeffional gentlemen belonging to
the univerfity of that place. They are related in the 18th
velume of the Philofophical Magazine. On the day above
mentioned three men, at work in a field at Poffil, about three
miles north of Glafyow, were alarmed with a fingular noife,
which they think continued about two minutes, feeming to

roceed from the fouth-eaft to the north-weft. - At firft it

eemed to refemble four reports from the firing of cannon;
afterwards, the found of a bell, or rather gong, with a
violently whizzing noife; and laftly, they heard a found,
as if fome hard body had ftruck with great force the
furface of the earth. On the fame day, in the forenoon,
fixteen men were at work in the Pofftl quarry, thirty ‘feet
below thefurface of the ground, and there, too, an uncom-
mon noife was heard, which, it is faid, feemed at firft to pro-
ceed from the firing of fome cannon; but afterwards the
found of hard fubitances hurling downwards over {toncs,
and continuing, in the whole, for about the {pace of a mi-
nute.

By others who were at the quarry, viz. the overfeer of
the quarry, and a man ina tree, to whom he was giving di-
reGtions, the noife is defcribed as continuing about two mi-
nutes, appearing as if it began in the weit, and paffed round
by the fouth towards the ealt ; along with thefe people there
were two boys of ten and four years old, and a dog ; the
dog, on hearing the noife, ran home ina great fright. The
overfeer, during the continuance of the noife, looking up at
the atmofphere, obferved in it a mifty commotian, which
alarmed him, and he called to the man in the tree, “‘ Come
down, I think there is fome judgment coming upon us ;”’
and he fays that the man in the tree had fearcely got on the
ground, when fomething {track with great force in a drain
made for turning off water, about ninety yards diflance,
{plafhing mud and water about twenty feet round. The
elder boy, led by the noife to look up to the atmofphere,

fays, that he obferved the appearance of fmoke in it, with
Vor, XIV. ‘

fomething of a reddifh colour moving rapidly through the
air from the welt, till it fellon the ground. The younger
boy, at the inftant before the ftroke was heard, called out,
* Oh, fuch a reek!” and fays he faw aa appearance of
fmoke near the place where the body fell. ‘The overfeer
immediately ran up to the place where the fplafhing was
heard, when he faw ahole made at the bottom of the drain.
The hole was filling with water from a fmall flream, and
about fix inches of it remained empty: he thruft his hand inte
the hole, (which was nearly perpendicular, the bottom a very
little inclined to the eaft, and the upper part to the weft,)}
and felt fomething hard at the bottom, which he could not
move. ‘The hole was cleared out, expeéting a cannon-ball,
but nothing obferved except the natural ftratum of foil, and
the rock on which it lay, and two pieces of ftone that had
penetrated a few inches into the rock; he thought they were
whinftone, and that they were eighteen inches below the
bottom of the drain, and the hole fifteen inches diameter;
no particular heat was obferved in the water, nor in the
pieces of ftone, nor any uncommon {mell in the latter. The
ane piece of ftone was about two inches long; the other
fix inches long, four broad, and four.thick, blunted at the
edges and end; the fraétures coincided ; he did not know
whether the fraéture was caufed by the fall or the mattock ;”
and fays that he never faw any fuch ftone about the quarry.

Some days after, when the particulars came to be known,
a fearch was made for thefe ftones, and the firft mentioned
piece was foon found; the other, having fallen among rubbifh,
was miffing ; a few days after a fragment of it was found:
the two fragments make the two extremes of the ftone;
on the furface they are pretty fmooth, of a black colour,
internally of a greyifh appearance: the intermediate part
feems as yet to be loft. It may be proper to remark,
though the overfeer did not obferve any particular fmell in
the ftone, that when Mr. Craufurd obtained the firft piece
ithad a fifhy and feetid {mell; and the fecond had the fame,
but ina lefs degree. No warmth, however, was perceived
in them at any period.

Account of a ftone lately fallen in Kuffia—Oa the
13th of March faft, in the afternoon, the inhabitants of
the canton of Juchnow, in the government of Smolenfk,
were alarmed by an uncommon loud clap of thunder.
At the moment of this explofion two peafapts, belonging
to the villaze of Peremefchajeu, in the canton of Werreja,
being out in the fields, perceived, at the diftance of forty
paces, a black ftone of confiderable magnitude falling
to the earth, which it penetrated to a confiderable depth
below the fnow. It was dug up, and found to be of an
oblong fquare figure, of a black colour, refembling cait-
iron; its furface was very {mooth, fhaped like a coffin on
one fide, and it weighed about 160 pounds. Philofophical
Magazine, 1807.

But one of the beft authenticated accounts we have yet
received is from Conneticut, in America ; the circumftances
of which were communicated by Charles Greville, efy.
F. R. S. to whom they were originally tranfmitted.

The particulars of this phenomenon were colle€ted with
great care by Meffieurs Silliman and Kingfley, who vifited
and carefully examined every fpot where the ftones had
been afcertained to have fallen: they converfed with all the
principal original witneffes, and {pent feveral days in the
invettigation of all the important fats that could be col-
leGed on this occafion. The fubftance of the account is as
follows, The meteor, which has fo recently excited alarm
in many, aud aftonifhment in all, firft made its appearance
in Wefton, about a quarter or half pait fix o’clock A. M. oa
Monday the fourteenth inftant (Dec. 1807.) © The morn-

ing

FALLING.

Ing was fomewhat cloudy, mingled with {pote of clear f{ky,
a fpace of 15° along the northern horizon perfeétly clear ;
there was little er no light except from the moon juft
fetting. Judge Wheeler was paffing through the enclofure
adjoining his houfe, with his face towards the north, and
his eyes on the ground, when a fudden flafh acrofs the
northern fky made him look up; he immediately difcovered
a globe of fire, pafling behind the firft cloud, which was
very dark, and ob{cured the meteor. In this fituation its
appearance was diftin@, like the fun feen through a mitt.
It rofe from the north, and proceeded in a direction nearly
perpendicular to the horizon, but inclining by a very {mall
angle towards the weft, deviating from the plane of a great
circle, but in large curves, fometimes on one fide of the
plane, and fometimes on the other, but never more than four
or five degrees; it appeared about one-half or two-thirds
the diameter of the full moon, but it was impoffible to
afcertain what angle it fubtended. Its progrefs was not fo
rapid as that of common meteors and fhooting ftars ; when
it paifed the clear fky it flafhed with a vivid light, not fo
intenfe as lightning in a thunder ftorm, but like what is
called heat lightning. Its farface was apparently convex.
When not too much obfcured by clouds, a conical train
of paler light attended it, waving, and in length about 10
or 12 diameters of the body. In the clear fky there was a
brifk {cintillation about it, like a fire-brand carried again{t
the wind. It difappeared about 15° fhort of the zenith,
and the fame number weft of the meridian; it did not vanifh
inftantaneoufly, but grew fainter, as a red-hot cannon ball
would do, cooling in the dark, only much more rapidly.
There was no particular fme]l in the atmofphere, nor any
luminous maffes feen to feparate from the body ; the whole
period between its appearance and extinétion was eftimated
“at 30 feconds.

About 30 or 40 feconds after this, three loud and diftine
reports, hke thofe of a four pounder, near at hand, were
heard ; they fucceeded each other rapidly, and did not
occupy above three feconds: then followed a continued
rumbling, like a cannon ball rolling over a floor, fometimes
louder and fometimes fainter; fome compared it to a
waggon running down a ftony hill, others to a running fire ;
this noife continued about as long as the body was in rifing,
and died away in the dire€tions from which the meteor
came. A Mr. Elihu Staples faid, that when the meteor dif-
appeared, there were three fucceflive efforts or leaps of the
ball, which grew more dim with every throw, and difap-
peared with the lait.

We now proceed to the fall of a number of maffes of
ftone, in feveral places principally within the towa of
Welton, The places which had been well afcertained at
the period of our inveftization were fix, the moft remote
nine or ten miles diftant from each other, in a line differing
little from the courfe of the meteor. It is, therefore, proba-
ble, that the fucceffive maffes fell in this order, the moft
northerly firft, the moft foutherly laft. We think we can
point out the three places where the ftones fell, correfponding
with the three reports and leaps of the meteor. In every
inftance, immediately after the explofions had ceafed, “there
was obferved a loud whizzing at all the places, and at the
moment of the fall; after this was heard an. abrupt noife,
like a ponderous body ftrikmg the ground. Excepting
one, the {tones were more or lels broken.

The mott northerly fall was within the limits of Hunting-
don, on the borders of Welton, about 50 rods eaft of the
great road from Bridgeport to Newton, in a crofs road,
near the houfe of Mr. Barr; he was ftanding in the yoad
when the ftone fell; the noife produced by its colliion with

a rock of granite, on which it fell, was very loud ; Mr. Burr
was within 50 feet, and fearched for the body ; but it being
dark did not find it tillan hour after. By the fall fome wae
reduced to powder, and the reft broke in {mall fragments,
thrown roundtothe diftance of 30 feet; the granite was ftained
at the place of contact with a deep lead-colour; the largeft
fragment did not exceed the fize of a goofe egg, and this
waft {till warm ; there was reafon to fuppofe the {tone mult
have weighed 25 pounds.

The maffes of the fecond explofion fell in the vicinity of
Mr. Prince’s, in Wetton, about five miles fouth of Mr. Burr’s.
The family were in bed when ** they heard a noife of the
fall of a heavy body after the explofion.’”? ‘They would
have paid no further attention to the circumftanee, had they
not heard that {tones had fallen in other parts of the town ;
this induced them towards evening to fearch a hole newly
made in the yard, where they found a ftone buried in the
loefe earth which had fallen on it ; it was two feet from the
furface, the hole 12 inches diameter, and as the earth was
foft the mafs was little injured, only a few fmall fragments
being detached. It weighed 35 pounds.

Six days afteranother mafs was difcovered, half amilenorth-
weft of Mr. Prince’s; the fearch was induced by the perfuafioa
of the neighbours that they heard it fall near the {pot where
it was found buried. It weighed from feven to ten pounds,
and was {plit in fragments, having fallen on a detached mafe
of gneifs rock which it had fplitin two. We found another
mais, of thirteen pounds weight, half a mile north-eaft of
Mr. Prince’s; it was broken only in two pieces, one of
whieh we purchafed, for it was now become an article of
ale.

A fifth mafs fell two miles fouth-eaft of Mr. Princes’ at
the foot of Tafhowa hill. Its fall was heard by Mr. Porter
and his family. They faw a {moke rife, from the fpot where —
they found a ttone, in the road, which had penetrated two feet
in the deepeft place, the hole twenty inches diameter, and
the margin coloured blue from the powder of the ftone,
which weighed 25 pounds.

It is probable that the four laft ftones were projected at
the fecond explofion, and one has been fince found on the
neighbouring hill, weighing 35 pounds, which muft be re-
ferred to the fame.

A mafs of ftone, far exceeding the united weight of all we
have defcribed, fell in a field belonging to Mr. Seely, within
30 rods of his houfe.

A circumftance attended the fall of this which feems
peculiar to it. Mr. Staples lives on the hill, at the bottom
of which this body fell. After the laft explofion a noife
like a whirlwind pafled to the eaft of his houfe, and over
his orchard ; at the fame inftant a ftreak of light pafled over
it in a large curve, and feemed to pierce the ground; a fhock
was felt, and a report heard like that of a heavy body
ftriking the earth.

Three or four hours after this, Mr. Seely went to look
after his cattle. Some had leaped into the adjoining inclo-
fure, and appeared frightened; pafling on he was furprifed
to finda {pot of ground all torn up, and the earth lookirg
freth. Coming to the place he found a great mafs of frag-
ments of a ftrange looking ftone.

Here were ftriking proofs of a violent collifion; a ridge
of micacious {chiftus, lying nearly even with the ground, and
fomewhat inclining like the hill to the fouth-eaft, was fhi-
vered to pieces to a certain extent by the impulfes of the
ftone, which thus received a ftill more oblique dire€tion, and
forced itfelf into the earth to the depth of three feet, leavin
a hole of fiye feet in length, and four and a half in breadth ;

throwing

FALLING.

throwing large maffes of turf, and fragments of ftone and
earth, to the diftance of 50 and 100 feet.

This ftone was all in fragments, none of which exceeded
the fize of a man’s fift. From the beft information we
could obtain of the quantity of fragments of this laft
ftone, compared with its fpecific gravity, we concluded
that its weight could not have fallen much fhort of
200 pounds, All the ftones when firft found were
friable ; this was eipecially the cafe where they had been
buried in the moift earth, but by expofure to the air they
gradually hardened.

The {pecimens obtained from all the different places are
perfe@ily fimilar. The mott carelefs obferver would inflantly
pronounce them portions of acommon mais, different from
any of the flones commonly feen on this globe.

Of their form nothing certain can be faid. Few of the
{pecimens weigh one pound ;, molt of them lefs than half a
pound, from that tothe fraction of an ounce. On many of
them, however, may be diftin@ly perceived portions of the
external part of the meteor.

It is every where covered with a thin black crutt, deftitute
ef {plendour, and bounded by portions of the large irregular
curve, which feems to have enclofed the meteoric mafs. This
curve is far from being uniform ; it is fometimes deprefled
with concavities, fuch as might be produced by prefling a
foft fubftance. The furface of the crutt feels harfh, like pre-
pared fifh fkin or fhagreen. It gives {parks with fteel.
There are certain portions of the ftone, covered with the
black cruft, which appear not to have formed a part of the
outfide of the meteor, but to have received this coating in
the interior parts, in confequence of the fiflures or cracks
produced by the intenfe heat to which the body feems to
have been fubjeGted.

The fpecific gravity is 3.6, water being 1.

The colour of the mafs of the ftone is principally a dark
afh or leaden colour. It is difperfed with diftin¢ét maffes,
from the fize of a pin’s head to the diameter of one or two
inches, which are almo{t white, refembling the cryftals of
feldt{par in fome varieties of granite, and in that fpecies
of porphyry known by the name of werd antique.

The texture of the {tone is granular and coarfe, refembling
grit tone. It cannot be broken with the fingers, but gives
an irregular fra@ture with the hammer.

On infpeéting the mafs four diftin& kinds of matter may
be perceived by the eye.

ft. The ftone is thickly interfperfed with black globular
mafles, moft of them {pherical, fome oblong. The largeft are
of the fize of a pigeon fhot; but generally much {maller ;
they can be detached, and leave a concavity in the ftone.
They are not attractable by the magnet, and can be broke
by the hammer.

2d. Mafles of yellow pyrites may be obferved.

3d. The whole ftone is thickly inter{perfed with metallic
points, many ofthem vifible to the eye, and numerons with
alens. Their colour is whitifh, and mittaken by the difco-
verers of the ftone for filver. ‘They appear to be malleable
iron alloyed with nickel.

4th. The lead-coloured mafs which cements thefe toge-
ther has been defcribed already, and conttitutes by far the
greater part of the itone. After being wet and expofed to
the air, the itone becomes covered with reddith fpots, which
do not appear in a frefh fracture, and arife from the rulling
of the iron.

Finally, the ftone has been analyfed in the laboratory of this
college, according to the inftructions of Howard, Vauque-
ling and Fourcroy. ‘The analyfis was hafly, the exact pro.

ttions and the fteps of the analyfis are referved for more
eifure.

It is fufficient to obferve that the ftone appears to confit
of the following ingredients; filex, iron, magnefia, nickel,
and fulphur.

The two firft conftitute by far the greateft part of the
ftone ; the third in confiderable proportion, but much lefs
than the others ; the fourth probably {till lefs, and the ful-
phur exifts ina {mall but indeterminate quantity.

Mokt of the iron is ina perfe@ly metallic ftate ; the whole
ftone attra&ts the magnet, and this inftrument takes up a
large proportion of it when pulverized. Portions of metallic
iron may be feparated fo large that they may be eafily ex-
tended under the hammer. Some of the iron is in combina-
tion with fulphur ia the pyrites, and.probably mot of the
iron is alloyed by nickel.

Inthe Trranfaétions for 1803 is an account by C. Greville,
efq. of three fpecimens in different mufeums in France, of
{tones which have fallen to the earth, all fimilar in their ge-
neral charaGter to thofe defcribed by Mr. Howard; and
alfo of a mafs of native iron found in Perfia in the year ot
the Hegira 1030, according to the annals of the empire,
written by the emperor, and of which he is ftated to have
made fome fabres and daggers; but until other iron was
mixed with that of the mafs defcribed, the iron was not
malleable.

But the moft beautiful f{pecimen of perfe& iron was
brought from the Cape of Good Hope. Barrow, in his
travels into that country, defcribes the original mafs as exift-
ing in the interior of Africa, and it is thought that fome
traditionary fuperftition is conneéted with it by the natives.

Notwithftanding every doubt feems now to be removed
as to the general authenticity of the above relations, yet
philofophers are not perfe&tly agreed either as to their
origin or mode of formation. Of the different theories that
have been propofed, that which fuppofes them formed in
the air, that is, in our atmofphere, is certainly the leaft
analogous to our prefent ftate of chemical knowledge.
Others are more inclined to aflign them an aftronomical ori-
gin, though great doubts {till exift as to the particular clafs
of bodies from which they are moft probably derived.
Some altronomers imagine they have been thrown from
a lunar volcano: there is nothing, perhaps, philofophi-
cally inconfiftent in this theory, for volcanic appearances
have been feen in the moon; anda force fuch as our vole
canoes exert would be fufficient to project fragments that
might poflibly arrive at the furface of the earth. It is de-
monitrated by mathematicians, that ifa ponderable body be
projected from the earth’s furface with a force fufficient to
give it a certain initial velocity, it will never return. This
velocity is about feven miles an hour. From the moon,
the velocity requifite to produce a fimilar effet is about four
times as great as that of a camon-ball, fo that there is no-
thing impoffible in the fuppofition of thefe bodies havin
been projected from the moon. But probability is bavtainlt
again{t it, and it feems more likely that they are frag-
meuts of comets; becaufe thefe bodies, from their gfeat
numbers, render the queition of mere probability favourable
to this hypothefis ; and befides, from their own nature they
mui be fubjeét to chemical changes of a very violent na-
ture; add to this, that fron: the {mallnefs of their dimenfions,
a fragment projected from them with a very flight velocity
would never return to the mafs to which it originally be-
longed, but would traverfe the celeitial regions till it met
with fome planetary or other body fufficiently ponderous to
attract it toitfelf, Many arguments likewife concur, which

O2 lead

FALLING.

lead to the conjeéture that the comets themfelves are nothing
more than larger fragments of matter, which have been them-
felves feparated by volcanic violence from other celeitial bodies
of greater magnitude thanthemielves; perhapsfrom fixed ftars.
The theory of the new planets, as fuggelted by Olbers, like-
wife continues to gain ground in the eftimation of aftrono-
mers ; thefe are by him fuppofed to be only portions of a large
planet which once revolved about the fun in an entire form.
‘Warranted by fuch ftrong indications, why fhould we hefi-
tate to extend the analogy from otr own earth to the great
fiderial fyftem ? On our own planet, not only the volcanoes
at prefent exifting, but the indubitable veftiges of the patt,
are fuflicient to convince us that great and marvellous
changes are continually taking place in confequence of the
chemical and mechanical aétion of the different elements on
each other: fo it is, probably, throughout the whole crea-
tion. The immenfely long periods in which thefe changes
are accomplifhed appear relatively to our limited {feale of
exiftence to be of great importance; but contemplated by
intelleét of a higher order than our own, the whole hiftory
of the fiderial univerfe may be a phenomenon almoft initan-
taneous. To return, however, to this fublunary world, it
ftill remains to adda few words onthe different theories that
have been fuggefted to explain the fudden ignition of thefe
meteors, and the violent eleétric or ftormy appearance which
has been obferved to accompany them.

Of the number of theories that have been fuggefted to ex-
plain the ignition of thefe bodies, and the explofions that
often attend their arrival, very few deferve even to be no-
ticed. So imperfec is our meteorological knowledge, that we
mutt content ourfelves with mere conjeéture. The leaft im-
prchable opinion of thofe tha: have been hazarded feems to
be this, that the inflammation and combuttion of the ftones
proceeds from the heat neceflarily extricated by the fudden
compreffion of the air, in confequence of the great velocity
they poffefs on their firft entering our atmofphere, which ve-
locity is afterwards much diminifhed by the conftant refiftance
of the air. In this cafe, however, we muft {uppofe them of

the nature of pyrophori, an hypothefis far from fatisfactory.
Mr. Davy’s late difcoveries feem likely to lead us nearer to
the truth. If thefe earthy bodies were in their metallic {tate
of exiftence previous to their arrival on the confines of our
world, their fudden inflammation would be eafily accounted
for, and would at the fame time afford us a curious circum-
ftance in their hiftory, as it would be evident they came

from a place where ne oxygen was to be found; they could
not, therefore, come from the furface of a habitable world like
ours, ‘They may, however, even on this hypothetis, have been
part of the internal nucleus of fome planetary or cometa
body having an atmofphere, but not of fufficient thicknels
to have produced that inflammation which takes place when
they enter ours. The eleGtrical appearances that fo often
accompany thefe bodies in their defcent indicate that the
equilibrium of the atmofphere is more eafily deranged than
otherwife might be imagined; for certainly it is much more
rational to fuppofe that this difturbance is rather the effe&t of
the meteor than the caufe of it. If there be any truth in
the prevailing opinion of feamen, that the firing of cannon
{tills the wind, this faét will ftrengthen the opinion that great
apparent changes may take place in the atmofphere by the
various chemical operations that may: accidentally take
place within it. But we fhall ab{tain, however, from farther
conjecture, and trutt, that one day the future progrefs of
{cience will enable philofophers to explain, in a fatisfaGtory
manner, all the circumftances which at prefent feem to be
involved in fuch compleat obfcurity.

But whatever be really their origin, the hiftory of thefe
productions we mult acknowledge to be highly interefting ;
from the earlieft times thefe fragments have been wibnthactalky
arriving at the furface of the earth, though it is only lately
that they have attracted the notice of philofophers, and their
hiftory been authenticated by the fuperior lights of modera
{cience. From the moft ancient period of hiftory there are
repeated accounts of ftones falling from heaven, which, but
for the careful inveftigations above defcribed, would for
ever have been confounded with the fabulous prodigies fo
familiar to ancient credulity. And this affords a fingular
and ftriking inftance, in which the true hypothefis was
embraced by the ignorant and credulous part of mankind
at the fame time that it was rejeGted by philofophers. In
favour of learning, however, we fhould obferve, that it could
only have been by the fuperior feience of the prefent age,
that faéts of {uch an extraordinary nature could have been
authenticated and feparated from the multitude of fabulous
and wonderful events which have been believed and recorded
by the fame hiftorians. :

We fubjoin the following epitome of the analyfis of thefe
bodies from Thomfon’s Chemittry, and a table is fabjoined
from a French work of M. Izarn,

Subftances. Places where they fell. Period of their fall. Teltimony.
Shower of ftones At Rome Under Tullus Hoftilius Livy.
Shower of ftones At Rome (eer erguetas sae M: } 13. Obfequens,
Shower of iron In Lucania Year before defeat of Craffus |Pliny.
Shower of mercury In Italy Dion.
very large {tone In Thrace 2d year of 78th Olympiad _|Pliny. :

Ch. of count Marcelli.
Geoffroy le Cadet.
Paul Lucas.

In Thrace
At Quefnoy
Near Lariffla, Macedonia

B. C. 452
January 4th, 1717
January, 1706

“hree large ftones
Shower of fire
Stone of 72 lbs.

‘About 1200 ftones, one of

120 lbs. } Near Padua, in Italy In 1510 (Cardon Varcet.
Another of 60 lbs. F
‘Another of 59 lbs. On Mount Vaife, Provence |November 27th, 1627 Gaffendi.

Shower of fand for 15 hours |In the Atlantic April 6th, 1719 Pere le Feuilles,

Shower of fulphur Sodom and Gomorrah

Sulphureous rain In the duchy of Mansfeld _|In 1658 Spangenberg.
The fame Copenhagen In 1646 Olaus Durmius,
Shower of fulphur Brunfwick OGober, 1721 Siegefber.

Subftances,

Ditto of a vifcid unknown

matter

Two large ftones, weighing
zo lbs.

A ftony mafs

A ftone of 7% Ibs.

A ftone

A ftone

Exteufive fhower of ftones

Mafs of iron, 70 eubic feet
Mafs of ditto, 14 quintals
Shower of {tones

Large ftone, 260 lbs.

FALLING,

TABLE continued.

Places where they fell.

Lreland

t |Liponas, in Breffe

(Niort, in Normandy

At Luce, in Le Main

At Aire, in Artois

In Cotentin

Environs of Agen

Sienna, Tufcany

Wold Cottage, Yorkfhire
Sale, department of the Rhone
{n Portugal

Benares, Eaft Indies

At Plunn,near Taber, Bohem.
America

Abakank, Siberia
Barboutan, near Boquefort
Enfifheim, Upper Rhine

‘Two ftones, 200 and 300 lbs. Near Verona

Stone of 20 lbs.
Several ditto, from 10 to

‘Sales, near Ville Franche
‘Near L’Aigle, Normandy

Period of their fall.

In 1695

September, 1753

\In 1750

September 13th, 1768
In 1768

In 1768

July 24th, 1790
July, 1794

December 13th, 1795
March 17th, 1798
Feb. rgth, 1796
Dec. igth, 1798
July 3d, 1753

April 5th, 1800
Very old

July, 1789
November 7th, 1492
In 1762

March 12th, 1798
April 26th, 1803

Teftimony.

Mufchenbroek.

[pe la Lande.

De la Lande.
|Bachelay.

|Gurfon di Boyaval.
Morand.

St. Amand Baudin, &c.
Earl of Briftol.

Captain Topham.

Le Lievre and De Drée.
Southey.

iJ. Lloyd Williams, efq.
B. de Born.

|Phil, Magazine.

Pallas, Chladni, &c.
Darcet, jun. Somet, &c.
Butenfchoes.

Acad. de Bourd.

(De Drée.

|Fourcroy.

\Glafgow
Conneticut

The ftony bodies, when found, are always hot. They
eommonly bury themfelves fome depth under ground. Their
fize differs from a few ounces to feveral tons. They are
ufually roundifh, and always covered with a black cruit.
In many cafes they {mell ftrongly of fulphur. The black
cruft, from the analyfis of Howard, confifts chiefly of
oxyd of iron.

The outer furface of thefe ftones is rough; when broken,
they appear of an afh-grey colour, and of a granular texture,
like fand-ftone. When examined with a microfcope, four
different fub{tances may be difcovered, of which the {tone is
compofed: ift, a number of {pherical bodies, varying in
fize from a pin-head to a pea, of a greyifh-brown colour,
opaque, breaking eafily in every direction, of a compact
texture, capable of fcratehing glafs, and of giving a few
feeble {parks with fteel; 2d, fragments of pyrites, of an
indeterminate fhape, of a reddifh-yellow colour, granular,
and eafily reduced to powder; the powder has a black
colour; 3d, grains of iron in the metallic itate, {cattered
like the pyrites through the ftone; 4th, the three fubftances
juft mentioned are cemented together by a fourth, of an
earthy confiftence, and fo foft that all the other fubftances
may be eafily feparated by the point of a knife, and the ftone
itfelf ehledge pieces between the fingers; this cement
is of a grey colour. The proportion and fize of thefe dif-
ferent conftituents vary confiderably in different {pecimens ;
but all of them bear a ftriking refemblance to each other.
Their f{pecific gravity varies from 3.352 to 4.281.

From the analyfis of Howard, which was conducted with
much precifion and addrefs, and which has been fully con-
firmed by Vauquelin and Klaproth, we learn that the black
cruft confifts of a compound of iron and nickel, partly me-
tallic and partly oxydated. The pyrites confift of iron,
nickel, and fulphur. The metallic grains confift of iron,
combined with about a third of its weight of nickel, and the
yellow globules are compofed of filex, magnefia, iron, and

nickel. The count Bournon obferves, that thefe globules
refemble the chryfolite of Werner, and that their chemical
analyfis correfponds exa@ly with Klaproth’s analyfis of that
mineral. The earthy cement confifts of the very fame fub-
itances, and nearly in the fame proportion, as the globular
fubftances. But-it will be neceflary to exhibit a {pecimen
of fome of the analyfes, as publifhed by the philofophers to
whom we are indebted for them. A ftone which fell at
Benares in India was analyfed by Howard. The pyrites
confifted of

2.0 Sulphur

10.5 Iron

1.0 Nickel
2.0 Earths and foreign bodies,

15-5

The {pherical bodies confifted of
50.0 Silex
15.0 Magnefia
34-0 Oxyd of iron
2.5 Oxyd of nickel.

101.5

The earthy cement confifted of
48.0 Silex
18.0 Magnefia
34.0 Oxyd of iron
2.5 Oxyd of nickel,

102.5

A ftone which fell ia Yorkshire, deprived as much as pof-
fible of its metallic particles, gave Mr. Howard, from 150
grains,

75 Silex

FAL

75 Silex
37 Magnefia
48 Oxyd of iron
2 Oxyd of nickel.

—

162
The increafe of weight was owing to the oxydizement of
the metallic bodies. -
Stones which fell at ?Aigle in France, in. 1803, yields,
ly the analyfis of Vauquelin and Fourcroy,
54 Silex
36 Oxyd of iron
9 Magnefia
3 Oxyd of nickel
2 Sulphur
1 Lime.

—_—.

105

The celebrated ftone which fell at Enfifheim in Alface,
in 1492, yielded to the fame philofophers,
56.0 Silex
30.0 Oxyd of iron
12.0 Magnefia
2.4 Nickel
3-5 Sulphur
1.4 Lime.
105.3

FALLINGBOSTEL, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the principality of Luneberg-Zell; 14 miles N.E.
of Rethem.

FALLOPIA, in Botany, named by Loureiro in honour
of Gabriel Fallopius, the celebrated anatomift, who excelled
in the knowledge of plants. He wrote feveral tracts on
their virtues, and alfo a commentary on Diofcorides. Lour.
Cochinch. 335. Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Vilacets affine ?

Gen.Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, coloured,
fomewhat f{preading leaves. Cor. Petals five, ovate-oblong,
fmall, equal, ereét. Stam. Filaments about 50, thread-
fhaped, unequal, inferted into the receptacle; anthers
roundifh. Pi/f, Germen fuperior, roundith ; ftyle thick,
awl-fhaped, fhorter than the ftamens ; ftigma fimple. Peric,
Berry globular, of one cell, with four roundifh feeds.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of five petals. Calyx of five leaves:
Berry fuperioy, of one cell. Seeds four.

Obf. We have prefumed to corre&, from analogy, the
defcription of Loureiro, who confiders as a ne¢tary the five
fmall leaves which we efteem petals, and takes our calyx for
the corolla. He thinks there is no true perianth, but calls a
common calyx what we judge by his defcription to be
braéteas. y

1. F.nervofa. Hai pi ip of the Chinefe. Found wild
in the neighbourhood of Canton. A free, eight feet high,
with {preading branches, and a fibrous or hemp-like bark.
Leaves {cattered, ovato-lanceolate, fomewhat ferrated,
ribbed, fmooth. Flowers white, in {mall terminal clufters ;
partial ftalks, each bearing three flowers, encompaffed with
twelve lincar-lanceolate, deciduous bracteas.—As we have
only Loureiro’s account to dire&t us, we cannot aver that
this plant is not already known to fy{tematic botanifts by
fome other name and chara&ers, but we have net been able
to refer it to avy already publifhed.

EAL
FALLOPIAN Tunes, in Anatomy, two {mall tor-

tuous canals, conneéted to the fundus of the uterus. See
GENERATION, Organs of.

FALLOPII Licamentum, the inferior border of
the tendon of the obliquus externus abdominis, extended
from the anterior fuperior {pine of the ileum to the angle of
the pubes. See Osxtiguus.

Factor Agueduus, a canal in the temporal bone,
through which the facial nerve paffes. See the defcription
of that bone in the article Cranrum..

FALLOPIO, Gasriet, or, with the Latin termination,
Fatvopivs, in Biography, a phyfician of Modena, cele-
brated for his knowledge of anatomy. His biographers
are not agreed as to the year of his birth, and confequently
as to his age at the time of his death, in 1563. Caltellani,
Guilandini, and Haller believe that he was born in 1523,
and died in his fortieth year ; which opinion feems to be the
moft corre&. Fallopio exhibited, in his youth, the mott
ardent zeal in the purfuit of knowledge. After having
ftudied anatomy under Breffavola, and others, he left Italy
in order to profit by the inftru€tions of the moft eminent
profeffors in other countries ; and he is faid to have attained
to a depth and extent of information unufual at his age.
Botany, chemiftry, and aftrology were among the ftudies to
which, befides anatomy, he particularly direSted his atten-
tion. He was appointed profeffor of anatomy at Pifa in
1548; and thence went to Padua, where the fame honour-
able office was confided to him in 1551. He alfo taught
botany at Padua, but with lefs celebrity. In faét, his ana-
tomical excellence not only did honour to the univerfity of
Padua, where a crowd of pupils was annually induced to
refort for the advantage of his inflruétions, but procured for
himfelf the reputation of the moft able phyfician of his age.
He died at Padua in 1563, as already ftated. Fallopio wa¢
not only diftinguifhed as a phyfician and anatomift, he was
alfo eminent in the practice of furgery ; of which fubje&,
however, he has left no writings, unlefs the notes written
by fome of-the pupils who attended his le&tures, and pub-
lifhed in a carelefs manner by them, can be confidered as
fuch. Douglas has charaéterized him in a few words; * in
docendo maxime methodicus, in medendo feliciflimus, in fe-
cando expeditiflimus.”? He contributed to elucidate the
{cience of anatomy by his unceafing induftry, although he
had certainly been anticipated in feveral of his difcoveries,
the credit of which he claimed. In attaching his name to
the uterine tubes, which are believed to receive the ovum
from the ovarium, and to convey it to the uterus, and are in
general called the Fallopian tubes, anatomifts acknowledge
his title to the difcovery of them. It muft be admitted,
however, Eloy obferves, that thefe tubes were known to
the ancient anatomifts, Herophilusand Rufus the Ephefian,
who have left us very accurate defcriptions of them. The
charaéter of this great phyfician, however, is little dete-
riorated by fuch circumftances ; for, if he did not make all
the difcoveries ufually attributed to him, he at leaft reftored
thofe of the ancientswhich had fallen into oblivion. The
following is a catalogue of his works. 1. ‘ Obfervationes
Anatomicg, in libros v. digeftz,”” Venice, 1561 ; one of the
beit works of the fixteenth century, in which fome of the
errors which had efcaped his matter, Vefalius, are modettly
corrected. 2. Libelli duo, alter de Ulceribus, alter de
Tumoribus, preter naturam,”’ ibid.1563. 3. “ De Ther-
malibus aquis, hbrifeptem ; de Metallis et Foffilibus, liber,”
ibid. 1564; being the fubitance of part of his leGtures on
Diofcorides, publifhed by one of his pupils, André Marco-
linus. 4. “ De Morbo Gallico Tra€tatus,” Venice, 1564.

I 5- “ De

FAL

'§. De fimplicibus Medicamentis purgantibus,” ibid. 1566;
the fubftance of letures in the form of commentary on
the firft book of Diofcorides. 6. ‘ Opufcula varia,” Pa-
dua, 1566. 7. ‘ Expofitio in librum Galeni de Offibus,”’
Venice, 1570; publifhed by Francis Michini. 8. * De
compofitione medicamentorum,” ibid. 1570, g. “ De
parte Medicine que Chirurgia nuncupatur, necnon in
librum Hippocrates de vulneribus capitis dilucidiffima in-
terpretatio,” ibid. 1571. 10. ‘“¢ De Humani Corpoiis
Anatome compendium,” ibid. 1571. 11. ‘¢ Leétiones de
partibus fimilaribus Corporis Humani,’’ Nuremberg, 1575 ;
publifhed by Coiter. 12. “Opera genuina omnia, tam
PiaGica, quam Theorica, in tres tomos diftributa,’’ Venice,
1584. This work was publifhed at Francfort in 1600, and
a fupplement, forming a fourth volume, in 1606. But the
fuperior bulk of this Francfort edition is made up of a col-
leétion of notes taken from the oral le€tures of the author,
and which are not in a flyle calculated for publication. A
work was publifhed at Venice in 1650, entitled ‘ Secreti
racolti dal Falopia,’? refpeCting which it may be obferved,
that Fallopio was too candid and communicative to conceal
any information that might be ufeful to mankind, and that
this was probably an inftance of the advantages which
quackery does not fail to take of pofthumous reputation to
foift its impofitions upon the public. Eloy Did. Hitt.
Manget. Bibl. Med. Praé.

FALLOW, a colour of a palifh red, like that of a brick
half burnt; fuch is that of a fallow deer, &c.

Faxtow, in Agriculture, fignities fuch land as has been
repeatedly ploughed over, and expofed to the influence of
the atmofphere, for the purpofe of rendering it mellow and
clean from weeds, not being fown, but left to reft after the
tillage it has undergone.

But fallows have different names given to them, and are
of different kinds, according to the purpofes for which
they are intended, and the mamer in which they are made.
A naked fallow is that in which the ground is ploughed and
harrowed at fuitable intervals for feveral times, according to
the kind of crop that is ultimately to be grown upon it, but
without being fown till it has lain for fome length of time
afterwards. A green fallow is that where ‘the land has been
rendered mellow and clean from weeds, by means of fome
kind of green crop, fuch as turnips, tares, peas, potatoes,
&c. In this mode of fallowing no time is loft by the land
being left idle, or in an unprodu€tive ftate.

They are alfo fometimes diftinguifhed by the feafon of the
year in which the bufinefs is either principally or wholly ac-
complifhed ; hence we have fummer, winter, and {pring fal-
lows, and likewife further, from their being in particular in-
ftances only performed in a partial manner, we have baftard
fallows. They are alfo not unfrequently denominated from
the particular crops which are grown upon them, or by
which they are produced; confequently, we have wheat,
turnip, potatoe, pea, bean, and other fimilar fallows.

Whatever the nature of the fallow may be, it is of great
confequence that it be well made. See Farrowinc of
Land.

Fattow-Cleanfing Machine, an implement contrived for
the purpofe of rendering fallows clean from weeds, roots,
and other. prejudicial matters. It was long fince invented
by a blackfmith of the name of Aaron Ogden, refiding at
Athton-under-Line, near Manchetter, in the county of Lan-

. cafter. It is acomplex unwieldy tool, which has been fu-
perfeded by thofe of a much more cheap, fimple, and appli-
cable kind, fuch as rakes, drags, cultivators, &c. By the ufe
of thele fallows can be rendered not only fixe, but perfedtly
free from couch, and all other forts of root weeds. But,

FAL

befides this, the introduétion of green fallow crops, by
preventing, in a great meafure, the neceflity of naked or
fummer fallowing, has contributed to render the ufe of this
fort of machinery much lefs frequent than formerly. In
improved hufbandry implements of this nature are of courfe
feldom or ever employed. A full reprefentation of this
machine is however given in the ‘* Complete Farmer, or
General Dictionary of Hufbandry.”

Farrow Deer. See Derr.

Farrow-Finch, or Fallow-/mick, in Ornithology, a name
of the oenanthe, more commonly called the wheat-ear,
and by fome authors oiffora. See Moracitua.

Farrow Hounds. See Hounps.

FALLOWING of Lanp, in Agriculture, is the opera-
tion or procefs of rendering tillage-ground proper for the
growth of different forts of crops of the grain or green kinds,
by repeated ploughing, harrowing, and other fimilar means,
during the fummer, autumnal, or winter and {pring
months.

This is a praGtice whichwas had recourfe to at a very early
period of the art of hufbandry, and which has prevailed in
different countries. It was moft probably firft introduced
and adopted as the means of bringing the more rough and
coarfe kinds of tillage-land into a ftate proper for the pro-
duétion of various forts of grain crops, and afterwards con-
tinued for the purpofe of keeping fuch as had been brought
into that ftate free from thofe vegetable produ@tions which
have a tendency to injure and deftroy fuch crops.

The more frequent introduétion of green crops has fince
confiderably leffened the neceflity for this practice in dif-
ferent diltrits.

It has been obferved, that in the preparation of land for
the reception of grain or other forts of crops, by repeated
ploughings and harrowings, or the frequent expofure of
new and frefh furfaces to the aétion and influence of the at-
mofphere, a variety of alterations and changes are produced
in the earthy, as well as other kinds of materials that enter
into the compofition or conftitution of the foils. The
heavier or more earthy perticles of the land, by being under
different circumftances of the air and feafons thus frequently
ftirred and turned over, are fo effe€tually divided or feparated
from each other, and broken down, that eveti in moft of the
ftiffer forts of ground, as well as thofe of the lighter kinds,
there is a degree of pulverization and mellownefs effe@ed
that could fearcely have been induced by any other means:
in confequence of which the portions of vegetable matter
that are prefent, and that may have been reduced into the
carbonaceous ftate, with the calcareous, the argillaceous,
and other earthy ingredients, and fuch metallic fubftances
as may exift in the condition of oxyds or calces, become fo
uniformly, and fo extenfively blended and incorporated, and
the manures that are afterwards applied fo minutely inter-
mixed with them, that the fibrous roots of the growing
crops, of whatever nature they may be, are enabled to pe-
netrate and extend themfelves more fully, and of courfe to
draw more regular and varied, as well as more abundant
fupplies of nourifhment.”? And that ‘on account of the
extreme divifion and pulverization that take place, and the
great irregularity of furface which is produced in this way,
the dews and light refrefhing rains that are fo frequently oc-
curring in the early {pring months are more capable of
being admitted and diffufed through, and detained in the
hollows and interftices of the ground, and thus of contri-
buting powerfully to the fupport of the crops in the more
incipient {tages of vegetation.”” Alfo, ‘* by the repeated
turning-in and deftruGtion of different forts of plants of the
weed kind, much vegetable mucilaginous and faccharine

matter

FALLOWING.

matter may alfo be added, as well as the land improved by
the putrefactive fermentation that mutt from thefe caufes be
conftantly taking place.”? It is added, that i: there are
alfo other modes in which advantages may be gained by the
repeated turaing over and breaking down of the particles of
foils, as from much of the atmofpheric air being by fuch
methods of hufbandry blended with the fine particles of the
foils, and detained in the numerous hollows and cavities
formed by fuch degrees of pulverization, a larger proportion
of oxygen may be fupplied, which, by its umon with the
carbon and other inflammable materials that are moftly con-
tained in foils, may produce the carbonic or other acids,
according to the circumitances of the cafes in greater abund-
ance, and in this manner aid the growth of vegetables in a
high degree. And as the water, or moifture that is included
in large quantities in the pores of foils in fuch powdery
ftates. may undergo the procefs of decompofition more
fully, by coming more minutely in contaét with the portions
of atmofpheric air that are covered up and imprifoned with
it in them, the fupplies of ammonia or volatile alkali, by
the combination of its hydrogen with azote, may be more
regular and copious, as well as thofe of nitre, by the more
complete union of its fuper-abundant oxygen with fome
ether portion of the abounding nitrogen, or azote of fuch
air, And it has likewife been fuggeited, that as the atmo-
{pheric air confifts, or is conftituted of oxygen, azote, and
the fluid matter of heat, if the heat that caufes them to
exit uncombined in the form of gafes be drawn away from
them by fome other material, while they are confined in the
eavities of the foil, they may, by their nearer approach to
each other, combine fo as to produce nitrous acid; or the
oxygen, in its fluid ftate, not in its aerial one, may more
readily unite with carbon, and thus conftitute a fluid, not
an aerial carbonic acid, which is fuppofed to be of great
utility in promoting the growth of plants. And further,
that if any procefs of the putrefactive kind be going on
where atmo!pheric air is in this way confined in the inter-
“fhices. of the foil, and by the deprivation of its heat is con-
verted from a gas to a fluid, the azote may combine with the
hydrogen of the decompoling water, or contribute to de-
eompofe it, andin this manner form volatile alkali, which,
like nitrous acid, may, either during the procefs of its
formation, or after that has been compleated, be of very
material utility in promoting vegetation, while at the fame
time the oxygen afforded by the decompofing water may,
like that of the atmofphere, contribute to the production
of the carbonic, nitrous, or phofphoric acids; and in this
way render carbon, phofphorus, and the bafis of nitre,
capable of being taken up by the abforbent roots of grow-
ing plants. From the great diminution of bulk that has
been found from experiment to take place where atmo-
{pheric air is confined in contac&t with water, it is conceived
that there may be a decompofition of both the water and
the air, and a produ@tion of both ammonia and nitrous acid,
which are known to be beneficial in promoting vegetation,
or the growth of plants. It is conceived that m thefe dif-
ferent views the practice of fallowing may in various in-
-ftances be highly beneficial, notwithitanding the objec-
tions that have been fo repeatedly brought againft it by
writers on hufbandry ; but at the fame time it muft be
admitted that in fome forts of foil it will, for fimilar reafons,
be much more advantageous and ufeful than in others.
On the lighter kinds of land, where full and luxuriant crops
of diferent forts of plants, as turnips, potatoes, &c. may
be grown, that produce a clofe, thick foliage, and which,
as has been fhewn by experiment, afford under fuch circum-
ftances much carbonic acid, which, from its being greatly

heavier than the common air of the atmofphere, mutt fall
upon and be mixed with the foil in {uch ftagnated fituations,
and thus, together with the more conftant moifture that mult
be prefent in fuch cafes, promote the folution and decay of
various vegetable matters, and continually add carbonaceous
and other materials fo as to greatly improve the foils; it
can but feldom be neceflary. Befides, as in thefe foils, by
the ufe of the drill, and repeated hand or horfe-hoeing during
the growth of the crops, the ground may be kept perfettly
clean from weeds, and ina fine mellow or powdery ftate,
without the danger of being injured by too much evapora-
tion and expofure in the way of fallowing ; and likewife in
foils of the fame nature, that are rich from the frequent ap-
plications of manure, and in which the procefles by which
the different nutritious fubftances that have been defcribed
are formed and prepared, are properly going on, it muft be
injurious and improper to expofe their furfaces frequently to
the influence of the air, fun, and rain, as is the cafe in fal-
lowing, as by fuch means the portion of carbonic acid that
may exiftin the ftate of a fluid may be made to affume the
gafeous form, and be more readily diffipated, as alfo the phof-
phorus and the other materials in their different conditions
before they form nitrous acid or ammonia. Thus, befides
the injury that may be done in fallowing fuch forts of land,
by the carbon and other inflammable materials which they
contain, combining with the oxygen of the furrounding
atmofphere, and afterwards by their further union with other
fubftances fo as to form infoluble compounds, fuch as phof-
phat of lime and calcareous nitre, as has been ingemioufly
fuggefted by lord Dundonald, there may be others of not
lefs confequeénce arifing from the diffipation and lofs of the
carbonic ornitrous acid, or of volatile alkali in the gafeous
ftate, as fhewn by Dr. Darwin.

But that in all the wet bottomed, ftiff, adhefive, and
clayey forts of foil, which conftitute a large proportion of
the lands of the kingdom, where, from the clofenefs of their
textures, and the great tenacity of their particles, bat a very
flight, or indeed fcarcely any, degree of pulverization has
been effeGted, the practice of naked fummer fallowing may
often be highly ufeful and advantageous, not only by the
great mechanical alteratiuns that muft of neceffity take
place in them-by the repeated ploughing or turning-up of
their parts to the influence of the atmofphere, but by their
admitting the particles of the manures that may afterwards
be applied to be blended and incorporated with them in a
more minute and extenfive manrer; and their becoming fo
perfeGly aérated, as that the different proceffes that have
been mentioned may take place and properly proceed, fo
as to form in them fuch fubftances as have been found of
utility in aiding the growth of crops ; and which could not
poffibly have been produced without fuch pulverization as
is the effect of fallowing in the naked method.

It may be further ftated likewife, that the degree of fri-
ability and mellownefs that is produced in this way in fuch
foils has alfo other advantages, fuch as thofe of admitting
the roots of the growing plants to penetrate them with
greater facility, and prefenting amore extenfive furface for
them to draw their nourifhment from. And as in lands of
thefe kinds there is a conftant tendency to throw up abun-
dant crops of root and other weeds, it is, perhaps, only by
the frequent turning over of the foil and the tearing of them
up by harrowing, as is the cafe in fummer fallowing, that
they can be effectually eradicated and deftroyed. It is
principally in this view that the working of fuch foils in
the early {pring or fummer months becomes fo particularly
neceflary, as at the period in which the feed is to be put
into the ground, neither the feafon nor the itate of the wea-

ther

FALLOWING.

ther will admit of their being fufficiently broken down and
reduced by ploughing, or the weeds to be deftroyed. And
it may be added, that wet lands, by being turned over during
the winter feafon, are liable, in many cafes, to become more
ftiff and adhefive, by which the roots’of the crops muit be
more limited and confined in their means of acquiring nou-
rifhment from them. It has been lately well obferved, that
«when land of a dry gravelly quality sets foul, it may be
eafily cleaned without a plain fummer fallow; as crops,
fuch as turnips, &c. may be fubftituted in its place, which,
when drilled'at proper intervals, admit of being ploughed
between as often as’ neceflary ; whereas, wet foils, which
are naturally unfit for carrying fuch crops, muft be cleaned
and brought into good order by frequent ploughings and
harrewings during the fummer months.”
© Indeed it is ftrenuoufly contended by the fame writer,
that the moft judicious intermixture of crops upon clay foils
will not preclude the necefiity of a fummer fallow ; though
it is admitted that it may goa great way in preventing the
neceflity of its being fo frequently repeated. But another
Writer, whofe experience has been confiderable, while he al-
lows that there is no queftion at all of the merit of fallow-
ing when compared with bad courfes of crops, and who
thinks, that if the hufbandry is not correét in this refpeat,
tae fallowift will certainly be a much better farmer than his
neighbours, contends that there are courfes which will clean
the fouleft land as well as any fummer fallow, by means
of plants which admit all the tillage of fuch as fallow.
sCabbages,’’ he fays, ‘‘are not planted before June or
July : winter tares admit of three months’ tillage, if til-
lage be wanted. Beans, well cultivated, will preferve land
elean, which has been cleaned by cabbages ; andin any cafe
two fucceffive hoeing crops are,” he thinks, ‘ effective in
giving pofitive cleannefs. Thefe obfervations are not,” he
adds, “¢ theory’; they are practice: and it is high time that
mankind fhould be well perfuaded, that the right quastity of
cattle and fheep:cannot be kept on a farm, if the fallows of
the old fyftem are not made to contribute to their fupport.
There are probably, however, many fituations of clayey foils
fo exceedingly {tiff and wet, that though turnips, cabbage,
or bean crops, may be grown upon them, it cannot, from
the great labour and difficulty of their preparation, and the
high degree of injury that muft be done in the eating them
_ or carrying them off the land, be to much advantage, or
~fuch as to admit of that fort of culture during their growth
that will keep the ground perfectly clean from weeds.
» Infuch cafes no courfe of cropping, however judicious, can
probably be effectual in this re{pe€t; it is indeed well known
- to fuch praGtical farmers as have had the management of
foils of this nature, that it is {carcely poffible to be effected
even by fummer fallowing itfelf. It has alfo been juftly ob-
ferved, that foils of this defcription are fo frequently, from
neceflity, ploughed over when wet, that an adhefion and
foundnefs are produced that cannot be removed without ex-
‘pofure to the heat of the fummer’s fun, and the pulveriza-
tion afforded by the repeated operations of the plough and
theharrow. There is no fort of crop that can in fuch cafes
fupply the place of fallow, as turnips are highly detrimental;
and drilled beans, thougl they may anfwer in the way of an
affitant to fallow, and have the tendency of keeping lands
clean that are already ina proper condition, it is fuppofed,
from the neceflity there is of fowing them early, can never
be beneficially fubitituted for the radical improvement that
_-is produced by a clean naked fummer fallow.
> It isy however, added, that even if fuch forts of land
could be kept perfectly clean and free from weeds by the
ij dicious jinterpofition of bean, cabbage, or other fimilar
Vou. XIV.

crops that mizht be cultivated on them, it is evident that
the varions beneficial produéts which have been mentioned,
and which are the refult, in a great meafure, of the perfeét
pulverization and high degree of aération that re produced
by means of fummer fallowing, could never be formed in
fuch an abundant manner as to be of much utility in aiding
the growth of crops: nor could they’be in fo fuitabie a con-
dition for the admiflion and extenfion of the abforbent roots
of the plants that may be cultivated upon them as crops.

But thowsh thefe circumftances may demonitrate the
practice of fallowing to be occafionally neceffary and highly
ufeful on fuch wet, adhefive, clayey foils, as the proper and
moft advantageous quantity of ftock for the improvement
of fuch farms can feldom be kept where it greatly prevails,
the repetition of the practice fhould, in this view, be pre-
vented as much as poflible, by the cultivation and growth of
green crops as often-as the lands may be in a flate fer them,
and they can be had recourfe to with any chance of fuccefs.
The rata baga, or Swedifh turnip, as being a plant fome-
what more adapted to wet, ftiff foils, than either the com-
mon cabbage or turnip, might probably, in fuch cafes, be
advantageoufly fubitituted as a green crop, and by being
eaten off in the later {pring mouths, when the ground be-
came fuficiently dry to bear the cattle or fheep without
injury, admit of a pea-crop ; after which, the land would
probably be in a fuitable condition for wheat ; ora crop of
clover might be taken, and then wheat. But in all fuch
cafes much mutt depend upon the degree of cleannefs, pul-
verization and aération, that has been accomplifhed by the
occafional ufe of fummer fallowing. And as there is much
variety in the conditions of fuch foils as may occafionally
require the aid of naked or fummer fallowing, in order to
render them fuitable for the growth of clean grain or other
crops; fome, from the nature of their fituations and the
fub-foils on which they are placed, being more inclined to
the retention of injurious moifture or wetnefs than others,
confequently more difpofed to be cold, and to the throwing
up of large crops of weeds; while others, from the large
proportion of clayey or tenacious loamy materials that
may be mixed and incorporated with the pebbly or other in-
gredients, may be more {tiff and retentive, aud of courfe
more difficult or more incapable of fufficient pulverization,
and of admitting the roots of fuch plants as are capable of
being cultivated’ upon them, to readily eftablifh themfelves,
and draw from them proper fupplies of nourifhment. And
befides the varieties of thefe different ftates, there may pros
bably be others that have not hitherto been well afcertained
or attended to, fuch as may proceed from the differences in
the qualities or properties of the clays or loams as they enters
into or exift in their corepatitions, upon each of which fome
diverfity in refpe& to the neceflity, repetition, or method of
conduting the bufinefs of fallowing may depend. The
correct farmer fhould, therefore, conltantly keep them in
view, whenever it may be requilite for him to prepare land
by means of fummer or naked fallowing.

It is {trenuoufly contended by a late writer. that one great
purpofe of the fallow fyftem is that of deftroying weeds
which, in confequence of previous bad management and of
over-cropping, have increafed to {uch a degree, as to render
cultivation for grain no longer profitable. Land_being
allowed to reft for a feafon from yielding a crop, and bei
repeatedly ploughed, the foil expofed to the influence of
the different feafons, and at the fame time completely pul-
verized, its fertility is again fomeivhat reftored, fo that, by
the application of a fmaller portion of manure than would
be otherwife neceflary, it is rendered tit for agaia producing
valuable crops of grain or grafs. It is univecially ackuow-

P ledged,

FALLOWING.

ledged, that all fo'ls, even thofe naturally the moft fertile, are
capable of being rendered unproduétive by conftantand fevere
cropping, and that the more improper the modes of cropping
are, the fooner, and the more certainly, will a comparative
barrennefs enfue. Hence the propriety of fallowing, where
imperfect modes of culture are adopted. Frallowing, in what
may be called the infancy of improvements in agriculture, is
alfo, it is conceived, eflentially neceflary. If land be greatly
exhaufted, no matter by what fort of previous mifmanage-
ment, fallowing is, it is fuppofed, the moft. expeditious,
the moft effectual, and every thing confidered, the leatt
expenfive method that can be adopted for reftoring its
fertility, and rendering it productive. It is the moft
expeditious, becaufe it is completely done in the courfe of
one feafon, whereas feveral years of culture, and a great
additional quantity of manure, would be requilite, were
any other lefs effectual mode of tillage adopted. It is the
mott effeGiual, becaufe the farmer has it in his power to
deftroy every weed, to turn over and expofe the foil to the
influence of the weather in the different feafons, and alfo to
level and ftraighten the ridges, drain the land, and remove
every obftruétion to the introduétion of better modes of
hufbandry, none of which could be fo conveniently or
effectually performed between the harveft of one year and
the feed time of the next. Fallowing is alfo, upon the whole,
the leaft expenfive method by which the fertility of land
greatly exhaulted can be reftored, and the only one that can
be adopted with a certainty of fuccefs, for the removal of
every obftacle to the introduction of more perfeét agricul-
ture. Manure operates more powerfully when applied to a
field that has been properly fummer fallowed than when laid
on one that has been long under an improper courfe of
cropping. ‘The returns, after fallowing, will be to a cer-
tainty greater; and, therefore, although the actual expence
of fallowing is confiderable, yet the crop that fucceeds is fo
much greater as to counter-balance that expence, while
thofe that follow, if properly adapted to the foil, will yield
the farmer a proper compenfation for his extra trouble and
expence. In the above ftatement it is obferved, however,
that the writer had chiefly in his eye the practice of fallow-
ing as recently adopted in the fouthern parts of Scotland,
and the principles on which the farmers regulate their con-
du&, where new and better modes of culture became general.

It is remarked by an able writer, in the fecond volume
of «* Communications to the Board of Agriculture,”’ that
many farmers regard fallowing as the greateft improvement
that ever was introduced into the agricultural art; by others,
it is either unknown, or is def{pifed as an unneceflary watte
of labour, and a facrifice of the produce of the land. Much
of the contrariety of opinions which prevails on this fubject
may, he thinks. be accounted for, from the quality of the
foil on which the farmer operates, or from his local fituation.
Strong clays require a more frequent repetition of fallow
than thofe foils that are dry and friable, from containing a
great proportion of fand. In thofe diftriéts where exceflive
rains abound duriog fummer, it is feldom convenient for the
farmer to be encumbered with too great a proportion of
fallow, as it is often impoflible to get it properly wrought,
before the land is turned into a mire, if the fineft parts of
the foil be not wafhed away. In fuch fituations green crops,
adapted to the quality of the foil, are, in general, the moft
eligible mode of fallowing. As in fuch diftriéts pafturage
ought to be the principal obje&, fo this mode of fallowing
is calculated to provide for the wants of the live ftock in
winter as wellas in fummer, There is no foil or fituation,
‘it is {uppofed, where naked fallowing might not be rendered
lefs frequently neceflary, if not wholly fuperfeded, by

adopting a proper rotation of crops. Were a drilled green
or pulfe crop interpofed between every two corn crops, the
land would always be kept clean and in fine tilth, and a
much greater value would be extracted from the fame quan-
uty of manure. As the quality of the foil ought ever
to be confidered in deciding the f{pecies of fallow for which
it is befl adapted, fo the quality of the foil ought alfo to de-
termine the mode by which the fallowing ought to be con-
du&ed. Some foils ought always to be turned up before
winter, that their parts may be fplit and pulverized by the
froft : others fhould not be ftirred until {pring, as exceffive
pulverization renders them liable to become miry with rain,
which chills the crop, and they confolidate into a hard mafs
at the approach of drought. Thus it is more convenient
to have fuch foils rather broken into {mall pieces than re-
duced to a fine powder ; but where the objeét in view is a
drilled crop, it is always advantageous to turn over the land
before winter, or even to give it a ftirring or two during
that feafon, becaufe working it in drills afterwards prevents
the effeéts already ftated. 1

For land already in cultivation, the great ufes of fallow.
are, it is conceived, to reduce or preferve the land in a ftate
of fine tilth, to clean it of weeds, and, by turning it up to
the air, to caufe a more perfe@t putrefaétion of the anjmal
and vegetable matters it may contain. This laft effe& is fo
clearly afcertained, that the moft experienced farmers have
affured the writer, that land which has been repeatedly
dunged has been found to yield a much better crop, in
confequence of a fallow without dung, than from a com-
plete dofe of dung without a fallow; and this too after the
productive power of the land had been much exhaufted by
cropping. But for land that is to be reclaimed from a na-
tural ftate, or from a rude and imperfe& ftate of cultivation,
a fallow is always indifpenfably neceflary for various rea-
fons, and particularly thofe of. affording a convenient op-
portunity to level the inequalities, and to lay the land in
the moft proper form for future cultivation.

And it is ftated by the intelligent authors of the Agri-
cultural Survey of the County of Northumberland,”’ that the
practice of making naked fallows on all kinds of foils, once
in three or four years, was general through that county, till
the introduction of turnips; in a few years the fallows of
the dry-lands were covered with this valuable plant. On
fuch other foils as were found improper for this root, the
naked fallows {till prevail with an almoft univerfal opinion
that it is abfolutely neceflary to the fertility of the land;
yet there are fome few, they fay, who dare to doubt this long
eftablifhed doétrine, and prefume to think that naked fallows
might be difpenfed with in many fituations, by cultivating
leguminous crops drilled at wide intervals, to admit being
ploughed or horfe-hoed between ; to which, if proper hand-
hoeings be added, the land will be as well prepared for
wheat as if it had been a complete naked fallow, This is
not, they fay, advanced on f{peculation or theory ; inftances
can be produced where no naked fallows have been made on
fields of {trong loam for twelve years, yet they are as clear
of quickens, couch-grafs, or other pernicious weeds as any
fields in the diftri€t that have been under naked fallow two
or three times in the fame period. It may; however, be
neceflary to obferve, they think that, previous to the adop-
tion of this fyftem, the land was cleared of quicken or couch
grafs, by a complete fummer fallowing.

But though they are diffident in giving a decided opinion
in refpe€t to the neceflity of fallowing, yet, from obferva-
tions made on the above facts, they cannot help beiag
inclined to think that the quantity of naked fallow might
be very much reduced, and in another century, they fuppofe,

“| will

FALLOWING.

will probably be totally abolifhed, if no fortuitous circum-
flances arife to check the exertions and {pirit forimprovement,
which have been fo prevalent of late ycars, and fo generally
diffufed through that difiic. ,

Inthe Report of the County of Mid-Lethian in Scotland,
it is ftated, that fallowing is praétifed there not fo much as
making part of a rotation, as from other cireumiftances,
which render it fometimes neceflary. ‘Thus when lands are
rendered foul, from the occurrence of a bad feafon, or barren,
from too frequent repetition of exhauiting crops, fummer
fallow is introduced as a corretive, and its effects are always
falutary. On light or dry lands, however, it is feldom found
neceflary to fallow ; for thefe can be got into good order
fora crop of potatoes, or of barley, or of turaip; or even more
early in the feafon for beans and pe3fe: but heavy or wet
lands are not fo pliable; and aichanph it is clearly poffible
to labour them alfo, without fallowing, yet it is found to be
more profitable to have recourfe from time to time to that
expedient, and its operation is generally more effective and
laftiag on fuch foils, fo that it is feldom neceffary to be
repeated oftener than once in feven years.

And it is afferted by the author of the “ New Farmer’s
Calendar,”’ that the practice of fallowing, the miferable
fub{titute of former times for manure, and the hoe-culture,
can be no longer necefflary on any foils, under the prefent
improved ftate of hufbandry. In thofe parts where judi-
cious cropping has beer fubftituted to fallows, every f{pe-
cies of produét including the rental, has experienced a won-
derful increafe, to the certain emolument of aJl parties con-
cerned, the landlord, the tenant, and the public. The
fame kind ef land in all refpeéts, whether rich or poor,
has been proved, in numberlefs inftances, equally, or more
fruitful under conftant crops than under the fallowing fy{-
tem, including thofe particular {pecies of foil which it was
pretended could never be fuccefsfully tilled without fallows.
How often does it happen that, upon thefe very foils, an en-
lightened cultivator fhall be found cropping his lands accord-
ing to the improved pra¢tice, and making larger crops of
wheat than the furrounding fallowifts; upon the felf-fame
foil, parted but by the hedge, one man fhall make an ex-
pentive fallow for wheat, and gain two quarters and a half:
his neighbour fhall alfo obtain the fame quantity of wheat,
aftera fallow crop of cabbages or carrots, the acreable pro-
fit of which fhall far exceed that of the wheat itfelf, and his
Jand fhall be at the fame time left in the beft heart and
cleaneft tilth. ‘The writer {peaks of faéts, which he has
himfelf often witneffed ; and were proofs neceflary, he could
fill his book with them, drawn from the moft authentic re-
cords. The advocates for fallowine within his knowledge,
and he has reafon to believe in general, have contented
themfelves with mere affertions of the fuperiority of their
practice, without ever once deigning to make trial of any
other, or with making only a few defultory and ill-conduét-
ed effays; after which they have again relapfed, unconvin-
cing, unconvineed, and unimproved, into their old habits.
By indolent men like thefe, and by landed gentlemen, who
are fo ill advifed as to commit the management and the let-
ting of their farms to perfons totally ignorant of any principle
of agriculture, is the vexatious and unprofitable fyftem of
fallowing perpetuated. There feems ever to have been a
ftriking deficiency both of folid argument and experimental
proof for theneceflity of fallows. The fallowifts have, in
te opinion, contented themfelves with fimply afferting that
their lands will not do without reft, and with exclaiming
againft innovation and new-faugled pra@tice. If they have
brought forth any arguments at all, thofe have been geue-
rally of that well-known clafs which men are wont to ufe in

the fervice of a favourite hypothefis they have previoufly de-
termined to fupport. It has, he conceives, been taken for
granted, and with a confidence fuch a notion never merited,
that the earth, like afyftem of animal organization, ftands
in need of reft, and that it may be totally exhaufted by the
action of perpetual vegetation ; a notion which the earth
herfelf, by her conftant and invariable habits, has faved us
the trouble to refute. It may be very properly demanded
of fallowifts, how it happens that a defeét of this fingular
kind fhould inhere in their lands exclufively ?- And why
the pooreft lands in foreign countries, as weil as our own,
fhould profper under continual cropping? Whence arifes
the aifference between their farms and their gardens? And
why do the latter never ftand in any need of refpite, but pro-
duceexuberantly under perpetual feeding? They are well ma-
nured and welltilled. Should the garden culture be reject-
ed asa parallel example, from its prefumed fuperiority, he
infifts it is entirely without reafon; for the open field has
the advantage, both in poiat of air, and even the poffibility
of fuperior tillage, from the improved implements and in-
creafed population of the prefent times. The earth is def-
tined by nature to an everlaiting round of vegetation; and
whilff confined to her fpontaneous exertions, requires no
aflitance from the hand of man. ‘he feeds of thefe pro-
du@tions fhe poffefies in her own bowels, and the wafte and
lofs of fubftance fhe has fuftained are amply returned to her
in their falling and putrid remains, and in the rains, dews,
and fat vapours of her atmofphere. ‘Thus produétion, ma-
turity, corruption, and re-produdtion, run in a neceflary
and everlafting circle. But if more be required than the
earth would {pontaneoufly produce, and the fubftance itfelf
be withdrawn fromthe foil which produced it, an artificial
amends muft be made for the confequent exhauttion ; hence
the ufe of tillage and manure. This amends, however,
being made to the neceflary amount, the vegetable proceifs
will go on unimpeded, and the land continue to produce
forever, without demanding truce or refpite. Experiences
ofa date too ancient for chronology to afcertain have
evinced the truth of this theory, on foils of every poffible
defcription. Land, then, of a quality however inferior,

‘can never want to be fallowed under the idea of giving it

reit, which it will at the inftant reje& by {pontaneous labour,
to produce acrop of weeds; and as it muft and will pro-
duce fomething, that fomething had furely better be {uch
as will repay the expence of culture. But the truth is
that, excluding the idea of reft, the general fyftem of
tillage is fo defeétive, and the operation of that, moit
ufeful and neceffary implement the hoe, fo much negleét-
ed, that in the-courfe of two or three crops the farmer
finds himfelf totally at a ftand. He has been painfully and
foolifhly cultivating weeds 2s well as corn; the farmer
has fo far occupied and exhautted his land, as no longer to
leave either {page or nourifhment for a crop of corn, fuffi-
cient to defray the attendant expence, exclufive of all ex-
pettation of profit. He muit, indeed, in this cafe, have
recourle to a fallow, as the only method now left to extir-
pate a part of the weeds, that he may again crop his land ;
and this meafure is at the expence of a year’srent, taxes, and
labour, to fall as a furcharge in the produét of the fuc-
ceeding crops. That fuch furcharge is totally thrown
away, anda pofitive lofs to all parties, is, he contends, irre-
fragably proved by the new practice ; and if a landlord
fhould fuppofe that he fpares his lands by making a cove-
nant for fallows, he alfo ought to take into the account
that, unlefs he permits the new practice, he can have no
title to expe& a new rent.
After fuppofing the following hints and obfervations,
2 whica

FALLOWING.

which are contained in the Agricultural Reports of Stafford-
fhire and Kent, to be er-oneous, namely, that fallowing
for wheat, on cold, wet, or ftrong lands, and on all fuch as
are unfit for turnips, is abfolutely neceffary ; and that he
who fhall attempt to manage fuch land without fallowing
will have occafion to repent his miftake ;” and that as
“ the mixed foils now in queftion, which are too moift for
turnips, have a particular propenfity to the protection of
the root-graffes, fummer fallowing becomes abfolutely ne-
ceffary, and every attempt to crop without it, for any
length of time, on fuch land, hes terminated to the injury
‘of the land, and the lofs of the occupier ;”? the writer con-
teuds, that, if thefe farmers will be at the pains to fearch
out of their own counties, they may tnd numerous praci-
cal refutations of the above dotrines, in the very converfe
of which he really believes the truth to’refide. He has ne-
ver obferved cotich to be eradicated by fallowing ; a portion
only is deftroyed, and a fuflicient quantity of roots-left to
produce a'crop, which will fpeedily demand another fallow,
and fo on for ever. Regular periodical fallows may, in
truth, he thinks, be ftyled the nurferies and hot-beds of
couch, fince, on lands fubjeé&t to the praétice, we ever {ee
the greateft quantity of it. Not that he entirely agrees
with the too fanguing advocates of the hoe, that it will, of
itfelf, entirely root out couch-erafs; at belt, fach would
be a long and tedious method, at which, he faid, even Tull
himfelf hefitated. Neverthelefs, after a good dragging, and
burning the roots, during a month or two of dry weather,
to the hoe only we mutt look for their gradual and total ex-
tinction; and this method he has never known to fail in the
worlt poffible cafes of couch, colt’s-foot, and other fimilar
kinds ; with the referve, however, that the lands muft never
be withdrawn from the hoe culture, whatever be the crop, un-
til the enemy appear to be totally extinG, which will feldom be
delayed beyond the third year. [t feems fingular to admit that
fallowing may be fuperfeded by turnips, and yet not by cab-
bages and beans, the appropriate hoe-crops of {trong lands;
furely the latter will bear conftant tillage, at leaft equally
well with the light and weak. But whilit he contends that
the earth requires no reft, but rather exercife and good nou-
rifhment, he would not thence be underftood that fhe
derives no benefit from ret: all experience declares the
contrary ; her fpontaneous growth being returned to her
bofom, this alfo laid open. by tillage to the abforption of
the fattening dews, there can be no queftion but the is fo
nourithed and reftored. Allintended to be proved is, that
the price is infinitely too high for the benefit received, and
which, in truth, to its fulleft extent, may be otherwife ob-
tained gratis, and even with a premium annexed. Nor is he
at all prepared to fay, that thofe ftyled amehorating crops,
whether carrots, turnips, cabbages, grafles, or what not, are
fuch, in the fimple and reftri€ted fenfe of the word; that
they are really the vehicles of nourifhment to the earth,
like a fallow, or that the putrid fermentation occafioned by
their fhade enriches, finer, if it really have that effect, them-
felves are extracting the benefit of it. No, all vegetable
productions carried off the land, although not in equal de-
grees, detract, he contends, from the itrength of thevfoil,
which may be impoverifhed by the fcythe as well as the
fickle ; yet grafs {urely exhautts it the leaft. Thofe plants
abounding moft in vegetable gluten, in weight and fubftance,
are the greateft exhaufters: at the head of them, undoubt-
edly, wheat ought to be placed ; potatoes, perhaps, next.
Crops, then, can only be faid to be ameliorating, on the
feore of their being hoed, and of a confiderable part of
their produce being returned to the land, in the dung of
the animals which they feed. Omit the hoe, and fell the

crop, and, inftead of amelioration you would foon, he thinks,
find galloping confumption ; and then, if in want of a con-
venient phrafe, you might fay your land was tired of fuch
orfach a crop. Even the beft tillage under the fallow-fyf-
tem, he fuppofes, ftands felf-conviéted of deficiency, fince
it needs the invariable repetition of that expenfive aid; it
evinces a defe&t of crops for the fwpport of cattle, of con-
fequence a defe&t of manure and of hoe-tillage. If the
fowing of white corn by broad-caft muft be perfifted in,
there is no poffibility of keeping the land clean (generally
{peaking) but by the intermixture, in due courfe, of pulfe-
crops which are hoed; with the aid of which, and a ftriét
attention to hand-hoeing and weeding the broad-caft corn,
the neceffity of fallowing will be for ever precluded. It
will be underftoed, that a fummer’s refpite is neceflary at
fivit, in order to clear the foil of root-weeds; and after-
wards, the ufual intervals between the crops, the weather
being dry, will afford opportunities of again ufing the drag,
or cultivator, to the fame end. hele occafions always
being diligently laid hold of, the roots will foon be totally
dellroyed. As to the feed-weeds, contrary to the common
cuftom of farmers, thofe ought to be encouraged by all pof-
fible means af pulverization, to make their appearance,
that they may be drawn or cut off previous to their bloom.
Various circumftances in tillage may induce the neceflity of
an occafional winter fallow, which, by the land being laid
up clean, will always be beneficial. It is, on the whole,
concluded, by the practical author of “*Modern Agricul:
ture,” that the practice of fallowing may, no doubt, be
adopted with propriety in fome cafes, while a flavifh adher-
ence to it in every inflance would be highly improper.

In refpe&t to the manner of performing the procefs or
operation of fullowing, it fhould always, like moft other pro-
ceffes in hufbandry, be condu€ted with a due attention to
the circumftances and qualities of the foil, as more pul-
verization or breaking down will evidently be required
where the land approaches to the nature of a perfeét clay,
than where it has more of the loamy quality ; and where
the retention of moifture is confiderable, more regard will
be neceflary to the deftruction of weeds, than where there is a
greater tendency to drynefs. In moft cafes where the prac-
tice of naked fallowing is thought neceflary to be performed,
the molt general method of proceeding is, for the Jand to
be firft ploughed up in the autumn, a fecond time after the
barley feed feafon is finifhed, and two or three times, or
oftener, afterwards, as circumftances may render neceflary ;
the ground being well broken and reduced by means of
harrowing in the intervals of the different ploughings. But
it has been obferved, that “in many diflri@s feldom more
than three ploughings are given to lands in a courfe of fum-
mer fallow ; one in autumn, or early in the {pring ; another
during the fummer; and afterwards the feed-furrow.”? This
preparation appears, however, it is further contended, ex-
tremely defective; as in an ordinary feafon it is fearcely
poflible that with fo few ploughings either the root or feed
weeds can be completely deftroyed ; and when the fummer
happens to be wet or rainy, the lands under fuch management
mutt certainly be ina very bad ftate for receiving the feed-
corn. It has likewife been long fince judicioufly recom-
mended, both in the preparation of lands by winter fallow-
ing, for barley crops, and fummer fallowing for thofe of
wheat, that when it is firft ploughed up after the harvelt is
over, (which fhould always be done as deep as poffible,) no
time fhould be loft in rendering the new-turned-up foil as
fine as poflible by harrowing ; as repeated trials and atten-
tive obfervation have fully fhewn, that fuch lands as are
made fine before the fharp froft and winter rains come on,

receive

FALLOWING.

receive a much larger fhare of their influence than any
others. But that if the land be left in a rough ftate, there
is feldom time for the rains and froft to penetrate or affect
more than merely the outfide of the large clods or lumps
that are prefent. The outfide may thus, indeed, be’ pul-
werized, or broken down, but the middle of the lumps,
wherever they are large, are found nearly in the fame hard
Atiff ftate, as when turned up by the plough. Hence it is
evident, that the benefit of the air, winter rains, and frofts,
on lands thus left, muft be only partial ; and that of courfe
the harrowing it in the fpring, efpecially when the latter of
thefe are over, is too late for its receiving the full benefits
which might otherwife have accrued from them, and the
power of promoting vegetation not being nearly fo great:
“Therefere, to make winter fallows as fine as poflible in au-
ttumn, and ridge them up in that pulverized ftate, is acting
molt agreeably to nature; the greateft poffible quantity of
furface being thereby expofed to the atmofphere, and the
Jand left in the {tate wherein the rains and the frofts are moft
_ eafily admiffible ; they are confequently more capable of pe-
netrating and enriching the whole mafs to a much greater
extent. By this means, too, a larger proportion of atmo-
fpheric air is involved and incorporated with the mould, and
of courfe a more perfe& degree of aération effeGted. It is
contended, that it has been invariably found, that the froft
penetrates a quantity of earth, formed into a large hard
clod, only partially, on account of its bulk and hardnefs,
and that the fame clod broken into four parts would be
thereby penetrated four times.as much, or, in other words,
that four times the quantity of earth would be affected, and
on athaw be pulverized by it: for it is always found, after
the breaking up of a fevere froft, that all the {mall clods
crumble eafily into powder, while the large ones are only
flightly reduced by the crumbling off of a portion of their
external furfaces. It is fuggefted, that there cannot be
much doubt but that by reducing fuch ftiff, adhefive foils,
as require fallowing well, on their being firlt ploughed up,
great advantages in the way of pulverization may be ac-
eomplifhed, as in the {pring and fummer months they are
apt to cake, and become fo hard and lumpy as to be wrought
with difficulty But in order fully to afcertain the utility
of this method of preparing fallows, one half of a field of
ten acres was left as nearly of an equal quality as poffible,
in the rough {tate after ploughing; while the other was
made very fine, by harrowing and beating in pieces any large
hard clods which the harrows could not reduce. Inthe fol-
lowing {pring it was obferved, that that part which had
been harrowed was much finer without any additional
working, than the other could be rendered by repeated har-
rowings. It is confequently concluded, that upon mott
forts of itiff, clayey foils, where fullowing becomes necef-
fary, the firft ploughings fhould be giyen, if poffible, before
the commencement of the winter featon, and that they fhould
alfo be well reduced by means of harrowing, in order to
promote the decay of fuch vegetable matters as may be
upon the furface of the land, as well as to promote a more
complete ftate of pulverization and aération of the foil at
the time. This is often moft ufefully performed by
gathering up the ridges, as in that way the ground is
not oply laid more dry, but the furrows more’ effectually
opened for the draining off of the injurious moifture.
_ In the fecond ploughing in the fpring, which is generally
before the crofs-ploughing is given, thefe ridges ought to
he cloven or turned back again, and after lying a fuitable
length of time, be well harrowed down for feveral times, and
occafionally rolled, that fufficient opportunity may be given
to collect and remove every fort of weed that may be

brought up to the furface of the ground. After this
bufinefs has been properly performed, the land may be again
ridged up by means of the plough, by which it is rendered
lefs affeéted by wetnefs, and the portions of foil that had
not been touched in the crofs-ploughing ftirred. In this
way a perfectly clean fallow may foon be produced in moft
cafes. It has, however, been maintained by fome writers
who have had much’ opportunity of examining the matter,
that ploughing only is neceflary ; the colle&ting the roots of
the weeds -and removing them being ufelefs and improper.
But in the ftiffer forts of clayey, wet foils, where we have
conceived the fallowing fyftem to be chiefly occafionally
neceflary, it is almoft impoflible to get perfe@tly clear of
different forts of root weeds in this way, from the cloddy
manner in which fuch lands break up inthe eperation of the
different ploughings, the earthy lumps often containing
many that are not in the lealt degree injured in their power
of taking root, by the heat to which they have been ex-
pofed under fuch ploughings of the land.

In thefe cafes; they can only perhaps be effe€@tually eradi-
cated and deftroyed, by the high degree of pulverization that
may be accomplithed’ by means of frequent harrowings and
rollings;'the weeds being afterwards carefully removed by the
hand. In this:way there may alfo frequently be a confiderable
faving of expence by the leffening of the number of plough-
ings. The froft in the winter months has alfo, as nas been
feen, amuch more powerful aGtiion where fuch redu@tions in
the clods of fuch foils have been effeGted. In fuch foils
there can feldom be any danger of their beiag made too fine
by operations of this nature, as the feed furrow, when
given fufficiently deep, conftantly leaves the land lumpy and
irregular enough for the purpoles of covering the grain,
and prote&ting the young plants during the feverity of the
winter feafon. The benefits of affording as high a degree
of pulverization or finenefs as poffible to the. land in the
management of this procefs, has been fully fhewn by the
refults of many well-conducted experiments.. The produce
of a field of barley and broad clover, one-half of which had
been prepared in the molt perfe& mode of fallowing, and
the other half in the common method, on being harvelted
and kept feparate, was in the followine proportions ; that
which had been ‘conducted in: the latter way ouly affording
twenty-four bufhels to the acre, while the former yielded
thirty-one, ‘and the grain confiderably better in quality.

There was alfo an equal fuperiority.in the clover crop the
fucceeding year ; that on the moft perfectly-prepared part
being heavier by nearly half a toa on the acre. _In addition
to this, it cannot have efeaped obfervation, that in large
fields of wheat, where, from accident or other caufes, fome
portions of them have received more frequent ploughings
than others, that in thefe parts the crops generally appear,
for a great length of time, more perfect and promifing thar
on the other parts. f

There is another mode of performing this procefs, which
has lately been praétifed in fome places, which is to plongh
th: land over firit with a deep, broad, clean furrow, in a dry
feafon in the autumnal months, leaving it in this fate till
the early {pring, when, immediately after the feed period,
it fhould be harrowed down as fine as. it can be made, clear-
ing off all the couch and other refufe matters at the fame
time, and confuming them by fire.. Then ploughing the
land in exaGtly the fame direétion back again, breaking the
root weeds as little as poflible ; after which letting it be
well harrowed over-again in the lengthways of the ridges,
as croffing them would be injurious ; collecting and buraing
the whole of the refufe materials as before. In this loofened
condition of the foil, a powerful cultivator or {earifier is to

4 be

FALLOWING.

be immediately paffed in the crofs direction of the ridges
and furrows to the full depth of the plough, by which
meaus the roots of the couch and other weeds will in a great
meafure be drawn out at length, without being much
broken, andthe lumpy parts be brought to the furface to be
reduced by the action of the harrows afterwards. When
not fufficiently broken down and cleared by thefe operations,
the fcarifier and harrows mult be again had recourfe to as
before ; and when the root-weeds have been collected and
burnt, any clods that may remain on the furface may be
fully reduced by rolling, and afterwards another harrow-
ing.

me this way it is found that in the fouleft landa perfe€ly
clean fallow may be made. In the execution of the bufi-
nels, however, much depends upon the work being per-
formed when the land is in a proper dry condition, as when
wet it cannot be done to advantage. The harrewing fhould
be fo managed as to have the refufe weedy matters in fuch
a fituation as not to prevent the whole of the land from
being operated upon, and as well as the [carifying be exe-
cuted as foon as poffible after it is left light by the fecond
ploughing. The fearifier, though an excellent tool for
this purpofe, cannot indeed perform its work properly,
except when the foil is in this loofe {tate of mould. Where
this implement is to be ufed, there fhould never be any crofs
ploughing made, as that renders it incapable of performing
its work in the moft effeGtual manner. And where the
land is inclined to the retention of moifture, it fhould be
well drained to prevent the itagnation of water upon it, as
it would thereby be greatly injured during the winter feafon.
By this method of preparing a fallow, the foil is reduced
into a fine flate of mould, and rendered perfectly free from
weeds, without having its parts fo much expofed to the in-
fluence of the atmofphere as to rob it of a large portion of
its fertility.

In Effex, and many other diftriéts where the foils are very
ftiff and heavy, it is ufual to plough the tallow lands over a
great number of times, frequently even eight or ten, in
different direétions, in order that they may be rendered
perfeétly clean and mellow. In fome cafes the firft plough-
ing is given deep before Chriftmas, then two clean crofs
ploughings early in the fpring; after this the land is
ploughed up into ridges er ftitches of different breadths,
according to circumiftances, then fplit out again, and laftly
ploughed back for the feed furrow ; different harrowings
being praétifed in the times between the feveral plough-
ings.

In the fecond volume of «Communications to the Board
of Agriculture,”? Mr. Headrick {peaks of a mode of fallow-
ing by drills, invented by Mr. John M‘Kenzie of Glafgow,
which, he fays, is certainly the beft of any yet attempted by
the plough, either for levelling cold-bottomed ridges, or
for pulverizing ftubborn clay-foils already in a level ftate ;
but it requires confiderable dexterity in the ploughman.
In performing this operation, the water furrows, he obferves,
are firlt gone round, and ploughed in on each fide, fo as to
form a drill, when the third fur-flice from the rut thus made,
on éach fide is raifed, and thrown upon the fecond: this a
filful ploughman can do by his eye with great exadtnefs ;
but if he cannot truft his eye, he may have a crofs fpar nailed
on the beam of his plough to mark ont the diftance from
the former rut at which a flice ought to be raifed. As the
plough only itirs a third of the land by this firft operation,
it may go over about three acres in one day, laying it all
dry, and in a condition to be fallowed ever after, in the
wetteft weather that cattle can work, without any danger
of pgaching. After the land is thus marked out, the cat-

tle ever after walk in the ruts between the drills, and hence
their feet never poach the flirred land. We have then, fays
he, got the third fur-flice, from the rut at which the opera-
tion commenced, raifed and laid upon the fecond, while the
firft and fecond remain unttirred, and the firft is alfo un-
covered. The plough, in its fecond paflage, throws the
firft flice upon the back of the third, previoufly laid upon
the top of the fecond. This converts all the land into red
earth, and the third paflage of the plough ftirs the remain-
ing fecond fur-flice, with the third that refts upon it throw
ing them in the fame direGtion. Thus all the land is ftirred,
and aflumes the appearance of three-furred drills, the
equality and neatnefs of which depend much upon the ac-
curacy of the firft operation in marking them out. The land
may now be wrought either backwards or forwards, as may be
neceflary, to bring it to a complete level, the horfes all the
while walking inthe bottoms of the ruts between the drills.
The figure annexed, (in Plate Agriculture, Fallow-
ing) No. 1, is the feétion of a ridge to be levelled,
or, if the land be already level, it is a bout or ftritch
of land that has undergone the firft operation of drill fallow,
If it be a ridge, the water furrows, a, a, are firft plough-
ed in, fo as to form fingle bout drills; then the third fur-
flice from the rut on each fide is raifed by the plough,
and laid upon the fecond, and this is continued until the
whole ridge or ftritch is marked out. This lays the land
perfeétly dry, having a rut at every third furrew. Figure
No. 2 is the fame land, after being twice gone threugh with
the plough. In this fecond operation the fur-flice, No. 4,
is ftirred, and all the land becomes red earth; becaufe,
though No. 2 yet remains unftirred, it was previoufly covered
by No. 3. Figure No. 3 is the fame land after the third
ploughing. In this No 2 is ftirred, and the whole foil
is now moved by the plough. The land now afflumes the
appearance of three furred drills. If it be now level, the
drills may be reduced by a brake-harrow, and marked out
again in fome other direction, fo as to have the effeét of
crofs-ploughing ; only the direction muft be fuch, that
the water may be difcharged from them. In this way the
land may be ploughed in various directions, and wrought in
drills during the whole courfe of a fallow. This mode of
fallow, it is obferved, caufes a violent vegetation of weeds,
becaufe, by ex pofing more furface to the air, it brings more
of their feeds within that diitance from the atmofpherical in-
fluence, where their vegetation commences. By ara
only one fur-flice out of three at a time, every flice has ful
opportunity of meliorating by the influence of the fun and
air before another is thrown upon its back ; it alfo renders
the fallow wholly independent of exceflive rains; which often
render fallowing impra¢ticable. When the land is brought to
a perfect level, the weeds fhould be deftroyed by a ftrong
brake-harrow dragged acrofs the drills This will reduce the
land toa fmooth furface, in'which ftate it may be allowed
to remain until more weeds fpring up; but if exceffive rains
fhould furprife the land in this ftate, a plough can be: fent
through to mark out new drills as before, which will render
the whole dry. In fallowing, he fays, crofs-ploughing is
effentially requifite to cut the roots of weeds in an oppofite
direGion, and to prefent new furfaces of the foil to the air.
Now, by this mode of fallow, crofs-ploughing can be ef-
fedted with greater advantage by drills crofling the former,
and marked out after the land is laid fmeoth by the brake :
fuch drills fhould always be fo drawn as to difcharge the wa-~
ter. Thus a field may be ploughed in feveral different di«
rections, always keeping it in drills, and remain, independent
of the weather. After land is crofs-ploughed in the ordinary
way, it often happens that excellive rains render it a perfeét
mire,

FALLOWING.

mire, and it is frequently unworkable during that feafon.
In the fallow by drills, this, the writer thinks, can have no
place; and fhould the weather be too wet, at the time it
comes to be ridged, to admit of fmoothing the drills, the
ridges can be formed of a certain number of drills thrown
together. In executing this mode of fallow, care fhould be
taken always to make the furrows clean, fo that no clods
or earth may fall back and caufe water to ftagnate in the
ruts. When very high ridges are fuddenly levelled by this
mode of fallow, it is obvious that the good foil will be
buried down, as happens in every mode of levelling with
the plough; but the frefh foil that is turned up, being
brought in fucceffion within the influence of the atmofphere,
and always worked in drills, is much fooner meliorated than
by the method of clofe ploughing. If,, however, the ridges
be very high, it is fafeft to {plit and reduce them confiderably
in the courfe of cropping, previous to their being effectually
- Tevelled. When the levelling at laft commences, it is proper
to get through as much of it as poflible before winter,
that the new foil which is turned up may receive the benefit
of the froft. With thefe precautions high ridges levelled by

a drill fallow will difcover no inequality in their fubfequent .

fertility. Itis hardly neceffary to obferve, that in all modes
of levelling high ridges the old water furrows fhould be
raifed fomewhat higher than the old crowns of the ridges ;
asthe foil in the former, being very loofe, fubfides, and if
not in fufficient quantity would again become a hollow.

It is further remarked, that, in many parts of the Lo-
thians, they have a practice fomewhat fimilar to this mode of
fallow, of ribbing the land that is intended for barley before
winter fets in. This is done by laying one fur-flice upon
another, which remains unftirred, and it divides the whole
land into very narrow drills. Thefe keep it perfeétly dry
during winter, and admit the froft to the bottom of the foil.
On clay lands, and fuch as have a cold bottom, this is found
to be very beneficial, for barley does not thrive orfuch foils
unlefs they be finely pulverized in the mould.

This mode of fallowing is probably beft adapted to the
bringing of fuch lands as have been in the ftate of watte
into a condition fit for the growth of grain crops.

When dung is applied on the fallows, it is generally laid
on, Mr. Donaldfon fays, about the end of Auguit, imme-
diately after the laft ploughing has been given ; but in many
cafes, where the foil is naturally good, it is forborne till the
fecond enf{uing crop, as it is found that the firft crop is in
danger of being too rank, and of courfe lodged before it is
ripe, if the land be dunged the fame year that it is in fummer
fallow.

It has been remarked, that though the advantages that
have been ftated to arife from the perfeé& pulverization,
aeration, and cleannefs, occafioned by fummer fallowing in
thofe foils where it has been found to be occafionally re-
quifite, can feldom be fo fully obtained by other methods of
cultivation; yet as that method is conftantly attended with
a heavy expence to the farmer, and as many of the benelits
that are produced by it may be effected by the repeated par-
tial fallowings that muft occur in the hoe-culture of different
foris of crops, it fhould be conftantly the aim of the farmer,
where the climate will admit of it, to leffen the neceflity of
fummer fallowing even on the wet clayey as well as the light
kinds of foil, by the judicious interpofition of fuch forts of
clofe, thick, green crops, as can be grown and cultivated
on them under the hoe fyitem. This is {till more neceffary,
on account of the lofs that muit be fuftained from the land
oftenremaining fucha greatlengthoftime totally unproductive
where the fallowing procefs is going on, It cannot, indeed,
be difputed, but that the practice of fummer fallowing may

be greatly leffened in many diftri€ts by the proper fubftituting
of green fallows, or what are termed fallow crops, fuch as
beans, peas, cabbages, tares, and rape for the heavier forts
of land; and buck wheat, potatoes, and turnips, for fuch
as are of the lighter kind. It is likewife maintained as a
faét, that where large and luxuriant crops of thefe prepara-
tory kinds are grown, thofe by which they are fucceeded
the following feafon are for the moft part ftill larger, fo
that the lands are more improved by large crops than fuch
as are poor. - This amelioration or increafe of fertility has
been attiibuted to different caufes: as the prevention of
evaporation from the foil by the fhade produced by fuch
large crops 3 the putrefaction of the various vegetable mat-
ters, which may be more abundant after fuch large crops,
taking place more completely and more effe¢tuaily under
uch circumftances; and laftly, to the repeated pulveriza
tion and aération that are produced by the different hoei
but it is probable that advantages may be derived in each
of thefe ways, as well’as from the carbonic acid or fixed air
that is afforded by the fhaded leaves of the plants being de-
pofited upon or united with the foil. That the melioration
in fuch cafes muft depend on caufes of this kind there can be
little doubt, as much of the nutritious properties of the land
muit obvioufly have been confumed during the growth of
fuch crops, which muft have been again reftored to it by
fome fuch procefles. But in whatever manner this effect
may be produced, as it is conftantly found that land is in a
better condition, and when turned up ina more friable and
mellow flate after fuch crops as are large, than thofe that
are poor and light; it is of courfe evident, that if ground
can be covered with {mothering crops of the fallow kind, or
thofe that will admit of frequent pulverization by means of
the plough or hoe, foas to keep it ¢lean and free from the
growth of ufelefs plants, it may be more beneficial to the
farmer, not only for the fake of the immediate crop, but
alfo on account of the increafe of manure produced by fuch
means, and the advantageous condition of the land for the
reception of fuch crops as may be afterwards cultivated upon
it. In thefe different views, as well as thofe that have been
already mentioned, the introduCtion of green crops of fome
fort orother fhould probably be more frequently attempted
on all defcriptions of foils ; .and it would feem probable, that
on the ftiff and heavy. kinds of land, from its having been
found, that in many well cultivated diftri@s, by the srow-
ing of proper leguminous crops in drills or rows, fo as to
admit of the ground between them being frequently ftirred,
either by means of the plough or the hoe, fuch kinds of
land, after they have been once well cleaned by a fummer
fallow, may-be kept perfeétly clean and in fuitable tilth for
the production of good grain crops; they may be much
more generally had recourfe to than has commonly been the
cafe: but on fuch forts of land great attention is neceflary to
introduce fueh kinds of green crops as are adapted to them,
and that as little injury as poflible be done by the treading of
animals in the feeding them upon or taking them from the
ground. But as neither the full effe@s of pulverization or
aération, nor the complete deftru€tion of root weeds, can
in fome cafes he fo perfeGly obtained by the cultivation of
fallow crops as by the making of naked fummer fallows, it
may be advantageous to the farmer to have recourfe to them
occafionally with thefe intentions on the heavy and moré
wet forts of land, as well as thofe that have been injured
by improper methods of cropping, as is frequently the cafe
in particular diftis,

Yet though fallowing may be ufeful and neceffary in
altering the textures of particular kiads or qualities of foils,
there are numerous facts that thew, in the moit clear and

fatisftaftery

ISS 3

FAL

fatisfactory manner, that great injury and difadvantage are
often the refult of expofing land in its naked ftate too. much
to the aétion of light and heat, as happens in the fallow
procefs, and which can only be avoided by having recourse
to fheltering crops of the green kind.

FALLUM, infome of our Law, Lexicographers, is faid
to be a fort of land ; and for proof of this, they quote the
Monafticon Anglicanum. De duobus acris et yiginti
fallis in, &c.”? Jacob. But fremthis paflage it would ra-
ther feem that fallum fignified a meafure* of, land as well as
acra. Andto this day a fall isa meafure of length in Scot-
land.

FALMOUTH, in Geography, a market, and, fea-port
town in the hundred of Kerriar, and county of Cornwall,
England, is feated beneath a high hill, on the fouthern
fhore of a harbour, which has long been noted for the fafe
accommodation it affords to fhipping in tempeftuous weather,
having fufficient depth to contain the largeit veilels, and be-
ing defended by the two caftles of Pendennis, and St. Maw’s.
About two ceuturies paft, Falmouth confilted of only a few
fifhing huts, till increafing in population it .was known as

the village of Smithwick, but at did not, acquire. its, prefent _

name till the reftoration, when the king iflued a proclama-
tion that it fhould, after the 20th of Auguit 1660, be called
by the name of Falmouth, and granted it a charter of incor-
poration in the following year, by the defcription of ‘ our
town of Falmouth.” » By this charter the government was
vefted in a mayor, aldermen and burgefles ;, and the ptivi-
leges of amarket and two fairs were granted, ,. The new
town gradually extended: in 1664 the houfes amounted
to two hundred ; in 169: they, were three hundred and fifty 5
and in 1801 they were returned, as four hundred and fixty-
eight, inhabited by three thoufand fix hundred and eighty-
four perfons, included within the boundaries of the town.
Previous to the year 1664;almouth was part of the chapel-
ry of Budock and parifh of Gluvias ;, but was, by an act
paffed in that year, feparated and made a diltin@ parifh,
Such were the origin and growth of Falmouth. Its im-
provement and progrefs during the laft century, have, in a
confiderable degree, been conneéted with the eftablifhment
of the packet-boats here for Spain, Portugal, and the
Weft Indies. Fromthe facilities thefe veflels have afforded
to the merchants, of tranf{porting their refpective commodi-
ties, and receiving returns;in a fhort time,. the commerce of
the town has very much increafed, and it is now the refi-
dence of many opulent families. ‘The houfes are principal-
ly difpofed in one ftreet, nearly a mile in length, and run-
ning by the fide of the beach. ‘The quay is exceedingly
convenient, as the water will admit veilels of confiderable
burthen to land their goods upon the wharf. The cultom-
houle and falt-office for moft of the Cornifh towns are efta-
blifhed at Falmouth. Great quantities of gold, both in
fpecie and in bars, are brought into this port by the packets
an Spain and Portugal. The pilchard trade has likewife
been afource of much emolument. Falmouth is fituated
273 miles S. W. from London : has good markets on Tuef-
days, Thurfdays, and Saturdays ; and two annual fairs. At
the eaftern extremity of the town {lands Arwinnick houfe,
the ancient manfion’ of the Killegrew family.

On the wettern fide of Falmouth harbour Pendennis caftle
occupies the brow of a hill, which forms a peninfula be-
tween the Britifh channel and this harbour, and appears to
rife from the bay like an ifland. The fertrefs is proudly
‘exalted ona rock upwards of three hundred feet above the
fea, and, from its elevated fituation, has a complete com-
mand over the entrance to the bay. he fortifications are

“ef anirregular fhape, including an area of rather more than

‘

EyAy L,

three acres.. On the north, or land front, the hill is defend-
ed by four cavaliers, mounted with feventy pieces of cannon,
in excellent order, and ata fhort diflance are fome traces of
ahornjand crown-work, which was conftruéted in thefime
of Oliver Cromwell. The banks and ditch of |the, citadel
ftall remain,-the fituation of which was admirably calculated
to protect the caftle from. the approach of an enemy over
the ifthmus. On the eaft face is an half-moon battery.;
and clofe tothe water’s edge another battery of five ZUNsy
called the Crab quays, On the fouth the hill flopes to the
fea, and formsa kind of natural clacis. Within the works
are. barracks for troops, and various ftore-houles|and maga-
zines ;. and.in the fouth »part of the garrifon itands. the old
caftle, built: in the reign of Henry VIII, It conliils
wholly of granite, and oyer the door-way are the, arms of
that. monarch. ,The works were afterwards ftrengthened
and enlarged; by, queen, Elizabeth, but have undergoue
many alterations and. repairs of late years.) | vol

On. the eafterm fide of Falmouth harbour, is,St Maw’s
caftle,, oppofite to. Pendennis, to which it is yery inf riory
both in fize and fituation, though ereéted neatly:jat| the
fame time, and by the fame, monarch. The works are
completely commanded by a hill, which rifes immediately
behind it.The adjoining hamlet, honoured, with the
appellation of Borough town, and reprefented. by two
members, confilts of fcarcely twenty houles, inhabit-
ed only by a few fifhermen; and has neither church,
chapel, or meeting-houfe. The chief, magillrate is, the

ortreye, who. js complimented with the title, of mayors
Polwhele’s Hiftory, &c. of Cornwall, 4to. Le

Fatmowtn Harbours on the fouth coatt of Cornwall,
is a conliderable extent of creeks and inland waters, forming
a fafe harbour for fhips of the royal navy, and others, the
fartheft of any in England towards the fouth-weft. The
towns of Falmouth, Penryn, Tracilian-bridge, Truroy
Tregony, St. Maw’s, and. others, are fituate near to thefe-
waters. The eaftern fide of the main harbour is deep and
commodious for large) fhips,. which go) up, as, far as Kea:
the weflern branches to Pcrran and Mylor-bridge are flal+
low, and only navigable for barges. The, Falmouth
tram-road conneéts with this harbour at Reflonguet and
at Pile.

Fatmourn Zram Road, in Cornwall, is one of thofe
branches of inland communications which have been cariied
into effeG& fince our general account of thefe important
eftablifhments were prefented to cur readers in the article,
Canau. It,was couftru@ed without an aét of parliament,
inthe year 1806. at the expence of Meffrs. Fox and Co. ;
Vivian and Co.; Ralph Allen Daniel, efg. and others, ac-
cording toa furvey made by Mr. Mofs, an engineer. This
tram-road has a courfe of nearly ten miles, almofl in a NW.
direGion; it commences at two.points, viz. the Pile and Re-
ftonguet fhipping wharfs, in Falmouth harbour, (above) and
proceeds by a regular inclination, (fteep, inclined. planes
being akon lea to the copper-mines, near Camborne,
to which mines a recent tram-road has alio been conitructed
from Portrath harbour on the north coaft of the county.
The fhelly fand with which this coaft abounds is now, by
thefe tram-roads, carried cheaply up into the interior of the
county, by-which the agriculture thereof cannot fail of
being much improved, as well as the mines, which thus re-
ceive coals to work their fteam-engines, aud fend down t cir
ore for exportation to the coal diftriéts of South. Wi CS
where it is {melted and manufactured. — — ~

Faumoutn, a townhhip of America, formerly including.
Portland couuty, in Cumberland county, Maine, containing

3422 inhabitants. It is fituated on Caler bay, 120 mik
: ENE.

FAL
N.N.E. of Bofton, and was incorporated in 1718:— Alfo,

a townfhip in Hants county, Nova Scotia ; fituated on the
S.E. fide of the bafin of Minas, oppofite to Windfor, 28
miles N. W. of Halifax—Alfo, a maritime poft-town, in
Barnftaple county, Maffachufetts, fituated on the N.E.
part of the Vineyard Sound, on the weit fide of the bay of
its name; 77 miles S.E. by S. of Bofton. About 60 vel-
fels are employed in this town, fome as fithing veflels, others
coafters, and more than 30 for carrying lumber to the fouth-
ern ftates, and Weft India iflands. 1t was incorporated in
1686, and contains 1882 inhabitants. N. lat. 41° 33!
W. long. 70° 35’.—Alfo, a poft-town in Stafford county,
Virginia, fituated on the north bank of Rappahanock river,
almoft oppofite to Frederickfburg. It contains an epifco-
pal church, and about 40 compact houfes; 23 miles S.W.
of Dumfries, and 207 fouth-wefterly of Philadelphia. Con-
fiderable quantities of tobacco are infpected here.—Alfo, a
town in Lancafter county, Pennfylvania, on the S.E. fide
of Conawago creek, 20 miles weiterly of Lancafter.—Alfo,
atown and harbour on the fouth shore of theifland of An-
tigua ; having Enghifh harbour on the E., and Rendezvous
bay on the W., and fituated in St. Paul’s parifh, at the
N.W. corner of the harbour, which is well fortified. N. lat.
17° 9!.. W. long. 61° 28'—Alfo, a town of Jamaica,
more commonly called the ‘ Point ;’’ fituated on the S.
fide of Martha-Brae harbour, and including the adjoining
villazes of Martha-Brae and the Rock, and containing
220 houfes. This town and its vicinity have been wonder-
fully increafed; for in 1771 the three villages of Martha-
Brae, Falmouth, and the Rock, contained together but
18 houfes, and the veflels which entered annually at the port
of Falmouth did not exceed ten. It has fince boafted of
upwards of 30 capital ftationed fhips, which load for Great
Britain, exclufively of floops and fmaller craft. N. lat.
18°31'. W.long. 77° 31'.—Alfo, a {mall low ifland inthe
Chinefe fea. N. lat. 11°. E. long. 112° 12’.

FALONICHI, or Firanrxe, a large town towards
the eaftern coaft of the ifland of Majorca, containing near
6000 inhabitants, in which the monks of St. Augultine
have built a handfome monatftery : the land about it is rich
and fertile. The inhabitants procure more corn than is
fufficient for their own confumption, and have, befides,
large herds of cattle, and furnifh the ifland with excellent
brandy.

FALOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 50
miles E, S. E, of Sultanpour.

FALSA Quinta, Jtal. in Mujfic, falfe sth.
Semi-DiaPenrve.

FALSE Riss, in Anatomy, are the five inferior ones on
each fide, and are diftinguithed from the true ribs by not
having their cartilages articulated to the flernum. See
Trunk.

Fase Bay, in Geography, a bay to the eaft of the Cape
of Good Hope, and frequented by fhips during the preva-
lence of N. W. winds, which begin to blow in May,
and make it dangerous to lie in Table bay. S. lat. 34° 10!.
E. long. 18° 30’.—Alfo, a bay on the weft coalt of the
northermoft ifland of New Zealand. S. lat. 36° 33’.
W. long. 185° 38'. ;

Farse Cape, or Falfa, the E. point of Falfe bay, E.
of the Cape of Good Hope. S. lat, 34° 16’. E. long.
18° 44’—Alfo, a cape, called Falfe Point, on the FE.
coatt of Hindooftan, at the mouth of the river Mahanada.
N. lat. 20° 20/,. E. long. 86° 48/.—Alfo, a cape on the
S. coaft of Hifpaniola, a little W. of Cape Beata.—Alfo,
a cape on the coaft of Yucatan, in the bay ef Honduras.
N. lat. 20° 52'. W. long. 87. 45!.

Vou. XIV.

See

F-A L

Fause Cape Horn, the fouth-weftern point of Terra del
Fuego.

Fause J/land, an ifland in the bay of Bengal, near the
coaft of Ava, N. lat. 18°. E. long. 94° 15/.

Fause River, one of the mouths of the Ava.

Fase Alarm, in War. See Avarm.

Fause Arms, in Heraldry, are thofe wherein the
fundamental rules of the art are not obferved: as if metal be
put on metal, or colour on colour. See Arms.

Faust Aliack, in War. See Atracx, Falf.

Fase Braye, in Fortification. See Faussesrave.

Faust Claim, in the Fore? Laws, is where a man
claims more than his due, and is amerced or punifhed for
the fame.

Fause Conception.” See Conception.

Fase Flower, a flower which does not feem to produce
any fruit, asthofe of a hazel, mulberry-tree, &c.

A: flower of this kind does not arife from any embryo,
and does not knit ; fuch are the male flowers of the melon,
cucumber, &c.

Fause Galena. See Buinp and Gacena.

Farse Gallep, in the Manege. See Garror.

Fase Imprifonment, in Law, is a trefpafs committed
againft a man, by imprifoning him without fufficient autho-
rity ; which authority may arife either from fome procefs
from the courts of juflice, or from fome warrant from a
legal officer, having power to commit, under his hand
and feal, and exprefling the caufe of fuch commitment
(2 Inft. 46.) ; or from {ome other fpecial caufe, warranted,
on account of the neceflity of the thing, either by common
Jaw, or act of parliament; fuch as the arrefting of a felon
by a private perfon without warrant, the imprefling of ma-
riners for the public fervice, or the apprehending of wag-
goners for mifbehaviour in the public highways. (Stat. 13
Geo. III. cap. 78.) _ Falfe imprifonment alfo may arife
by executing a lawful warrant or procefs on an unlawful
day, as ona Sunday, (tat. 29 Car. Il. cap. 7. Salk. 78.
5 Mod. gs.) or in a place privileged from arretts, as in the
verge of the king’s court. The means of removing the
aétual injury of falfe imprifonment are fourfold ; viz. by a
writ of mainprize, by writ de odio & atia, by writ de ho-
mine replegiando, and by writ of habeas corpus. The fa-
tisfaGtory remedy for this injury is by an ation of trefpafs,
vi &} armis, ufually called ‘an ation of falle imprifon-
ment ;”? which is generally, and almoft unavoidably, ac-
companied with a charge of affault and battery alfo ; and
therein the party fhall recover damages for the injury he has
received ; and alfo the defendant is, as for all other injuries
committed with force, or vi & armis, liable to pay a fine to
the king for the violation of the public peace.

Fauss Judgment. See Farso Judicio.

Fause Kee/, ina hip, is a fecond keel, which is fome-
times put under the firlt, to make the veflel deeper, and to
preferve the lower fide of the main keel. In our largeit
fhips of war the falfe keel is generally compofed of two
pieces, which are called the upper and the lower falfe keels.
See Kesv.

Faust Muffer, is when fuch men pafs in review, as are
not a€iually lifted as foldiers. See Faccort, &c.

Fass News, /preading of, iv order to make difcerd be-
tween the king and nobility, or concerning any great mar
of the realm, is punifhable by common Jaw with fine and
imprifonment (2 Init. 226. 3 Init. 198.) ; which is con-
firmed by ftatutes Weitm. 1. 3 Edw. I. cap. 34. 2 Ric. II.
ftat. 1. cap. 5. & 12) Ric. II. cap. 11.

Fauss Oath. See Perysury.

Faust, or Fale Pofiien, in arithmetic. See Position.

Q Fauss

Freed

Faxsy Prophecies. See PROPHECIES.

Fase Quarters of a Horfe. See Falfe Quarters.

Faust Relation, in Mufic. In the beginning of coun-
terpoint, before the ear was tired with confonance, every
perfect concord, rendered fharp or flat, was called falfe rela-
tion, “ and abfolutely forbidden.” (See Pepuich, p. 8.)
Such as the flat sth and fhatp 4th; but at prefent thofe
intervals produce effects more agreeable to the ear, than in
their moft perfeét ftate ; even a flat and fharp unifon and
oGave have been fuccefsfully hazarded by Emanuel Bach,
Haydn, and Muzart. f

Fause Roof of a Houfe, is that part between the upper
xoom and the covering.

Farse Return. Ona falle return by a mayor, &c. toa
mandamus, or by a fheriff, &c. toa wnt, a {pecial action
on the cafe will lie. See Manpamus.

Farse Root, is that of which the value is negative.
E. gr. in the equation a* + b’= x", if x be a negative
quantity as — 5, the root is faid te be falfe ; if it be a poli-
tive quantity it is called a real or true roat ; if it be the
root of a negative quantity, it is faid to be imaginary; as
nh x Se hee ier’

Favse Sheat, on board a fhip. See Surat.

Fause Stem, ina fhip. See Stem.

Fause Tokens, in Law, isufed where perfons get money
or goods in‘o their hands by forged letters, or other coun-
terfeit means. This is punifhable by imprifonment by {tat.
33 Hen. VIII. cap. 1. By 30 Geo. II. cap. 24. a farther

enalty is inflitted on thofe who obtain money or goods by
falfe tokens and pretences. See Cuears.

Fause Tone, in Mufic. Some call the interval of two
femi-tones major by this name ; but others more properly
eall it a diminifhed third.

Farse Verdid. See ATTAINT.

Fase Weights. See Weicurs.

FALSET, from Farserro, Jtal. a feigned voice, an
eftave above its natural pitch, to fupply the want of fopra-
nos or feeble voices. ‘ Before the year 1600, when Caf-
trati were firft employed in the fervice of the Papal chapel,
at Rome, to fing the foprano, or highelt part, it was the
euftom to have it performed by Spaniards in falfet.’? San-
tarelli, But long before that period, in early times of dif-
cant, the upper part ufed to be fung in falfet. Du+Cange
derives the word falfet from fau/etum, a term ufed, during
the middle ages, in the fame fenfe ; and this, he fuppofes,
from faucibus, whence the high tones of voice proceed.
Pipeth was fometimes ufed in a fimilar fenfe to exprefs
piping, or fuch high finging as imitated the found of pipes
or {mall flutes.

FALSHOOD, Fatsrry, in Philofophy, an a& of the
underftanding, reprefenting a thing otherwife than it is, as
to its accidents; ora falfe enunciation, or judgment of any
thing.

The circumftance, as to its accidents, is of abfolute ne-
eeffity in the definition, becaufe a thing cannot be repre-
fented otherwife than it is as to eflentials; for ia fuch cafe
the effence of the thing would not be reprefented ; and fince
the effénce is the thing itfelf, ic would not be that thing
which is reprefented, but another.

There is no falfhood in apprehenfion or fenfation ; our
ideas of fenfe are all juft and true, fo far as they go; and
all our delufions arife from our reafonings and conclufions
from them.

FALSI, Crimen, in the Civil Law, is a fraudulent
fubornation or concealment, with defign to darken or
hide the truth, and make things appear otherwife than
shey ares.

FAL

The crimen falfiis committed three ways. By words, as
when a witnefs {wears falfely, By writing, as when a man
frames or alters fomething, antedates a contract, or the
like. (See Forcery.) And by deed, as when he fells
by falfe weights and meafures, debafes the coin, &c.

FALSIFY, in Law, is ufed for proving any thing to
be falfe. Hence we find

FALSIFYING a Record, for fhewing it to be errone-
ous. Thus lawyers teach, that a perfon_purchafing land of
another, who is afterwards outlawed of-felony, &c. may
falfify the record, not only as to the times wherei the felony
is fuppofed to have been committed, but alfo as to the
point of the offence, But where a man is found guilty
by verdiét, a purchafer cannot falfify as to the wears
though he may for the time where the party is found guilty
generally in the indi€tment, becaufe the time is not mate»
rial upon evidence. 2 Hawk. Pl. Crown, 459. We allo
meet with

Fausrryinc a Recovery. Thus, it is faid, the iffue in
tail may falfify a recovery fuffered by a tenant for life, &c.
And alfo the terms of falfifying an attainder, the coin,
judgment, &c. occur. See the feveral articles.

FALSO-Borpone. See Faux-Bourpon. Plain mue
fic, of note againft note, with which the pfalms and can-
ticles are often chaunted. But the Italians particularly
{lyle falfo-bordone a masner of finging in three parts, com-
pofed of a fucceffion of 8ths, 3ds, and 6ths.

Faxrso Judicio, in Law, a writ which lies for falfe judg~
ment, given in the county-court, court-baron, or other
court, not of record.

Farso Retorno Brevium, a writ which lies againft the
fheriff, who has execution of procefs, for making falfe re-
turns of writs.

FALSTER, in Geography, an ifland of Denmark, fitu-
ated at the entrance of the Baltic, S. of Zealand, from
which it is feparated only by a narrow fea; about 60 miles
in circumference, very fertile, and abounding in game. The
principal towns are Nyekioping and Stublebtepiags N. lat.

° 50’. E.long. 12°.

FALSTERBO, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the pros
vince of Schonen, noted for its light-houfe and herring-
fifhery ; 22 miles 5.S.W. of Lund. N. lat. 55° 24’.
E. long. 12% 34".

FALVATERRA, a town of Italy, in the Campagna 5
15 miles S.E. of Frufinone.

FALUGA, a {mall ifland in the Mediterranean, near the
W. coalt of Sardinia; 12 miles S. of cape Argentera.—
Alfo, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the W. bank of the
Euphrates, whénce an arm of that river iffues to join the

Tigris; 25 miles S.E. of Bagdad.

FALUN. See Fantun.

Faun, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the lake
of Neufchatel, near Yverdun.

Fazun, a word ufed in many parts of France, as the name
of a particular fort of manure of lands, whichJs dug out of
the earth, and is no other than fragments of fea fhells
buried at. confiderable depths, and amafled in prodigious

ata.

—"

FAM

ftrata in many parts of that kingdom. Thefe they fpread
upon the lands in the manner of dung; and being as it
were calcined and very friable, they readily diffolve, and are
the fineft manure of any for fome foils.

FALX Crerepevri and Cerenrl, in Anatomy, are two
portions of dura mater, which feparate certain of the contents
of the cranium from each other. See Brain.

' Favx, the fickle-fi/h, in Ichthyology, a {mall fifh of the
tenia kind, common about the fhores of the. Mediterranean,
but feidom brought to fale, becaufe of its glutinous nature,
being wholly converted into a fort of glue when dreffed. It
is a foft and {mooth oblong fith, and has its name from re-
fembling a fickle in figure. It is often found an ell long,
and with that length is not above the breadth of one’s hand,
It is of a filvery colour, but its back-fin is red. Its eyes are
Jarge, and its head very ill-fhaped. The common people
» eall it the marmot-tfifh.

FAMAGULA, in Geography, a town of New Mexico ;

50 miles S.W. of Cinaloa.
. FAMAGUSTA, a fea-port of the ifland of Cyprus,
formerly called Arfinoe, after the name of the fifter of Pto-
Jemy Philadelphus, who is faid to have founded it. “It de-
‘ives its name Famaguita from Amocutta, q. d. built in the
Jfand, as it isfurrounded by athin fandy earth. It is fituated
onthe eaftern coaft of the ifland, is built on a rock, and is
about two miles in circumference. The walls are thick and
ftrong, and encompaffed by a deep cavity formed out of the
folid rock, and flanked by twelve enormoustowers. In the
interior part of the city there are a pharos, three batftions,
and arampart confifting of two rows of cannon, and alfo a
‘citadel. It was fortified in 1193 by Guy de Lufignan,
and poffefied by the Genoefe for near a century, by James
the Battard, and, laftly, by the Venetians. It has two
draw-bridges, one towards the land-fide, and another to-
wards the fea, which latter leads to the harbour, that is
narrow, and is fhut every morning by a chain fixed to one
of the ends of the pier. On the eaft it is defended by a
‘chain of rocks from the impetuous waves of the fea. In
this place the Lufignans were crowned kings of Jerufalem,
which cuftom continued till the Genoefe took the city ;
after which they in{talled themfelves fovercigns, both of
‘Cyprus and Jerufalem, in the cathedral of Nicofia. In the
tla century this city was taken by James the Battard,
after a fiege of three years, ftipulating that the Genoefe
laws fhould be preferved. In 1490 it fell again into the
hands of the Venetians, and was governed by a plenipoten-
tiary. In September, 1570, the bafhaw Muftapha, gene-
‘ral of fultan Selim, commenced the fiege of it; and in
April, 1571, encamped near the town. But it was vigor-
eully defended againft the united forces of the Ottoman em-
pire by a {mall band of valiant men, till at laft, in Auguft,
1571, it was compelled to furrender on honourable con-
ditions, which were batfely violated by Muftapha; who
caufed the brave Bragadin and his attendants to be
butchered without merey. ‘The Ottoman army confiited
of 200,000 men, whilft the citizens capable of bearing arms
amounted only to 4000. During the fiege, which lafted
ten mouths, the Turks fired 540,000 bombs; the remains
- of which are itill vifible in the adjacent gardens and fields,
and in the ditches which fnrround the city. N. lat. 35° 10'.
E. long.§3° 30’.
. FAM-CHAM, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Petcheli; 25 miles S.W. of Peking.

FAM-CHAN-POU-HOTUN, a town of Alia,.in the
kingdom of Corea ; 612 miles E.N.E. of Peking.

AMARS, a town of France, in the department of the
North; 3 miles S. of Valenciennes,

FAM

FAME, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, is
well underftood, and the love of it is a principle of very
powerful and extenfive influence, and needs only proper
direction and government in order to be as ufeful as it is
powerful,

Fame, in Mythology, was one of the ancient divinities.
Hetiod has defcribed her, but without giving her genea-
logy. She had an eftablifhed worfhip, efpecially at
Athens, as we learn from Paufanias (in Attic.) ; and a
temple, as Plutarch informs us in his life of Camillus. But
no figures or ftatues can exhibit this goddefs in ftronger
characters than the pi€ture drawn of her by Virgil :

«© Now Fame, tremendous fiend! without delay

Thro’ Libyan cities took her rapid way.
Fame, the fwift plague, that every moment grows,
And gains new ftretgth and vigour as fhe goes.
Firit {mall with fear, the {wells to wondrous fize,
And ftalks on earth, and tow’rs above the skies.
Whom, in her wrath to heav’n, the teeming earth
Produe’d the laft of her gigantic birth.
A moniter huge, and dreadful to the eye,
With rapid feet to run, or wings to fly.
Beneath her plumes the various fury bears
A thoufand piercing eyes and litlning ears,
And with a thoufand mouths and babbling tongues

appears. i
Thund’ring by night through heav’n and earth fhe flies,
No golden flumbers feal her watchful eyes:
On tow’rs or battlements fhe fits by day,
And fhakes whole towns with terror and difmay;
Alarms the world around, and perch’d on high
Reports a truth, or publifhes a lie”? &e. &c.

Pit’s Eneid, iv. 259, &c.

Ovid has alfo given a very fine picture of the fame god-
defs; and fome other poets have likewife exercifed their
poetical genius upon the fame fubje&t. From all thefe we
may infer, that Fame, like all the giants, was the daughter
of the Earth, who, to be avenged of the gods, and of Ju-
piter in particular, who had thunderitruck her children,
brought forth this monfter to blaze abroad their crimes, aud
make them khown to all the world; for Fame fpares nei-
ther gods nor men. The common reprefentation of Fame
exhibits her in a flying attitude, founding a trumpet, to de-
note the furprife, attention, and difcourfe fhe occafions;
with a flowing tobe, wrought all over with cyes, ears, and
tongues; the whole upper part of her wings is quite
ftudded, as it were, with eyes; and Virgil obferves that fhe
had an eye almoft under every feather.

FAMES Canina. See Beuinmy.

FAMIA, or Famren, in Geography, a town of Syria,
anciently called dpamea, where, according to Strabo, the
Seleucid had eltablithed the {chool and nurfery of their
cavalry. The foil of the neighbourhood, abounding if
pafturage, had no lefs than 30,000 mares, 300 ftallions, and
500 elephants ; intlead of which the marfhes of Famia at
prefent fcareely afford a few buffaloes and fheep. To the
veteran foldiers of Alexander, who here repoted after their
vidtories, have fucceeded wretched peafants, who live in
perpetual dread of the Turks, and the inroads of the Aras
bians ; go miles N. of Damafcus. N. lat. 35°. E. long.
36° 43’. Volney’s Travels, vol. ii.

Famia. See Parva.

FAMILIA, Famity, commonly implies all the fervaats
beloiging to a particular matter.

In another fenfe, family is taken for a portion of land,
wiz. fo much as is fuffigient to maintain one family.

Qz2 The

FAM

The term hide is by our writers fometimes rendered a
manfe, fometimes a family, and fometimes carucata, or
plough-land ; containing as much as one plough and oxen
cuuld cultivate ina year. See Hive.

Famizia, in Natural Hiflory, a term ufed by authors to
exprefs a certain order of animals, or other natural produc-
tions, agreeing in their principal characters, and containing
numerous individuals, not only different ‘rom one another,
that in whole fets, feveral numbers being to be colleG&ted out
of the fame family, all of which have the family character,
and all fome fubordinate diftinétion peculiar to that whole
number, or though found in every individual of it, not found
in thofe of any others.

It has been too common to confound the words clais,
family, order, &c. in natural hiftory. But the determinate
meaning of the word familia feems to be that larger order of
creatures, under which claffes and genera are fubordinate
diftin&ions. Among the quadrupeds, the feveral genera of
the unguiculated creatures agree one with another in many
general characters common to all; and in which they differ
from the ungulated animals, which have alfo their feveral
peculiar characters common to all, and yet different from all
thofe of the others. Thefe -naturally conftitute certain
larger divifions into families, and no one would ever break
through thefe, or bring the cat and the horfe into the fame
family.

In the fame manner, in Jchthyology, there are feveral genera
of fifhes, which agree perfeétly in certain common characters,
and difagree from all others in them.

The arrangement of natural bodies into thefe families, or
general and larger claffes, is of the utmoft ufe to natural
hiftory, when it is properly done, and the divifions are
genuine and natural ; when. otherwife, it is hurtful.

Thefe divifionsof animals into families are of two kinds, the
one artificial or hypothetical, the other natural.

In the fyftematic arrangement of organic toflils, particu-
larly of the relics of the plants of the primary race which
inhabited this globe or its waters, it is found impracticable
to afcertain the genera on the principles of Linné, owing
to the entire abfence of the parts of fructification ; hence
the families in the arrangement of fuch reliquia by Mr.
W. Martin (Outlines, &c. p. 187 and 202) anfwer in fome
degree, to the genera of recent plants, of which the foffil
remains make but one genus, viz. Phytolithus, which fee.

FAMILIARS of the Inquifition, perfons who affift in
apprehending fuch as are accufed, and carrying them to
prifon, They are aflitants to the inquifitor, and called
familiars, becaufe they belong to his family. In fome
provinces of Italy they are called crofs-bearers, and in others
the {cholars of St. Peter the Martyr ; and they wore a crofs
before them on the outfide garment. They are properly
bailiffs of the inquifition ; and the vile office is efteemed fo
honourable, that noblemen in the kingdom of Portugal have
been ambitious of belonging to it. Nor is this furprifing,
when it is confidered that Innocent III. granted very large
indulgences and privileges to thele familiars; and that the
fame plenary indulgence is granted by the pope to every
fingle exercife of this office, as was granted by the Lateran
council to thofe who fuccoured the Holy Land. When feveral
perfons are to be taken up at the fame time, thefe familiars
are commanded to order matters, that they may know nothing
of one another’s being apprehended ; and it is related, that
a father and his three fons, and three daughters, who lived
together in the fame honfe, were carried prifoners to the
inquifition without knowing any thing of one another’s being
there till feven years afterwards, when they that were alive

were releafed by an at ef faith, Geddeg’s Tracts, vol. i.

FAN

Pp: a 5s—429. Limborch’s Hift. of the Inquif. by Chandler,
Pp. 187.

FAMILY of Curves. See Family of Curves.

Famiy of Love, in Ecclefiaflical Hiffory, the name of an
anabaptilt feét, founded in Holland, in 1555, by Henry
Nicholas, a Weitphalian. This deluded fanatic maintained
that he hada commiffion from heaven to teach men, that the
effence of religion confifted in the feelings of divine love;
that all other theological tenets, whether they related to
objects of faith, or modes of worlhip, were of no moment ;
and that it was a matter of perfe@ indifference what opinions
Chriftians entertained concerning the Divine nature, provided
their hearts burned withthe pureand facred flame of piety and
love. Dr. Henry More wrote againtft this fect, in his “Grand
Explanation of the Myftery of Godlinefs,”? book vi. cap.
1z2—18. George Fox, the founder of the feét of quakers,
alfo expofed them, and called them a motley tribe of fanatics,
becaufe they took oaths, danced, fung, and made merry.
The principles of this fe€& were propagated in England,
and produced no {mall confufion. The form of abjuration
tendered to them, and the fevere proclamation iffued againit
them by queen Elizabeth, in 1580, may be feenin Wilkins’s
Concilia Magne Brit. &c. vol. iv. p. 296, 297.

Famiry J/lands, in Geography, a clutter of {mall iflands

near the N.E. coaft of New Holland, 12 miles N.W. of —

cape Sandwich.

Famity Lake, alake of North America. N. lat. 52° 35'.
W. long. 93° 20'.

FAMINE, or Fameng, a {mall country of the Nether-
lands, in the weftern part of the duchy of Luxemburg,
on the borders of the bifhopric of Liege; the principal
towns are Marche and Roche. It is now ceded to France.

Famine, Port, a fortrefs fituated on the N.E. coaft of
the ftraits of Magellan, in South America; now neglected
in confequence of a Spanifh garrifon having perifhed for
want. In the year 1581, the Spaniards built a town at this
place, which they called Phillippevilie, and left in it a co-
lony, confifting of 400 perfons. When our celebrated na-
vigator, Cavendifh, arrived here in 1587, he found only one
furvivor, all the others having died through famine, except
about 23 perfons, who fet out for the river Plata, and were
never afterwards heard of. Cavendifh called the place Port
Famine. It is avery fine bay, in which there is convenient
room for many fhips to moor in great fafety. Here are
alfo good wooding and watering, and plenty of fifh and dif-
ferent forts of fowl. The place alfo abounds with wild ce-
lery. S. lat. 53° 42'. W. long. 71°28’. Variation 2 points
welterly.

FAM-TAM-HOTUN, a town of Afia, in the king-
dom of Corea; 625 miles E.N.E. of Peking.

FAN, Frasetium, a machine ufed to raife wind, and
cool the air, by agitating it.

The effet of fanning ourfelves when warm, in order to
cool us, though the air is itfelf warm which we drive with
the fan upon our faces, may be thus explained: the atmo-
fphere round, and next to our bodies, having imbibed as
much of the perfpired vapour as it can well contain, receives
no more, and the evaporation is therefore cheeked and re-
tarded till we drive away that atmofphere, and bring drier
air in its place, that will receive the vapour, and thereby in-
creafe and facilitate the evaporation, and thus contribute to
cool us.

That the ufe of the fan was known to the ancients is very
evident from what Terence fays,

“ Cape hoc flabellum, et ventulum huic fic facito ;””
and

FAN
and from Ovid, Art. Amand. 1. 167.

© Profuit et tenues ventos movifle flabello.’”?

The fans of the ancients were made of different materials ;
but the moft elezant were compofed of peacock’s feathers,
or perhaps painted, fo as ta reprefent a peacock’s tail.

' The cuftom that now prevails among the ladies, of wear-
ing fans, was borrowed from the Eait, where the hot climate
- renders the ufe of fans and umbrellas almoit indifpenifable.

In the Eaft they chiefly ufe large fans made of feathers,
to keep off the fun and the flies. In Italy and Spain they
have a large fort of fquare fans, fufpended in the middle of
their apartments, and particularly over the tables: thefe,
by a motion at firft given them, and which they retain a long
time, on account of their perpendicular fufpenfion, help to
cool the air and drive off flies.

In the Greek church, a fan is put into the hands of the
deacons in the ceremony of their ordination, in allufion to
a part of the deacon’s office in that church, which is to
keep the flies off the priefts during the celebration of the
facrament. é

Wicquefort, in his tranflation of the embafly of Garcias
de Figueroa, gives the name fans to a kind of chimneys or
ventiduéts in ule among the Perfians, to furnifh air, and
wind into their houfes ; without which the heats would be
infupportable. What is called a fan amongtit us, and
throughout the chief parts of Europe, is a thin fkin or piece
of paper, taffety, or other light {tuff, cut femi-circularly, and
mounted on feveral little {ticks of wood, ivory, tortoife-
fhell, or the like. ; ;

If the paper be fingle, the flicks of the mounting are
pafted on the leaft ornamental fide : if double, the fticks
are placed betwixt them. Before they proceed to place
the fticks, which they call mounting the fan, the paper is
to be plaited in fuch manner, as that the plaits may be
alternately inward and outward. ,

It is in the middle of each plait, which is ufually about
half an inch broad, that the fticks are to be patted; and
thefe again are to be all joined and rivetted together at the
other end; they are very thin, and fearce exceed one third of
an inch in breadth ; and where they are patted to the paper,
are {till narrower, continuing thus to the extremity of the
paper. The two outer ones are bigger and itronger than
the others. The number of fticks rarely exceeds twenty-
two. The fticksare ufually provided by the cabinet-makers
or toy-men: the fan-painters plait the papers, paint, and
mount them. :

The common painting is either in colours or gold-leaf,
applied on a filvered ground, both prepared by the gold-
beaters. Sometimes they paint on a gold ground, but it is
rarely ; true gold being too dear, and falfe too paltry. To
apply the filver leaves on the paper, they ufe a compofition
which they pretend is a great fecret, but which appears to
be no other than gum Arabic, fugar-candy, and a little
honey melted in common water, and mixed with a little
brandy. This compofition is laid on with a fponge; then
laying the filver leaves thereon, and preffing them gently
down with a linen ball ftuffed with cotton, they catch hold,
and adhere together. When, initead of filver, gold ground
is laid, the fame method is obferved.

The ground being well dried, a number of the papers are
well beaten together on a block, and by this means the filver
or gold get a luftre, as if they had been burnifhed.

Fan Machine, in Agriculture, an inftrument, or machine,
contrived for the purcpote of winnowing, or cleaning dif-
ferent forts of grain, feeds, &c. from the chaff and other
injurious matters. There are feveral different machines of

this kind in ufe, It has been remarked by Mr, Donaldfon,

FAN

in his Treatife on Modern Agriculture, that wind is effen-
tially neceflary in cleaning grain, or feed of any kind,
The hufks, or chaff, being lighter than the feeds which they
inclofed, ave,by the force of wind, carriedto a greater diftance,
and thereby a complete feparation takes place. The natural
action of the winds being fo extremely inconftant, no doubt,
he thinks, induced the ancients to conftrué inftruments by
which the operation of cleaning grain was rendered lefs
difficult and precarious. What thefe inftruments were, ex-
cept the fhovel for throwing grain from one part of the barn,
or threfhing-floor, to another, is now uncertain; probably,
however, the fail-fan, formerly fo commonly uled in this
country, was among the number. It was not, he conceives,
till little more than thirty years ago, that any other means
were thought of in Scotland for feparating grain from
the chaff, than the aétion of the natural wind operating
between the two doors of the barn. There a perfon ftood
for the purpofe of dropping the undreffed grain froma
kind of {cuttle, or fieve, and in quantities proportioned to
the force of the wind at the time. About the above period
the fan, fan-machine, or fanner, was introduced from Hol-
land, where that kind of machine had been for a confider-
able time in common ufe, having been firft brought to that
country from the Eait Indies, where thefe machines had
been long ufed in cleaning rice.

The fan, which is the aGting part of the machine, is
capable of being turned round on its axis with a greater or
lefs degree of velocity, according to the force of wind ne-
ceffary to anfwer the intended purpofe. One man works
the machine eafily by means of a winch, or handle; an-
other is employed in filling the hopper; and a third in rid-
dling and laying afide the grain, if not meafured up at the
time: when that is the cafe, more hands are neceflary. Since
threfhing-mills, or machines, have been introduced, the fan-
ners are generally conneéted with, and wrought bv them, in
place of being fet in motion by manual labour, by which means
the unthrefhed grain, after entering between the feeders
of the threfhing-mill, becomes invifible, till it again appears
in three divifions, each entirely feparate from the other ; the
grain being forced to one place, the chaff to another, and
the ftraw to a third, a degree of perfection in regard to
barn management, the writer fuggefts, which was unknown
in any other age or country.

Thefe machines are well conftru&ed in many parts of
Lancafhire, and other more northern counties, both for being
employed feparately, and in combination with the threfhing-
machine. A reprefentation of one is given in the Plate of
Agriculture.

Fan Palm. See CHamzrops.

Fan, Sea. See Gorconta.

Fan, in Geography, a town of China, of the third rank,
in Chan-tong; 17 miles N.E. of Po.

FANAES, an ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft of
Africa, about nine or ten miles in circumference, alittle to
the fouth of the Line.

FANANO, a town of Italy; 18 miles S. of Modena.

FANATIC, a’ wild, extravagant, vifionary, enthufi-
aftical perfon, who pretends to revelation and in{piration,
and believes himifelf pofleffed with a divine fpirit.

The word is formed of the Latin fanum, a heathen
temple; for which reafon the Chriftians called all the Gea-
tiles fanatics; and accordingly the ancient chronicles of
France call Clovis fanatic and pagan.

Among the heathens deeeteleed there was a fort of
prophetic prieits, called fanatici, from whom the denomi-
nation fince paffed to all the reft. They had their name
from the Latin /anum, temple, becaufe they lived all to-

gether

FAN
gether in temples. Struv. Antiq. Rom. Synt. cap. 6.
SEU
OF this kind, particularly, were the priefts of Ifs, of the
mother of the gods, of Bellona, and fome others, who were
ealled: fanatici. In Gruter, p. 312. n. vii. we have an in-
{cription, wherein one L. Cornelius Januarius is called Fa-
naticus, AB. ISIS. SERAPIS. ABAEDEM BELLONE. And,
p. 645. n. vii. Fanaticus de ede Bellonz. i
What might give occafion to the appellation of fanatics
avas, that they performed their facrifices in a wild, enthu-
fiaftical manner; and the appellation has been generally ap-
plied in modern times to thofe who have made pretences to
an{piration, aad who have conduéted their worfhip or prac-
tice in an extravagant and licentious manner. Such were
ome of the German anabaptifts and Englifh quakers, at
‘their firt rife, and the modern prophets, Muggletonians,
‘Behmenifts, &c. And the name fanatics, as well as fectaries,
shas been often invidioufly applied to diffenters from the
church of England.
FANATIO, in our Ancient Cufloms, the fawning-time,
-or fence-months in forefts. A
FANBYN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
vprovince of Angermatiland, near the gulf of Bothnia.
IN. lat. 63° 24'. IE. long. 19°.
FANCOURT, Samvez, in Biegraphy, was born in the
«weft of England about the year 1678. Of -his early life
ave have no account, but in the beginning of the lait cen-
-tury he was fettled with a congregation of Proteftant dif-
fenters at Salifbury, a fituation which he was obliged to quit
-on account of fome change in his fentime::ts. He came to
Londen, and about the year 1740, or, as others think, 1745,
‘he fet on foot the firlt circulating library in the metropolis,
at a fubfeription of a guinea a-year for reading. He after-
-wards changed the plan, and made the fubferibers pro-
“prietors; but he was unfuccefsful in almoft all his projects.
“The public are, however, indebted to him for the firit idea
of eftablifhments which have been, and {till are, exceedingly
vafeful to the community ; and we may hope, of great ad-
vantage to the morals and improvement of almoft all claffes
of fociety. Mr. Fancourt, after experiencing a thoufand
changes, which poverty too frequently inflicts, was obliged
‘to part with his library, and retire to Hoxton, where his
neceflities were relieved by fome of his brethren till his
.death, which took place in 1768, when he was in the goth
syear of his age. Gen. Biog.
FANCY. See Puantasy and ImaGinarion.
FANDANGO, the name of a riotous Spauifh dance.
This is a very ancient national dance; and is fuppofed to
be that of which Martial fpeaks, when he aims the whole
force of his inveétive again{ft the wanton dances of Betica ;
.efpecially of the diftri& of Cadiz, and the voluptuous man-
ner in which they are performed by the women. Baretti
juftly defines it, “a regular and harmonious convulfion of all
parts of the body.” The “bolero” is an imitation of it,
but fhortened, modified, and {tripped of all thofe acceflaries
which give to the fandango fo very free a character. The
-paffion of the Spaniards for thefe dances is extreme. Ac-
cordingly, Mr. Townfend, in his ‘¢ Travels,’’ obferves, that
if a perion were to come fuddenly into a church, or a court
of juitice, playing the fandango, or the bolero, prietts,
judges, lawyers, criminals, audience, one and all, grave or
gay, young or old, would quit their fundtions, forget all
diftin@ions, and all fet themfelves a dancing. The fan-
‘dango and bolero are danced in couples, to the found of the
-guitar, and the noife of caftanets, which the men employ
swith equal precifion and fportivenefs to mark the time and
animate their motions, In the bolero the men and women

FAN

perform the fame motions, but thofe of the women are more
lively, more animated, and more expreffive. The fandange
is graver than the bolero: the fteps are neither fo lively,’
nor is their time fo ftrongly marked; they more refemble
different modes of balancing; but the inflexions of the
body are more varied, and add to its gracefuluefs. Motions
of the eyes and features mark all the poltures of this dance 5
the moft lively expreffion of all the paflions that agitate the
heart is then exhibited. The fandango and bolero are
alfo executed in the form of a ballet or a figure dance ; they
are then danced by eight, four men and four women; and
at intervals each couple in its own corner goes through all
the motions of thefe dances: thefe are what they. call « fe-
quidillas,’”? Thefe dances are ufually performed to the found
of the guitar, accompanied by the voice of the player,
The women mark the time very correétly with the heel:
thele dances are not in general praétifed in genteel fociety.

FANEGA, a meafure in Spain, containing, in the vi-
cinity of Carthagena, 3312 folid inches, and weighing a
quintal, or 102? avoirdapsis: and among the merchants
54 fanegas are reckoned equal to eight Wiuchefter bufhels of
2178 folid inches: but upon a rough calculation, two fa-
negas of grain may be reckoned equal to three bufhels; and
one fanega of land, being that quantity on which they fow
one fanega of wheat or two of barley, may be confidered as
three-quarters of an acre.

FANFARE, Fr. a kind of military air, or flourifh, ge-
nerally short and fpirited, either performed by trumpets, or
by other initruments in imitation of them. The fanfare is
ufaally founded by two trumpets, accompanied by kettle-
drums, and, it well executed, it has a certain martial and
animated effect perfectly fuited to its ufe, OF all the troops
in Europe, the ee in 1768) were thofe which had the
beft military inftruments, confequeatly their marches and
fanfares had an admirable effeét. It is worthy of remark,
that in the whole kingdom of France there was not a fingle
trumpet that played in tune; fo that the moft warlike na-
tion in Europe had the moit difcordant inftruments, which
was not without itsinconvenience. During the laft war the
Bohemian, Auftrian, and Bavarian peafants, all born mu-
ficians, unable to imagine that regular troops had inftruments
fo falfe and fo deteftable, took all the old corps for new-
raifed troops, whom they began to defpife, and it is incredi-
ble how many brave men lott their lives by falfe intonation,
So true it is, that in preparations for war, nothiug fhould be
negleéted that occupies the fenfes. Rouffeau. All Europe
feems now convinced of the wildom of this remark ; and
all the regiments of every nation have either German bands
or German matters to initru€t their young mouficians.

FANFOUE, in Geography, one of the Navigator’s
iflands, in the South Pacific ocean, about five miles in cir-
cumference. S. lat. 14° 4’. W. long. 170° 20!.

FANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in Hou.
quang; 40 miles S, of Yuan-gang.

Fano, in Mining, figuifiesa truak or cafe of wood, made
to convey wind or trefh air down into amine. It alfo fig
nifies, in fome places, a fleak, or fhelter, to fereen the ore-
dreflers or miners from wind, orthe dropping of water. .

FANGOOMBA, in Geograph » atown of Africa, in
Kaarta... N.Jat..14° 15’. W. long. 70° 30!. ;

FANGS, or Lee-fangs, in Rigging, a rope faltened to a
cringle, near the foot of a ketch’s wing-fail, to haul in the
foot of the fail for lacing on the bonnet, or taking in the
fail.

FANIEAUX, a-town of France, in the departraent of
the Aude. and chief place of a canton in the diftrit of
Caftelnaudary ;-13 miles W, of Carcaffone, The place

2 contains

“. tary.

FAN

tontains 1807, and the canton gors inhabitants, ona terri-
torial extent of 232! kilometres, and in 16 communes,
N. Tat. 43° 11', UE. long. 2° 47',

FANIMBOO, a town of Africa, in Bambara. N. lat.
14° 40’... W. long. 4°.

FANIONS, in Military Language, {mall flags carried
along with the baggage. See Frac.

FANKLE, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
ranks, in Chan-fi; 17 miles N. E. of Tai.

FANNA, a town of Italy, in Friuli; feven miles N.N.E.
of Aviano:

FANNISSIMA, a town of Japan, inthe ifle of Niphon;
roo miles N. W. of Jeddo.

* FANO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; nine
miles S. S. W. of Teramo.

Fano, a fea-port town of the duchy of Urbino, on the
Adriatic, the fee of a bifhop; furrounded with a lofty wall
of brick and ditches, with towers at {mall diftances, and
baftions towards the fea. It.has feveral monaiteries, and
fome beautiful churches. It was anciently called « Fanum
Fortune,” from a temple built by the Romans to the god-
defs Fortune, after the defeat of Afdrubal, on the banks
of the Metaurus. Here are the remains of a triumphal
arch, erected in honour of Auguftus, who fent hither a
colony, called “ Julia Faneltris.”? It was deitroyed by
Totila, and rebuilt by Belifarius; 16 miles E.N. E. of
Urbino. N. lat. 43° 52'. E. long. 12° 56’.

FANOE, or Foenog, a {mall ifland of Denmark, in the
Little Belt, fituated about two miles S. from Middlefahrt,
in the ifland of Funen. N. lat. 55° 30’. E long. 9° 43'.—
Alfo, a {mall ifland of Denmark, near the coaft of Slef-
wick, in the German ocean, about 15 miles in circum-
ference, chiefly inhabited by tfhermen. N. lat: 55° 25'.
E. long. 8? 43’.

FANPOTEN, a town on the E. coaft of Madagafcar.
N. lat. 15°45’. E. long. 55° 40’.

+ FANSHAW, Carr, a cape on the W. coatt of
North America, and N. fide of Irederick’s Sound, N, lat.
57° tr. E.long. 226° 44.

TANSHAWE, Sir Ricnarp, in Biography, was born
at Ware-Park, Herts, in the year 1608. He iludied at
Jefus college, Cambridge, and from thence he removed to
the Inner Temple. Having travelled into France and
Spain, he was appointed f{ecretary to the embafiy at Ma-
drid, under lord Afton. In the civil wars he adhered to
the royal party, and attended the court at Oxford. He
was fecretary of war to prince Charles, and afterwards
treafurer of the navy under prince Rupert. He was created
baronet in 1650, and fent to Madrid to feek a loan for his
matter. Henext aéted as fecretary of {tate for Scotland, and
accompanied Charles IT. on his expeditionto England, and
was taken prifoner at the battle of Worcelter. He was
foon admitted to bail, and went to the feat of lord Strafford
in Yorkfhire, where he amufed his leifure by tranflating the
“ Lufiad.?? The year before the reftoration he repaired to
the king at Breda, by whom he was knighted, and, after
his return, appointed mailer of requefts and Latin fecre-
In 1661, he was elected one of the reprefentatives
in parliament for the univerfity of Cambridge, and foon
after was {worn a privy councillor for Ireland. ‘He was
next appointed envoy-extraordinary. to Portugal, and then
ambaffador to that court, for the purpofe of negociating the
King’s marriage with the infanta Catharine. He acted in
other importan: diplomatic miffiéns, but was at length re-
called by the king, who was dilpleafed on his figninga
treaty with Spain... As he was preparing to return, he was
Seized with a fever, which carried'yiim off at Madrid: in the

FAN

year 1666, Sir Richard fuftained an amiable chara&ter,
and his talents for general ftate affairs was univerfally ac-
knowledged. He is likewife known as a literary charaéter,
chiefly by his poetical tranflations. That of “ Guarini’s
Paftor Fido,’”’ firit publithed in 1646, obtained for him the
reputation of an elegant and eafy verfifer. He likewife
tranflated the Lufiad, and fome parts of Virgil and Horace
with other things. Biog. Brit. 4

FANSHIRE, in Geography, a river of Madagafcar,
which runs into the fea, 15 miles S. W. of Fort Dauphin.

FANTASIA, /ral. Fantasie Fr. an inftrumental com.
pofition in Mufic, executed at the fame time that it is con-
cetved. There is this difference between a capriccio and
a fantafia, that the capriccio is a ftring of fiagular and
unconnected ideas, produced by a heated imagivation, and
which may, however, be compofed at leifure; whereas the
fantafia may be a very regular produétion, which differs
from written mufic no-otherwife than by being played.
5 : : Py ape
immediately fromthe head, and that it no longer exifts after
performance. \ So that the capriccio depends on the affort--
ment and choice of ideas, and the fantafia on the prompti--
tude with which it prefents itfelf. It follows that a capric-
cio may be written down, a fantafia never; for as foon"
as It 1s: written or repeated it is no longer a fantafia, it-is a
common piece of mufic.. Thefe were the ideas of Roafleau
40 years ago, and are now the general ideas of all who
beftow a thought on the fubje&. But inthe 17th century,
when inftrumental mufic firft began to be cultivated,. the ac-
ceptation of the word fantafie or fancy was very. different:
from the prefent, which on the organ is termed a voluntary ;:
on the harp or piano forte a.toccata, tocecatina, or prelude.
to fomething elfe. But of what were termed fantatia,
previous to the invention of fonatas, quartets, or concertos
becoming general, the following is the hiitory. The reign
ot our James the Firft isa very early period in the cultivation
of mufic, merely inftrumental. The words concerto and.
fonata feem at this time not to have been invented even in
Italy : as the Crufea diGtionary gives ‘no inftance of fo
early a ufe of them in mufic-books. Concento and fuono
implied nearly the fame tliings in the days of Boceaccio, as
concerto and fonata fince ; but concertare and concertantr
were at firlt applied to the union of infruments with voices,
in motets and madrigals, by doubling the voice-parts. It
was not till late in the feventeenth century that in{trumental
pieces, of many parts, began to be called concertos, and of
few, fonatas.

The earlief compofitions we have found in Italy, for
three or more inftruments of the fame {pecies, are ricercari
and fantafie. But of thefe, none feem to have been printed
when the elder Doni publifhed the fecond edition of his
Libreria, 1§57 3 as all the inftrumental mufic that appears
in his catalogue of mufical compofitions, which had ther
been publijhed in Italy, are ** Intabolature da organi, et da
leuto, d’Anton da Bologna, di Giulio da Modena, di Fraha
cefco di Milano, diJaches Buas, piu di dieci volumi, ela
continua.”” :

About the beginning of the feventeenth century madri-
gale, which were almoit the only compofitions, ia parts

or the chamber, then cultivated, feem to have been a.
denly fupplanted in the favour of. lovers of mufic by 2
paffion for fantafias of three, four, five, and fix parts
wholly compofed for viols and other inftruments, sathont
vocal afiltance. And this paffion feems to have arilen from
the calling in thefe initruments to reinforce the voice-parts,
with which they played in unifon, in the performance of
ntotetti and madrigals, thence termed concerteti.. At len oth.
the initrumental performers difcovered, that both the poetry
hadi

FAN

and finging of the times might be {pared without any great
lofs or injury to mufical effects ; as the words, if good, were
rendered unintelligible by fugue, imitation, and multiplicity
of parts; and the finging, being often coarfe and out of
tune, could be better {upplied by their own performance.
Thus vocal mufic not only loft its independence, but was
almoft totally driven out of fociety ; as the ancient Britons,
calling in the Saxons to affift them in their conflits with
the Pits, were themfeives fubdued and forced from their
poffeffions, by too powerful auxiliaries.

We are the better enabled to fpeak of the inftrumental
mufic of this period, by being fortunately in poffefiion of
feveral confiderable manufcript colleGions of fancies; par-
ticularly one in fix parts, folio, which had been made for
the ?Eflrange family, in Norfelk, by the celebrated com-
pofer of Charles the Firlt’s reign, Mr. John Jenkins, and
collated with other copies, and correéted not only by him-
{elf, but by fix or eight other eminent matters of the times.

Thefe pieces, which confift more of motets, madrigals,
and innomines, originally defigned for voices, than fantafie
made exprefsly for inftruments, were the produétions of
William Bird, Alfonfo Ferabofco, fen. and jun. William
White, John Ward, Thomas Ravenfcroft, William Cran-
forde, Thomas Lupo, Giovanni Coperario, and others.
The ftyle would appear now very dry and fancilefs, in fpite
of the general title of thefe pieces, Indeed, it would be
difficult to fele& one of them that would afford any other
amufement to our readers, than that of difcovering how in-
genious and well difpofed the lovers of mufic, during the
former part of the laft century, mutt have been, to extract

leafure from fuch produétions.

Notwithftanding the infinite pains that have been taken in
colle&ting and collating thefe books, they only prove that
however infipid and debiieable we may think their contents,
our forefathers were of a different opinion; and that, con-
temptible as they now feem, they were the beft which the
firft muficians of the age could then produce.

There is an infancy in every human produétion that is
perfeftable. The in{truments to which thefe fantafies were
adapted were viols of different fizes. (See Bast V10L.)
The paflages, however, given to thefe feveral inftruments
at this time difcover no kind of knowledge of the ex-
preflive power of the bow; and even Orl. Gibbons, who
compofed fo well for voices in the church, feems very little
fuperior to his cotemporaries in his produétions for inftru-
ments. Indeed, his madrigals of five parts, as well as thofe
of many others, are faid in the title-page to be apt for viols
and voices: a proof that with us, as well as the ancient
Greeks, and other nations, there was at firft no mufic ex-
prefsly compofed for inftruments ; confequently, the powers
of thefe inftruments muft have been circumfcribed; and
when this mufic was merely played, without the affiftance
of the human voice and of poetry, capable of no great effects.
The fubjeéts of Orlando Gibbons’s madrigals are fo fimple
and unmarked, that if they were now to be executed by in-
ftruments alone, they would afford very little pleafure to
the greateft friends of his produétions, and thofe of the
fame period. At the time they were publifhed, however,
there was nothing better with which to compare them, and
the beft mufic which good ears can obtain, is always delight-
ful, till better is produced. Air, accent, grace, and ex-
preffion, were now equally unknown to the compofer, per-
former, and hearer; and whatever notes of one inftrument
were in harmony with another, were welcome to the player,
provided he found himfelf honoured from time to time with
a fhare of the fubjeét, or principal melody ; which happen-
ing more frequently in canons, and fugues, than in any

3 .

FAN
other {pecies of compofition, contributed to keep them fe
long in favour with performers of limited powers, however
tirefome they may have been to the hearers when con
ftruGed on dull and barren themes.

Mufic is fo much a work of art, ftudy, exercife, and ex-
perience, that every ftyle muft be beft treated, even by men
of the greateft genius, in proportion to the attention and -
labour they beftow on that particular fpecies of compofition.
Orlando Gibbons, who appears to juch advantage as a
church compofer, is utterly contemptible in his produétions
for inftruments, of whofe powers he was ignorant. Indeed,
all inftrumental mufic, but that of the organ, feems to have
been in a very rude ftate at this time throughout Europe ;
and, if we except the fugues of Frefcobaldi, all the mufic,
even for keyed-inftruments, is dry, difficult, unaccented,
and infipid.

FANTASTICAL Cotovurs, are the fame with thofe
called emphatical colours.

FANTIN, in Geography, a country of Africa, on the
Gold Coaft, extending about thirty miles along the coatt
of the Atlantic. Itis bounded by Sabu on the weit, the
Iron mount, halt a mile below Mawri, being its extremity.
From the foot of this hill Fantin extends about ter miles
eaftward along the coaft, having on the north fide Arti
Agua, and Tongua; Akron on the eait ; andthe fea on
the fouth. The foil is fertile, producing fruits, maize,
and palm wine. The European natives have long traded
here for gold and flaves. But the nativestrade freely with
interlopers, frequently fhut up all the paflages to the in-
land countries, and prevent all trade between the Europeans
and the merchants of the interior kingdoms in gold and
flaves ; and they have fometimes ftarved the Dutch in their
forts, till their demands have been complied with. ‘The
inhabitants are bold, cunning, and deceitful. Their govern-
ment is ariftocratical ; the braffo, as their chief magif-
trate is called, leads their armies into the field, and pof-
fefles the chief power, theugh it is greatly reftrained
by the old men, who form a national council, the votes
and aéts of which are entirely independent of the braffo.
Every town and fub-divifion of the county has alfo its
chief, who frequently affumes independence, and enters
on a war with his fovereign and the council of elders.
Their inteftine divifions are the chief fecurity of their
neighbours, as they are able to affemble an army of
10,0co men. hey reckon about gooo fifhermen on the
coa{t, and their fmall towns are very numerous, The
capital, of the fame name with that of the province, is
about twelve miles up the country: and their other
principal towns and villages are Anamaboa, where the
Englith have a fort, Adja, or Aga, where the Dutch
formerly had a fort, Little and Great Cormantin, Agua,
Laguyo, Tantimqueré, and Manpran. N, lat. 5° ro’.

FANTOME Corn, in Agriculture, aterm applied to
fuch thin or light corn as has but little bulk or folidity.
In this fort of grain there is but a fmall portion of the fari-
naceous matter.

FANTONI, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated phyfi-
cian, was born at Turin inthe year 1675. He ftudied
philofophy and the belles lettres in the univerfity of his na-
tive city, and evinced a fuperiority of talent in the rapid
progrefs which he made. He then paffed to the medical
claffes, in which he gave farther evidence of his abilities, and
obtained his degree of do€tor. He was enabled, through
the liberality of his prince, to vifit foreign feats of learning
in purfuit of improvement in his art, and traverfe France,
Germany, and the Low Countries, every where making
valuable additions to his knowledge. On his return to

‘Turin,

FAN

“Turin, he commenced public teacher of anatomy, and after-
wards was fucceflively chofen to fill the chairs of theo-
retical and practical medicine. In the interim the king
of Sardinia appointed him phyfician to the prince of
Piedmont, his fon. This office, however, did not inter-
fere with his labours in the univerfity, where he was
ftill diftinguifhed near the middle of the fucceeding cen-
tury, notwithftanding his advanced age.

The firft publication of Fantoni was entitled ‘ Differ-
tationes Anatomice XI. Tauri, 1701.’? The fecond
s* Anatomia corporis humani ad uf{um Theatri Medici ac-
comodata, ibid. 1711.’ This edition, whichis, in fact,
a part of the preceding work, relates to the anatomy of
the abdomen and cheft only. 3. ‘* Differtationesduz de
ftru@tura et ufu dure matris et lymphaticorum vaforum,
ad Antonium Pacchionum confcriptz, Rome, 1721.”
4. “ Differtationes due de Thermis Valderianis, Aquis
Gratianis, Maurianenfibus, Geneve,’’ 1725, in 8vo. and
1738 ingto. 5. ‘*Opufcula Medicaet Phyfiologica, Ge-
neve, 1738.’? This contains likewife fome obfervations of
his father. 6. ‘ Differtationes Anatomice feptem pricres
renovate, de Abdomine, Taurini, 1745.”? 7. “¢ Commen-
tariolum de Aquis Vindolienfibus, Auguftanis, et Anfio-
nenfibus, ibid. 1747.”

Fantont, Joun-Baerist, the father of the preceding,
though lefs diftinguifhed than his fon, was alfo a teacher of
anatomy and of the theory of medicine at Turin, as well as
librarian, and firlt phyfician to Vitor Amadeus II. duke
of Savoy. He died prematurely in 1692, (having only
attained the age of forty,) in the vicinity of Embrun, where
the duke, his patron, was encamped, during the fiege of
Chorges. He left feveral unfinifhed manuicripts, which
John Fantoni revifed, and of which he publifhed a collection
of the beft parts, under the title of “* Obfervationes A nato-
maico medicz felectiores,’”? at Turin, in 169g, and at Venice
in 1713. This work contains fome ufeful obfervations rela-
tive to the difeafes of the heart. Eloy. Dié. Hittor.

FANU, in Geography, afmall ifland in the Mediterra-
nean ; 10 miles N.W. of Corfu.

FANUM, among the Romans, a temple or place confe-
crated to fome deity. ‘The deified men and women among
the heathens had likewife their fana; even the great philo-
fopher Cicero erefted one to his daughter Tullia. Mem.
Acad. Infeript. vol. i. p. 488, feq.

Fanum Diane, in Ancient Geography, was built, ac-
cording to Ptolemy, on the banks of the Rhine. Some
authors have fuppofed that the caftle of Batenitein, now
Vianen, was erected upon the foundation of this ancient
temple.

Fanum fortuna, a town of Italy, in Umbria. See Fano.

TFanum Jovis, a temple of Jupiter, fituated in Afia Mi-
nor, near the Thracian Bofphorus and the Syrnzan pro-
montory.

Fanum Martis, the denomination of feveral places in
Gaul. Hence fprung, according to the Notitia Imperii,
the name of * Pagus I'anomartenfis,”’ given toa great part
of Hainaut. Thisis probably the place now called Famars ;
which fee.—Alfo, another place of Gaul, mentioned in the
Itinerary of Antonine, on the route from Alauna to Conda-
te Redonum, between Cofedia and Fines, at the limits of
the Abrincatui. It is placed by M. D’Anville a little
to the fouth of Conttantia, on the fea coaft, at a place now
called « Mont Martin.”,—Alfo, another place of Gaul,

ointed out in the Peutingerian table, between Condate
ean to the fouth-eail, and Reginea to the north-welt,
upon the fea-coaft, the principal place of the Curiolelites,—
Alfo, a place of Italy, iv Etruria, Cluvins.

»VaQu. XIV.

FAQ

Fanum Minerva, atown of Gaul, marked in the Itine-
rary of Antonine, and placed by M. D’Anville to the
fouth-eaft of Durocortorum or Rheims,

Fanum Veneris. See Porrus Veneris.

Fanum Voltumna, a {mall place of Italy, in Etruria,
N.W. of Falerii.

FAN-YUAN, in Geography, a town of Corea; 23
miles E.S.E. of Koang-tcheo.

FANZARA, a town of Africa, in Fez; 15 miles S. of
Salee. ;

FAON, Le, atown of France, in the department of
Finifterre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Chateaulin ; 13 miles N. of Quimper. The place contains
682 and the canton 5,400 inhabitants, on a territory of 95
kiliometres in 5 communes.

FAOUE’, or Fouan, a town of Egypt, fituated on
the weit branch of the Nile, was formerly a fea-port, though
it is now 20 miles from the fea. When the Nile was al-
lowed to fillthe canals with its waters, which once fup-
ported trade and diffufed abundaace ; when boats laden with
the commodities of Europe and Afia could navigate in
tranquillity the coaft of Alexandria, without being fubject
to the fury of the fea and of the “‘ Boghafs,”” Fouzh, which
was fituated at the entrance of this canal, was a large and
flourifhing city, where the Europeans had their commercial
eitablifhments. The Venetians kept a coniul here, and
merchandize was brought hither by the canal of Alexandria.
But the fupinenefs of the tyrants of Egypt having fuffered
the mud to collect 1a the bed of the canals, fo as to obftruct
navigation, commerce was compelled to abandon the fhore
of Fouah, and carry its means and its riches to the harbour
ef Rofetta, where a variety of dangers render its progrefs
uncertain. Fouah has, therefore, very confiderably de-
clined from its former [plendour. Belon, who travelled in
Egypt in 1530, fays, that Rofetta was much fmaller than
Fouah; but the reverfe has fince taken place. Its con-
trated limits, the ruined ftateof its ancient ediices, and
thofe yet ftanding, undermined by want and wretchednefs,
announce the rapid approach of a general decay. The
fields, however, that furround Fouah difplay a rich and
{miling fertility ; while its delightful gardens produce fruits,
which, on account of their fuperior excellence, are held ia
high eftimation. Many have fuppofed that this city is the
ancient Metelis, but Sonnini has placed this town near Ro-
fetta, conceiving that Fouah was Naucratis, built by the
Milefians, as itis imagined, in the reign of Pfammetichus,
and the ccuntry of Athenzus, acelebrated grammarian, who
remarks that, in his time, there were fabricated in this
town earthen vafes, the covers of which had the appearance
of filver. In front of Fouah the Nile forms, in the middle
of its courfe, an ifland called “ Geziret-el-Dahab,” or
golden ifland. Fouah is diftant 16 miles S.E. from Rofetta,
and 70 N.N W. from Caino. N. Jat. 31° 10’, E. long. 31°.

FAQUET, atown of France, in the department of
Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG of
Pontivy, 18 miles N. of L’Orient. The place contains 2,591
and ‘the canton 12,0€9 inhabitants, in a territory of 2574
kiliometres and 7 communes. N. lat. 48° 2’. W. long. 3° 24/.

FAPESMO, in Lagic, one of the moods of fyllogifms,
A fyllogi{m in fapefmo has its firft propofition an univerfal
affirmative, the fecond an univerfal negative, and the thirda
particular negative.

FAQUIER, in Geography, a county of America, in
Virginia, bounded N. by London, and E. by Prince Wil-
liam 5 abont 55 miles long and 20 broad, containing 12,575
free inhabitants, and 8751 flaves. It hasa poit-houfe; 51
miles from Wathington,

R FAQUIR.

FAR
FAQUIR. See Faxir. :

FAR, in Hor feman/bip, an appellation given to any horfe’s

‘ight fide: thus the far foot,. the far fhoulder, &c. is the
fame with the right foot, right fhoulder, &c.
_ FARA, or Faray, in Geography, one of the Orkney
iflands, two miles long and one broad, and two miles W. of
Eday. Inordinary: years.its foil and furface are more than
fufficient to raife grain for the fupply of its inhabitants.
N. lat, 59° 4’. W. long. 2° 43'.

Fara, or Faray, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, noted
chiefly for its excellent fheep-paftures; near Rifflay and the
eaft coat of Waes, which at low ebbs forms one ifland with
Hoy. N. lat. 58°43!.. W. long. 3° 1/.

Fara. See Farr ifle.

Fara, a town of Arabia Felix ; 230 miles W. of Ca-
them.

FARAB. See Orrar.

FARABAT, a Perfian port on the Cafpian fea. This
port, and Madfhetifar, are fituated on the fouthern coalt, in
the province of Mafanderan; they are both fmall villages,
of which Madfhetifar is moft commercial from its vicinity to
Balfrufch,, capital of the province, where the Ruffians and
Armenians carry their merchandize. See BatrruscH.

FARADEESE, atown of Africa, near the ealt coaft of
Tunis, the inhabitants of which more than a century ago were
the greateft cruifers and moft experienced mariners of the
country, thoughnear four miles from the fea, their port being
a {mall creek in the gulf of Hamam-et; but the fuperior con-
veniencies for navigation at Hamam-et, and the increafe of
trade, have, of late years, drawn thither all the inhabitants ;
x1 miles W. of Hamam-et, and 30 S. of Tunis. Shaw’s
Travels, p. gt.

FARAGENOUS Mevunrains, in Geology, according
to Mr. Kirwan (by others called tertiary), are fuch as have
refulted from the ruins of other mountains or ftrata, of dif-
ferent {pecies jumbled together, according to the theories of
thefe authors.

FARAHA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, on the
S. coatt of the Perfian gulf; 2co miles E.S.E. of El Catif.
N. lat. 25°'7'. E. long. 51° 30’.

FARAM, one of the fmaller Shetland iflands.
60° 42'. W.long, 1° 26’.

FARAMA, a ruined town of Egypt, originally founded
by the Arabs, and fituated a little to the eatlward of Pelu-
fium. This town did not long fubfit, for it was deftroyed
in the 13th century. It had amaufoleum, which fome have
erroneoufly fuppofed to be the tomb ef Galen, but which in
reality was that of Pompey, placed by Pliny at fome
diftance from mount Cefius, in the vicinity of which are the
euins of Farama,

FARAMEA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 102. t. 49.
Juff. 209. A genus, confifting of two {pecies in Aublet,
whofe fruit is not fufficiently determined. It appears nearly
related to the Cephaélis of Swartz and Willdenow, Callicocca
of Schveber, but wants the involucrum. The flowers are te-
trandrous and four-cleft. Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae, Jui. See
Caruiicocca.

FARAN, in Geography, a valley of Arabia, which ex-
tends from the Red fea to mount Sinai,

FARANAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlata-
bad; 36 miles S. of Amednagur.

FARAND-MAN, in our O/d Writers, a traveller or
merchant-ftranger, to whom by the law of Scotland juttice
ought to be done with all expedition, that his budinefs or
journey be not hindered. ;

FARANI, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Ludamar; 30 miles N.W. of Benowm,

N. lat.

FAR

FARANSK, a town of Ruffia, and one of the rg
diftricts in the government of Viatka, fituated on a rivulet
falling into the Viatka,

FARAONTI, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia;
16 miles S. of Bakeu.

FARAT, a river of Nubia, which rens into the Red
fea, N. lat. 21° go', with good depth of water at its mouth.

FARCE was originally a droll, petty fhow, or enter-
tainment, exhibited by charletans, or quacks, and their buf-
foons, in the open treet, to gather the crowd together.

The word is French, and fignifies literally force-meat or
fuffing. It was applied on this occafion, without doubt, on
account of the variety of jefls, jibes, tricks, &c. wherewith
the entertainment was interlarded. Some authors derive
farce from the Latin facetia ; others from the Celtic farce,
mockery ; others from the Latin farcire, to /huff:

At preient, farce poffeffes a htde more dignity. Itis re-
moved from the ftrect to the theatre ; and inftead of being
performed by merry-andrews to amufe the rabble, is now
acted by our comedians, and become the entertainment of
the politeft audiences.

The poets have reformed the wildnefs of the primitive
farces, and brought them to the tafte and manner of comedy.
The difference between the two on our ftage is, that the
latter keeps to nature and probability ; and, in order to
that, is confined to certain laws, unities, &c. prefcribed by
the ancient critics. ;

The former difallows of all laws, or rather fets them all
afide on occafion. Its end is purely to pleafe, or to make
merry ; and it fticks at nothing which may contribute to
this end, however wild and extravagant. Hence the dia-
logue is ufually low, the perfons of inferior rank, and the
fable or action trivial or ridiculous ; and nature and truth
are every where heightened and exaggerated, to afford the
more palpable ridicule. i

FARCILITE, in Mineralogy, is a fubftance compofed
of maffes of ftone, cemented together by a ftony cement.
See Kirwan’s Geol. Eff. p. 133. 225, and 338.

FARCIMINALIS Tunica, the fame with allantois.

FARCIN, Farcy, or Fa/hions, a difeafe in horfes, and
fometimes in oxen, &c. fomewhat of the nature of a fcabies
or mange.

Gefner derives the word from varices, by changing the v
into a digamma or f.

The farcin is infe€tious, and fpreads like a true plague.
Vegetius calls it morbus farcinimcfus. It confilts in a cor-
ruption of the blood, which fhews itfelf in eruptions of hard
puitules, knots, or buds (as they are commonly cailed)
along the veins. Hence they are erroneoufly fuppofed to
confit in a {welling of thofe veffels. ‘Chefe tumours gene-
rally burit, difcharging a thin watery matter, and degenerat-
ing into foul {preading ulcers. The contiguous glands are
ufualiy inflamed and {wollen from an abforption ef the poi-
fon that occafions the difeafe. This difeafe fometimes
makes its appearance iv diffufed fwellings of the hind legs,
or other parts of the body. The moft common caufe of
farcy feems to be contagion, either from a glandered’ or far-
cied horfe; for, according to Mr, White (Treat on Vete-
rinary Medicine, vol.i.), there can be no doubt that thefe
difeafes will reciprocally produce each other. Whence we
may conclude, that they both originate from the fame poi-
fon, producing different effets, according to the parts on
which its noxious influence is exerted. Its effeéts, how-
ever, are partial; the internal parts of the nole are more par-
ticularly liable to be affeéted by it: the fkin is likewife very
fufceptible of its a€tion; and when the diforder has con-
tinued long, fo that the poifon has produced its full effect,

4 the

FARCIN,

the lungs do not iefeape the contagion, The farey, fays
Mr. White, ‘maybe either confticutional or local. If glan-
derous matter, er ‘the'matter taken!from a farcy-ulcer, be
applied to the fin, when the cuticle has been abraded, a
chanere or foul ulcer is produced, which is diftinguifhable
from all others by its peculiarly foul appearance, the edges
becoming thick, and the difcharge confifting of a thin and
rather glutinous matter. It generally fpreads rapidly, and
never looks red or healthy. The ablorbents or lymphatics
about the ulcer become inflamed and fwollen from an ab-
forption of its poifonous matter. Thefe fwellings are com-
monly miftaken for veins, and hence it has been inferred that
the blood-veffels are the feat of the difeafe ; the glands like-
wife, to which thefe lymphatics lead, become inflamed
and enlarged ; at length {mail tumours or buds appear in
the courfe of thefe abforbents, which are {mall abfcefles
arifiag from the inflammation of ‘thefe veffels. Thus far,
fays Mr. White, the difeafe is /oca/, and the couftitution un-
tainted : at length, however, the poifon, which has been
arrefted by the glands, iifinuates itfelf into the circulation,
and infe€ts the whole mafs. ‘Fhe internal parts of the nofe
are generally firft attacked ; the next part that is affefted is
ufually the fkin, on various parts of which farcy-buds’’
appear, and degenerate into foul fpreading ulcers ; at length
the bones of the nofe become carious or rotten ; and, finally,
the poifon falls upon the lungs, and foon terminates the
animal’s fufferings. Sometimes the progrefs of the difeafe
is very rapid, and in a fhort time deftioys the horfe; at
other times it is remarkably flow, and continues for a
long time, without fenfibly affecting either the appetite or
f{trength.

In the firft flage of the farcy, while it is local, a cure may
be eafily accomplifhed, and topical applicatiuns will be fuf-
ficient to remove it. If the atual cautery be freely applied
at this time, fo as to deftroy all the poifoned parts, the
difeafe will be completely eradicated, and the chancre con-
verted into a common fore, which will affume a red health
appearance, and the cure may foon be completed by the ap-
plication of digeftive ointment. But if the difeafe has been
negleéted, or not perceived at its firft commencement ; if
the lymphatics be enlarged or corded (as it is termed by the
farriers) ; and if the neighbouring glands fhould be fwollen,
the cure is much lefs certain. Some of the poifon may, in
this cafe, have got into the circulation, though its effets
have not been vifible. In this flage, however, the chan-
‘cre may be completely cured by the aétual cautery, or
other ftrong cauttics; and if the poifon fhould not have
-paffed the glands, the cure will be radical; but if, on the
contrary, the fmalleft portion of the poifon fhould have in-
finuated itfelf into the blood, the whole mafs will be poi-
foned, and the fymptoms will be fuch as have been already
‘deferibed. When the firft appearance of the farcy has been
‘negleGed, it will be advifable to give.a ball, formed of mu-
riate of quickfilver 1 {c., powdered anifeeds 10z., and an
f{vrup, once, twice, or three times a day, if the horfé’s
ftrength will admit of it, reftraining its effe& upon the
“bowels or kidnies by meaus of opium ; at the fame time it
-will be neceflary to keep up the horfe’s ftrength by a liberal
allowance of corn. Malt has been found ufeful on thefe
‘oceafions. During this courfe of medicine the horfe mutt
be warmly clothed, have regular exercife, and never be fuf-
-fered to drink cold water. ~ Some have recommended verdi-
gris in this difeafe ; but Mr. White has had no opportunity
-of obferving its effect. ‘The balls above-mentioned: have
proved fo efficacious, that-he has had feldom any occation for
‘trying other remedies; but they thould be ceutinaed for

two or three weeks after every fymptom has difappeared, or
elfe the cure will feldom be permanent.

1t is not improbable ‘that the farcy, as well as the glan-
ders, may fometimes occur fpontaneoufly ; or at leat, in
many cafes, it may not be traced to any affignable caufe ;
and yet it might have arifen from conta@ with poifonous
matter, though the mode of communicating it has not been
afcertained. With refpeét to that kind of farcy which ap-
pears in/the form of diffufed {wellings of the limbs or other
parts, Mr. White is of opinion that it feldom originates from
infeétion, and does not often depend on the aétion of the
glanderous matter, being merely common cedematous {well-
ings, fuch as accompany the greafe. Hence we may ace
count forthe efficacy that has been fometimes attributed to
purgatives and diuretics, as remedies for the farcy. When
large abf{cefles are formed in confequence of farcy, they do
not require any particular treatment, but the horfe’s ftrength
flould be fupported in fuch cafes by means of corn and
mait. Some have fuppofed that the farcy depends altoge-
ther upon debility ; and ‘hence medicines of the tonic or
ftrengthening kind have beex recommended for its removal.
When the ciftemper becomes inveterate, Gibfon recom-
mends the following mixture, viz. half a pint of linfeed
oil ; oil of turpentine and nitre, of each three ounces ; tinc-
ture of euphorbium and hellebore, of each tio drams ; the
foldier’s ointment, or oil of bays, two ounces; oil of
origanum, halfan ounce; double aqua fortis, half an ounce ;
when the ebullifion-is over, add two ounces of Barbadoes
tar. With this mixture rub the tumours and corded
veins once in two or three days, opening a paflage to the
matter iffuing from the ulcers, if they are choaked up, with
a {mall hot iron, and deftroying with vitriol the proud flefh,
which may be kept ‘down by touching with oil’ of vitriol,
aqua fortis, or butter of antimony. Dr. Bracken recom-
mends the mercurial ointment for rebbing the cords and
tumours ‘before they break, in order to difperfe them; and
when they are broke, to drefs the fores with equal parts of
Venice turpentine and quickfilver. “Mercurials have been
likewife given internally in various ways; two ounces of
guickfilver divided with an ounce of turpentine, and made
up into four balls with diapente and gum guaiacum, of each
two ounces, and fufficient quantity of honey, have been
fucceisfully given in the quantity of one ball twice a aveek ¢
but when mercurials are adminiftered either internally or
externally, gentle purgatives fhould be interpofed to prevent
a falivation,

The water-farcin, which is a kind of dropfy, proceeds
from a horfe’s feeding on low watry grounds, and in pits or
holes where the grafs grows above the water; for the
horfe in pieking’out the grafs licks up the water, which
occafions him to {well under the belly or chaps.

The water-farcin is of two kinds: one produced by a
feverifh difpofition, terminating on the fkin; and the other
a true dropfly, in which the water is not confined to the
belly and limbs, but it is found in different parts of the body,
where a great number of foft {wellings appear, whith yield
to the preffure of the finger. The firlt fpecies may be
relieved by flight {carifications in the infide of the lee and
thigh with a fharp penknife; but in the other {pecies
the water mult be difcharged, and the crafis of the blood
recovered ‘by a purge given every week or ten days, and
immediately after the firlt the following balls: take of
nitre, two ounces 5! fquills powdered, three drams, or half
an ounce ; camphor, one dram, and a fufficient quantity of
honey to’ bring them ‘of a due confiltence for balls. Thia
ball Thould be given ‘once a day, and wafhed down witha

R2 hors

FAR

horn ortwo of the following drink: take of black hellebore,
frefh gathered, two pounds: wath, bruife, and boil it in fix
quarts of water, till it is reduced to four; ftrain off the
liquor, and pour on the remaining hellebore two quarts of
white-wine ; place it in a gentle heat, and let it infufe
forty-eight hours ; ftrain it off, and mix both together, and
give the horfe a pint of it night and morning. When the
horfe begins to recover, complete the cure by giving him
half a pint of the following infufion every night and morning
for a fortnight, and let him fait two hours after it: take
gentian-root and zedoary, of each four ounces ; chamomile-
flowers, and the tops of centaury, of each two handfuls ; of
Jefuit’s bark, powdered, two ounces; of juniper-berries,
four ounces ; of filings of iron, half a pound; infufe the
whole in two gallons of ale for a week, fhaking the veffel
often.

We have in the Philofophical’ TranfaGtions an account of
a horfe being cured of this difeafe by hemlock, The dif-
covery was accidental ; the matter of the horfe, riding near a
place where hemlock grew abundantly, fuffered his horfe
to eat greedily of it, and he became better from that time,
and in a few days was wholly cured. We generally efteem
hemlock a poifon; but befides this proof of its falutary
effect, it is well known that its feeds are eaten by fome birds,
particularly by the buftards, in very great quantities, with-
out any harm.

FARDAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Segeftan ; 155 miles S.W. of Zareng.

FARDEL of Land, in Rural Economy, is aterm which,
according to fome, fignifies a fourth, but which Noy afferts
to be only the eighth part of a yard-land. See Yarp-Lanp.

FARDING-Baa, a term fometimes ufed to fignify the
firft {tomach of a cow or any other ruminant animal. It is
chiefly employed by farriers.

FarpinG-Deal, or Farding-Land, in our Ancient Cuffoms,
fignifies the fourth pert of an acre, now called a rood. In
the regifter of writs we have alfo denariata, obolata, folidata,
and librata terra, which mutt probably rife in proportion of
quantity from the farding-deal, as an half-penny, penny,
fhilling, and pound, rife in value; on which footing obolata
mult be half an acre; denariata, an acre; folidata, twelve
acres ; and librata, twelve-fcore acres.

Yet we find viginti ibratas terre, vel reditus; Reg. fol.
94. a, and 284. d. where librata terra fhould feem to be as
much as yields xx s. per annum; and centum folidatas ter-
rarum, tenementorum, et redituum, fol. 249. a. Others
hold oblata to be but half a perch, and denariata a pereh.

FARDINGDEL, was the fourth part of a yard-land,
or of a plough-land, according to Spelman. See Farvev.

FARE, a voyage or paflage, or the money paid for pafling
by water, &c.

Fox the fares of hackney coachmen, watermen, &c. fee
Hackney-CoacuEs.

Fare of Pigs, in Rural Economy, a provincial mode of
exprefling the number of pigs which a fow brings forth at
one time. See Farrow.

FAREHAM, in Geography, a market town in the
hundred of that name, and divifion of Portfdown, in Hamp-
fhire, England, is-fituated at the north-weftern extremity of
Portfmouth harbour; and owes its chief importance to its
vicinity to that naval eftablifhment, its principal trade and
manufaGtures being thofe of facking and ropes for fhipping,
of which it fupplies great quantities to the dock. The town
is well built ; has a parifh-church and two meeting-houfes.
The civil government is vefted in a bailiff, two conftables,
and two ale-conners, who regulate all matters relative to

FAR

weights, meafures, trade, &c. Veffels of large burthen are:
built at the quay. During the fummer feafon this town is
much frequented for the purpofe of fea-bathing : and a
commodious bathing-houfe has been lately erected. Fare-
ham is 72 miles diftant from London: has a good market
on Wednefdays, and an annual fair well fupplied with. corn,
cheefe, hops, kc, The population report made to parlia-
ment in the year 1801 was 555 houfes and 3030 inha~
bitants.

FAREL, Wirtiam, in Biography, the fon of a gentle-
man in Dauphine, in France, was born in the year 1489.
He diftinguifhed himfelf at the univerfity of Paris for rapid
proficiency in the ancient languages, and though brought up-
with the Papifts we find him preaching the principles of the
reformed religion at Meaux, in the year 1521. ‘Two years
afterwards a perfecution was commenced by the Francif-
cans againft thofe whom they chofe to fingle out as heretics ;
among thefe was Farel, who, to provide for his own fafety,
fled from France. He retired to Strafburg, where he was
acknowledged as a brother by Bucer and Capito, as he was
by Haller, G@colampadius, and other eminent reformers in
Switzerland. At Bern he publicly defended his opinions,
in fet thefes ,againft the doétrines and practices of the Catho-
lics, till he excited fo much oppofition as obliged him to
quit the place. He now undertook the reformation of
Montbeliard, and was very fuccefsful in the attempt, but
his zeal was too nearly allied to intemperance to produce all
the effeé&t that his talents were capable of commanding. On
a proceffion day, he tore from the hands of the prieft the
imageof St. Anthony, and threw it into the river; which had
well-nigh coft him his life, and which, among other aéts of
violence, led Erafmus to think and to {peak flightingly of
him. His friend GEcolampadius was the means of mode-
rating his temper, by ferioufly expoftulating with him on the
fubject in an epiftolary correfpondence. ‘* Men,” faid he, in
one of his letters, “* may be led, but will not be driven by
force. Give me leave to fay you do not feem in every re-
{pect to remember your duty, you were fent to preach, not
torail. Pour on wine and oil in due feafon, and demean
yourfelf as an evangelift, and not as a tyrannical legiflator.””
Farel travelled from place to place in the character of a re=
former ; and from many of the fcenes of his exertions and
labours he was driven by the bigotry and fanaticifm of the
times. At Neufchatel and Geneva he exercifed the office
of paftor; and at Metz he planted a church, and obtained
numerous profelytes, but he and his followers were obliged
to fly from that city, and take refuge in the abbey of Gorze,
where the count of Furftenberg took them under his pro-
tection. Their enemies were, however, more powerful than
their friends ; they befieged them in their afylum, and
obliged them to furrender upon a capitulation. Farel ef-
caped and returned to Neufchatel, where he refumed his
labours with much affiduity. In 1553 he was obliged to
appear at Geneva, to anfwer a charge brought agaiuft him
that would, if true, have affeéted his life, but, according to
Calvin, it was an infamous fabrication, in return for his
zeal in reproving public vice. At this time Farel, with
utter inconfiftency of charaéter, and to his own eternal dif-
grace, affilted in the perfecution and murder of Servetus.
In 1558 he married ; and in 1565, as he was on a journey,
he was taken ill and died, being about 76 years of age. He
was diftinguifhed for an undaunted fpirit ; for a command-
ing voice, and for a powerful eloquence. His writings are
neither numerous nor important. They confit of thefes:
difputations, and fome practical treatifes. Bayle.

FARELAINS, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in

6 the

FAR

the provinee of Entre Duero é Minho; fix miles N.E. of
Villa de Condé,

FARELLA, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea.
S. lat.o° 48’. E. long. 104° 27’.

FARELLON Svucio, a {mall ifland in the Spanith
Main, wear the coaft of Darien. N. lat. 9°? 43’. W. long.

> 40!. :

FAREN, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Swedes
to a fifh peculiar to their country. It is of the genus of
the cyprini, and is diftinguifhed by Artedi by the name of
the yellow-eyed cyprinus, with thirty-feven bones in the

inna ani. See Cyprinus.

FARESKUR, in Geography, atown of Egypt, on the
eaft branch of the Nile; feven miles S. of Damietta.

FAREWELL, Care, a cape on the S.W. coalt of
Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 59° 38’. W. long. 42° 45’.—
Alfo, a cape on the N.W. coait of Tayai-Poenammoo, the
fouthern ifland of New Zealand. S. lat. 4o° 33’. W.
leng. 186.

FARFANA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; five miles
W. of Balaguer.

FARFARA, a name given by fome of the ancient
Botaniffs to the plant we call colt’s-foot, from the river
Farfarus, a river of Italy, mentioned by Ovid as remark-
able for its fhady banks, which afforded a very large quan-
tity of this plant. Pliny mentions this plant with much
confufion, calling it alfo farfano and farfugio, and forgetting
that he had before defcribed it under the name of tuffilago
or belchion. See Tusstraco.

FARFRUGUM, a name by which fome authors have
called the caltha paluftris, or marfh-marygold.

FARGEAU, S?. in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton in
the diftriét of Joigny; 25 miles S.W. of Joigny. The
place contains 2095, and the canton 6632 inhabitants, on a
territory of 257: kiliometres, and in feven communes. N.
Jat. 47° 38’. E. long. 3~ 10’.

FARIAH, a town and province of the country of Balk,
on the borders of Perfia; go miles W. of Balk. N. lat.
36° 8': E. long. 63° 40’.

FARJAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
75 miles S.W. of Hamadan.

FARIBE, a town of Africa, in the country of the
Foulahs, on the Senegal. N. lat. 16° 45’. W. long,
14° 34’.

FARIDABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in the foubah
of Delhi; 18 miles S. of Delhi.

FARIGLIANI, a fmall ifland near the eaft coaft of
Sicily. N. Tat. 37° 35! EE. long. 15° 15’.

FARILA, atown of Sweden, in Helfingland; 39 miles
N. of Hudwickfwall.

FARILHOENS, two {mall iflands in the Atlantic, near
the coaft of Benguela. S. lat. 12° 35'.

FARIM, a town of Africa, and capital of a province or
kingdom of the fame name, belonging to the Papels, on the
river St. Domingo. N. lat 12° 10', W. long. 14° 30’.

FARIMA, or Bansyu, a province of Japan, on the
S. coaft of the ifland of Niphon, abounding in manufac-
tures of filk, cloth, paper, &c.

FARINA, in Agriculture, a term frequently ufed to
fgnify the fine mealy fubftance afforded by pounding
or grinding different forts of grain. It is very preva-
lent in wheat, conftituting, ina great meafure, the flour
from which bread is made. It is found to partake fome-
what of the nature of gum, but has confiderably more
tafte, is more fermentable, and greatly more nutritious. It
ie likewife abundant in many vegetables, being moitly de-

FAR

pofited in certain parts of them, apparently for the purpofe
of being more beneficially accommodated tp their nourifh-
ment and jupport. Many of the bulbous and other roots,
as well as thofe of the potatoe, briony, &c. and fuch as af-
ford different preparations, as falep, caflava, &c. contain a
large portion of white fecule, which greatly refembles, and in
reality poffeffes, the properties of farina, The leguminous
clafs of plants, as peas, beans, &c. are alfo found to abound
in this fort of matter. The largeft quantity of this materiat
is, however, met with in grains, 23 wheat, barley, rye, and
oats, which are in confequence of it denominated farinaceous
grains. It likewife abounds in rice, and other plants of the
fame kind.

When only flightly examined it feems to be a fubftance
of a homogencous nature ; but from a€iual experiment it is
found to be a compound, conftituted of three different parts,
which are eafily feparable. Where it is taken from wheat,
this is eafily fhewn by fimply forming a paite with a quan-
tity of it and cold water, and then fufpending it in a bag of
muflin, or other fimilar cloth ; afterwards letting fall on it
a ftream of cold water from a height, the containing bag
being occafionally fqueezed in a gentle manner: the water
in its defcent conveys away with it a very fine white powder,
which may be received with the water ina veffel placed
below, underneath the bag. This procefs is continued until
no more of the white powder comes off, which is fhewn
by the water that paffes through the bag, ceafing to havea
milky colour. The operation being completed, the farina
is found to be feparated into three diftinét fubftances: the
glutinous, or vegeto-animal part remains in the bag; the
amylum, or {tarch, is depofited at the bottom of the water,
which has been received in the veffel placed below the bag:
and the mucous matter is held difflolvedin the water from
which the ftarch has been depofited, and is capable of being
brought to the confiltence of treacle, by evaporating the
water in which it is held in the ftate of folution.

It is likewife found, that thefe feveral different parts
vary greatly in their fenfible and chemical properties. The
vegeto-animal part has a whitifh grey colour, being a te-
nacious, duétile, elaitic matter, partly poffeffing the texture
of animal fubftances. When diftilled in a retort it yields,
like all animal matters, a true volatile alkali; and its coal
affords no fixed alkali. It is not only infoluble, but even
indiffufible in water; both which are fhewn from its re-
maining in the bag after long continued lotions or wafhings.
Like gums, it is foluble in alcohol, in oils, and in ether ;
but is infoluble in water, and yields on diftillation produ€ts
very different from thofe afforded by gums. It is confe-
quently of an animal nature, and would feem to approach
nearer to the coagulable lymph of animals than to any other
fubftance. The fixed alkali, by means of heat, diffolves
the vegeto-animal gluten; but when it is precipitated from
this folution by means of acids, it is found to have loit its
elafticity. The mineral acids, and efpecially the nitrous, are
likewife capable of diffolving the vegeto-animal part of
farina, The amylaceous, or ftarchy matter, forms the prin-
cipal part of the farina. As already noticed, it is that
fine powder which is depofited from the water which has
pervaded the entire farina: it is of a greyifh white colour,
but is capable of being rendered much whiter by making it
uncergo a certain degree of fermentation. Starch is inca
pable of folution in cold water, but in hot water it forms a
tranfparent glue: hence the neceffity of employing cold
water in feparating it from the vegeto-animal part. When
diftilled ina retort, it affords an acid phlegm; and its coal
yields, like other vegetables, a fixed alkaline falt. Avs ftarch
conititutes the greate{t part of the farina, it is probably te

chie

FAR

chief nutritious conftituent principle in bread. The iu-—

cous, or rather mucofe-faccharine matter, is only in a very
{mall proportion in bread. Upon undergoing diftillation it
is found'to prefent the fame phenomena asfugar. The ufe
of this matter feems to be that of producing the vinons fer-
mentation ; and it is not improbable but that the making of
good bread may depend on a proper proportion of ‘the
three different parts that have been already fhewn; the
vinous fermentation being promoted by the mucofo-faccha-
rine part, the acetous by the flarch, and the putrid by the
gluten vegeto-aniinal ; confequently, that from the different
degrees or ftates of thefe feveral {tages of fermentation the
qualities or properties of good bread may in a great meafure
be derived. See Breav.

Befides this, it is found from a€tual experiment, as well as
long experience, that thofe fubftances which abound molt in
farina, are the mo{t expeditious in fattening different forts
of animals, as hogs, poultry, &c. and at the fame time af-
ford that fort of tat which 1s the moft firm and folid in its
nature; hence it is found neceffary in moft cafes to feed
out animals of thefe kinds with fome material that contains
it in a pretty large proportion.

Farina Fecundans, in Botany.
Plants.

Farina, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the north coaft
Of “Tunis: GN lat. 39° 426° 1. lone. 10% 35.

FARINAGIUM, in Rural Economy, aterm which was
formerly employed to fignify the toll of meal or flour.

FARINELLI, Carto Broscuti, peEtTTo, an Italian
opera-finger, whofe voice and abilities feem to have furpafi-
ed the limits of all anterior vocal excellence, was born at*
Andria, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1705. He learned
the Grit rudiments of mnfic of his father, according to his
own account, and finging of Porpora, who generally accom-
panied him wherever he went. In 1722, at the age of 17,
he went from Naples to Rome, with his maiter, then en-
gaged to compofe an opera for the Aliberti theatre, in that
city ; where, during the run of an opera, there wasa ftruggle
every night between him and a famous player on the trum-
pet, ina'fong accompanied by that inftrument: this, at
firft, feemed amicable, and merely fportive, till the audi-
ence began to intereft themfelves in the contelt, and to take
‘different fides. After feverally {welling outa note, in which
each manifefted the power of his lungs, and tried to rival
the other in brilliancy and force, they had both a {well and
‘a fhake together, by thirds, which was continued fo
long, while the audience eagerly waited the event, that
both feemed to be exhaufted ; and, in fa&t, the trumpeter,
wholly {pent, gave it up, thinking, however, his antago-
nift as much tired as himfelf, and that it would be a drawn
battle ; when Farinelli, with a fmile on his countenance,
fhewing he had only been fporting with him all this ime,
broke out all at once in the fame breath, with freth vigour,
and not only {welled and fhook the note, but ranthe mott
rapid and difficult divifions, and was at lait filenced only by
the acclamations of the audience. From this period may
be dated that fuperiority which he ever maintained over all
his cotemporaries. Here he continued with Porpora till
1724, when he firft went to Vienna. In 1725, he per-
“formed at Venice in Metaftafio’s firft opera of ** Didone
Abbandonata,” fet by Albinoni. After this he returned
to Naples, where he performed with the celebrated female

“finger Tefi, ina ferenata compofed by Haffe. In the early
part of his life he was diltinguifhed throughout Italy by
‘the name of “the boy.”? In 1726 he fung at Milan, in
“ Ciro,’ an opera fet by the elder Ciampi. In 1727, he

~ performed at Bologna, with Bernacchi, in an opera fet by

See Fecunparion of

FAR
Orlandini. Th ‘1728, he went'to Vienna a fecond ‘time ;
and afterwards returning to Venice in autumn, he fung
with Fanftina, jaft*returned from England, in Metaitafio’s
« Ezio,” fet by Porpora. Herehe continued ‘two years,
performing, in'1729, with Gizzi aud Nicolini, in Semira-
mide Riconofciuta,” fet likewife by Porpota, and in ‘* Ca-
to,”? by Leo: andin 1730, with Nicolini and Cuzzom in
Haffe’s celebrated opera of “ Artaferfe,’’ in which’he firft
appeared in England; and’in * {dafpe,’’ fet by his brother
Riccardo Brofchi. Whierever he went his powers were're-
garded as miraculous ; but he told the author of this article,
that at Vienna, where he was three different times, and
where he received great honours from the emperor Charles
VI.an admonition from that prince was of more fervice to
him than allthe precepts of his matters, or examples of his
competitors for fame : his imperial majeity condefcended to
tell him one day, with great mildnefs and affability, that in his
finging he neither moved nor flood fill like any other mortal ;
all was fupernatural. ‘ Thofe gigantic ftrides, faid hes
thofe never-ending notes and paflages (ces notes qui ne finif-
fent jamais) only furprife, and it 1s now time for you to
pleafe ; you are too laviih of. the gifts’with which nature
has endowed you; if you wifh to reach the ‘heart, you
muft take a more plain and fimple road.” Thefe few
words brought about an entire change in his manner of fing-
ing : from this time he mixed the pathetic with the {pirited,
the fimple with the fublime, and, by thefe means, delighted
as well as aftonifhed every hearer. In the year 1734, he
came into England, where every one knows who heard, or
has heard of him, whatan effeét his furprifing talents had
upon the audience ; it was extacy ! rapture ! enchantment !

In the famous air ** Son qual Nave,’’ which was compofed
by his brother, the firlt note he fung was taken with fuch
delicacy, fwelled by minute degrees to fuch an amazing vo-
lume, and afterwards diminifhed in the fame manner, that
it was applauded for full five minutes. He afterwards fet
off with fuch brilliancy and rapidity of execution, that it
was difficult for the violins of thofe days to keep pace with
him. In fhort, he was to all other fingers‘as fuperior as the
famous horfe Childers was to all other running-horfes; but
it was not only in fpeed, he had now every excellence of
every great finger united. Inhis voice, ftrength, fweetnefs,
and compafs ; in his fiyle, the tender, the graceful, and
the rapid. He poffeffed fuch powers as never met before,
or fince, in any one human being ; powers that were irre-
fiftible, and which mutt fubdue every hearer; the learned
and the ignorant, the friend and the foe.

As general and indilcriminate praife would convey to
the mind of a mufical reader no diltinét ideas of the powers
of this extraordinary finger, it will be neceffary to difcri-
minate the {pecific excellencies of which he feems to have
been poffeffed.

No vocal performer of the laft century has been mote
unanimoufly allowed by profeffional critics, as well as ge-
neral celebrity, to have been gifted with a voice of fuch un-
common power, f{weetnefs, extent, and agility. Nicolini,
Senefino, and Caréftini, gratified the eye as much by the
dignity, grace, and’ propriety of theiraétion and deportment,
as the ear, by the judicious ufe ‘ofa few notes within the
limits of a {mall compafs of voice; but “Farinelli, without
the affiitance of fignificant geftures or graceful attitudes,

“encharited and aftenithed ‘his shearers by the force, extent

and melliiluous tonés of the mere organ, when he had no-
thing to execute, articulate, or “exprefs. But though du-
ting the time of his finging hewas as motionlefs asa ftatue,
his voice was {fo aétive, that no intervals were too clofe, too
wide, or too rapid for his’ execution. It feems as ifthe

compolers

FARINELLTE

compofers of thefe times were unable to invent paflages
fufficiently difficult to difplay his powers, or the orcheftras
to accompany him in many of thofe which had been com-

ofed for his peculiar talent. And yet, fo great were his
Heat tia and delicacy, that he was never known, while
he was in England, to exclaim, or manifeft difcontent at
the inability of the band, or miftakes of individuals by
whom he was accompanied. He was fo judicious in
proportioning the force of his voice to the {pace through
which it was. to pafs to the ears of his audience, that
in a {mall theatre at Venice, though it was then moft
powerlul, one of the managers of the opera complained
that he did not fufficiently exert himfelf—<« let me then,”
fays Farinelli, «* have a larger theatre, or f fhall lofe
my reputation without your being a gainer by it.”

@n his arrival here, at the firft private rehearfal at
Cuzzoni’s apartments, lord Cooper, thea the principal
manager of the opera under Porpora, obferving that the
band did not follow him, but were all gaping with won-
der, as if thunder-fruck, defired them to be attentive ;
when they all confefled that they were unable to kee
pace with him: having not only been difabled by afto-
nifhment, but overpowered by his talents. This band was
fmall, confilting only of Carbonelli, Mich. Chrift. Fett.
ing, Wualentine Snow, afterwards ferjeant-trumpet, and
Mr. Vezan, a dancing-mafter, who was likewife a fteady
and excellent concert-player on the violin, and conftant-
ly employed whenever Carbonelli or Feiting was the
leader. 1t was from this worthy man that we had this
anecdote.

There was not one of all Farinelli’s excellencies by which
lie fo far furpaffed all other fingers, and aftonifhed the
public, as his mefla di voce, or {wells which, by the na-
tural formation of his lungs, and artificial economy of
breath, he was able to protract to fuch a length, as to
exeite incredulity even in thofe who heard him; who,
though unable to deteét the artifice, imagined him to
have had the latent help of fome inftrument by which the
tone was continued, while he renewed his powers by re-
fpiration.
~ With thefe talents he went into Spain in the year 1737,
with a fulldefign to return into England, having entered
into articles with the nobility, who had then the manage-
ment of the opera, to perform the enfuing feafon. In his
way thither he fung to the king of France at Paris, where,
aceording to Riccoboni, he enchanted even the French
themfelves, who at that time univerfally ebhorred Italiaa
mufic; but the firft day he performed before the king and
queen of Spain, it was determined that he fhould be taken
into the fervice of the court, to which he was ever after
wholly appropriated, not being once fuffered to fing again in
public. A penfion of near 3coo/. a-year was iettled on
him for life.

- He faid, that for the firft ten years of his refidence at the
court of Spain, during the life of Philip V. he fung every
night to that monarch the fame four airs, two of which
were compofed by Haffe, «* Palido ~il fole,” « Per quefto
dolee Ampleffo,”? and ‘* Ah, non lafciami no, bell idol
mio,” by Vinci: we forget the other, but it was a mi-
nuet which he ufed to vary at his pleafure. He was ,ho-
noured with the order of St. Jago by his firft royal matter.
OF the manner in which he {pent his time fome idea may
be gathered from what we have already related : the lovers
of anecdotes might, indeed, be gratified with innumerable
particulars concerning the effects of his amazing talents, if
anecdotes were not below the dignity of Jexicography; one
or two, however, that do honour te his heart and natural

difpofition, we hope our graver and more critical readers
will excufe.

It has been often related, and generally believed, that
Philip V. king of Spain, being feized, with a total dejeGtion
of f{pirits, which made him refufe to be fhaved, and rendered
him incapable of attending council, or tranfaGting affairs of
ftate, the queen, who had in vain tried every common expe-
dient that was likely to contribute to his recovery, de-
termined that an experiment fhould be made of the effeéts of
mufic upon the king her hufband, who was extremely
fenfible to its charms. Upoa the arrival of Farinelli, of
whofe extraordinary performance an account had been tranf-
mitted to Madrid from feveral parts of Europe, but parti-
cularly from Paris, her majelty contrived that there fhould
be a concert in a room adjoining to the king’s apartment,
in which this finger performed one of his moft captivating
fongs. Philip appeared at firft furprifed, then moved ; and
at the end of the fecond air made tue virtuofo enter the
royal apartment, loading him with compliments and careffes ;
afked him how he could fufficiently reward fuch talents ; af-
furing him that he could refufe him nothing. Fariuelli,
previoufly inftructed, only begged that his majefty would
permit his attendants to fhave and drefs him, and that he
would endeavour to appear in council as ufual. From this
time the king’s difeafe gave way to medicine: and the
finger had all the honour of the cure. By finging to his
majelty every evening, his favour increafed to fuch a degree,
that he was regarded as firft minifter; but what is fill
more extraordinary, inftead of being intoxicated or giddy
with his elevation, Farinelli, never forgetting that he was a
mufician, behaved to the Spanifh nobles about the court
with uch humility and propricty, that inftead of envyiug
his favour, they honoured him with their efteem and con-
fidence. One day in going to the king’s clofet, to which
he had at all times accefs, he heard an officer of the guard
curfe him, and fay to another that was in waiting * ho-
nours can be heaped on fuch fcoundrels as thefe, while a
poor foldier, like myfelf, after thirty years’ fervice, is unno-
ticed.”” Farinelli, without feeming to hear this reproach, com-
plained to the king that he had neglected an old fezvant, and
procured a regiment for the perfon who had fpoken fo harfh-
ly of bim in the anti-chamber ; and in quitting his majetty
he gave the commiffion to the officer, telling him that he
had heard him complain of having ferved thirty years, but
added, **you did wrong to accule the king of negleGing to
reward your zeal.’?

The following ftory, which is lefs ferious, was frequent-
ly told and believed at Madrid, during the firft year of Fa-
rinelli’s refidence in Spain.- This finger, having ordered a
fuperb fuit of clothes for a gala at court, when the taylor
brought it home, he afked him for bis bill. « I have made
no bill, fir, fays the taylor, nor ever fhall make one. In-
{tead of money,’’ continues he, “I have a favourto beg.
I know that what I want is ineftimable, aad only fit for
monarchs; but fince I have had the honour to work for a
perfon of whom every one {peaks with rapture, all the pay-
ment I fhall ever require will be a fong.”? Farinelli tried in
vain to prevail on the taylor to take bis money, At length,
after a long debate, giving way to the humbie intreaties of
the trembling tradef{man, and flattered perhaps more by the
fingularity of the adventure than by ail the applaule he had
hitherto received, he took him isto his ninfic-room, and
{ung to him fome of his moft brilliant airs, taking pleafure
in the aitgnifhment of his ravithed hearer; aod the more he
feemed furprifed and affeted, the more Favinelli exerted
himfelf in every {pecies of excellence. When he had done,
the taylor, overcome with extacy, thanked him in the mett

rapturous

FARINELLI.

fapturous and grateful manner, and prepared to retire,
« No,” fays Farinelli, “ I am a little proud; and it is per-
haps from that circumftance that I have acquired fome {mall
degree of {uperiority over other fingers; I have given way
to your weaknefs, it is but fair, that, in your turn, you
fhould indulge mein mine.’ And taking out his purfe, he
infilted on his receiving a f{um amounting to nearly double
the worth of the fuit of clothes.

After the death of Philip V. his favour continued
under his fucceflor Ferdinand VI., by whom he was
dignified with the order of Calatrava in 1750; but then his
duty became lefs conftant and fatiguing, as he perfuaded
this prince to have operas, which were a great relief to him:
he was appointed fole director of thofe fpectacles ; and had
from Italy the beft compofers and fingers of the time, and
Metatftafio to write. He fhewed mein his houfe four of the
principal fcenes in Didone and Netette, painted by Amico-
ni, who accompanied him firft into England, and then into
Spain, where he died.

When the late king of Spain afcended the throne, he
was obliged to quit that kingdom, but his penfion was {till
continued, and he was allowed to bring away all his effects.
The furniture of his houfe was very rich, as it was almoft
entirely compofed of the prefents which he had received
from great perfonages. He feemed very much to regret
the being obliged to feek a new habitation, after having
lived twenty-four years in Spain, where he had formed many
friendfhips and conne¢tions that were dear to him; and it
was a great proof of the prudence and moderation of his
charater, that in a country and court, where jealoufy and
pride are fo predominant, he continued fo long to be the
king’s chief favourite, a diftinétion odious to every people,
without the leaft quarrel or difference with any of the
Spaniards.

When he returned into Jtaly in 1761, all his old friends,
relations, and acquaintances, were either dead, or removed
from the places where he had left them ; fo that he had a fe-
cond life to begin, without the charms of youth to attach
new friends, or his former talents to gain new protectors.

He faid that Metaftafio and he were twins of public fa-
vour. Their firit acquaintance began at Naples, where Fa-
rinelli performed in Metaftatio’s firft dramas, in ** Angelica,”
1723, and in * Didone,’’ 17243 in ‘ Siroe,’”’ at Venice,
1725, and 1726. They feem not to have met again till
Metaftafio was fettled at Vienna, where Farinelli was en-
gaged three feveral times, and where they faw each other
for the laft time in 1733, from which period their affeGion
continued with undiminifhed ardour to the end oftheir lives.
The letters of Metaftafio to this vocal phenomenon and
worthy charaéter are all preferved from the year 1747, to
the laft ufe which the poet made of a pen, in 1782. No-
thing need be added here to his public profeffional character ;
but in the letters of Metaitafio, publifhed in the memoirs of
his life, the numerous and imprefflive eulogies of that excel-
lent and refined moraliit, and judge of the human heart,
exalt his private virtues and conduct through life to an un-
common pitch of excellence. During his refidence in Spain,
we were curious to obtain information concerning the life of
this portentous performer : we had accounts from the high-
eft authority of his modefty, humility, and benevolent pro-
penfities, during his fplendid refidence at Madrid, while in
the meridian of reyal favour, invefted with wealth, honours,
and influence, fufficient to excite every fpecies of envy,
hatred, and malice, in all the orders of fociety. Yet fo
found were his intelleéts, fo fage and judicious his condué,
that he cannot fo properly be faid to have efcaped the fhafts
of envy, as to have prevented their being fhat at him. Of

almoft all other great fingers, we hear of their intoxication
by praife and profperity, and of their caprice, infolence, and
abfurdities, at fome time or cther; but of Farinelli, fupe-
rior tothem all in talents, fame, and fortune, the records
of folly among the f{poilt children of Apollo furnifh not
one difgraceful anecdote. In one of Metaftafio’s letters to
his Caro Gemello, (his dear twin,) as he always called Fari-
nelli, he fays, ‘ the Spanifh minifter -plenipotentiary, don
Antonio di Azlor from your court is arrived, and pleafes
extremely here; not only my auguft patrons, but the no-
bility and the whole corps diplomatique. He has an agree-
able ferioufnefs in his afpe&t, an opennefs in {peaking, and
fo noble, courteous, and judicious an addrefs, that we hope
he will worthily and nfefully fuftain the chara&ter with which
heis honoured. He is interrogated by every one concern-
ing yourfelf, a3 all are folicitous about what is moft dear to
them ; and all are extremely pleafed with his anfwers. He
affures them that your profperity has not in the leait altered
the fweetnefs and moderation of your charaéter. A rock,
according to ancient and modern examples, extremely difk-
cult to avoid; and much more amidit the favours, than
the perfecutions of fortune. He has afflured them that
though elevatedto fuch an enviable fituation, you have not
anenemy. ‘T’o obtain forgivenefs, (Metaftafio adds,) for
fuch profperity, I can eafily conceive how wife, how
difinterefted, and how beneficent muft be your condu@.
I congratulate you on thefe ineftimable charaéteriftics,
which are your own, and not the gifts of fortune ; and I
congratulate myfelf for having known and loved you, before
you had given fuch illuftrious proofs of your eftimable and
amiable qualities.”

In one of the poet’s letters to Farinelliin 1752, when at
the zenith of his favour and fortune, he fays, “ I have feen,
for a fhort time, count Efterhafi, after his return from Ma-
drid, and have found him fullof you. He regards you as
ahero, and has defired me to tell you fo; which will
oblige me likewife to love you more than ever. At this laft
affertion I cannot help laughing ; but I own, that to hear
you thus praifed, affords me the fame pleafure as if it was
myfelf: fo much does our old, true, and reciprocal friend-
fhip feem to have united us together, and confolidated our
interefts. God preferve you, our dear Gemello, and infpire
others to think as you do.”

«“ What I {peak and write to you, my dear friend,
is what I think, not what I fay; and I do not write all,
left 1 fhould be thought by thofe who are not ac-
quainted with me one of the common worfhippers of
your fortune : which I only love in you, as an inftrument
by means of which you difcover the good qualities of your
heart: among which 1 muft, for my own luke, enumerate
the admirable conftancy of your friendfhip.””

Again, in 1756, he fays, “at length our noble and worthy
Monfignor Migazzi, arch-bifhop of Vienna, is arrived here
from Madrid. I have put his patience to extraordinary trials,
with my numerous and minute queftions concerning your
health, way of life, friendfhip for me, and the public approba-
tion which you have fo well contrived to merit. He went fo ar
as to tell me, that, confcious of your heroic conduét in cir-
cumttances fo feducing, he might venture to canonize you
without the fear of oppofition. Figure to yourfelf, if you
can, how fweet fuch mufic muft be to the ears of y our moft
faithful and affeGtionate Gemello.”’

Thefe are inftances of. the ftrength of his head during
profperity ; we fhall give two or three examples of his for-
titude, when ‘fallen from his high eftate.”” In 1758, he
loft his great patronefs and judge of his’ worth and talents,
the queen of Spain: and, ia 1759, her confort Ferdig

VI.

FAR

VI. who being fucceeded by Charles III. his brother, the
late king of Spain, who hated mufic, and would not fuffer
the found ofa voice or an inftrement to be heard in his palace,
ordered him to quit Madrid, and return to Italy ; but not
to his own country, Naples, whither it was his wifh to re-
tire ; but from fome caprice, never clearly explained, though
his penfion was continued, he ordered him to {pend the re-
mainder of hisdays at Bologna. Upon his firft lofs, Me-
taftafio in condolence fays: ‘¢ The death of fo’admirable a
queen, and her royal confort opprefled with grief for fo ir-
reparable a lofs, are objects for a difinterelted fervant,
obliged, honoured, and tull of affeGtion and gratitude like
yourfelf, that mutt inevitably plunge your mind‘in an aby{s
ofdefolation. I know not what to fay zo you, my dear
friend, equal to what I feel for you. Yet I have no doubt
but that you, who have fhewn the world how capable you
are of refifting the flattering {miles of fortune, will know
how to fupport adverfity ; and that your prudence will not
wait for the affiftance of neceflity, to manifeft wifdom and
Chriftian refignation.”” And on the death of his royal pa-
tron Ferdinand, in 1759, he begins his fecond letter of
condolence in the following manner; ‘ Yetterday was deli-
vered to me your letter of the fecond of Auguft, from
Villaviziofa: and though tinétured with the gloomy colour
reflected from your painful fituation, it was great confolation
to me to find, that, with your feeble ftate of health, you
have had fufficieut vigour to refit fo tremendous a fhock.
The fatal news of your beneficent king having been deli-
vered from his fufferings, arrived at Vienna four days before
your letter. Itis tobe hoped that the melanckoly {tate in

\ which he long remained without the leaft chance of recovery
diminifhed the violence of a blow which mutt have been ex-
pected, and which delivered a poor prince from the painful
exiftence in which he languifhed. And yet, with all thefe
folid reafons, I judge, my dear Gemello, by the emotions
of my own heart, what your’s muft be ; but I promife myfelf
much more from your virtue than mine; becaufe the exam-
ples of moderation with which you have fo long furnithed
the world in the midft of the moft intoxicating frmiles of
fortune, give usaffurances of your meeting her frowns with
equal fortitude. Be of comfort, my dear Gemello: in-
conftancy in human affairs is the univerfal condition on
which we live, asevery mortal knows by wocful experience.
No misfortune, however, can rob you of the praife of not
fuffering yourfelf to be feduced or dazzled by the blaze with
which you were fo long furrounded.”

The death of his partial patrons not only deprived him
of his importance at that court, but feems to have bereaved
him of all comfort during the reft ofhis days. Ina Ictter of
Metaftafio to him in 1763, we find the following teitimo-

-ny of his refignation to his fate. “ I now begin to difeover
that my beloved Carluccio is as fuperior to the frowns, as he
-has hitherto been to the fmiles, of fortune. I pronnfed
myfelf this heroifm from you: and was certzin that your
-greateft difficulty was knowing how to fet bounds to the
tender exceffes of your good heart, and gratitude. Now
time and reflection have rendered you matter of yourfelf, it is
fit, my dear friend, that you fhould enjoy that {weet tran-
‘ quillity, which is fo juftly due to your toils and condu&.”

In 1764, “his guide, philofopher, and friend,’’ fays,
your laft letter of the sth inft. really confoled me.
From the ferenity and pleafantry with which it is coloured

‘from the beginning to the end, I conceive that you are
at length arrived at the fecret of wiping from your mind
‘that curfed foot with which it has fo long been difco-
loured. I congratulate you on your fuecefs, in an enter-
F prife which borders on a {pecies of heroifm of which fo few

Vou. XIV.

FAR

are capable; We have an infinite number of great nen,
who are venerated as models of knowledge and prudence,
who have funk under eataftrophes much lefs violent than
yours. Happinefs, therefore, attend my dear Gemello !
who has proved himfelf as much fuperior in adverfity az
profperity, and who knows how to eftimate human felicity
better than thofe who call themfelves philofophers ; and ie
in no want of {cholaftic jargon to enable him to ftand firm
and motionlefs inevery gu't of wind. Heaven blefs and
keep you in this wife and placid ftate for at leaft half a cen-
tury.

In 1773, ina letter to a Bolognefe lady who had boafted
of her acquaintance with Farinelli,. he fays: ‘ your partis
ality, madam, for my dear Gemello, the cavalier Brofchi,
is 2 new motive for the encreaie of that efteem which I have
always had for you: as his excellent difcernment aflures me
of the merit of thofe perfons with whom he is in habits of
intimacy. And Tenvy youboth that mutual enjoyment of
each other’s company, at which I can never afpire.”?” And
in 1779, in a letter to the fame lady, the venerable bard
fays <« you have obliged me extremely my dear fignora
Giacinta, by honouring me with the continuance of “your
correfpondence, and affuring me of the affe€tionate remem-
brance which my dear and refpeéted friend fig. Carlo Brof-
chi retains for me, which I return with a mutual and moft
conttant reciprocation. I love and efteem him as much as it
is poflible for a man to be loved and efteemed, who has fo
far furpaffed all his peers, not only by his excellence in the
charming art which he profefled, but by the uncommon
virtuous qualities ef his mind, which have rendered him
amiable, and admirable, in every fituation into which for-
tune has thrown him.

We have dwelt with more pleafure on the virtues of this
extraordinary vocal performer; as we fear they are more
rarely found in muficians than great talents. Poffeffed of
irrefiftible powers of pleafing, they muft be regarded as
{poiled children of nature and of the public; who in their
vital voyage, ‘are not only ignorant how to fail before the
wind, but how to tack, without lofing their fteerage.”
However, if fuch {plendid fortune as Farinelli’s has hap-
pened to but very few mortals, there have not been wanting
in{tances of great vocal powers being united with found in-
telle&ts, prudence, and good conduét, of all which we may
fafely venture to fay that Pachierotti was eminently poi-
feffed. ‘

FARINOLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Abruzzo Ultra; 11-miles S. S. E. of Teramo.

FARIO, in Zoology, a term for falmon when about half
grown, after it is paft the ftate in which it is called a falar,
and before itis of the fall growth.

FARIS, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Comis; 30 miles S. E. of Biftam.

FARLEE, a town of Bengal; 8 miles Ny of Ranga-
matty.

FARLES, a river of North Wales, which runs inte
the Irith fea; 4 miles W. of Crickaeth.

FARLEU, in Rural Economy, is a term ufed formerly,
in the weft of England, to fignify the money paid by
tenants in lieu of heriot:. It is frequently underitood is
fome manors of Devonfhire to be the beft goods, as heriot
is the beft beaft, payable on the death of a tenant.

FARLOF, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Schonen ; 6 miles N. of Chriftianftadt.

FARM, in Agriculture, a term which formerly fig-
nified a imall mefluage or diftri@ in the couatry, comprifing

a houfe, land, and other conveniencies, which was hired:

oy taken by leafe, either in word or writing, under a certain
S yearly

»

FARM.

yearly rent or charge ; but which at prefent may be defined
'a certain portion of ground cultivated by the proprietor or
tenant in different methods, according to the nature of the
land, for the purpofe of deriving profit from it. Thefe
leafes were differently denominated in different diftricts or
places ; hence, in the more northern parts of the kingdom
they were frequently termed tacks and fermehalis ; while
in fome parts of the fouth they had the title of wikes.

The word firma, ferm, or farm, in corrupt Latin, fig-
nified a place which was inclofed or fhut in; whence it has
been aflerted by Menage, that in fome diftriéts or pro-
vinces they term ¢cloferie, or clofure, what in others is called
ferm, or farm.

By Skinner and Spelman the word farm is, however, de-
rived from the Saxon term fearme, or feorme, which fignifies
vidius, food or provifion, as the tenants and country people
anciently paid their rents in viétuals, and other neceffaries of
life, but which was afterwards converted into the payment of
certain {ums of money. Hence a ferm was originally a place
which furnifhed or fupplied its owner or lord with provilions.
The Normans likewife diftinguifhed between farms which
paid in kind, as in provilions, and thofe which paid in mo-
ney, denominating the former fimply ferme, or farm, while
the latter were called blanche ferme, or white farm. The
Jatter of the above writers has likewife fhewn that the word
firma anciently fignified, not only what is now called a farm,
but alfo a feaft or entertainment which was given by the
farmer to the owner, proprietor, or landlord, for a certain
number of days, and at a certain rate, in confideration of
the lands, &c. which he held of him. Thus in the laws of
king Canute, the term fearm is by Lombard rendered
vidus ; and we have likewife reddere frmam unius nedis,
as well as reddebat unam diem de firma, which evidently de-
note provifion for a night and day, the rents about the time
of the conqueft being all referved in provifions. This cuf-
tom is aflerted to have been firft altered under the reign of
the firft Henry.

There is a {tatute, the 21 Hen. VIII. cap. 18. in which
it is ena&ted that no parfon or {piritual perfon fhall take
farms or leafes of land, on pain of forfeiting ten pounds per
month, &c.

And by the 25 Hen. VIII. eap. 13, and the 32
Hen. VIII. cap. 28. no perfon whatfoever fhall take
above two farms together, in the fame parifh, under the
forfeiture of three fhillings and four-pence a week.

In confidering the nature of farms, it is evident that
there muft be different forts, from the different methods
in which they are cultivated or employed. Where the
principal part of the land is under the plough they are
termed arable farms ; but where the fattening ef cattle or
other forts of live ftock is more immediately the obje&,
they are diftinguifhed by the title of grazing farms ; where
the chief intention is the obtaining different forts of animal
products, fuch as milk, butter, and cheefe, they are deno-
minated milk, cheefe, and butter, or dairy farms ; and where
the two fyftems of arable and grafs management can be com-
bined, they are called mixed, or convertible farms. As
‘manure mutt be had im order to render farms of any kind
produtive, the laft fort may probably, in general, be con-
fidered as the moft advantageous. And in addition to thefe,
where hay is the principal object, there are grafs or hay
farms; and where live ftock is. chiefly reared, cattle or
breeding farms.

Moft of the ancient writers on hufbandry, who lived
in warm climates, or countries where the heat and morte.
ure of the air had fenfible, and frequently very dan-
gerous effects: on the health of the inhabitants, were. very

particular in their direftions for the choice of farms or ef-
tates, and of the [pots whereon houfes fhould be built, fo
as to avoid the inconveniences arifing from the climate, or
from the quality or fituation of the ground. But though
the temperate air which we enjoy ia this ifland renders fuch
direétions lefs neceflary, yet, as feveral places in it are fickly,
and as, even in the moft healthy fituations, many houfes and
villages are built upon the leaft healthy fpots, it muft be of
confiderable advantage to thofe who can make their choice
to know what foils and places ought to be avoided ; and of
fuch as are already fixed to be acquainted with the means
of correcting thofe inconveniences which cannot be totally
remedied. The Romans had generally pleafure as well as
profit in view, when they bought or ftocked a farm, and
therefore they laid it down as a rule, that no degree of fer-
tility fhould tempt a man to purchafe in an unhealthy coun-
try, nor the pleafanteft fituations in a barren one. ‘ Buy
not too haltily,”” faid the wife Cato, * but view again and
again the purchafe you intend to make ; for if it be a good
one, the oftener you fee it the better it will pleafe you.
Examine how the neighbouring inhabitants fare; let the
country it lies in be a good one, the ways to and from it
good, and the air temperate; let your land, if you can
choofe your fituation, be at the foot of a hill, facing the
fouth, in a healthy place, where a fufficiency of labourers,
of cattle, and of water, may be had ; let it be near a flou-
rifhing town, the fea, or a navigable river, or bordering
upon a good and well-frequented road ; let the buildings
upon your ground be {trong and fubftantial; do not rafhly
condemn the methods of others.” It is beft to purchafe
from a good hufbandman, and a good improver, where it can
be done.

But, befides the healthfulnefs of the fituation, three other
things fhould be particularly attended to in the choice of a
farm or eftate; thefe are, the air, the water, and the foil.
The air fhould be pure and temperate, the water wholefome
and eafily come at, and the foil rich and fertile. The know-
ledge of the healthinefs of the air is, as lerd Bacon ob-
ferves, difcoverable rather by experiment, than by reafon or
conjecture. Te examine the moilture of the air before a houfe
is built, wool, or a fponge, may be hung up in the place
and afterwards compared with fome of the fame, expofed
in the fame manner, and at the fame time in another place.
According as they gain more or lefs in weight, the air is
more orlefs humid. ‘lhe air is liable to greater alterations
from heat and cold in fome places than in others; and as
that inequality in the air is an enemy to health, the moft
equal fhould be chofen. This is eafily determined by the
thermometer, and by viewing the fituation of the place ;
for the intermixture of hills and valleys, though plealing to
the eye, may be held fufpected as to the lengthening of life,
becaufe of the variations of heat and cold.

It may be added, that the ancients were likewife parti-
cularly attentive to the quality of their water, and to the
eafe of coming at it. They advifed bringing into the farm-
houfes the water of fuch fprings as never dried up ; or, if
there was no fuch {pring within the farm, to bring running
water as near to it as may be; or to dig for well-water,
not of a bitter or brackifh tafte. If neither of thefe was
to be found, they directed large cifterns to be provided for
men, and ponds for colleéting and retaining rain-water for
cattle. They efteemed that running water to be the beft
for drinking which had its fource in a hill; {pring or well-
water from a rifing ground was deemed the next bett;
well-water in the bottom of a valley was held to be fufpi-
cious ;, and marfhy or fenny water, which creeps flowly on,
was by them rightly looked. upon as the: wort. of all.

That

FARM.

That water is known to be wholefome which has no mineral
in it, is perfectly clear, has no tafte or fmell, depofits no
flimy fediment, (ised no fpots or incruftation when boiled
in copper or brafs veffels, and which boils pulfe in a very
little time. Ass {pring and well-water pafs through beds of
fand, gravel, or {mall ftones, thefe clear it of all impnrities,
unlefs there be mixed with them fubftances which are folu-
ble in water. If any mineralis mixed with the water, it is
unfit for the farmer’s ufe. If it be hard, it is thereby ren-
dered unfit for wafhing, and fome other culinary ufes. This
is the kind of water which gives flefh boiled in it a red co-
Jour. But even the hardeft water may be eafily ,rendered
perfe@ly foft, and fit for any ufe by mixing with it a fmall
portion of pot-afh, or fixed alkali, or, for want of thefe,
the afhes of any burnt frefh vegetables, fuch as the boughs
of the afh-tree, fern, &c.

_ And in refpeét to the goodnefs of the foil, it fhould be
judged of from a minute examination and comparifon of dif-
ferent circumftances, fuch as the appearances of the trees,
hedges, crops, and different plants that are produced upon
it, as well as from its particular nature and colours.

On the Proper Size of Farms.—In regard to the confider-
ation of the proper fize of farms, it may be remarked that
® is not propofed to decide as to the precife number of acres
which conftitute what is generally denomiaated a proper
fized farm. The perfon who attempts to do fo will, it is
fuppofed by a late writer, be involved in difficulties from
which he will find it impofflible to extricate himfelf; while
his hypothefis mutt be liable to fo many objections, as to
evince, in the cleareft manner, that without confidering the
fubje& in various points of view, it is impoffible to form
even a general conclufion. This fubje@, which, though
apparently fimple, involves a great variety of particulars,

. may probably be beft elucidated, by explaining how far large
and {mall farms are advantageous or otherwife to the pro-
prietors, the occupiers, andthe nation in general. There

- 18 probably no point within the range of hufbandry which
has, however, caufed more ferious altereations and difputes
with theoretical agriculturitts and fpeculative political eco-
nomifts, than that of the fize of farms. By fome it has
been flrenuoufly contended that they fhonld be altogether
{mall ; while others have maintained, with equal pertinacity,
that they fhould be large, and others again have fuppofed
that they fhould be of various fizes, reftricting the largett to
a certain number of acres. But all fuch plans are obvioufly
of an impra@icable nature. In a country where the capital
and means are fo various, it muft evidently be of great ad-
vantage to have farins of very different fizes, both in refpeét
to extent of Jand, and that of rent, or annual value; as, by
this means, the honeft and indultrious labourer in hufbandry
may be properly accommodated, and by degrees become
wealthy and independent; while at the fame'time the ex-
pert, ingenious, and improving cultivator, who poffeffes ex-
tenfive capital and information, may not be difappointed
in embarking in fuch undertakings of this kind, as may
amply repay his fuperior fkill, capital, and induftry. The
nature of the management of a diltri&, as well as that of
the foil, fhould likewife, in fome meafure, regulate the fize
_ of the farms. Thus, where fheep-walks prevail, or the
grazing fyftem is extenfively purfued, they fhould be large ;
but where the plantation or orchard praétices are followed,
they fhould be {mall. Both in the ftiff, wet, and hard dry
clayey foils, the farms fhould be large, that the farmers may
have fufficient ftrength to work them at the proper feafons,
which is very feldom the cafe when they are {mall. But the
free, deep, medium foils, which are wrought with much
lefs difficulty, may anfwer well in fmall farme,

Large Farms ~—t has been fuggelled by a late writers
that if the introduétion of improvements in cultivation, and
the breeds of the different fpecies of live flock, are objects
of importance to the proprietors of the kingdom as indivi-
duals, large farms mutt be confidered by them as beneficial.
As individuals, alfo, they muft experience other advantages
from large farms. The extent of capital employed in ftock-
ing and cultivating thefe farms infures a regular and prompt
payment of the rents. Building and repairing farm-houfes
on fuch farms, although confiderable at firft, is not fo heavy
an annual charge as on fmall farms; while the expence of
inclofing and fub-dividing does not amount to one-tenth part.
It was fortunate, the writer thinks, for Britith farmers, as
wellas for Britifh hufbandry, that proprietors adopted the
refolution of letting part of their eftates in large farms.
By that means men, poflefling every requifite for conftituting
them good farmers, turned their attention to the cultivation
of the foil, and the introduétion of every improvement con-
nected therewith ; and, in very many inftances, have not
only been fo fuccefsful as to maintain and educate their fa-
milies in eafe and comfort, but alfo to acquire fuch fortunes,
as to render them independent proprietors : a circumftance
that mutt give fincere fatisfaétion to every liberal mind; as
from the fervice they have done in promoting the intereits
of agriculture, they are well entitled to enjoy the fruits of
their induftry. In regard to the community large farms,
the writer fays, muft be confidered as favourable in feveral
re{pects. On what farms, he afks, in Norfolk, have tur-
nips been cultivated, and ufed to the greateft advantage ?
On what farms in the Carfe of Gowrie in Scotland has the
cultivation of grain been moft fuccefsfully carried on? In
Leicetterfhire, where have the greateft improvements in
the different breeds of live flock been effeéted? In the
counties of Northumberland and Berwick, where have
improved breeds of ftock been moft generally united with
fkilful culture? Every perfon who has travelled through
thefe diftriéts, with a view of procuring agricultural inform-
ation, mutt, he thinks, anfwer, On large farms.

It is from large farms alfo that the towns are principally
fupplied with the great articles of grain, fat cattle, and fheep
of the belt quality. And as farms of this fize are kept in
the higheit ftate of cultivation, of which the lands are faf-
ceptible, and managed with the feweft number of hands ;
the greateft quantity of produce that can be fpared from
the like extent of land neceffarily goes to market. To the
occupiers of large farms it is alfo chiefly owing that the fup-
ply of the towns in thefe incifpenfible articles is fo regu-
larly kept up. If thefe farmers could not afford to keep
their grain and fat ftock on hand, till thofe of the poorer
tenants were difpofed of and confumed, the markets would
either be over-itocked at particular feafons, and entirely
empty in others; or, what is equally bad, the articles
would get into the hands of a few dealers, who, by mutual
confent, might raife the price to any extent they pleafed,
notwithftanding any aéts of parliament againit foreitalling,
that could poffibly be framed.

There is one particular defcription of farms which ought
to be taken notiee of here ; thete are in fome places called
Led-farms, in others, Grafs-farms. Many farmers rent
one or more large farms in different parts of the country,
which are managed by an overfeer. Thefe are, the writer
conceives, for the intereft of the proprietor, becaufe he ge-
nerally receives a higher rent than could be afforded, were
the farmer’s family to be maintained trom the profits of any
of them alone: a great proportion being allo allowed to
remain in grafs, the lands muit be in an improving ftate.
The farmer, after paying the extra rent, aud the wages of

S2 an

FARM.

an overfeer, till retains that proportion of profits which
renders the tenting of fuch farms an object to him; but,
when it isconfidered that the farmer’s clofe attention to
minute particulars in the management of a farm is abfo-
lutely neceffary to make it to the higheft degree profitable,
it is by no means clear, that the greatett produce which
fuch farms are capable of yielding goes to market. The
great, and indeed the only folid objeG&ion againft large
farms is, in his opinion, the confequent depopulation of
the country. "This, it will be generally acknowledged, is
a moft ferious evil, and ought to be guarded againft as
much as poflible. The remedy, however, in Scotland, it
is conceived, is eafy, and in many places adopted; namely,
by building cottages onthe outfkirts of the farnmas, and
luring ploughmen who are married, and have families.
Thefe men are allowed grafs fora cow, and a {mall quantity
of ground for cultivating grain, potatoes, and garden-ftuff,
in part of their wages: Were this plan generally intro-
duced in both kingdoms, the grand objection againft large
farms would, the writer conceives, be in a great meafure
removed ; the defcription of inhabitants would, no doubt,
be changed, but the population would fuffer no material
decreafe, and, at the fame time, nearly an equal quantity
of free produce would find its way to market, as in any
other cafe.

The intelligent author of the correted Report of the
County of Chefter likewife contends for the fuperior ad-
vantage of large farms on the following grounds. ‘ Twenty
or thirty acres of land cannot, fays he, in the nature of
things, furnifh full employment to a farmer; nor is the
profit which they afford by any means adequate to the com-
fortable fubfiftence of a family: a man, therefore, who en-
ters upon a farm of this defcription, muft either have fome
other occupation, to which he direéts a great fhare of his
attention ; or muft unavoidably be fubjected tu poverty, and
all its concomitant diftrefs. In either of thefe cafes, the
difpofition of the land cannot but be regarded as unfa-
vourable to. the general intereits of agriculture; in the
former, farming being made an object of fecondary confi-
deration, and frequently being very imperfe€tly underftood,
the cultivation of the land is feldom carried to its practica-
ble length, and, confequently, a certain proportion of pro-
duce is virtually loft to the community ; in the latter cafe,
the evils refulting from a farm of this defcription are {till
more decided in their nature; fince it will be generally ad-
mitted that no fpecies of occupation can be beneficial in its
confequences to the country at large, which is not fo to the
individual immediately concerned in it. The fame reafoning
will apply equally to farms of forty or fifty acres: where-
ever theextent of land is not fufficient to furnifh full em-
ployment to the farmer, and a comfortable fubfiftence to his
tamily, a certain portion of perfonal exertion muft neceflarily
be loft, and the confequences muft be unfavourable, whether
confidered individually, or in a national point of view.

«¢ Another ferious obje€tion to {mall farms may be ground-
ed on the difficulties they oppofe to general improvements in
agriculture. A farmer, entering upon thirty or forty acres,
very frequently with a high rent, and little or no capital,
cannot be expected to make any material improvement on
his land, or to attempt experiments in cultivation, which
are probably, expenfive in the firft inftance, and uncertain
in the refults they may afford. All that he can do is to
purfue the old-beaten track ; to force out of the ground the
payment of his rent, anda bare fubfiftence for his family,
and fortunate may he efteem himfelf if he fucceeds fo far
as to do this. On the other hand, the man who farms a
eonfiderable extent of land can purfue with vigour any

new modes of agriculture that appear likely to be attendo®
with beneficial effeéts ; the poffeffion of a competent capital
enables him to undertake, and put into execution, any 1m-
provements of which his farm is fufceptible, till by thefe
means his lands are brought to the highett ftate of fertility.
The opportunity which is afforded him, of making one
department of his farming economy fubfervient to another,
is an additional advantage which the farmer on a fmall
fcale cannot carry into effect to any great extent. The
latter too muft neceflarily expend on his land a quantity of
capital greater in proportion than is required in a farm of
more confiderable fize ; he muft have his cart and horfes,
his plough and his harrow, and every other agricultural im~
plement, as well as his neighbour, though he has only
thirty acres, and his neighbour eighty or a hundred. Re-
verting then to the well-eftablifhed, and, indeed, felf-evident
axiom in political economy, that capital is moft advantage-
oufly employed, when, with a given quantity, the largeft
proportion ef produce is the refult; it feems {carcely to
admit of a doubt, that large farms are, in this point of view,
greatly more beneficial to the nation at large, than thofe of
{mall extent only.

“‘ The principal objeGions to large farms are, he fays,
founded on the tendency, which, as already noticed, it
is aflerted, they haye to diminifh the population of the coun-
try, and to increafe the price of provilions. It is obvious,
however, he thinks, that both thefe objetions cannot ftand
their ground at the fame time. If the population of the
country be diminifhed, while the produce of the ground is
increafed, or even while it remains the fame in point of
quantity, itis clear, that no increafe in the price of provifions
can take place ; on the contrary, it would be natural to ex-
pect a very confiderable reduGtion in this refpeét. As thefe
objections againit large farms may, however, be urged indi-
vidually, it is proper that a diftin@ anfwer fhould be given
to each of them. With refpe& to its influence on popula-
tion, it cannot be denied that the confolidation of feverak
{mall farms into one of larger extent might have the imme-
diate effeGt of throwing a number of individuals out of em-
ploy; many of whom, from the inadequate demand for la-
bour of other kinds in the country, would be neceflitated to
have recourfe to emigration. But this effet could be of
only temporary duration. If, in confequence of the dimi-
nifhed number and increafed fize of farms the improvements
in agriculture became more extended, and its general ftate
more flourifhing, it can fearcely be doubted but that the ul-
timate effeét in this change in the difpofition of the land muft
be favourable to the population as well as to the profperity
of the country. The immediate effeéts of the adoption of
improved modes of cultivation, and of the increafed quantity
of produce from a given proportion of capital, mult be a
diminution in the price of provifions. As a neceflary con-
fequence of this the price of labour mutt likewife be dimi-
nifhed ; or, to fpeak in more general terms, an increafed va-
lue would be given to the circulating medium; a circum-
{tance highly favourable to'a country, as it regards its com-
mercial and manufacturing connections with other nations,
The equalizing nature of commerce would, indeed, in pro-
cefs of time, reftore this value to its accuftomed level ; but
the impulfe which had been given, meanwhile, to induftry
of every kind, could not fail to infure internal profperity, and,
confequently, an increafe of population to the country. If
this reafoning be accurate, there appears, {ays the writer, no
grounds for doubting that the enlargement of farms, to a
certain extent, at leaft, would be productive of effential be-
nefit to. the real interefts of the nation; a trifling diminu-
tion in population might, perhaps, indeed be the immediate

6 refult

FARM.

refult of the meafure in queftion; but that the ultimate
confequences of its operations would be injurious in this re-
fpeét does not appear probable.

“ The objection which has been urged againft large
farms, as tending to enhance the prices of provifion, feems
equally void of validity. The grounds of this objeGtion
are, that, by the enlargement of farms, the competition
which exifts between {mall farmers would be in a great mea-
Ture loft, and a fpirit of monopoly introduced in its ftead.
In anf{wer to this, it may be fufficient to afk the fimple
queftion, why may not this competition, efteemed fo advan-
geous to the country, take place among farmers who hold
two, three, or four hundred acres of land, as well as among
thofe who hold thirty or forty ? That this is contrary to ex-
perience the writer can by no means allow. Wherever mo-
nopoly has been the immediate caufe of an unufual high
price of corn,. or other neceffaries of life, it muft, he con-
ceives, have been practifed on a much larger f{cale than could
be done by any combination of farmers in the country. {n
fact, a very flight confideration muft prove the futility of
any objeétions to large farms vefted on thefe grounds.
Suppoling, for the fake of argument, that the farmers in
one county or diftri€t fhould combine to keep their
ftocks out of the market, and thus to raife the price of pro-
vifions; is it at all confiftent with probability to fuppofe
that the farmers, in the neighbouring diftri€&s, would favour
this {cheme, by retaining their individual ftocks; on the
contrary, is it not more likely that they would immediately
come forward to fupply the deficiency in the market, and
thus counteract the defigns of their more avaricious neigh-
bours? Indeed it appears a point fo clear, that the fame
competition of interefts muft exift among large as well as
among {mall farmers, that the writer apprehends no con-
¢lufion can be deduced from this circumttance which will
not apply with equal force to both cafes. If then this
competition renders provifions cheaper where the farms are
fmall, will it not have precifely the fame effet where they
are of large extent ? And does it not appear highly probable,
that a very confiderable diminution of the price of provi-
fons would be the confequence of the general enlargements
of farms in the kingdom? This, as was {tated before, mutt,
im the natural courfe of things, be the immediate effet of im-
proved modes of cultivation, and of an increafed quantity
of produce from a certain given expence of capital.”” The
able writer does not here by any means contend for an in-
definite extenfion of the fize of farms ; but merely fuggefts
that thofe of three or four hundred acres are fuperior, in
point of advantage, to individuals and the country, to thofe
of from thirty to fixty acres.

Small Farms.—It is contended by the firft of the above wri-
ters that thefe are, no doubt, advantageous to the proprie-
tors, in fo far as the greateft number of Britifh farmers are
poffeffed only of flender capitals ; and therefore, when fmall
farms fall out of leafe, feveral candidates immediately appear.
The operations on the farm being for the moft part con-
duéted by the farmer’s own family, the expence of hired
fervants is faved, and he is thereby enabled to give a higher
rent than could otherwife be done, without changing the
imperfect fyftems of agriculture, too commonly praétifed on
farms of this defcription, The advantages in favour of the
proprietors are, however, probably fully counterbalanced by
the imperfe& modes of cultivation above alluded to: the
advitional expence to which they are fubjeGed by upholding
farm-houfes on an eftate let in {mall farms; to which may
be added, the very great extra charge which muft unavoid-
ably be incurred in inclofing and fub-dividing an extenfive
tract of land into fmall fields. It is, no doubt, for the

intereft of fuch tenants, that there fhould be a great number
of fmall farms. The limited extent of their funds, and
their knowledge and influence in the feale of fociety, would
put ittotally out of their power to embark in large under-
takings of this nature ; and if all proprietors were to adopt
the refolution of letting no farms under a certain fize, then
people, as often happens, would be forced to turn their atten-
tion to fome other employment, by which they could main-
tain their families. Ina national point of view, {mall farms
are, the writer thinks, undoubtedly advantageous. Large
cities and towns are confefledly inimical to the increafe of
opulation, and would, in time, be in a great meafure without
inhabitants, but for the conitant and regular fupply which
the country furvifhes. Small farms are not only in favour
of population, but of the moft valuable fort of population ;
as, in confequence of the fhare of education which many of
them obtain, the children of fuch farmers become valuable
acquifitions to the artift and manufactures. If, fays the
writer, {mall farms were entirely abolifhed, a great part of
the occupiers muft retire to towns, and engage in fome
branch of manufa€tures. At the commencement of every
war our manufactures receive a fhock, from numbers of
hands being called off to ferve their country in our fleets and
armies. Were this fupply to be drawn chiefly from the
towns, which in this cafe would certainly happen, what
then would be the ftate of our manufaétures, that great prop
of national profperity ? In a word, it is owing, in no {mall
degree, to the diftribution of fo large a fhare of the country
into fmail farms, that the proper equilibrium of popu-
lation between the towns and the country fo neceffary to be
preferved, is maintained. It is true, that owing to the
number of perfons of which the families of this clafs of
farmers are generally compofed, and the imperfe& manner
in which the lands are too frequently cultivated, a very
fmall proportion of the great article of bread-corn goes to
market. But the no lefs neceflary articles of milk, poultry,
eggs, and, in many cafes, fuel, are furnifhed to the inhabitants
of the towns and villages in much greater quantities from
half a dozen of fmall farms, than from one of fix times the
extent. To this lift may alfo, the writer thinks, be added
butter and cheefe, with a few exceptions only, where dairy-
hufbandry is praétifed on a large feale. It would, the
writer conceives, be extremely difficult to determine which
of the fizes of farms before mentioned are in every point of
view moft beneficial, There is, however, as has been al-
ready noticed, no occafion to hefitate in deciding, that a
variety in the fize of farms is not only for the intereft of all
concerned, but abfolutely neceffary for the profperity of
the ftate. Were the farms all f{mall, the population of the
country would exceed the due proportion of the towns, and
the’ quantity of provifions which it would be neceflary to
import would be itnmenfe. If the country was wholly dis
vided into large farms, and unmurried’ ploughmen princi«
pally employed, as'is the cafe at prefent, the towns would
be gverftocked with people ; and unlefs the prices of cheefe,
butter, milk, eggs, poultry, fuel, &c. were advanced, fo
as to make it an object to that defcription of farmers to fend
them to market, a very fcanty fupply would be furnifhed.
The diverfity in the fize of farms in the ifland is, fays the
writer, no doubt in favour of, and mult be agreeable to, the
farmers ; for, as they differ in knowledge and enterprife-as
much as in the extent of their capitals, they will naturally
confider that farm as of the moft proper fize which is upon
the whole beit fuited to their particular circumftances and
fituations. Farms of the largeft extent, the management!
of which a farmer is able himfelf minutely to fuperiatend,
muft neceflarily prove the moft profitable; therefore, “a
the

FARM,

the knowledge, enterprife, and capitals of farmers all alike,
large farms would be confidered by them as of the moft
proper fize. There is, however, no view of the fubje&,
by which it will be found that any one fize of farms would
be generally advantageous. On the contrary, it is clear,
the writer thinks, that the greater variety there is in the
extent of farms, provided that variety is general over every
diftriG in Great Britain, the more extenfively will the gene-
yal interefls of the nation at large be promoted and brought
forward. ,

In confidering the controverfy refpecting large and {mall
farms, Mr. Marfhall remarks, that thofe who are in favour
of the firlt are chiefly men of public {pinit, who have turned
their attention to agriculture; and having found, or per-
ceived, that farms of magnitude, conduéted by men of judg-
ment, fpirit, and capital, abound in corn and cattle of the
higheft qualities, have concluded, he thinks, without any
further examination, that all farms fhould be large. Thofe
{upporting the latter pofition, with equal pretentfions for the
public good, confift, he fuppofes, of minor gentlemen, the
clergy and other profeffional men, tradefmen, and others in
middle life, who live in towns; and who, finding the prices
of poultry, eggs, and other good things, greatly enhanced
of late years, imagine that the modern enlargement of farms
mutt be the caufe, confequently call out loudly for a divi-
Gon.of large farms ; in order, it may be inferred, that arti-
cles of luxury may become plentiful ; not regarding, or per-
haps not knowing, what an expenditure ph ness men’s food
is occafioned by the rearing and fattening o poultry. The
fame barley, or other grain, which has been ufed in rearing
and fattening a fowl, to fupply one dith of an epicure’s
dinner, would have furnifhed a labourer’s cupboard with
bread for feveral days. But admitting what is obvious,
that farms of magnitude, cultivated by wealthy and filful
men, furnifh the markets with a greater proportion of the
common neceflaries of life, than {mall ones in the hands of
poverty and ignorance, it is but common prudence to exa-
mine into the «ffeéts which would follow a general enlarge-
ment of farms, to be managed by wealthy men; and to
conceive how the markets would be fupplied, under fuch a
regulation, before it be carried into effeét. If at prefent
(1801), when the country centains farms of all magnitudes,
and cultivators of all defcriptions, there is a general cry
againft farmers, for keepiag back their corn from market,
what evil and outrage might not be expected’ were all the
lands of the kingdom in the hands of the wealthy ? Ifthe
prices of grain after harveft fhould not meet their expecta-
tions, they would, in confequence, defer to threfh out more
than for their own ufes. And although they might have
caufe of repentance the enfuing fummer, this would not
relieve the diltrefles of the famifhed poor in the mean time ;
while, onthe contrary, were all the farm lands of the country
in the hands of the needy, the reverfe would be the confe-
quence. Prefently after harvett, the produce would be
hurried ‘to market too faft for the confumption, and the
furplus would neceffarily fall into the hands of dealers, who,
befides referving.on all occafions an allowable profit, would
have it in their power to fix their own prices during the
fummer months. Of courfe either of thefe extremes would
be productive of ferious evil. What the community require,
with re{pect to farm produce, is to have the markets regu
larly fupplied by the growers, the immediate producers,
whether of vegetable or of animal food ; without its pafling
through the hands of middle men unneceflarily. Hence
it is evident, that to obtain a regular fupply of the corn
market by the growers themfelves throughout the year,
cultivators of different defcriptions are requilite; needy men,

who want an immediate fupply of money, after harvelt, to
pay fervants’? wages and Bt cicelonas rents; men without
affuence, who threfh out their corn in the winter months ;
and opulent, purfe-proud, fpeculative men, to fupply the
markets during fummer and early autumn. And this moit
defireable order of things the country happily enjoys at
prefert in a confiderable degree, Nay, even admitting that
the higher claffes, who refide in towns, are entitled to the
indulgence of luxuries out of the produce of lands, we. full
perceive the propriety of a gradation of farms; inafmuch
as it furnifhes large farms to feed the poor, and {mall ones to
pamper therich. Though, ina general view of the country
in this point, no great alterations are requilite; yet, when
examined in detail, it admits of fome improvement. There
are diftri&ts which abound too much in {mall farms, others
in large ones, and fome in farms much too large for accu-
rate management in any way. And if the fubjeét be viewed
in the light of good government, and the permanent welfare
of the country, a fimilar gradation in the fizes of farms ap-
pears to conform with mght reafon. The tenantry of a
country may be faid to occupy the wide {pace in fociety
which intervenes between labourers and men of landed pro-
perty ; and furely they ought to form a regular chain be-
tween them. But make the farms of the country either
uniformly large, or uniformly fmall, and a number of links
would be wanting. Inthe former cafe, partacularly, a wide
breach or chafm would be formed, a void {pace between a
numerous peafantry and their petty lords; a ftate of civilized
fociety this, which has no foundation either in reafon or
found politics, which require a regular gradation from the
peafant to the prince, and from the higheft to the loweft in
fociety ; fuch a one as we fortunately find in this country at
this time. And viewing the fubje& in a moral light, the
prefent order of things appears to be nearly right, If farms
were either uniformly large, or uniformly fmall, induftry,
frugality, and emulation (the dinews and nerves of fociety, )
would, among the lower clafles in agriculture, lofe their
ftimulus. If a farm feryant or a labourer faved a few pounds,
or had fifty or a hundred pounds left him, he could not
employ them in his own line of life. He would either diffi-
pate them, live on them as an idler, or carry them into
fome other line of bufinefs. Whereas at prefent, at leait
in diflri@s in which farms of the [maller fizes ftill abound,
there are many inftances of fervants of the loweft order
rifing to affluence, merely by the help of their own indutiry,
frugality, and a natural fpirit of emulation, cherifhed and
led on by the gradation of farms,

But as /arge and /inail are merely comparative terms, the
extent of largenefs, or greateft fize, is the chief confidera-
tion; and this depends, in fome meafure, on the nature of
the lands to be occupied, and the particular plan of manage-
ment to which they are fubje&ted. For it may be fafely
affumed, that no man ought to eccupy more land than he
ean perfonally {uperintend. But in a diftriét applied to
fheep-walks farms of fize are required; efpecially in a bleak
or open country, where they require a conftant attendance.
A fhepherd will take care of two or three hundred fheep as
well as of a {maller flock. And an adtive fheep farmer, who
knows his bufinefs, may well fuperintend feveral fhepherds.
Hence, ina paflage of country applied wholly or principally
to iheep-farming, individual holdings of more than five hun-
dred pounds a-year (eftimated according to the prefent value
of money) appear to be politically admiffible. Alfo in
marth land diftri&s, applied to grazing, farms of magnitude
may be admitted. The occupier in this, as in the former
cafe, has only one obje& ; and like a manufacturer of a par=
ticular article, or a man conduéting one particular branch

FARM.

of trade, he may extend his bufinefs to almoft any limits,
But, that in diftri€s and fituations in which the arable and
grafs-land management mix, or ought to intermix, the cafe
is very different. For here not only markets, and the ma-
nagement of ftock of various kinds require attention, but
the feafons, or even a fhower, may fruftrate the beft laid plan,
and render the matter’s prefence neceffary to accurate ma-
nagement. Here fervants, and workmen of various employ-
ments, working animals, and implements, call for hourly
attendance in the field; while the different departments of
the home-ftall demand almoft conftant fuperintendance, equal-
-ly to guard againft negligence and difhonefty ; in the winter
‘feafon more efpecially ; co fee that every grain of corn, and
every handful of fodder, is applied to its proper ufe; and
that no wafte, even of manure, is fuffered to take place.
During the fpring and fummer months the corn farmer’s
time and attention are more required in the field; to fee
that every perch of ground he occupies is applied to fome
profitable purpofe, or is put under a courfe of preparation
for future crops; as well as to defend exilting crops from
enemies, whether animal or vegetable; to protect them
equally from domettic ftock, vermin, and weeds. In harveft
his conftant and a€tive exertions are called for; not only
to preferve his ripened crops, as much as in him lies, from
injury by the weather, but from fpoil and wafte, by the
careleffnefs of work-people in the various operations which
they muft neceflarily undergo. And in autumn his moft
ferious thoughts are wanted to look forward to the general
management of the enfuing year. All thefe attentions, and
innumerable others, the public have a right to expeé from
the occupiers of lands, in a country whofe appropriated lands
‘have been found by many years experience to be infufficient,
under the prefent imperfeét ftate of agriculture, to fuppl
its inhabitants with the common neceflaries of life. Thus,
feeing the weight of care and forethought which every fuffi-
cient hufbandman has to fuftain, we may venture to conclude
that there are few men who have attention and aétivity
enough to manage politically more than five hundred acres
of hand, in a ftate of mixed cultivation, and worth, according
to the prefent rental value of Jands, five hundred pounds a-
year; even though they lie compactly round one central
farmery. It is not here meant that there are few men who
are able to manage more than soo/. a-year with profit to
themfelves. Many a man gets rich with three times the pro-
'perty under his care; and lying perhaps in three diftinét
farms. But no wonder, for he may be faid to be receiving
three men’s incomes, with only one family to maintain. If,
through the inaccuracies and inattentions of management, he
lofe even half what two other occupiers would have gained,
ftill he is doubling his own income, by holding three initead
of one farm. He gets two profits, and the community
lofe the third.’”
It is further fuppofed that a farm of 5o0o0/. a-year, which
is compofed of inferior lands, as thofe which are worth ten
fhillings an acre, is too large for one man to manage politi-
cally. A thoufand acres lie too wide for one fet of farm
offices. The great length of carriage of crops and manure,
and the travelling of plough-teams and workmen of every
-defcription to diftant grounds, occafion a wafte of labour, be-
fide the wafte of ground by lengthened roads and drift
ways, and the injury done to itock by a length of drift.
And no man can fuperintend two home-fteads with political
-aceuracy. But to excite emulation, and to encourage men
of capital, education, and fpirit, to enter into, and perfevere
‘in the profeffion ; to {ludy its higher departments, and take
the lead in praétical improvements, a {mall proportion ef
corn farms of five hundred pounds a-year may be politically
I

eligible. It may be added that the lower extremity termi-
nates in the cottage and its cow ground; which may be fet
down at five pounds a-year. This, however, is a fort of
farm which, like that of five hundred pounds a-year, ought
to be kept within bounds as to number, this being of the
two the leaft political; unlefs as the loweft ftep of the lad-
der of emulation. Thus, in a public light, it appears that
the fizes of farms on lands of good quality, and adapted to
mixed cultivation, ought to extend from thofe of five pounds
to thofe of five hundred poundsrental value. But that the
proportional number towards each extremity ought to be
{mall. For to the writer’s mind it appears evidently, that
it is from farms of the middle fizes, as thofe of one to three
hundred pounds a-year, the community receive the greateft
proportion of the common nece flaries of life. It is chiefly
among the cultivators of farms of thefe fizes that we find
the three principal requifites of good hufbandry, namely,
capital, fill, and induftry. On farms below thefe fizes, the
firtt, and frequently the fecond, is wanting ; and‘on thofe of
higher magnitude the laft is apt to be deficient,

On Laying cut Farms.—In this bufinefs there is confidera-
bly more difficulty than is generally fuppofed. But it has beer
{tated by a late able writer on landed property, that much
depends on the natural and acquired circumftances of the
different lands or eftates. The fituation, the foils, the pre-
fent ftate of occupation or fyftem of management, and the
prefent fize of the farms, require to be maturely ftudied, and
duely weighed, before any effe@ive fteps can be fafely taken.
It is an arduous tafk to alter <he arrangement or general eco-
nomy of an eftate with profit and credit to its proprietor ;
even when the whole is rented at will, or from year to year.
Where leafes exift, difficulties are increafed ; and the day of
improvement is placed at a greater or lefs diftance. Never-
thelefs, a man who has at his heart the permanent good of
the eflate which he poffeffes will look forward, and concert
plans for its future improvement and welfare. And as an
ellate which is judicioufly laid out into compaét farms, of
fuitable izes, is worth confiderably more by the year than
one of the fame intrinfic valne, whofe lands tie {cattered and
intermixed in farms of improper fizes, he will not fail to fet
on foot a plan of reform, which requires nothing but atten-
tion and perfeverance to be accomplithed. The firft atten-
tion required is to ftudy its natural charaGers, to view it as
ina ftate of nature, and without inhabitants : marking the
elevation and turn of its furface, whether it confilts of moune
tain, upland, vale, or water-formed lands, and afcertaining
at the fame time its foils, fub-{trata with regard to their ab-
forbency or retentivenefs ; thus determining to what ufes its
feveral parts are adapted, whether to theep-walk, or grazing
saeunety meadow lands, or mixed cultivation. Having

urveyed the fheep-walk and grazing ground, he fhould
trace the natural and fortuitous lines of the culturable lands ;
as the feet of iteep hills, the ridges of uplands, large rivers,
public roads, &c. &c. thefe being data which cannot well
be difregarded. Where'a blank is given, fuch asan extent
of newly appropriated lands, to lay them out into what may
be termed natural farms, of fuch fizes as will bring the moit
permanent rent at the leaft expence of buildings, yards, pri-
vate roads, drift ways, and fences. And to this end the moft
natural, or eligible fites for farm-fteads, are to be fought for
with attention ; laying to thofe which are the moi eligible
fuch lands as by natural fituation, and natural quality, belong
to them. Thus laying out the lands to the beft advantage ;
and producing farms of different fizes; thereby inviting good
farmers, with different capitals, to fettle upon the eftate
The principal requifites of a home-ftall, fora farm in mixed
cultivation, are fhelter and water, for domettic purpefes as

well

FARM.

wellas forthe ufe of yard ftock ; with fome permanent grafs
ground below the yards, to receive the overflowings of the
dung bafons, that nothing of manure may efcape or be lott
from the premifes. Where lands lie in a fhelving fituation,
ut is generally defirable to have the home-ftead near the mid-
way of the flope. Thus gaining a centrical fituation, and
having lands above as well as below the yards; fo that nei-
ther the whole of the crops, nor the whole of the dung,
may require to be drawn againit the hill at a bufy feafon.
A dip or fhallow valley, witha natural f{tream falling down
it, and with lands in the lower part of it, which are capable
of being converted into watered mowing ground, is in
general a defirable fite fora home-ftead.

However, when an eftate is already inhabited, and laid
out into farms, with the farm-fteads fixed, and the buildings
fubftantial, it requires much thought and fome time to make
great alterations, either with credit or profit to its proprietor.
Where the lands of different farms lie fcattered and inter-
mixed with cach other, as they too frequently do, either
through circumftances that were unavoidable perhaps at the
time they took place, or through improper indulgencies to
favourite tenants; or through the ignorance or negligence
of managers; or the lefs pardonable defign of thofe who
have had an intereft in the diffentions which the intermixture
of lands feldom fails to create ; fomething may generally be
done towards leflening or remedying the evil; even where
parts of an eftate are under the temporary alienation of
leafes ; through the means of amicable exchanges between
tenants. This is afpecies of improvement which ought to
be feduloufly attended to by the managers of eftates, as
lands which lie compact and convenient to the home-tftall
are worth confiderably more to an occupier than thofe of
the fame intrinfic value, avhich are {cattered at a diftance, fo
that by this fort of exchange a two-fold advantage comes
home (or will come at the expiration of the leafe or
leafes) a clear income to the proprietor; befide rendering
the management of the eftate more eafy and pleafurable.
And in cafes where the entire eftate is rented from year to
year, the confolidation of farms may be effected with. Jefs
difficulty, and the two-fold advantage be immediately en-
joyed.

It is advifed, in order to condu& the bufinefs of a general
arrangement, regulation, or reform of an eftate which is al-
ready laid out into farms, with fall effect, to fludy it as a
blank, in the manner as if it were in a wild or unappropri-
ated ftate ; to afcertain its natural or moft eligible home-
fteads, and the lands which, by fituation, belong to them ;
then to examine the.exilting farm-{teads, buildings, roads,
drift ways, and inclofures, and by duly confidering the
aggregate of faéts thus adduced, to endeavour to make
out fuch a plan of improvement as will fecure the greateft
clear and permanent rent, at the leaft expence, without driy-
ing from the eftate the deferving part of the exifting te-
nantry. Anda plan of reform being fixed, let the intended
farms be outlined and coloured on a general map of the
e{tate ; and this done, let each be feparately delineated on
a {mall map fuited to the pocket, that the propofed ar-
rangement may be continually under the manager’s eye,
whether in the bufinefs-room or upon the eftate. This
method of conduéting a plan of reform, which has been re-
peatedly experienced, is equally applicable to an eftate
which is wholly at will, and to one which is partly under
leafe ; every favourable opportunity being taken as the
leafes fall in, to carry the plan into execution, always keep-
ing it in view from the time it is formed; and, in ae
quence, letting down buildings, or repairing them in a tem-

‘porary way, where they will not be wanted, and keeping

them up, in a fubMantial manner, where they will he
eventually required. And where the farms are too large,
or the farm-lteads very imiproperly placed, but where the
exifting buildings are yet in a {ubitantial {tate, it requires to
be calculated whether the increafe of rent by the propofed
alteration will pay {ix per cent. for the money required to
be laid out in making it, taking, however, into the account,
the fuperiority of new buildings. The eveéting of an entire
range of farm-buildings, with the requifite appendages, is
an undertaking which, in private economics, demands ma-
ture confideration. There are cafes, however,” in which it
may be efieGed with profit, and many in which it may be
done with credit and refpeétability to thofe employed.

Where the farms are too fmall, fintable aggregations
fhould be made, and each of thefe be coloured on the maps as
one farm, the alterations being afterwards made as circum-
ftances may direét; preference being ever given to the mott
deferving managers, and every fair opportunity taken to
difmiis che undeferving. By this ealy means, giving the
mott impreflive leffon on good management to the tenantry
of the eitate, the belt effects are produced in this way. .

But it is to be further remarked, on the fubjeé& of lay-
ing out farm-lands into fuitable tenements, that although
compacinefs of form and centrality of home-ftall are always
defirable, they are not the only objects te be attended to.
The fpecific qualities of the lands of the eltate are another
fubjcét of confideration. If the lands of an eftate are na-
turally adapted to different purpofes, as cool ftrong lands,
fit for perennial mowing-grounds, e{pecially if they can be
profitably watered, and dry uplands that are fuitable for
mixed cultivation only ; a portion of each ought, according
to long-eltablifhed ideas, to be included in every farm: a
principle this, however, which is generally deftruétive of the
compactnets of form. And amore modern opinion is, that
perennial grafs-lands are not at all neceflary to profitable
farming, cultivated herbage and roots being equal to all the
wants of modern hufbandry. Neverthclefs, where a {uit of
meadow and pafture grounds can be properly united with
arable lands, it will generally be for their mutual benefit to
unite them. This, Fontan is to be done by a general ar-
rangement, not by making up disjointed farms with lands
lying in diftin@ and perhaps diitant parts of a parifh, as we
not unfrequently fee. For the extra carriage of crops and
manure, or the unneceffary and injurious drift of ftock, and
the waite of manure thereby incurred, together with the
mifchiefs arifing from {tock being left at a diftance from the
eye, and the time lot in paffing, on every occafion, between
dikinét parts of a {cattered farm, eventually fall on the pro-
prietor. In faé&, where an eflate confilts of arable lands of
different fub-itrata, fo that fome parts are retentive of moif-
ture and others not, it ought to be the aim of the planner to
include portions of each in every farm, in order that each
occupier may have a regular fucceflion of employment for
his teams in a moift feafon, and in order that, whether the
fummer proves wet or dry, he may not be deftitute either of
grafs or herbage. And in diltri@s of a mixed nature or, flrata,
where a variety of lands are found, this, by due attention,
may not unfrequently be done, without much deranging
the compactnefs of the farms, or the central fituation of the
home-fteads.

In laying out the particular fields of a farm, it muft de-
pend greatly on the fituation, foils, and the fyitem of huf-
bandry to which they are the moft fuited. There are, how-
ever, certain points or principles that deferve attention in
the bufinefs. The great benefit of having a water-meadow
below the farm-ftead has been already feen. But whereia
fufficient breadth of land cannot be commanded in that fitu-

ation,

FA

ation, to become an object as a mowing-ground, to be
watered fuperficially, the yard liquor may be expended with
profit on a{maller plot, converted to a farm garden ground,
to be watered by means of parallel trenches, formed acrofs
the flope or defcent of the ground to receive it, in the man-
ner defcribed below, thus conveying the nutritious particles
which have efcaped from the dung-yards immediately to the
fibrils of the plants while growing, or to the bafe of the foil
into which they are required to ftrike. And on every farm
in which there is not a iufficiency of watered garden ground,
a garden field of fome acres for the culture of green herbage
and roots with the plough, for horfes, cattle, and {wine, as
well as for culinary purpofes, ought to be laid out near the
farm-yard. A paituring paddock or two near the houfe is
likewife a requifite appendage to a home-{tead ; as a faddle-
horfe pafture, and as a hofpital ground for fick or ailing
ftock.

And dairy-grounds, where the dairy is a principal objeét,
ought, in like manner, to be laid out near the houfe, and
open into the lobby, green, or milking-yard. But the mea-
dows or perennial mowing grounds may be laid out at a
diftance with better effect, as it is always convenient to ftack
hay in the field of its growth; and if not wanted near the
{pot, it may generally be brought home, with lefs inconve-
nience and expence, at almoft any other time than amid the
buftle and hazard of hay-harvett.

Arable lands, on the contrary, cannot lie at a diftance
with propriety; as, in this cafe, not only the crops and
manure require a length of draught, but the time taken up
by the plough-teams in pafling to and fro, is a further incon-
venience. Nor fhould the pafture grounds for working
ftock, whether oxen or horfes (where thefe are paftured),
be far from the home-ftall. But thofe for ftore cattle and
fheep may lie at a diftance with lefs impropriety. Wood-
lands, fuch as coppice-grounds, may alfo lie at a diitance.
‘The writer thinks it clear, from this fort of diftribution re-
quiring much of the land contiguous to the farm-ftead, that
there is an impropriety in very large farms, and an advan-
tage in farmeries being centrically fituated.

In the bufinefs of laying out arable lands, the number of
fields muft conftantly be regulated by the plan of manage-
ment preper to be purfued, and by the fize as well as the
nature of the lands of the farm to be laid out. Where, as
jutt noticed, lands of oppofite qualities, as thofe which are
retentive of moifture, and thofe that are abforbent and
open, are contained within it in fufficient quantity, two fets
of arable fields fhould be laid out, that the works of tillage
and femination may not be liable to be interrupted by a
fhower, and that the ftock of the farm, be the feafon wet
or dry, may not be diftreffed for pafturage. Likewife on a
large farm, the lands of which are uniformly abforbent, and
confequently adapted to the turnip hufbandry, it is proper
to have more than one fet of arable fields, in order that a
fufficient choice of contiguous or near fields may be had,
ever which to diftribute the turnip crop (where this mode
of hufbandry is pratifed) and thereby prevent an unnecef-
fary length of carriage. But on rich retentive lands, in
fituations where an ample fupply of extraneous manure can
be procured, or where fuch lands are united with marfh and
meadow grounds, to furnifh a fufficiency of hay and pattur-
age, without the affiitanee of the arable lands, one {et of
arable fields may be fufficient ; four or five fields or divifions
being all that are neceflary, at leaft on a {mall farm. But
that on the generality of Englifh farms, on which a number
of manure-making {tock are neceflary to be fupported by
the arable lands, a greater diverfity of fields is required ; as

in this cafe it is neceflary that the lands fhould lie fome

Vout, XIV.

R M.

years in a flate of cultivated herbage, between each coarfe
of arable crops, according to its nature, and the time it will
lie profitably in a ftate of grafs, as two, three, four, or five
years. Confequently, if the arable rotation occupy the
land four years (taking three crops of corn with a fallow-
crop, or fallow intervening), the number of arable fields re-
quired for one fet will be fix, feven, eight, or nine. How-
ever, much depends in aH cafes not only on the nature of
the land, but on the calcareous and other extraneous ma-
nure, which may be procured, in greater or lefs quantity, in
almoft every fituation of a farm.

It may be obferved, that the fizes of arable fields may
feem to be given in the number. But ona large farm, ina
bleak fituation, and on which it is proper to keep a nume-
rous ftock, it may often be found requifite to fub-divide the
arable divifions, not only for the fake of fhelter, while the
lands lie in the ftate of herbage, put for the convenience
of feparating and fhifting ftock. Hence it is incumbent
on the planner of a farm to weigh well the various circum-
{tances that belong to it, as on thefe only the true fize and
number of arable fields can be calculated. Even the thape
of an arable field is not a thing of arbitrary choice. It
ought to be regulated by the fhape of the farm, and by the
roads and water-courfes running through it, as well as by
the nature of its lands, the turn of its iurface, and its afpect
orexpofure. A perfeét fquare, or long {quare, is a defirable
fhape, where circumitances will admit of it. Crooked lines
and irregular figures are inconvenient in the operations of
tillage, and fhould of courfe be avoided. Two fides at
leaft ought to run parallel to each other. And it is equally,
or more defirable, that each field fhould have a uniformity
of foil and fub-foil, as on thefe depend the ufes te which it is
applicable; and it is at once unpleafant and unprofitable to
have different parts of the fame field under feparate courfes
of management. Yet where the natural line of divifion is
very irregular, it is improper to follow implicitly all its
windings. The planner ought rather to draw a judicious
line between the two, and the cultivator to alter the quali-
ties of the lands, which happen to be unnaturally fevered,
by draining, manuring, and other neceflary means.

And the direétion of the fields fhould be the fame as that
in which the land ought to be ploughed for a crop, pro-
vided it be compatible with the given lines of the farm. On
a level furface, or on one which is gently inclining, the di-
rection of the beds of retentive lands that require to be laid
up in round ridges ought to be nearly north and fouth; in
order that the crops on either fide of them may receive equal
fun, and ripen evenly, Confequently, in this cafe, the
fences which form the two longer fides of the quadrangle
fhould take that direction. But where the furface is fteep,
this principle of dire&tion mui give way to another of greater
utility. If the land is retentive, and the foil requires to be
laid up into round beds, acrofs the flope, the direction of the
ridges-muft be guided by the face of the flope; and the
fences, on the general principle, ought to take the fame
direétion ; obferving, in this cafe, where circumftances will
admit, to let the fences wind to the right of a perfon ftand-
ing on the brink of the flope, and facing towards it; as the
beds ought to take that dire€tion for the greater eafe in
ploughing them. And where the face of a hill is fteep, and
the land abforbent, the foil requires to be turned down-
wards of the lope with turnwreit or Kentifh plough ; and
the fences to be directed by the natural lines of the hill as
much as poflible.

In laying out cow ean, grazing grounds, or other pe-
rennial patture grounds, regard {hould be particularly had to
water. And wherever good water is naturally found, ox

can

FARM,

can be convenicutly brought by art, to that point, a patture
ground ought to tend, in order to enjoy the neceflary fup-
ply as much as poffible.

And in laying out water-meadows, where they are fituated
on floping grounds, or the higher fides of which adjoin ta
upper lands, the main conductor (where a proper fall from
the fource of the water will admit of it) ought to define
the outline of the meadow on that fide; and the fence whieh
feparates the meadow lands from the dry grounds ought
to run immediately along the upper fide of the water-courfe;
the two thus becoming natural guards to each other. But
within an extended flat, or au extent of gently fhelving
meadow-grounds belonging to different proprietors, and
where deep ditches are required to be funk ov the upper
fides of the fences, to drain the lands that lie above
them, the plan here recommended would be improper. But
in the fituations defcribed above it is perfectly eligible,
and eught not, in ordinary cafes, to be departed from. And
in concluding his obfervations on this interefting branch of
rural economy, the intelligent writer fuggefts, that in re-
ard to drift ways and private roads, where a public road
runs through a farm, the more diftant fields ought, under
ordinary circumftances, to run into it, to prevent the inte-
rior of the farm from being cut up unnecellarily by car-
rlages, ar poached by ftock, or laid wafte by unneceflary pri-
vate roads and drift ways, which increafe the number of
fences, and are made and kept up at confiderable expence.
And where public roads do not prefent themfelves, private
lanes are Inghly requifite, efpecially within large farms.
It is obvious that all thefe circumitances require to be care-
fully confidered by thofe employed in shisttort of bufinefs,
‘And it is faggeited by the writer, that whether in laying
out an eftate or a farm, it is prudent to go repeatedly over
the ground, with a map of unalterable data in one hand, and
a litt of defiderata in the other; and with the leading prin-
ciples of the att in the mind, but without any pre conceived
rencral plan in view; ever letting the particular circumitances
ef the lands to be laid out determine the true poitits
to be fixed, and the proper lines to be drawn ; acquiring
corre ideas of outline by enlarged furveys ;. and by more
minute examinations, adjufting particular points. In this
way favm lands may be laid out in the moft eafy and con-
venient methods for the purpofes of their occupiers.

The nature of the fences, which may be moft advan-
tarcoufly had recourfe to-under particular circumftances,
will ‘be more fully confidered and explained in fpeaking
ef fences and inclofing, See Fence, and Incrosine of
tand.

On hiring and flocking Farms,—Whatever the nature of
the farm may be, there are a variety of circumftances
which require to be particularly weighed and confidered be-
fore it be finally engaged by a tenant. The author of
« Modern Hufbandry” has remarked, that when a farmer
has oceafion to hireia farm, he fhould be equally careful toexa-
mine, on the one hand, all the advantayres which it enjoys, and
on the other, all the difadvantages to which it is fubjeéted.
By making a juft eftimate of both, and by comparing the
relult with the rent demanded, can he only be able to form
a correét opinion refpe@ting the equity of that demand.
In making this eflimate, he fhould difcard equally from his
mind that over-cautious prudence which is difpofed to doubt
of every probable advantage that may infure fuccefs, and
that too adventurous temerity which is apt to overlook, or
at leaft to leffen, real difadvantages, fuch as no future exer-
tion of his can poflibly overcome. The value of land, fays
he, depends no lefs on its fertility, whether occupied in
tillage or paflure, than on its fituation in regard to markets.

For this reafon, an arable farm, in the vicinity of a larve
town, is worth a higher rent than one of an equal fize and
quality in a remote part of the country. For the fame
reafon, namely, a fuperior advantage in regard to markets, a
fheep or ftore-farm in the north of England yields a higher
rent to the proprietor than one (but for the difference of
fituation) of frmilar value in the north-weft of Scot-
land. In rentimga farm, one general rule ought, he thinks,
always to be attended to, namely, fixing on good lands,
Over the kingdom at large, the rents paid for farms of this
defcription are in general reafonable, when compared with
what 1s commonly paid for thofe of more indifferent foils:
The author of the © New Farmer’s Calendar,”’ however, well
remarks, that it can obvioufly very feldom happen that a
tenant, in want of a farm, can have the i of
choofing precifely that kind of foil and fituation which
may be deemed the mot advantageous ; in general, he muft
content himfelf with fuch as chance to be’ unoccupied ; and
thefe chances, in fruitful parts of the country, have never
been of late years, and fince the vaft enhancement in price
of all the fruits of the earth, very numerous. But the
Superior advantages of natural fertility and facility of culti-
vation are too plain to admit of queftion or argument: and
nothing is more clear than the preference which ought to
be given to good land at the advanced price, fince the culture
of barren land is infinitely more expenfive, and the rifk of crop
nearly double: and what is of great force, frem the influence
of cuftom and local circumftances, the price of land in the
moft fruitful counties is frequently as low as of that in
diftricts of far inferior fertility. An attentive obferver,
although net very converfant in the principles or praétice
of hufbandry, can fearcely, he thinks, be deceived as to the
general nature and degree of goodnefs of foil upon afarm; a
comparifon with the neighbouring farms, and their average
products, will be a fufficient guide. Wherever, fays he, is
found confiderable depth of mixed foil, even if natural.
fertility be deficient, art and culture will remedy the defect,
and fully reward the labours of the hufbandman. On the
other hand, the moft fhallow and ftony lands, from a natural
richnefs'in their light moulds, may be wonderfully produc-
tive. The luxuriance and deep verdure of the » the
{pontaneous growth of white clover, the tallnefs and fruit-
fulnefs of the hedge-wood, particularly hazel, the large fize
of the timber, and the height and fubtlance of the ftraw, are
all common indications ofa ftrong and fertile foil: plenty of
weeds, particularly thiftles, although a popular, he fears,
is but an equivocal fign, fince the moft barren land will‘alfo
produce fpontaneoufly abundant crops of thofe. It is
much more prudent for a farmer, he thinks, to wait and look.
forward, than to engage himfelf upon a miferable barren
tract, where the certainty or promife can be of nothing but
everlaiting labour and expence :: {uch mutt be the cafe upon
foils which are naturally poor ; at the fame time of infufficient
depth, and abounding with flint or fhingles upon fandy
wattes, parched april cold, acid, iron clays, boggy or
poachy lands, to or from which there is fearcely acce{fs or
paflage during the winter months, Some fuch traéts we
have in England; and of thofe held in hand an opu-
lent and well-fkilled proprietor can make a far greater
annual profit than can be drawn from the labour of aneedy
and miferable tenant. The moft profitable purpofes to
which thefe eftates can be devoted are, he conceives, the
growth of wood and of live-ftock. A farmer who aims
at obtaining his profits with the lea(t poflible. trouble and
rifk, and without the burden of much live ftock, muft pro«
eure a rich light land-farm, with a fandy loam; on fuch a
fituation, without a moderate capital, and the example a

2 . §

FAR YM.

his neighbours before his eyes, ke may, he thinks, fet himfelf
down in contented indolence, and yet grow rich. The cafe
is widely different with him who engages with a {trong
clay, or, in the improvement of an exhaufted or infertile
foil; this will find an ample feld for the moft ftrenuous ex-
ertions, direéted by a fair portion of agricultural flcill, and
ought to entertain no hope of very confiderable fuccefs with-
out the aid of a full ftock of cattle. Thefe obfervations are,
he {ays, by no means intended to damp the ardour of afpir-
ing hufbandmen, who aim at raifing a fortune and a name
by the improvements of low priced land; for although,
from the irregularity of rate fer acre above hinted, the
rent of land is feldom the prime caufe of good or ill fuc-
cefs, yet cheapnefs is a material confideration, when money
is to be expended in gradual improvement. A farm at four
or five fhillings per acre, poflefling within itfelf, or its vi-
cinity, the permanent means of amelioration, will turn out a
mine of wealth in the hands of an able cultivator, who, in
the courfe of half his leafe, will bring it to a level of fertility
with the high-priced kinds of land.

There is, the-fame writer remarks, another point which
merits attention, which is, the manner in which the farm
wa$ formerly cultivated. If it has been exhaufted and run
out by over-cropping, and requires fencing, draining, re-
pairs of houfes, lime, marle, &c. all which are to be effected
at the tenant’s expence, the rent payable to the landlord
in fuch a cafe ought, he juftly obferves, to be very mode-
rate, in comparifon to what the tenant could, with equal
propriety, afford to give, were he to enter on the leafe
when the farm was in a high ftate of cultivation and im-
provement.
confiderable than the generality of proprietors or farmers are
difpofed to allow. For inttance, a farmer who enters to the
pofieffion of a farm in a high {tate of cultivation, enters
immediately to the greateft returns which that farm is ca-
pable of producing ; while he who enters to a farm which
had been previoufly exhaufted by improper management,
finds himfelf under the neceffity of expending large fums
on the improvement of it; when, at the fame time,
his returns for the firlt few years are probably inadequate
to the expence incurred in carrying on even the ordinary
operations. In the one cafe, the farmer enters, from the
begianing of his leafe, on the receipt of his annual profits,
moderate as they may be ;. and in the other, he is finking a
large fhare of his capital, for which his returns mutt at beft
be flow. If this lofs of capital and intereft, the additional
expence of cultivation, and the inferiority of crops for the
firlt feven or eight years are fairly calculated, it will, he
thinks, be found that the farmer who, under thefe circum-
ftances, pays twenty fhillings the acre for a leafe of nincteen

ears, has as high a rent upon the farm, ee the whole
heate, as the other who pays nearly double the fum.

One other particular of great importance ought, he fays,
to be mentioned, namely, the poe See a of renting a larger
tarm than the capital which the farmer pofleffes will properly
ftock and improve. When this happens, the tenant puts
it out of his power to adopt the proper plans by which he
could turn the farm to the greateft poffible account. He
becomes cramped in carrying on the ordinary courfe of
bufinefs, and is frequently obliged to difpofe of his crops
at an under value fer ready money; and therefore cannot
purchafe lime, marles, or other means of improvement, which
are not to be had without the expenditure of confiderable
fums. Although it will not hold in every cafe, yet it may
be afforted as a good. general rule that, in the improved parts
of the kingdom, four pounds per flatute acre is a moderate
fum for ftocking a farm, without including the expence

The difference here is, he fays, much more:

of buildings, repairs, fences, drains, &c. ‘If, therefore, a
farmer fhould be fo imprudent as to rent a farm of oue
hundred acres when his capital does not exceed 2-0/. he
mutt be fortunate indeed in times and feafons if he has not
occafion to repent of his temerity.

And by the fame author it is obferved, that it is doubtlefs
a found general maxim for a man to hire no more land than his
capital is amply fufficient to flock; the difadvantages and
dangers of a want of money, in all concerns, are too
common and well known to be for a moment infifted on;
the farmer had indeed better be fomewhat fhort than
burdened with too large a traét of land; for in the latter
cafe, if he be jxdicious and mafter of his profeffion, he
may well employ his furplus capital in a fuperior and
garden-ftyle of cultivation, and as a dealer in live-ftock.
But it is yet a grating thing to an induftrious man to
refufe a promifing bargain, particularly of the low-rented
kind, on account of ifs extent, the very confideration which
muft animate his hopes; and when fuch a one has made
the leap, inftead of the common method of aiming at
the culture of the whole in a flovenly, infufficient, and un-
profitable manner, it would probably be much the fafett
plan to crop only fuch a portion of the farm as his means
would compafs with good effeét, fecking but to pay the
rent and live, and, by dint of frugal and perfevering induitry,
to make an annual addition, until, in procefs of time, the
whole farm fhould be in a flourifhing itate of cultiva-
tion.

The writer cannot forbear, he fays, inthis place, copying an
important remark from Mr. Young, which, in truth, he has
repeatedly feen verified. Farmers frequently adopt no other
rule refpecting the rent they will give than mere cuitom,
nor attend to aay other criterion of eftimating the worth
and qualities of land, than that of the good or ill fuccefs of
the laft occupant ; than which there can fcarce be a more
fallacious method of forming a judgment. He has known
many farms, on which fortunes might have been obvioufly,
and afterwards were really made, lie untenanted, and taken
afterwards with the utmoft apprehentfion, purely becaufe an
ignorant, wretched, and needy tenant had failed therein.
Many fine farms may now be pointed out, on which the old
tenants ftarved, and brought their families to the work-
houfe, at feven fhillings an acre; whilft their fucceffors
(times {till the fame, or worfe) made their fortunes by
being rented at eighteen. It is a cruel difgrace, or rather
a very laughable piece of burlefque, for a man, pretending
to common difcernment, to regulate his judgment and his
conduct from motives like thefe. If fair land be offered at
a fair rent, it is well; if an additional rent be demanded,
and a man, after the niceft ferutiny, both a@ual and pro-
bable, can difcover money’s-worth in the terms, he mult be
unwife to forego the occafion. Some landlords, from a
magnauimous and princely f{pirit, have fuppofed it beneath
their dignity to raife their rents; and certain tenants, mif-
taking the nature of this bounty and the queftion in general,
are eae averfe to the very idea of any advance, not
confidering that it is a queftion of property, ard that land-
lords, as well as tenants, have all pollible right and reafon to
make a fair advantage of the growing profperity of the
times. Thofe men ivho are averfe to a diftant removal, by
which they might obtain a far fuperior fituation, from the
fingle contideration of prefent lofs in the difpofal of their
ftock, do not, the author thinks, well underitand their own
intereft. A prefent trifling lofs, which the farmer's cir
cumitances can well bear, ought not to weigh againit a
permanent and growing profit ; this motive, however, con-
fines many a farmer to a poor and barren fpot; men are,

2 abfolutely

BN VAR AES

abfolutely afraid of fair calculation, as they often are of
their beft friends.

In the examination of a bargain, he obferves, the objec-
tions may be of a two-fold nature; fuch as may be held in-
fuperable ; or fuch as may admit of compenfation, either in
proportional abatement of price, or in the goodnefs of the
profpect. As to the firft, on perceiving them, a man in-
ftantly turns his back on the bufinefs. In his ideas, tithes
taken in kind ; a number of common carriage-ways, or paths,
and the lands interfeGted by other property; far diftant
markets, and roads impaflable in winter, are objections of
that clafs; and granting pecuniary compenfations can be
made, there can be none found adequate to the anxiety of
mind which muft be inevitably fuffered in fuch a fituation.
Of thefe defeéts, with which a perion is content to put up,
he ought to have a very correct eftimate, that he may really
know when an offer is made deferving of his acceptaace ; an
important point, where many contra¢ting parties fail,
Every practical man knows that in bargaining, as in angling,
there is a critical moment, a time to ftrike, which may never
return. ‘The heads already enumerated will furnith ‘matter
for an eftimate in writing, taken on the aétual furvey.
Thence will appear the fums neceffary to be expended, and
the dedu€tion of rent, or other recompence, fuch expeuditure
will fairly warrant. In this eftimate, the ftate or nature of
the fences fhould be well contidered, and alfo the injuries
done by game in fome initances in particular fituations.

It is on the whole concluded, that the farmer who intends
to hire a farm, fhould confider whether the land be rich and
fertile, and the climate favourable ; as well as whether the
farm be well fituated in regard to markets; properly ac-
commodated as tu houfes; has eafy accefs to lime, marle,
and other manures; and whether the price of provifions be
fully on a par with the rate of labour.

Having adverted to thefe different circumftances, and fully
pointed out the advantages of a perfeét. examination of the
foils, fo as to afcertain their natures and qualities, as to {tiff-
nefs, moifture, expofure, levelnefs, flope, ftonynefs ; what
draining, manuring, fencing, &c. may be wanted; and
ltkewifle the roads, diltance of markets, prices of commodi-
ties, labour, the {tate of tithes, and poor rates ; Mr. Young
advifes that one general rule in hiring a farm fhould not be
overlooked by the farmer, which is, to fix on good land, aud
he can fearcely give too much for it; but that, for poor
foils, the leait rent is fometimes too high to be confiitent
with profit. By poor foils, however, are not to be under-
ftood fuch as have acommand of lafting manures, that work
gyeat improvements; nor walte-lands, which, under that
falfe denomination, are often found the mott profitable of
all. It is fuppofed that the found, mellow, rich, putrid,
crumbling, fandy loams, are of all foils the moft profitable ;
fuch as will admit tillage foon after rain, and do not bake
on hot gleams of fun coming after heavy rains, when finely
harrowed ; fuch land is better worth forty fhillings an acre,
than many foils deferve five.

Next the {tiff loam, which is neareft allied to brick earth ;
this, till drained, is in general an unkindly foil, without
plenty of manure.

It is known in winter by being very adhefive upon walk-
ing over it; is long in drying, even where little or no water
js feen upon it; for which reafon it is generally late in the
{pring before it can be,ploughed. When quite dry, it breaks
up neither fo hard and cloddy as mere clay, nor near fo
crumbly and mellow as good loam. If it be in ftubble, it is
apt to be covered with a minute green mofs. There are
many varieties of this foil, but all agree in moft of thefe
circumftances, and in being what the farmers eall poor,

cold, hungry Jand- When hollow-ditched, and greatly
manured, it yields any thing ; but thofe who hire it fhould
forget neither of thefe expences.

The gravelly foils are numerous in their kinds, and very |

difficult in their natures. Warm, dry, found gravelly loams, ~
are eafily diftinguifhed in winter. ‘hey admit ploughing all
winter through, except in very wet times; always break
up in a crumbly ftate of running moulds; and if ina ftubble,
will dig, on trial by the fpade, in the fame manner. If
under turnips, it may be perceived by walking through
them, that it will bear their being fed off. But the wet
ceid f[pungy gravel is a very bad foil; it is known in winter
by the wetnefs of it; and in fpring, Ly its binding with:
hatty fhowers. It rarely breaks up in a crumbly ftate, or
fhews a mellownels under the fpade. Very expenfive drains
greatly corveét its ill qualities ; but it requires a prodigious.
quantity of manure to fertilize it. And other gravels are
io fharp and burning, that they produce nothing except in
wet fummers; but fuch are known at any feafon of the
year.
" And the fand-foils are as various as the gravels, and are
all eafily difcoverable in their natures. The rich red fand:
is, it is believed, as profitable a foil as any in the world.
It has at all fealons a dry foundnefs, and at the fame time
a moifture without wetnefs, which fecures crops. even in.
dry fummers. The fpade is fufficient to try it at any fea-
fon of the year. ‘he light fandy loam is likewife an ad-:
mirable foil ; it will bear ploughing like the preeeding,, all:
winter long, and appears quite found and mellow when
tried with the fpade. If it le under a winter fallow, the
beft way of judging of its richnefs is to remark the {tate of
the furrows, and the degree of adhefion in the foil Stiff.
land, being dry and crumbly, is a great perfeGion ; and
fand, being adhefive, is an equally gsodfign. Confequently
when the farmer views a light fandy loam, whofe found
drynefs is acknowledged, he may prefume the foil is rich,.
in proportion to its adhefion. Where it falls flat in powder,.
and has no adhetfion, it is a mere fand. The white chalky
marm is often cold and wet, will not bear gloughing in.
winter, unlefs the weather be very dry or frofty ; runs.
exceflively to mortar, with a heavy fhower when in a pul-
verized ftate. Itisacold foil of little profit, is is fuppofed,.
except with peculiar management. It is believed to anfwer
beft when laid down in a dry itate to faintfoin. The
farmer is advifed to lay it down as a maxim, that ftrong,.
harfh, tenacious clay, though it will yield great crops of
wheat, is yet managed at fo heavy an expence, that it is»
ufually let for more than it is worth. Much money is not
often made on fuch land. The yery contrary foil, a light,
poor, dry fand, is very often indeed in the occupation of men.
who have made fortunes. Some permanent manure is:
ufually below the furface, which anfwers well to carry on 5.
avd fheep,. the common ftock of fuch foils, is the moft pro-.
fitable fort he can depend on,

All the ftiff forts of foils are viewed to moft advantage-
in winter; the general fault of them is wetnefs, which
is in the greateft excefs at that feafon of the year. If the
fields be level, and the water ftands in the land, notwith--
ftanding the furrows are well ploughed and open, itis a fign:
that the clay is very {tiff, and of fo adhefive a nature, as to
contain the water like adifh. It is likewife probable, that
draining may prove infufficient to cure the natural evil of
fuch land. This kind of foil likewife fhews itfelf in the
breaking up of ftubbles for a fallow; a very flrong draught
of cattle is then necefflary to work it. It breaks up in
vaft pieces, almoft as hard'as iron. When it is worked fine,
it will run like mortar, with a heavy {pring or fitmmer

8 fhower,

FARM.

fhower. Thefe foils will yield very great erops of beans
and wheat, &c. They mutt, like others, be cultivated by
fomebody ; but it is advifed to have nothing to do with
them, where it can be avoided, nor ever to be captivated
with fecing large crops upon the land, for the farmer does
not fee at the fame time the expences at whieh they are
raifed. Peat, bog, moor, and fen, in many variations, are
yéry profitable ; but the expences of improvement demand
2 calculating head. The vicinity oi lime or marle is here of
great importance.

In grafs lands the marks for judgment are differgnt.
They are, in the writer’s opinion, beift examined by attend-
ing, firft, to the circumftances in which they are moft defi-
cient ; and then to fuch as are in their favour. The more
feafons grafs-fields are viewed in the better, though any one
is fufficient for a tolerable judgment. One great evil
attending thefe lands is, that of being too wet; the figns
of which can never be miftaken or overlooked in any feafon
of the year. In winter it is at once perceived by walking
on them; atalltimes of the year by the herbage which
generally abounds on them, fuch as rufhes, flags, and a
great quantity of mois; and aifo by the colour of the
grafs, which is moftly blue at the points; fometimes of a
dirty yellow hue, and always coarle. If the foil be the
firft defcribed, ftiff clay, and the furface level, the evil
will be very difficult of cure; if of the other fort of
clay, or ftiff loams, draining will have great effects in im-

roving it.

Grais-fields on gravelly foils are, if the gravel be tharp,
very apt to burnin dry fummers; but they give great and
{weet crops in wet ones, provided that the land be a gravelly
loam. An adfolute gravel fhould never be under grafs.
A farmer fhould not, however, regret having a pafture or
two of this fort in his farm, as they are of excellent ufe in
winter for feeding fheep and lambs on with turnips or other
food of the fame kind.

With regard to the low meadow lands, whatever the foil
may be on the banks of the rivers and brooks, they are in
general good, but often fubje& to the misforcune of being
overflowed in fummer, which not only ruins crops of hay
before they are cut, but carries them away, perhaps when
juft made. And many grafs-fields on all foils confift of fo
bad an herbage, as to be of little value. Made up of weeds,
and the worft and coarfeft of grafies, if a landlord will not
allow fuch to be ploughed, the farmer fhould minute down
the rent accordingly. ‘This fault is vifible at all feafons,
and cannot be eafily miftaken. Buta river that does not
overflow, running through a farm, is a very favourable cir-
cumitance, as it indicates a probability of all the grafs-
frelds being well {upplied with water for cattle, and other
animals.

Befides the circumftance of well proportioning the fize
of the farm to the extent of capital as already noticed,
there are feveral others which fhould be well confidered in
frxing upon farms, fuch as their being compact and conve-
nient in the fields, which are too often overlooked by farm-
ers who are about to rent land. If they attended to it as
auch as their profit required, we fhould, the writer thinks,
fee landlords reforming their eftates, in this particular,
more than many do at prefent. There is not, it is fup-
pofed, amore expenfive, perplexing circumftance in a farm,
than that of the fields being in a ftraggling, difconne&ted
_fituation. The difadvantages are obvioufly numerous and!
Rriking.

- The covenants of leafes fhould likewife be well attended
to, as landlords are very often tenacious of thofe which
they have ufually inferted in them ; fo that a farmer, when

he approves of a farm, and agrees to the rent, may not find
the conditions of tenure propofed to him, fuch as are
compatible with his intereft, his defigns, and with good
hufbandry. The merit or reafonablenefs of covenants muft
always be confidered in comparifon with the nature of the
farm. It is for want of this confideration that unreafonable
covenants are ever propofed- And thefe prohibitions are
often foolifh, but fometimes admiffible : they muft depend
on-local circumf{tances, which fhould be well weighed by
the farmer before he makes his decifion.

The afcertainment of rent is a highly important part of
the bufinefs of hiring a farm, though the circumftances al-
ready ncticed precede it, asthe rent muft ina great meafure
depend on them. The chief point neceffary to be here con-
fidered is the combination of rent, tithe, and rates in one
fum. It is advifed that the farmer, knowing the capital
intended to be invefted, fhould eftimate the intereft of it at
not lefs than to per cent. and then calculate the expences
and produce; the former, being deducted from the latter,
will leave that {um which he can afford to pay in thefe three
forts of rent. And further, deducting the tithes and rates,
the remainder will be what he can afford to pay to the land-
lord. Where rent is calculated in any other way, it muit
be erroneous and deceitful, amd not by any means to be de—
pended on.

On the bufinefs of ftocking farms, the fame able writer
has likewife fuggefted many ufeful hints and directions. He
confiders the advantage to be derived from the occupation
of land to depend fo much on the farmer commanding the
requifite capital, that it is extremely neceflary for the young
beginner to be well advifed on fo effential a point. If he
be fixed in bufinefs by fome experienced relation, he will
not, of courfe, want the proper inftru€tion ; but as many
adventurers, as they may be called, are every day making
efforts to try their fortune in the culture of the earth, and
many gentlemen taking farms into their hands,. fometimes:
without fufficient confideration of the neceflary expences,
it may not be improper to confider a few points concern-
ing this bufinefs. Thirty years ago, the fum which was:
ufually appropriated to the ftocking of a farm, varied
from three to five pounds the acre; and it wasa general
idea, that the latter fum was fufficient for any farm, part
arable, and part grafs, of no uncommon fertility. Rick
marfhes were, of courfe, excluded in the calculation, and.
light fteck farms were often itocked for three pounds. the
acre. But thefe matters are now greatly changed: rents are
much increafed ; tithes are compounded at a higher rate of
payment ; poor rates are enormoutly rifen ; all forts of im-
plements comprehended in the article wear and tear are
thirty or forty: per cent. dearer; labour is: in many dif-
tri&s doubled; the prices of cattle and fheep, as well as
all other forts of live ftock, are greatly advanced; fo that
at prefent, the fame farm which at that period would have
been very well ftocked, and the firft year’s expences pro-
vided for, at the rate of five pounds the acre, would now de=
mand nearly from feven to eight pounds the acre. Butit is to
be remembered, thatin all fuch eftimates.it is neceflary to,
{uppofe that every tool bought in is new, and that the live
ftock be good of the fort, as well as that the firft year’s ex-
pences be provided for, though a portion of the crop may come
in before the whole payment is made. Itis ftated that a man
cannot be at his eafe if he do not provide in this manner ;. nor
will he be able to make that profit by. his bufinefs with a
fmall capital, which will attend the employment of a larger.
By proft the writer would be underitood to mean a-per
centage on his capital, which is the only fatisfaGory way of
eftimating it. If, by ftocking a farm with five pounds the

acres

FARM.

acre, he makes feven or eight per cent. profit; and by
ftocking in the proportion of eight pounds the acre, he
makes ten per cent. (and this difference will, it is believed,
often be found); it muft be fufliciently apparent that the lofs
by the fmaller ftock is a very ferious evil. It will depend
much, it is fuppofed, on fituation and local circumftances:
the benefit of procuring manures, or litter; to make dung,
may, in fome places, be very great, in others much lefs ; but
not to be able to profit by every favourable opportunity
that may attend the {pot on which a farmer is fixed, mutt
be highly difadvantageous to him. To irrigate land is an
expentive operation ; but to omit or peitpone it for want of
money for the undertaking, is to lofe, perhaps, the capital
advantage of a farm, Cafes of this fort might be greatly
multiplied ; and there is not one that does not call on the
farmer for an ample capital to obtain the greateft poffible
beneft.

It is hinted, that of all the different forts of farms thole
af the warren kinds are hired and flocked with the {mallett
capitals; but there are maifhJands in different diftriéts, and
efpecially in Lincolnfhire, which are ftocked at the vatt
yate of more than thirty pounds the acre. And the ge-
neral annual expence of many hop plantations rifes to thirty
pounds, and the capital to more than fixty pounds the
acre.

In general, for ftocking, according to the modern prin-
ciples of hufbandry, not lefs than from eight to ten, or fif-
teen, pounds the acre can be neceflary ; and in fome cafes,
where improvements are to be made, confiderable more will
be required.

It is fuggefted, that if the farmer is not capable of
making ten per cent. on his capital, he muft either haye an
indifferent farm, there muft be bad management, or the
times muft be greatly againft him. It is juitly fuppofed
that he fhould make from twelve to fifteen per cent., and
that fome farmers make more, even when the price of corn
% not in any way extravagant.

Thefe direétions fhould be well weighed and confidered
by thofe farmers who have had but lit:le experience, be-
fore they enter upon the ferious bufinefs of hiring and
flocking farms.

It has been remarked, in refpe& to the advantages of dif-
ferent forts of farms, by the author of the ‘¢ New Far-
mer’s €alendar,’? that were it demanded of him generally,
what is the moft advantageous application of ‘Tana he
fhould be inclined to anfwer, that of dairying, or feeding
a large number of cows for the produce of butter; but with
the referve, that the bufinefs be conducted with great va-
riation from the common modes. The dairy-man mutt
himfelf bea perfect judge of the live ftock which he enter-
tains, and they be of the improved {pecies : no bad milkers
muft be kept, nor indeed any kept too long; the profit of
grazing mu{t come into the account, and of pig-feeding to
a much larger than the ufual extent. The winter provifions
for the cows, both green and dry, muft be fo ample as to
equalize the produce of butter, in money, at leaft, with that
ef the fummer, and it will be clearly advifeable to have a
gonfiderable breadth of land under the plongh. If this,
however, be the moft profitable, it is, no. doubt, he fays,
the moit troublefome fcheme of hufbandry. The next in
point of profit is, he thinks, two-thirds arable, and one-
third grais; the moft adantageous winter feed, provided,
and cattle enough of the beft kinds kept to furnifh annually
from twelve to fifteen loads pes acre of rich compoft. This
may prove more profitable than if all the laud were grazed,
fince it is to divide the rifk of markets between corn and
cattle ; and large crops of the former may of right be ex-

pected where the quantity of manure fhall have been fo lihes
ral, A family which cultivates a parcel of land, with. the,
prudent view of inereafing its income and domeftic comforts,
fhould keep, he fays, a {mall dairy, with two or three breeds
ing fows, a {mall flock of fheep, fome tame rabbits, and a
few hives of bees. It fhould uot be forgotten to ftock a
fith-pond ortwo, if there be fuch convenience. The plan,
will alfo, he thinks, admit of the fattening a few bullocks
annually.

Hay-farms and grazing-farms arg obvioufly, he fays, at«
tended with the leaft trouble. Hay-farming is, however,
by no means the molt profitable branch of hufbandry, as it
hes under the con{tant difadvantage of incapacity to feed)
live ftock to any good purpofe; hence much after-grafs is,
annually wafted. Granting a hay farmer has fattened a
lot uf beafts, they muit, he obferves, be late in the feafon,
when beef is ufually cheap, and he cannot keep them until
after Chriftmas, for fear of injuring his future crop of hay,
which is his grand dependance. As to grazing, however
profitable or void of trouble it may be, he would adyife,
every perfon to be cautious how he enters into it to any
great extent, unlefs he fhall have previoufly acquired a con-
fiderable knowledge of live ftock. Mott bailiffs know much
worfe than nothing at all of the matter. In the common
advice given on the head of breeding animals, aptitude of
fituation and room have always been very properly infilted
on; but the confideration, the moft impertant, perhaps, of
all others, hath hitherto been negleéted, which is, aptitude-
in the: breeder himfelf for the undertaking, without which,
we will venture to affirm, no adequate fuccefs ought to be
expected. A man ought to be poffeffed of much fenibility
for the brute creation, with a confiderable {pice of the
mania of improvement, who fets up fora breeder. In hie
daily or weekly bible-excurfions, he muft be fure never to
forget the book of Job, He mutt enter fully into the fpirit
of a thoufand little niceties, both of judgment and practice, .
which it would take a good velume to deferibe. e mutt
find a pleafure in never-ending care and folicitude, and keep.
a perpetual watch. On fuch conditions a breeder, he thinks,:
will acquire wealth and fame. The generality of cultiva-,
tors, whatever may be their fituation, had, perhaps, better
purchafe their live ftock ready made. With redpeét to fat-
tening animals for market, the greateft difficulty, in hie,
opinion, occurs with pigs, as is fufficiently manifelt from.
the accounts of our numerous experiments, The Englifh-
of the matter is, he thinks, that the butinefs requires a cor-
rect judgment both of that fpecies of flock and of the
markets. .

But whatever be the nature of the farm, it is obvious
that it can never be cultivated to the greateft poflible adyane
tage without having the fecurity of a fair equitable leafe..
See LEAsE.

And on the conduting or management of farms, it is,
obferved by the fame author, that it has always been the;
fathion to lay much {trefs on the difference between the gen-
tleman and the labouring farmer, and to allow a decided fue
periority to the latter, nay, even to deny all poffibility of the.
former deriving profit from the practice of hufbandry. -
The matter has, he thinks, been impraperly ftated, Noe.
thing can be more true than that the man, whether gen-
tleman or farmer, who determines to remain ignorant of
his bufinefs, and who indolently fuffers himfelf to be
cheated through the nofe, will have a fair chance to be evere
laflingly unfuecefsful. But grant the gentleman a mode-
rate portion of the fcience of agriculture, and a decent com-
petency of activity and refolution, and he conceives the
balance will preponderate even heavily on his fide, whatever.

may

FARM.

may be the quantity of lands, from a cabbage-garden to a
farm of a thoufand acres, The perfonal labour and fuper-
intendance of the mere common farmer, in the old beaten
track, can never, he thinks, ftand in competition with the
advantages of the new hufbandry, ef the moft productive
kinds of live ftock, of an ample portion of manure, and of
the garden cleannefs of the hoe-culture. Agriculture,
viewed in a trading Hicht, perhaps makes as ample a return
for the ufe of money as any domeftic concern whatever ;
and although fuch be not the general cultom, it is ealy
‘enough of proof, that very great capitals, to the amount of
‘twenty, thirty, or forty thoufand pounds, and upwards,
might be fafely and pro{peroufly employed upon an extentfive
farm. The cultivator of two thoufand acres, who fhould
fully ftock according to the principles of the new huf-
bandry, breed and fatten his own cattle, confuming all his
fpring-corn at home, bacon his hogs, and meal his own
wheat, would find occafior, he fays, for fums of very high
account. His articles being all thofe of the firft neceflity,
and being without the obligation of allowing credit, the
profits would be more certain, and the rifk lefs, than in any
mercantile concern. In what, he afks, confifts the new huf-
bandry, fo often quoted by agricultural writers without a
definition? In alloting certain portions of an arable farm
to the purpofe of fummer and winter feeding a ftock of cat-
tle, fufficient, with their dung, to manure and fertilize the
whole of the land; in eradicating, as far as poffible, all ufe-
lefs vegetation with the hoe; in the ufe of the various im-
proved or newly-invented implements, for the purpofe of
expeditirg or abridging labour; and in the judieious fe-
leétion of domeftie animals. The ufage of the old huf-
bandry (too generally prevalent indeed, he fays, at this
hour) is to place very little dependance on the profit of
live ftock, to feed very few, excepting thofe animals abfo-
tutely neceflary for labour, to rejeGt the hoe-culture, per-
haps altogether, to foul the land by repeated corn-crops,
and to clean it partially and infufficient!ly by fummer-fal-
lows, or feed in its foul ftate for a temporary ley.

There is, fays the fame writer, a falfe pride amongft
farmers of inferior property, which demands examination,
if not correction. A man will make any fhift, even to the
neglect of the important advantage of purchaling cattle
im the autumn, rather than fell his oats during harveit,
er his wheat at Michaelmas. His importance is much
diminifhed, unlefs he can make a capital dilplay of
ftacks: but fair and impartial calculation alone mutt be
his guide in this cafe, who purfues his real interett.

Farm Buildings, in Rural Economy, are {uch buildings

and offices as are neceflary for carrying on with convenience :

the various concerns and purpofes of a farm. It is evident
that the nature and extent of fuch ereétions, as well as their
peculiarity of conftruétion, mutt be very different, accord-
Ing to the difference of farm management which is required
to be carried on with them. However, in general, a much
greater extent of {uch buildings will be neceffary where the
farms are of the arable or cern kind, than where they are
fimply of the dairy, grazing, and hay or grais kind. Though
the extent of buildings, even for thofe of the firft of thefe
forts, may be greatly retrenched by having recourfe to the
threfhing-machine, and the beneficial praétice of {tacking
the grain-in proper yards, with fuitable {taddles for the pur-
pofe, and at the fame time the expence of fuch ere&tions be
confiderably reduced by having‘fimply fhed-buildings initead
of thofe of a more finifhed kind, which are mottly in ufe,
while the convenience to the farmer will be nearly the fame.
There is, however, one circumftance to be here: particularly
regarded, which is, that whatever the defcription of the

farm may be, the extent of the buildings fhould conftantly
be amply fufficient for the various ufes of it.

The meft ufual defcriptions of buildings which are
wanted on farms, are thofe of farm-houfes, barns, fabless
granaries, cow-houfes, cattle-/beds, calf-pens, dairy-houfess
hog-ftyes, root-houfes, fraw-Sbeds, chaff-houfes and bins, cart-
ledges, harnefs-rooms, tool-houfes, work-hops, poultry-houfess
pigeon-houfes, and beeftands. See thefe feveral heads.

There has been confiderable diverfity of opinion among
writers on rural economy concerning the moft proper diltri-
bution of buildings of this fort, and the pointis yet far from
being decided. It is, however, obvious that it muft be
different in fome degree, according to the peculiar nature
of the farm, and the way in which the bufinefs of it isto be
managed.

In arable farms, or thofe which are chiefly under the
plough, the principal things wanted, in regard to diftribu.
tion, are that the farm-{tead and buildings fhould have a
centrical fituation, in vefpeét to the ground, being a little
elevated if poffible, and near the principal market-road. If
contiguous to a brook or fmall river, it may be an advan.
tage in the fupplying of water, as well as turning different
forts of machinery.

On pafture farms, efpecially thofe of the fheep kind, but
very few buildings are requifite ; nor where they are of the
dairying, grazing, or breeding forts, is there any neceffity
for their being numerous. In their diftribution the con-
venience of roads and water fhould be particularly attended
to.

Jn miced farms, or thofe which are partly of the arable
and partly of the grafs kinds, the diftribution of the build-
ings fhould be pretty much the fame as on thofe of the
perfectly arable fort, only perhaps fomewhat fewer in
number.

On family, or eite farms, which are another kind of
mixed farms, calculated for the convenience of perfonal re,
fidence, uniting the pafture for breeding, rearing, and occa-
fionally fattening animals, as well as the keeping of milch
cows, and growing meadow-hay, with the arable Jand for
the fupplying of artificial fodder, grain, roots, different
kinds of vegetables, green-food for foiling, &c. The va-
riety of buildings fhould here be confiderable, fo as to fuit
the different purpofes of the farm, having the principal of
them, or what may be called the farmery, conveniently con-
tiguous to the family offices, but at the fame time effectu-
ally fereened from the refidence, being likewife well con-
nected with all the different parts of the farm, and, if poffi-
ble, placed fo as to have the advantages of wind and water.
This fort of farm has been well defigned by Mr. Loudon in
his ‘* Treatife on Country Refidences.”?

The fubje& of the proper diftribution of farm-buildings
is fully entered into in an able paper in the firit volume of
Agricultural Communications to the Board. The writer
there confiders the conftruétion, arrangement, and jituation
of thefe buildings as fo important to the practical farmer,
as to merit the fulleft attention of the rural economift. It
is {tated, that on a judicions combination of thefe points the
convenience and facility of carrying on his different opera-
tions in a great meafure depend. Yet the examples of
farm-offices being erected either on a commodious plan or
with any thing of judgment in the fituation, are extremely
rare. Indeed, fays the writer, whether we view this fubje@
as relating: to the landlord, the tenant, or the public at
large, it appears highly interefting. To the landlord it isa
matter of confiderable moment, a part of his rents very often
depending upon it; for it is natural to fuppofe that a tenant,
efpecially ona long leafe, would give more for-a farm i
houfe

FARM.

Aoufe and offices were commodious, than if they are fo mi-
ferably deficient as moft farm-offices are. He would even
be the mcre readily induced to take a farm on that very ac-
eount ; and thus the landlord may often lofe a good tenant,
merely by not having proper accommodation for him. He
has heard farmers declare, that they would willingly agree
to pay five per cent. or more on the expences laid out on
commodious buildings, over and above the rent of the farm,
rather than occupy for nothing thofe they at prefent pofiefs,
and that they would, befides, undertake to be at the ex-
pence of every ordinary repair during the continuance of their
leafe. How then, fays he, can a landlord lay out a few
hundred pounds to better purpofe than to accommodate his
tenants, if he gets not only five per cent. on the money thus
laid out, (but provided his buildings are very complete)
perhaps as much additional rent as will amount to five per
cent. more. He is well convinced that the great expence
of erecting new farm buildings in the ufual way is a
very material obftacle to altering the prefent form; for
there are few landlords, he fuppofes, who would choofe to
lay out five or fix times the rent of a farm in new accommo-
dations for that farm, if by propping and patching they can
at a {mall expence make the old buildings anfwer. When,
fays he, we hear of s5oo/. being expended in building a barn
on a {mall farm of about roo/. rent, as is the cafe in fome
parts of England, and 1000/. laid out on a farm-houfe, it
is no wonder that landlords are cautious of engaging in fuch
buildings, and it cannot be fuppofed that tenants would be
mad enough to do fo. Hence, perhaps, is the principal rea-
fon why the generality of farm-houfes and offices are in fo
ruinous a condition. But when farmers can be perfuaded
that fuch enormous barns are unneceflary ; that their cora
can be kept much more fecure and lefs hable to injury in a
well-aired rick-yard, and that if they have juft room enough
in their buildings for all the common purpofes of the farm,
no more is requifite; alfo, that a neat, {mall commodious
dwelling-houfe is fully more comfortable than a large difmal
one; then we fhall find, he thinks, that landlords will more
readily agree to accommodate their tenants ; and that inftead
of thofe gloomy, prepofterous, ruinous buildings, now a
‘difgrace to almoft every part of the kingdom, we fhall be-
hold neatnefs and uniformity combined with every neceflary
accommodation, which will afford not only pleafure and
comfort to the occupiers, but a beauty and an ornament to
the country atlarge. ‘That this may be accomplifhed at a
very moderate expence, he hopes to be able to prove. So
far as any general rule can be given upon this fubjeét, and al-
lowing for circumftances and the variation of prices, he is
fully perfuaded by the obfervations he has made in different
parts of the kingdom, that, in general, one year’s rent of the
farm, ifnot under 7o/. (or at moft two) is amply fufficient
for building every accommodation neceflary upon that farm,
exclufive of the dwelling-houfe ; and that one year’s rent is
enough to build a dwelling-houfe on all farms not exceeding
4oo/. a year (in many fituations lefs may do) ; and, la‘tly,
that 5co/. are fufficient fora dwelling-houfe, and 1900/.
for offices on a farm of any extent. It is likewife obferved,
that in building new farm-houfes and offices, a great faving
of expence willaccrue, by making ufe of all the ferviceable
materials in the old buildings, where fuch buildings are, and
it will aftonifh many (provided they are fairly dealt with)
who have been accuftomed to thofe large, unneceflary, and
expenfive buildings commonly ufed, at how {mall an expence,
comparatively {peaking, a new fet of offices, or houfe may
be built, having the advantages of fuch materials near the
{pot. Workmen, in general, are much averfe to ufing old
materials, efpecially carpenters, who, rather thanrun the rifk

of touching a rufty-nail with a hatchet or faw, will put their
employer to the expence of fome hundreds of fuch tools, by
condemning the old, and advifing him to purchafe new tim-
ber.

To a tenant, the conftruGtion and arrangement of his farm-
buildings is a matter, he fays, perhaps of more importance
than even to a landlord. After all his toils and labours, and
the many anxious and fleeplefs hours he has pafled before his
crop has come to maturity, if his offices are nfufficient, or
improperly conftruéed, he ftill runs the rif of many in-
conveniences, and even reallofs. The fecurity of his grain,
the labour, and the value of his horfes, and other cattle, the
fafety and duration of his implements, are all dependent on
the perfection or imperfection of his offices. By arranging
them judicioufly (a matter very little attended to), a great
deal more labour may be obtained from his fervants, and
every operation on the farm will be carried on with more
facility and difpatch ; for, if a barnis fet down here, a fta-
ble there, a cow-houle or feeding-houfe in another place, all
without rule or order, and as if chance had fet them down,
much unneceflary labour will be occafioned, and a great deal

. of time loft in carrying provender to the cattle, and in keep-

ing them fo clean and dry as is neceflary towards their
health and prefervation.

Farm-buildings, as has been already remarked, fhould
always, he fays, be proportioned and con{truéted according
to the fize and produce of the farm ; which, in fettling their
dimenfions and arrangement mutt be particularly taken into
confideration. If, for example, the _< is adapted entirely
to grazing, very few buildings will be neceflary, except
fome fheds, and thefe will be in ufe chiefly during the win-
ter fealon, temporary ones being often erected in the fields
for the fummer. On farms where cattle are houfed only in

winter, or in fuch farms where more buildings are ufed in

winter than in fummer, a great expence in roofing may be
faved in cattle-fheds by erecting walls only, or having pil-
lars or pofts placed and framed in fuch a manner as to fupport
peafe, hay-ricks, or any other fort of ricks that ate not in-
tended to be taken down till the {pring or fummer. This
will not only anfwer the purpofe of an excellent warm roof,
but willbe a very good fituation for building fuch ricks.
If, however, the farm is entirely for grazing, as before fup-
pofed, there may not be a fufficiency of ricks, unlefs of the
fodder for the cattle, to make fuch temporary roofs. In
that cafe the fheds mult of courfe have permanent ones,
which may be of the cheapeft conftru@ion. Or, if there
fhould be a fufficient number of boards about the farm, as
is fometimes the cafe, they may be laid loofely on, to ferve
as a roof to the fheds, till wanted for other purpofes. ~

Buta dairy farm will require a different fort of accommo-
dation, being in general compofed partly of the grazing and
partly of the arable kind. The cow-houfes muft be propor-
tioned to the number of cows ufually kept, with every other
accommodation for carrying on the dairy bufinefs, whether
as a cheefe or butter farm. Small ftables, and a {mall barn,
are fufficient for fuch a farm.

But in anarable or corn farm, which generally partakes of
beth the other forts, the buildings muft be more aumerous,
and fuited, in fome refpeét, to all thefe different purpofles ;
the {tables in proportion to the number of horfes or cattle
requifite for labouring the farm ; the cow-houfes, and feed-
ing houfes, according to the number of cows generally kept,
and cattle fed; the barn and granary according to the ex-
tent of arable land, together with all the other ufual aceom-
modations for breeding young horfes or cattle, for hogs,
poultry, &c. all which mutt be particularly confidered of,
while planning the farm offices and buildings.

However,

FARM.

“However, fince thé invention of threfling-mills, a moft
Material alteration may, he conceives, be made in the con-
ftruétion of farm-buildings, particularly in barns. The
tedious and laborious operation of threfhing with the flail
made it neceffary to have the barn large enough to hold a
great quantity of corn in the ftraw, or at leaft to contain a
whole ftack at once; and, befides, to hare it fo lofty as to
give fufficient height for railing the flail. This is by no
means neceflary where there is a threfhing-mill, for as the
mill, if properly conftruéed, will threfh the corn as fatt
as taken in, it is unneceflary to throw in the whole ftack at
ence, or what remains of it in the vick-yard, if any, may
be covered with a tarpawling, or painted canvas for that
purpofe, a thing that every farmer ought to have, heing of
effential ufe either in cafe of a fudden fhower in harvett, when
building a ftack, or hay-rick, or of leaving one unfinifhed
at night, or any othertime. A threfhing-mill not requiring
fo lotty a barn as a flail, a very convenient granary or ftore-
room may be obtained above the mill, which, in the common
way, could not have been had. In fhort, the advantages of
a threfhing-mill are fo numerous, that no farm producing
1000 or 1209 bufhels of grain annually fhould, he thinks, be
without one of them. See Granary, and THRESHING-
Machine. -

It is further obferved, that when the plans of any farm-
buildings are finally determined on, there are many prelimi-
nary confiderations neceflary to be attended to, previous to
the commencement of the work. Such are the fituation with
refpeé& to the quality of the air, the water, materials for build-
ings, accefs and expolure, the foil for laying the foundations
upor, the beft method of conducting the drains, together
with the expence of completing the whole of them.

‘An ancient hiltory we are told, the writer fays, that the
Romans were fo very attentive and careful in the choice of
a good and healthy fituation, that they would not even en-
camp upon a {pot of ground till they tried various experi-
ments to afcertain if it was fufliciently healthy. How much
more neceflary then is it, fays the author, to afcertain the
falubrity of a place deftined for more permanent purpofes.
In general, where a choice of fituation can be had, thefe
four things fhould, he thinks, be particularly attended to; a
pure and temperate air, the water wholefome, and eafily
come at, the foil dry, and the place centrical, and of ealy
accefs. No buildings whatever require thefe qualifications
more than farm-buildings: yet, in general, it would appear
that they had been totally difregarded. How often do we

~ fee farm-buildings and barn-yards placed in the very wortt

fituation ina whole farm; in low, marfhy, boggy fpots, al-
mott inacceflible to man or beaft, and fit only for a refort for
frogs and wild-ducks. Perhaps too, within a little diftance,
a fine dry wholefome fituation might have been obtained ;
for there are few farms of any contiderable-extent in which
a tolerably good fituation for building may not be found
fomewhere. If drynefs and purity in the air are fo defirable
and requifite for the fite of a dwelling-loufe, how much
more (if poffible) are they neceflary for farm-offices and
barn-yards. If thefe are placed in a damp and humid f{pot,
the farmer’s whole crop runs the rifk of being rendered ufe-
lefs and unfaleable, however dry and well conditioned he
may have brought it from the field ; for if the place to which
he brings it is damp and unwholefome, his grain will foon
acquire a foftnefs, and perhaps muttinefs, very injurious to
its value. On the other hand, if the fituation is dry, his
rain will pot .only improve and keep in better order, but
in general it will be of a better quality, and confequently
worth a better price at the market or other place of fale.
In the bufinefs of fixing the arrangement of a new fer of
Vou. XIV,

farm-buildings, the firft thing to: be taken into confidera.
tion, after chocfing the fituation, is the nature and produce
of the farm. From thefe may be judged the different kinds
of accommodation that will be neceflary. For exam-
ple, every farm mutt have, rft, a dwelling-honfe; 2dly, a
barn fuitable to the extent of arable land on the farm, either
with or without a threfhing-mill, but always with one, if
poffible ; and it fhould be ‘endeavoured to place it fo that
it may go by water, if a fupply can be had ; 3dly, ttables,
the dimenfions of which muft be determined according to
the number of horfes neceffary for the farm; 4thly, cow,
houfes, or’ feeding-houfes, or both, according to the num-
ber of cows and cattle ; and fo on, till the whole accommo-
dations neceflary, and their dimenfions, are fixed upon,
Hawing afcertained thefe, and the fituation for building oa
being alfo fettled, the ground mutt be carefully and atter-
tively viewed; and if not very even, the different levels
mutt be obferved, and the beft way of condutting all the ne-
ceflary drains, aud carrying off all-fuperfuous mozfture.
Alfo the belt fituation for dung and urine pits, or refervoirs,
which wiil, in a great degree, afcertain at ouce where the
cattle-honfes and ftables fhould be. 'Thefe being fixed on,
the barn fhould, he obferves, be as near them as poffible,
for the convenience of carrying ftraw to the cattle ; and the
barn-yard fhould be contiguous toe the barn. Ifa granary
is refolved on, that fhould alfo be near the barn, or over it ;
as likewife the ftraw-houfe, which fhould be clofe to the
barn, Thefe main points being determined on, the others
will eafily be found; always obferving this rule, to con-
fider what is the nature of the work to be done about each
office, and then the eafieft and leaft laborious ‘way to per-
form that work fo far as it is conneéted with other offices.
In cafe this fhould not be fufficiently explicit, he thall fup-
pole, by way of illuftration, the fituation of a feeding-houfe
is to be confidered of. ‘The nature of the work to be per-
formed here is, bringing food and litter to the cattle, and
taking away their dung. The place from whence the
greateft part, perhaps, of their food and all their litter comes
isthe bayn ; therefore the feeding-houfe fhould be as near
the barn as poffible. Ifturnips, or other roots, or cabbages,
make a part of their food, the moit commodions way. of
giving thefe mult be determined on; whether by havin

a root-houfe adjoining the cattle-houfe, and that ‘filled oc-
cafionally, or by having a place to Jay them down in, near
the heads of the ftall from whence they are thrown in at
holes in the wall left for that purpofe. The eafieft method
of clearing away the dung mutt alfo be confidered, accord-
ing to the different plans mentioned when defcribing cow-
houfes, cattle-fheds, &c. See Cow-houfe, and CaTTLie

Jfoed. 7

And the fame general rule being obferved in determining
on the fite of all the other offices or accommodations, toge-
ther with a careful examination of the ground to be occue
pied (upon which the arrangement of theroffices ia a great
meafure fhould depend), any perfon converfant in rura! af-
fairs, who attends to thefe particulars, and can lay down his
ideas in advawing, may, he thinks, eafily direét the plaoning
and building of a very commodious fet of offices. With
re{peét to the fite of the dwelling-houfe, in addition ta
what has already been faid, it may be remarked, that, al-
though a houfe, being fituated in the middle of a regular
front is, in fome points of view, the molt pleating way,
and in many fituations perhaps the beit, yet, unlefs the
ground and .other circumftances in every ref{pect favour
{uch a.difpofition, he would not invariably adhere to it;
for it may often happen, he thinks, that amiuch better fitua-
tion fax the dweljing-houfe may be obtained at a little dil

v tarce

FARM.

tance from the offices, and a pleafing uniformity enough be
' obferved in them at the fame time,

In fome cafes, and for fome kinds of farms, it may be
particularly neceffary to have the houfe fo placed in re-
f{peét to the offices and farm-yard as to admit of their be-
ing conitantly infpected, and the labour which is to be per-
formed in them to be perfeétly attended to and fuper-
intended.

A late writer on “ Landed Property”’ has, however, well-
remarked, that the particular requifites of a farm-ftead are
as various a3 the intentions of farms. A fheep-farm; a
grazing-farm ; a hay-farm; a dairy-farm, and a farm under
mixed cultivation, may require different fituations and dif-
ferent arrangements of yards and buildings. On a farm of
the laft fpecies, which may be confidered as the ordipary
farm of this kingdom, the principal requilites are conceived
to be fhelter, water, an area or fite fufficiently flat for yards
and buildings, with meadow land below it, to receive the
wathings of the yards, as well as found pafture grounds
above it for a grafs yard and paddocks ; with private roads,
nearly on a level, to the principal arable lands; and with
fuitable out-lets to the neareit markets. Where the firft of
thefe is wanting in the defired Gtuation, it may in time be
‘fupplied by plantations and mound fences. And where
there is not a natural fupply of water, a well, water.cellar,
er artificial rill may furnifh it. And grafs lands are eafily
produced in almoft any fituation ; and by the help of en-
riching water, or by manure and patturage may in moft be
rendered perennial.

From what has been advanced it is conceived evident
‘that no general plan can prevail, even on what may be
emphatically called an Engli/h farm, compofed of arable
‘meadow, paiture, and wood lands. ‘The plan of the farm-
ftead mutt ever be moulded to the main obje& of the farm,
whether it be corn, the dairy, rearing cattle, fattening cattle
or fheep; as well as to its fize; for although the fame
‘or nearly the fame fpecies of conveniences are required on a
{mallas ona large farm of the fame intention, the number
may be lefs ; and the arrangement be made on a more fruzal
plan. But in this, as in every other matter of arrangement,
the firft thing to be done is to afcertain the particulars to
be arranged, which for a farm of the mixed kind or under
“mixed hufbandry may be thus enumerated ; rift, a fet of farm
buildings adapted to the intended plan of management, as a
dwelling-houle, barns, flables, cattle fheds, cart fhed, &c.;
zdly,a Pe eR common to the buildings, and contain-
ing a receptacle tor {tall manure, whether arifing from ftables,
cattle-fheds, hog-fties, or other offices, together with feparate
‘folds or ftraw yards, furnifhed with appropriate fheds for
particular ftock, in places where {uch are required ; 3dly, a
refervoir or catch-pool, fituated on the lower fide of the
‘buildings and yards, to receive their wafhings, and colleét
them in a body, for the purpofe of irrigating the lands
below them ; 4thly, a corn yard, convenient to the barns;
and a hay yard, contiguous to the cow or fattening fheds ;
‘gthly, a garden, and fruit ground near the hovfe ; 6thly, a
{pacious grafs yard or green embracing the whole, or the
principal part of the conveniences ; as an occafional recepta-
tle of ftock of every kind; as 4 common patture for fwine,
and a range for poultry ; as a fecurity to the fields from
ftock, in ftraying out of the inner yards, and as an anti-field,
er lobby, out of which the home-grounds and drift-ways may
‘be conveniently entered, for different purpofes.

With regard to the diftribution and arrangement of thefe
objects, in order to make it with good effe@, sreat caution,
fudy, and patience are required ; that the moft may be made
of given circumftances. An accurate delineation: of the

4

fite which is fixed on requires to be drawn out on a feale;
the planner ftudying the fubje& alternately upon the paper
and on the ground to be laid out; continuing to fketch and
correét his plan, until he has not a doubt left upon his mind ;
and then to mark out the whole upon the ground, in a
confpicuous and permanent manner ; before the foundation
of any particular building be attempted to be laid. It may
be ealily conceived by a perfon who has not turned his
attention to this fubje&, that there muft be fome fimple,
obvious, and fixed plan to proceed upon. But feeing the
endlefs variety in the mere dwelling places of men, it is
not to be wondered at, if a ftill greater variety of plans
fhould take place where fo many appurtenances are required ;
and thefe on fites fo infinitely various: nor that men’s
opinions and pratices fhould differ fo much on the fubje&,
that on a given fite no two praétical men, it is more than
probable, would make the fame arrangement. ‘There are,
however, certain principles which no artiit ought to lofe
fight of in laying out buildings and conveniences of this
defeription, The barns, the ftables, and the granary,
fhould be under the eye, fhould be readily feen from the
dwelling houfe. And the prevailing idea at prefent is,
that the feveral buildings fhould form a regular figure, and
inclofe an area or farm-yard; eitheras a fold for loofe cattle,
or where the {talling of animals is practifed, as a receptacle for
dung ; and the moft prevalent figure is the fquare. But
this form Mr. Marthall fuppofes more defeétive than the
oval or circle, the angles being too fharp, and the corners
too deep. Befides, the road-way, neceflary to be carried
round a farm-yard, in order to have a free and ealy paflage
between the different buildings, is inconveniently lengthened,
or made at greater expence. The view of the whole yard
and buildings, from the houfe on one fide of it, is likewife
more confined in fome refpeés.

The able author of the work on “ Landed Pro-
perty” had formerly, he remarks, fuggefted the plan of a
polygon, or many-fided figure, oran irregular femi-o@agon,
with the dwelling houfe and the ftables on the largeit fide,
having ranges ofeattle-ftalls oppofite. But he has fince formed
one on the complete oftagon, the dwelling-houfe being on
one fide, and the entrance, gateway, and granary oppolite,
the remaining fix fides being occupied by itables and cattle-
fheds, with a broad.way dipping gently from the buildings,
and furrounding a wide, fhallow dung-difh, which take up
the reft of the area of the yard. This is offered as a hint
to thofe engaged in laying out and directing buildings of this
fort, which they may adapt to the particular nature of the
fite or fituation of fuch as they are about to ereét. But it
is fuppofed not effentially neceflary to follow any particular
form or figure. The fides may have a greater or fhorter
length, according to the nature of the fite, and the inten-
tion of the builder. The fite fhould, if poflible, be nearly,
but not quite level ; the principal yard being formed acrofs
the defcent ; having the barn on the higher, and the ftables
on the lower fides ; as in this way the barn, ftack-yard,
flraw-yards, cow-italls, and dwelling-houfe will have a dry
fituation ; while the road that leads into the yard, and to
the carriage-fheds, will be on the level ground, which is the
mott {uitable and proper.

In regard to the dwelling-houfe, the fituation which is the
moft advantageous mutt in fome meafure be direfted by the
extent or fize of the farm. Where it.is fmall, for the pur-
pofe of the labouring farmer, it may be placed at the north
end of the yard, facing into it, and be approached through
it. Asthe kitchen is the chief room in which he refides
when at home, and in which his wife performs moft of her
domeftic bufinefs, the yard, the buildings, and the Rock

in

FA

in the yard, will be conftantly under the eye. But in an
exteniive farm, where a yard-man is kept to attend the
flock in winter, aud where the houfe-work is moitly done
in the back-kitchen and dairy-room in the fummer, and
when the farmer is defivous of entertaining his friends with
2 more agreeable pro{pect than a farm-yard, the houfe may
occupy the fouth end of it, facing into the garden, and
have a feparate approach in front. It is, however, fug-
gefted, that the firlt mode of dittribution gives a defirable
fhelter to the yard, while the latter leaves it expofed to the
north winds, which blow through the entrance and open
earriage-fheds. In either cafe, it is fereened from the ealt
winds by the barn and cattle-fheds. It is alfo of advantage
to have the houfe fronting to the fouth, in order to give
coolnefs to the dairy buildings. But fince the introduction
of threfhing machines, in the place of threfhing floors, the
barn is become quite different, requiring another form, ar-
rangement, and fituation. One end of it fhould, in thefe
cafes, be placed towards the farm-yard, inftead of the fide,
which is proper in the contrary circumftances, the other
end being towards the itack-yard, to which it fhould
be conneéied, with a rail-way for removing the corn ugon
to it, having a lean-to-fhed and ftraw-yard on the fides
where they may be requifite. ‘Thefe barns fhould be large
enough to contain a good quantity of grain at a time, for
threfhing out in wet weather, when little elfe can be done,
See Barn, Farm Yard, and Turesuine Aachine.

It is further fuggefted, that the {mall angular room-
fteads between the ranges of fheds may be formed into con-
venient places for containing fodder, roots, &c. and for the
keeping of calves, &c. &c. There fhould likewife be a
receptacle for the ftall manure, which fhould be properly
formed and connected with the {lalls by proper drains, and
a refervoir for the reception of the yard liquor, where it
cannot be turned upon the land below, which in many
cafes is of but little confequence to its improvement.

But the arrangement and coune@tion of buildings of this
fort, as relating to different defcriptions of farms, may proba-
bly ke better and more readily underftood by an examination
of the annexed plates.

In Plate X11. (Farm) on Agriculture, is given a full re-
prefentation of the neeeflary farm buildings for carrying on
grafs and dairy hufbandry ona middling feale. At jig. 1. is
fhewn the plau and elevation of a houfe where the grafs, hay,
or other fimilar fyftem of farming is purfued. Fig. 2. is the
ground plan of the fame; and jig. 3. difplays the ar-
rangement or diftribution of the feveral out-buildings or
offices. 4

The expence of completing a fet of farm buildings on
this plan would, at prefent, where materials are pretty
much at hand, be from four to five hundred pounds.

At fg. 4. in the fame plate, are exhibited the plan and
elevation of a houfe of this nature, where the chief fyftem
purfued is dairying :. fig. 5. explains the ground plan; and
at fig. 6. the diftribution of diferent neceflary offices is
difplayed. —.

On this plan, as there are fewer out-buildings than in
the former cafe, a fet of proper farm-offices, with the
heule, would probably coft from three to four hundred
pounds.

It mutt, however, be remarked, that the convenience
or diftance’of materials, muft render the difference of ex-
pence inthe buildings very confiderable in both thefe cafes.

Andin Plate XLV. (Farm) on Agriculture, ave fhewn

: pe and elevations of farm-buildings, where the fy{tem of
iufbandry is of the corn, or of the mixed kind, and. the
farms of a middling extent,

4

RM.

Fig. 1. is the plan and elevation of the ‘houfe ;' fig: 2.
the ground-plan of the fame ; and fg. 3. the diftribution of
the various out-buildings.

This plan may, in mott cafes, be finifaed for the fum of
from fix to feven hundred pounds.

At fig. 4. are the plan and elevation of a farm-houfe and
buildings of the latter kind.

Fig. 4. is the elevation of the houfe; fg. 5. the
ground plan ; and fig. 6. affords.a view of the fituation and
arrangement of the feveral neceflary offices.

If finifhed on this plan, the expence would be fron
feven to eight hundred pounds.

The materials, in conftruGting buildings of this nature,
fhould always be of the beft kind, as durability is a prin-
cipal object. See Taam Yard.

Farm Houfe, is that fort of building which is attached
to, and con{tructed for, the purpofe of carrying on the dif-
ferent operations, and general bulinefs of a farm. It fhould
be fo contrived as that the neceflary work may be performed
with the greateft eafe and convenience. The writer of a
paper in the firltvolume of * Agricultural Communications
to the Board,’’ has fuggeited, that howfes of this fort fhould
not only contain every conyeniency for a family, but have a
degree of neatnefs and uniformity, which, if properly ma-
naged, will coft no more than a dull, irregular building. It
was long fince remarked by Columella, that ‘a farm houfe
fhould be fomewhat elegant, to give pieafure to its poffeffor,
and to allure the wife to take delight init. It fhould be
built on ‘the moft healthy {pot of the farm, in a temperate
air, fuch as the middle of a hill commonly enjoys, where
it is neither ftifling in the fummer, nor expoted to the rage
of winds and ftorms in the winter.’”” At prefent other
circumitances moitly regulate its fituation, See Farm
Buildings. r

The fize of a farm-houle fhould be regulated by that of
the farm, according to a late writer, although not fo ftriQly
fo as the other buildings; a parlour and kitchen, with
dairy, clofets, end other conveniences below flairs, and the
upper ftory divided into bed-chambers, are probably fuf-
ficient accommodation for any farmer’s family. Thefe may
be conftruéted or enlarged according to circumilances, or
to'the inclination of the proprietor; but it is better to give
a little more room than necefiary, than not to give enough.
None of the buildings about a farm, he fays, admit a greater
latitude of econftru€tion than the farm-houfe ; for fometimes
a very {mall houfe may do for a very large farm: at other
times it would require a pretty large houfe in a {mall farm,
according to the fize of the farmer’s family, and, perhaps,
to the fituation in life he has been accuftomed to; tor there
are many very refpeétable and worthy farmers whofe man-
ners and converfation entitle them to the beft accommoda-
tion ; and it fometimes happens that a landlord will con-
fider this, and build a eee for the. farmer inflead of the
farm. There is fomething, he remarks, fo pleafing in the
appearance of neatnefs and cleanlinefs about a dwelling-
‘houfe,, that even a itranger, tranfiently pafling by, cannot
help being pre-poffeffed with a favourable opinion of thofs
within. He paflis along with the idea fixed in his mind of
profperity and happineds prefiding within the walls. How
different, fays he, the fenfation felt on viewing a contrary
fcene; a houfe difmal and dirty, the doors and walls fur-
rounded and befpattered with filth of all denominations, and
fragments of broken difhes, and dirty dairy uteniils {cat-
tered in all directions; a fcene which mutt imprefs oa the
mind the idea of mifery and miimanagement, and a con-
tempt for thofe flatterns who can fufler fuch beaflinefs;
for ip fuch cafes it is generally the female part of the

U2 family

FARM.

family who has the merit or demerit of domeftic appearances.
And how eafy a matter_is it to conttitute the difference; a
little care and attention isthe whole fecret. It adds greatly,
the writer thinks, to the beauty and neatnefs of a dwelling-
houfe, to have a little plot of garden-ground or fhrubbery
before it : this not only contributes to keep every thing neat
and clean in front, but is often eafier managed than a garden
behind. After feeling the pleafure and fatisfaction of keep-
ing this plot in good order, every weed that appears vifible
from the windows will be confidered as a: nuifance, and
pulled up accordingly. So great an antipathy to weeds may
thus be raifed in the farmer’s breaft, that his efforts for
their deftruétion may even be extended to the fields ; and
by thefe fimple means a flovenly farmer may, he conceives,
be fo completely reformed, as not to fuffer a weed to be feen
on his farm.

It is ftated that large windows add greatly to the cheer-
fulnefs of afarm-houfe ; the fafhes being placed as near the
outfide of the wall as poffible. ‘The reverfe of this is, he
fays, a glaring deformity in moft houfes in the northern
parts of the kingdom. ‘There the windows are fo f{mall,
and the fathes placed fo deep in the walls, that it gives the
moft difagreeable gloominefs to the whole building. - This
is faid to be done with an idea of preferving the fafhes from
the weather, a moft egregious miftake. ‘The fafhes are,
perhaps, mare liable to injury by being deep in the walls,
than by being placed near the outfide, for they receive full
as much wet, and are not fo foon dried again.

It is, the writer fays, a common practice, and, with
many, a general rule, to build the farm-houfe adjoining to
the offices. Where the fituation will not admit of a better
arrangement, or ina {mall farm, to fave a few roods of
building, this may be done ; but in general it is better to
build the dwelling-houfe, and any other buildings with
chimnies in them, a little way detached from the mics of-
fices, not only on account of the danger arifing from fire,
but of the difagreeablenefs (perhaps unwholefomenefs) of
living in a dung-hill, or in the midit of cattle and fwine.
If, fays he, a farm-houfe, for the fake of uniformity, is
to be built adjoining the farm-yard, there fhould bea con-
fiderable length of wall at each end of it to unite it to the
offices. But it is certainly better to make the houfe at a lit-
tle diftance from the wall of the yard; and whether that dif-
tance is ten feet, or fifty feet, there can be little or no dif-
ference with refpeét to convenience. At the fame time
it is by no means advifeable that the farm-houfe fhould much
exceed fifty or fixty yards from the offices, as there might
unqueltionably fome inconvenience arile if beyond that dif-
tance. In the annexed plans of farm-houfes four things
are particnlarly attended to in their conftruGtion, fimplicity,
uniformity, convenience, and cheapnefs. In delineating
fuch buildings, therefore, there is not, the writer thinks,
that latitude given for a difplay of thofe archite€tural orna-
ments, which ina higher {phere of buildings are fo pleafing
to the eye, and fo truly beautiful when di/pofed by the hand
of a fkilful archite&. Such ornaments are unneceffary in
farm buildings, and are therefore entirely omitted. At the
fame time a [tri attention to uniformity is particularly ob-
ferved ; and although the windows are, in general, made
fomething. wider in proportion to their height than is per-
mitted by the rules of archite&ture, in order to anfwer the
purpofe of giving as much light as poffibie, (the chief ufe of
windows, ) it is, however, hoped, that no very great or of-
fenfive deviations are made from thefe rules, even in that
cafe. ‘The accommodations are calculated to be as conve-
nient as poffible in the family way; and by making the
ground-floors at leaft fixteen inches, or two fteps, above the

level of the ground, and taking proper care to lay thofe
floors, a great deal of that dampnefs, and confequently un-
wholefomenefs, fo often complained of, will, he conceives;
be guarded againft and prevented.

Many people, the writer fays, prefer. gable-ends, as in
Jig. 4 Plate XV.(Farm) on Agriculture. For his own part
he is, however, of opinion, that hip-roofs, and the vents with-
in the buildings, are generally preferable. ‘The hip-roof re-
quires no more materials; and the gable-ends ‘not only oc«
cafion more expence of building, but an unneceflary addition
of weight upon the end walls. Vents built within-fide the
houfe are lefs liable to fmoke than when in an outlide wall;
befides, they contribute generally to keep the houfe warm,
for they aét as flues, and diffufe their heat, in fome degree,
all over the building. It mult be obferved, that the prin-
cipal walls are all delineated, of the thicknefs of two feet,
that being confidered as the beit thicknefs for rough ftone
walls. Where the ftones are good, and of a proper form
for building, or where bricks are ufed, the walls may, no
doubt, be thinner; but, when too thin, the heat of the
fun in fummer, and the coldnefs of the external air in win-
ter, have fo difagreeable an etfeét, by penetrating through,
that it is beft to err on the fafe fide, and to make them of a
good thicknefs. This is one of the greatett inconveniences,
he obferves, of brick buildings ; for in general brick walls
are fo thin, that thefe effects are moit fenfibly felt both in
the fummer and winter feafons. At

And by making the different apartments and other di-
vifions and conveniences no larger than neceflary, the leaft
poflible expence will, the writer fays, be incurred. The
dimenfions of thefe fheuld be proportioned according to
the fum intended to be laid out. Very frequently a good
plan is thrown afide merely on account of the expence of
putting it in execution ; whereas, it fhould be confidered,
that, by eontracting the rooms, and the building in general,
the fame plan may be executed accordingly, whatever
expence may be determined on. The plans given may
therefore be varied in fize, till of fuch dimenfions as will
coft no more than the fum allotted for that purpofe. For
thefe reafons, eftimates of buildings, in a general view, are,
the writer conceives, really of lefs importance than mott
people imagine, there being hardly two counties in the
kingdom where the fame plan can be executed at the fame
expence. Even in the fame county, and in the fame parifh,
the expence will often vary confiderably, according to circum-
ftances. The diltance frony materials, the quality and price
of thofe materials, the goodnefs or badneis of the roads,
the nature of the foil to be built on, and, confequently, the
expence of the foundations, the price of labour, the feafon
of the year, and even the ftate of the weather, all tend to
make a difference in the expence of building. It is, there-
fore, hardly poflible to make a correct eftimate, unlefs the {pot
intended for ere€iing the building is known and examined ;
and an incorrect eitimate is much better tobe omitted. Some
people, the writer remarks, will pretend to make an eftimate
without even inquiring into thofe circumftances which
mutt regulate the expence, knowing that when the fum they
mention is expended, their employer will not ttop the build.
ing on that account. It is beft, therefore, to be cautious in
dealing with fome people, unlefs they will contraé for the
fum eftimated. :

But in fome parts of the country, it is obferved, a houfe
built on the plan and of the dimenfions {hewn at fig. r. in
Plate XV. (Farm) on Agriculture, may be completed for
about 7o/. or 80/.: while in other parts it may colt r5o0/. or
more; confequently, it would tend only to miflead, by {tating
either the one or the other as an eftimate of fuch a building.

At

oe | dee

| YA
At Ay. 5. inthe fame plate, is the plan of a farm-houle alfo

ona larger feale. Yet tocommence a building, without know-
ing previoufly the expence it will coft, fhould at all-events be
avoided, as being almoit a-certain opening for impofition.
The beft way, therefore, to afcertain this, is to choofe a
plan: if the propofed building is not of that extent or im-
portaice to require the aid of an architect, employ any per-
fon converfant in thofe matters, whofe fidelity can be relied
on, to examine the-ground, and to confult with different
tradeimen concerning the expence at which they would un-
dertake to execute their re{pective parts; a pretty correc
eftimate may, the writer: fays, thus be obtained. Or the
plan may be laid before different mtelligent tradefmen, and
their eftimates required, and afterwards examined into, not
only as to the charge made, but the manner of executing
the work; tor it is not always the loweft eftimate that is to
be preferred. If in either cafe the fum fhould amount to
more than is propofed to be jaid out, the dimenfions of the
plan, and the manner of finifhing fome of the parts, may
be altered, till it is found that it may be executed for about
the fum propofed by the perfon who intends to build.

Andit has beenremarked by the author of “* Modern Agri-
culture,” that, ia regard to the fhare of expence and trouble
which proprietors aud tenants in general ought to be fub-
jeGed to, in ereéting farm-houfes, all leafes fhould contain
a claufe, by which the proprietors become bound to be at
the expence of materials and workmanthip, to the extent of
a {tipulated-fum, rather above than below two years’ rent.
The tenants fhould not only undertake the carriage of mate-
rials, without making any charge for fo doing, but alfo
become bound to keep the houfes in good order, and to
relinguifh them equal in value at the expiration of the leafe,
or to pay any deficiency, as the fame may be determined
by proper tradefmen, mutually chofen for the purpofe.

‘It is fuggefted that it has been a common practice in fome
parts of Scotland, (which ought to be introduced every
where, )-to bind tenants to infure their houfes from any
damage by fire. This claufe in leafes is attended with
another good confequence, the tenants generally infuring
their ftock and houfe-furniture at the fame time ; fo that
when any accident happens, they are faved from the ruin
which otherwife mutt neceflarily enfue.

- But the farmer’s capital, it will readily be acknowledged,
ought to be employed in flocking and improving the farm,
rather than in ere€ting howfes; therefore, it is certainly bad
policy in the landlord to divert that capital from thofe
channels in which it ought to flow freely, and without in-
terruption. On the other hand, the circumitance of the
tenant being obliged to maintain the houfes in good condi-
tion during his leafe, and to leave them of equal value at his
removal, would induce him to pay pwoper attention that
the houfes be fub{tantially built, and that every neceflary
repair be completed in proper time, and in the moilt
effeGual manner,- When repairs only are necefary on the
entry, they ought to be promoted at the mutual expence
of the parties. “he proprietor fhould advance the requifite
fum for materials and workmanfhip, and the tenant perform
all the carriages. A clanfe fhould alfo be introduced into
the leafe, by which the landlord may have a right to exe-
cute repairs, provided they are deemed requilite by proper
tradefmen, fent to infpeét the houfes, intimation’ thereof
being made a reafonable time before to the other party.
This, it is thought, would prevent that heavy load of ex-
pence which proprietors are frequently fubjected to when
tenants remove, and a mutual intereft in the prefervation of
the buildings would be formed between the proprietor and
tenant. he tenant, although lable to, pay for frequent

‘ x

R M.

partial repaits, would avoid the expenditure of large fums ;
and, if bound to leave the houfes equal in value to what
they were when he entered, as he cet tainly ought to be, the
landlord would feldom be put to the expence of large fums
wh the ere€tion of new buildings of this nature.

The elevation, ground, and chamber plans of a farm-
houfe upon a fmall feale, calculated for a farmer where he
lives with his fervants, are reprefented at figs. 1, 2, and 3,
ia the plate mentioned above. It may be divided on the
ground floor, as in fig. 2, where a is the entry; J, the
kitchen which fhould have an oven at 4, when requifite ;
c, afmall apartment off the kitchen, in which a bed may be
placed, or it may ferve the purpofe of a ftore-room, &c. ;
d, the farmer’s private room, or parlour ; ¢, the dairy, or it
may be at c, if thought preferable; f, the hen-houfe, or
which may ferve for keeping or laying up fmall tools, fuch
as fpades, fhovels, rakes, mattocks, &c.

And at gg, in fig. 3, is the chamber floor, which is
only divided into two bed rooms in the plan, but may be
further divided where neceflary ; 4, is a pigeon-houfe over
the neceffary. The dimenfions are marked on the plan, but
may be varied to fuit particular circumftances and fitua-
tions.

The reprefentation of the elevation, and two ground -
plaus of a farm houfe on a larger feale, which by fuitable
modification may be proper for a farm of any extent, is
given at figs. 4, 5, and 6, in the fame plate. In the
plan 5, it is divided into a, the principal entry ; 2, the par-
lour ; ¢, the family bed room ; d, the kitchen; ¢, the dairy ;
Jf; the pantry and cellar; the three latter being attached to
the back part of the houfe by a continuation of the fame
roof downwards. By only permitting the cielings to be
feven and an half or eight feet in light, fome {mall bed-
rooms. may be provided above them, having a few fteps
down from the floor of the front rooms, or a few fteps up
from the firft landing place. '

In many places farm-houfes are conftrn&ed on this plan.
And the earl of Winchelfea, at Burleigh, has one ereéted
in nearly a fimilar method; but in it the back-door of the
kitchen enters into a brew-houfe and wath-houfe ; the fire
place and copper being behind the kitchen vent. : Beyond
this brew-houfe is a place for holding fire wood, &ce.; in
the back wall of which are openings to feed the fwine at.
In the kitchen is an oven; and below the grate an exe
cellent contrivance for baking occafionally, but chiefly em-
ployed for the purpofe of keeping the fervants’ meat warm.
It confilts of a plate of caft iron, with a door fimilar'to that
of an oven. ;

The up-ftairs part is divided in the front into two good
rooms, and into.two fmall ones on the back part, but may
be-ealily further fub-divided where neceflary.

-And at fig. 6. is fhewn another mode of dividing the
ground floor of the elevation fg. 4, in which a is the
parlour; 4, the kitchen ; c, the clofet ; d, the dairy ; «, the
pantry; f, the coal-houfe; g, the poultry-houfe; 4, the
pig ftye, which has an opening to the kitchen ; i, the back
entry. The chamber-floor may be divided likewife, where
it is requifite, into two good bed rooms, and a light clofet
capable of holding a bed, or in any other way that may be
thought more convenient. It would be ealy to introduce
a variety of other elevations and plans for conftra@ing farm-
houfes upon, with perhaps other conveniences than thefe,
but in detached fituations from the houfes: thefe examples
may; however, be fufficient for affording hints for erecting
them fo as to fuit farms of all extents and deferiptions.

Farm Lands, ia Agriculture, fuch lands as are in the
occupation of tenants, or held in the flate of farms.

Farme

Vanm-Jfanager, a perfon who has the overlooking and
directing of the bufinefs of a farm: the fame as bailiff, and
land tleward. See Barrire and Lanp Srewarp.

‘The proper overlooking and managing of a-farm 1s a
butinefs of much greater difficulty and importance than is
generally fuppofed. It will demand the whcle attention and
time of the perfon who engages in it; and muff, in fact,
conftitute his principal amufemert, as where he is apt to be
drawn off by other purfuits, it feldom goes on well. In
order to proceed in it with eafe and ‘convenience, it is
proper that he fhould keep a conf{tant look out to the bu-
finefs which 1s to be performed, as unlefs this be well at-
tended to, he will be frequently liable to error and miltake ;
and much will often be lett undone which ought to have
beenexecuted. It is effential that he look forward to the
bulinefs of cropping for feveral years, to that of team la-
bour for fome months, and to hand labour for a few weeks,
as the feafon of the year may direét. In this he will be
greatly affitted by the keeping of a proper lit of the feve-
ral fields of the farm, with the crops they have feverally pro-
duced for different years palit, and the manurings which
they have each had.

From this lift, the arrangement of crops which are to be
cultivated the enfuing year fhould annually be made out in
the autumn, clafling the fields according to the purpofes
for which they are defigned ; as by this means the quanti-
ty of each fort of crop willbe fhewn, as well as the extent
of paiture ; confequently the amount and ftrength of team,
and other labour, be fully pointed out, in order to be duly
provided for; the different crops be put m im proper time ;
and the fummer tock be apportioned with exaétnefs.

In the fame, or other lilt, memoranda fhould likewife be
kept of the works to bedone directly and in fucceflion, in
every department of the bufinefs, fo that every thing may
proceed in the moft regular and proper manner, and nothing
be overlooked.

In conducting the execution of the work, whatever the
nature of it may be, caution and firmneis are highly requi-
fate, as well as an invariable attention, never to at-
tempt too much, or to begin any fort of undertaking
in the way of improvement, without the greateft probability
of finifhing it in due time.

Befides the above, there ere feveral other points in which
the good management and correct conduct of this fort of
farm-fervant is fhewn, as:

In keeping the farm-yards and buildings in neat or-
der, and perfect repair, as well as free from all forts ef
obitructions to the bufinefs which is going on in
them.

In taking care of the va ious private roads of the farm.

Tu preferving the fences in geueral good repair, and tak-
ing proper care of the young hedges, as well as of the
timber raifed in them.

In feeing that the gates faften in a proper manner, and
prevent the ftraying ot loofe tlocke

In taking care that drains and water courfes are kept pro-
perly open, for the effe€tual difcharge of fuperfluous
water.

During. the fummer feafon the watering places of live
ftock fhould be well attended to; as well as the itate of
the pattures, and tue proper fhifting of the pafturing
flock

The weeds in the grafs' lands, as well as in the tillage
grounds, fhould allo be carefully regarded, to fee that not a
thiftle blows, or any other fort of weed ripens its feed,
either in the open parts, or the borders or banks of
them,

In the winter feafon live flock becomes the chief objeé&
of the mavager’s attention, not only to take care that they
are properly fupplied with fuitable fodder and water ; but
that they have fufficient fhelter and convenient refling
places.

And the watering of grafs lands is another matter which
deferves particular regard from the farm manager at this
period of the year. It is, however, a fort of work which
requires nice attention in its performance.

There are iikewife various other points of farm manage-
ment which may be equally deferving of regard by the per-
fon employed in direéting the bufinefs of a farm, though
of much lefs importance than thofe which have been no-
ticed.

While the work of the farm is carrying on in the fields,
it is the province of the manager to be frequently with the
work people, to fee that his directions are properly attend-
edto, the different operations executed in a proper manner,
aid the neceflary difpatch obferved in performing them.
He mutt be frequently pafling from one fet of work people
to another, keeping a {teady eye upon the various kinds of,
work which are going on, and direéting fuch additional aid
as may feem_ requilite in particular cafes, efpecially where,
team labour is performing, in order that the whole bulinefs.
may be conduéted in the mofl profitable way.

In directing the work of teams, an even fteady pace’
fhould be inculcated, bothin the view of the animals, and
the labour which they are to perform, as hurrying them ne-
ver anlwers any good purpofe. On particular oceafions it
may be requilite tohave recourfe to as much expedition as
poffible, in which cafes the example of the manager, and
the holding out of fuitable rewards, where neceflary, may
be the moft proper incentives to exertion. Under all cir-
cumi{tances, lazinefs and trifling fhould conftantly be held
in the utmoit deteitation and contempt by the director of a
farm, as being equally fraudulent with that of little pilfering
And their {trong reprobation has not unfrequently an ufetul
effect on the farm labourer,

The proper regulating and dire&ting of farm fervants, and |
thofe work-people who are employed, form an extremely
difficult part of the manager’s duty. The beft method is
probably that of encouraging fuch as are good by every,
proper means, and never fuffering bad ones to continue, It
is always the beft policy to pay good wages, and have the
beft workmen that the fituation affords, ‘as thefe are often
fixpence or a fhilling a day better than ordinary ones, though
no diftinétion has been made by cuftom in refpect to the .
prices in thefe cafes. It is of great advantage for the ma-
nager of afarm to keep a proper diftance between himlelf
and the work-people under him, without deftroying that ,
freedom of opinion, concerning the works carrying on,
which is, in fome inftances, effential to their proper perform~-
ance. In the directing of work-people, the rule with him
fhould be, in no cafe, to find fault, without occation, or to .

_commend without reafon ; as good workmen cannot Brook

the former, or bad ones be mended by the latter. Real
faults fhould not, however, be overlooked, but the work-
men be told of them in a proper way, according to theirnae .
ture; and where the cafe demands it, let fuch ftrong lan- .
guage be made ufe of as may aroufe them to due exertion.
A great deal, however, depends upon the orders of the ma- ,
nager being conveyed to the workmen ina proper way 3 as
where they are given in a loofe, incorreét manner, it is not
to be fuppofed that they can be perfe&tly executed. It is
difficult to explain farm-works in words, fo as to be fully
comprehended by workmen, and where it is done by the |

_ medium of another perfon, inaccuracy is certain, It confe-

quently

FARM.

quently becomes effential for the manager to give his orders
perfonally, and when it can be done, “even upon the fpot,
to fuch workmen as are to execute them, as he can there
fully explain himfelf to them, and where neceflary, affitt
them in fetting out the works. The able manager, there-
fore, conitantly attends in perfon, in beginning new works,
and where they are out of the common line of hufbandry,
remains with the workmen directing them, and returns oc-
cafionally to them, until be finds them completely in their
work, as, without fuch attention, much time and labour
would often be thrown away. ‘

Thefe, and various other reafons, render it neceffary that
a farm manager fhould be perfectly converfant with every
fort of agricultural bufinefs and operation, as well as with
the nature and management of ail kinds of tools and
machinery, as, where this is not the cafe, the work of the
farm can never be properly directed, When he is deficient
he mult of courfe endeavour to perfect himfelf as {peedily
as poflible by iaceffant practice. Without fome degree of
perfection in this way he cannot be able either to detect
or correct indifferent wark-mén, or know when to be fatis-
fied with fuch as are good, as they will not bear to be found
fault with improperly. It is only by fuch means that he can
be enabled to difcera when the bufinefs of the farm is
executed in a proper manner.

In his dealings, and general intercourfe with other perfons,
the farm manager fhould be fcrupuloufly attentive to
punétuality and the keeping of clear accounts, as upon
thefe his character willin a great meafure depend.

Where the tranfmiffion of the accounts of a farm are
required at ftated periods for the ufe of the proprietor, the
following method may be adopted.

Firlt, A weekly account of labour, with a journal of the
works which are going on, each day, and fhort notices of
~ fuch tranfactions and occurrences as may have taken place
during the above period, and are of ufe to be known.

. A proper form for this purpofe is neceffary to be provided,
_ which confifts of eight columns, ruled in a perpendicular
manner- on a large fheet of paper. The firft for containing
the names of the teams and work-men, and the lait fora
money column.

The fix intervening columns are for receiving the different
works of the fix days of the week.

Acrofs thefe columns are drawn horizontal lines, the
uppermott being wide, to receive the works of the feveral
teams, whether of oxen or horfes: the reft, of ordinary
fize, for thofe of each fervant or workman ; their feveral
employments, each day, being entered on the lines which
lead from their refpective names; and the day’s wages of
labourers in the money column, at their terminations.

Secondly, A monthly account of receipts and difburfe-
ments; including the weekly payments for labour; and
fhewing the balance of money in hand at the end of each
month.

Thirdly, An annual account current, confifting of the

feveral totals of the twelve monthly accounts ; including:

the manager’s falary ; which fhews the {late of the account
at the end of the year.

Fourthly, A granary account, fhewing the feveral quan-
tities of grain of different kinds threfhed out, with the
e{pofal or expenditure of every part or parcel-of the fame.
And a fiinilar account of every other fort of marketable

roduce.
*. Laftly, An inventory account, taken at the clofe of each
year by perfons appointed forthe purpole by the proprietor ;
containing every thing of value on the farm, as live-ftock,
crops, manure, implements, Kc. And a general report of

the ftate and condition of the farm, as well as a lift of out.
ftanding debts and monies due on the day of fettlement.

By ftriking the balance of the whole, the profit or lofs
of the farm will be fatisfa@orily fhewn.

Farm Offices, a term frequently applied to the different
out-buildings which become neceffary in the management-
ofa farm. hey are of very different defcriptio:s aceord=
ing to the nature of the management which is to be carried
on; andit isa very effential point, as has been feen already,
that they be diftributed in a proper and convenient
manner for the fort of bufinefs which is to be performed in
them; as by fuch means much time and labour may be
faved to the farmer in the preferving of his produce, as
well as in the foddering aud taking care of his live-itock.
See Farm-Buildings and Yarm-Yards.

Farm-Servant, is that fort of fervant which is eneaged
in the performance of fome part of the neceflary bufinefs
ofafarm. Thefe fervants are of various deferiptions, as
bailiffs, ploughmen, yard men, &c. There ave likewife cow-
men, dairy-maids, &c.

In the hiring, or engaging of all forts of fervants for the
purpofe of farming, great care and circum[peétion are necef-
fary to afcertain that they are fully competent to the execu-
tion of the fort of work which they wih to undertake, as,
where this is not the cafe, much injury may arife to the
farmer from their improper condu& or example. And as
much of the improvement of agriculture mutt neceffarily de-
pend upon them, they fhould be kept in a regular manner,
and with a proper degree of fubordination, in order that
they may be ready to perform whatever is properly required
of them by the matter or his bailiff. Without this the
bufinefs of a farm cannot go on with propriety, or in a bene-
ficial manner to the propnetor. The number should like-
wife be well-proportioned to the nature and extent of the
farm, as well as the work to be performed, as the lofs is
confiderable where this is not the cafe.

By the author of the «© New Farmer’s Calendar,”? it has
been noticed that Old Michaelmas is the ufual time for
hiring farm fervants throughout the country ; but he ac-
knowledges himfelf entirely of Mr. Marfhall’s opinion, that
it is one-of thofe cuftoms which ought by all means to be
changed for a better. Michaelmas brings with it a great
preffure of bufinefs of every defcription ; and te be looking
after fervants at that time, or even to admit new ones, en-
tirely unacquainted with your peculiar methods and m&nage-
ment, is extremely inconvenient. Old Chriitmas, as a fea-
fon of more leifure, would furely, he fays, be a more proper
period for this affair. As to farming-fervants, the beit
counfel he is able to give is, for an employer to receive no
known thief or idler, to give the greatett poflible encourage-
ment, to overlook trifles, and to truft implicitly to no man’s
honefty or induftry, but to put both to the fevereit teit 5
fo fhall he have a choice of the beft labourers in the coun-
try, and enjoy the profitable reputation of the belt matter.
Ina fmall concern a farmer may himfelf fuperintend his
whole bufinefs ; but a gentleman-farmer, or the cultivator of
an extenfive tra, particularly if managed in the more va-
ried ityle of the new hufbandry, will, he contends, require
a bailiff, and over-lookers, in proportion to the extent of the
butinefs. The bailiff of a gentleman who cultivates a hun-
dred acres of land for his convenience or amufement will
have leifure to work himfelf, which is impoflible, or rather
totally out of queftion, with one who has extentive bufire!s
to fuperintend, fince that alone, if he be induitrious, will
take up his whole time, early and late. In very large buli-
nefs, a bailiff will need occafional lookers-on under lem.
AV bailiff ought to havechad fome years experience ef

leat

FARM.

leaft the common methods of hufbandry and gardening, of
the management of all kinds of live ftock, and of buying and
felling ; he fhould be able to keep common accounts; in
fhort, he muft be fomething, either from nature or habit,
above the common labourer. But then he mutt havea bai-
liff over him ; and fuch mutt be the proprietor of the bufi-
nefs, unlefs he rather choofe to mfk the confequence. As
to entrufting thefe upper fervants with buying and fell-
ing-corn and cattle, he would advife no perfon to do it, ex-
cept, indeed, thofe whofe fituation is fo elevated that fuch
engagements might be thought inconvenient and improper:
fill it is no derogatioa from the honour of a prince to be
well-informed of market-prices, and to be able, by infpeétion,
to form a judgment of the worth of cattle. He dwells a
little on this head, he fays, becaufe he has feen too
much: both of the grofs ignorance and iniquitous collufion
of bailifis and managers in bargaining, It is a common
faying, “ Oh! your mafter is a gentleman, he don’t want
to get money, but we mutt live !”” Indeed it is no wonder
that gentlemen fo often farm their own eltates to lofs, con-
fidering the fottifh, ignorant, and knavifh inftruments which
they employ under the name of bailiffs. It 1s recommended
by fome, to-vett a bailiff with full power of difeharging
.the {grvants and labourers ; the propriety of which he is
rather inclined to difpute. Invefted with fuch a- power
there is no check upon his condu&t; whereas, were this
particular made matter of reference to the principal, all
neceflary information on both fides would come out. One
of the firlt qualifications of a bailiff is, the writer fays, to
haye a mind perfeGtly indifferent to all prejudice in favour
of the old fyitem of hufbandry ; and where things are upon
an extenfive or improving-{cale, it ought to be an invariable
maxim to receive no fervant or labourer who will not
politively agree to follow direétions; in default of which, he
ought inflantly to be taken before a jultice of the peace.
He has known feveral initances of a combination among the
ploughmen not.to work without their accuftoned number
of horfes,&c. See Bairirr and Lasourer.

The author of the “ Minutes of Agriculture’’ has, many
years ago, on the moft mature calculation, ftated the an-
nual expence of a man fervant, maintained in the houfe, to
be not lefs than thirty-five pounds, and that of a bey not
lower than twenty-three pounds, fuppofing the yearly wages
of the former to be ten pounds, and thofe of the latter three
pounds. Now, fays he, the expence of a day-labouring
man for the whole year, were he. to work every day, would
not be more than twenty-feven pounds ten fhillings, which
makes a difference of feven pounds ten fhillings, again
Keeping a man in the houfe by the year, and that of hiring
one by. the day. And that of a boy is {till more in propor-
tion, as the expence of a day-labouring boy for a whole
year, allowing him to work every day, is only thirteen
pounds, which makes a difference of ten pounds, or more
than three-fourths of the boy’s day-wages. In thisaccount
no deduétion is made in the daily pay for raimy days ;
confequently, the impropriety of keeping plough-boys 1
the houfe is confidered very obvious ; aud though it may
be convenient to have the carters about the houfe, the coa-
venience is not conceived to be worth the annual fum of
ten pounds feven fhillings. It is, therefore, advifed to put
a woman into a cottage within a {mall diftance of the farm-
yard, totake fuch fervants as lodg-rs, and to keep in the
houfe no more farming fervants than a buitler and a yard-
man. It is abfolutely neceflary to have fomebody about a
farm-yard in cafes of emergency; but the above two are
quite fuficient, as the carters in the adjoining cottage will
be nearly as handy as if they were in the houfe. Such a

meafure can, however, only be loeal, though the hint may
have ageneral tendency. It is probable that the farmer who
keeps ue accounts may imagine he faves money by boarding
his fervantsin the honfe; but if he keep them in the luxus
rious manner in which fervants of this fort in general ex-
pect to be kept, he will be greatly miftaken. The farmer
who fits at the head of his kitchen-table may, indeed, with
out doubt, feed his men much cheaper than a perfon whe
eats in a feparate room; yet the ebfervation is juft, that
one fed by his matter cofts the community as much as two
who provide for themfelves ; for difcharge a grumbler, one
who pretends to be diffatisfied, though in faét only fatiated,
and he wiil return to his bread and cheefe with, perhaps;
equal health and equal happinefs. He dits down to his
matter’s table with a refolution to eat voracioully of the
bet, to do himflf juftice; but at his-own table. eats
{paringly of tue meaneft, to fave his money; felf intereit
being his motive in both cafes.

The rife that has fiuce taken place in the expence of
fervants, in every partof the country, has led to ttill fewer
being kept in the houfes of the farmers, But in this there
is allo confiderable difadvantage; they are lefs obedient ta”
their matters, lefs in need of characters when they change
their fituations, are lefs cheaply kept, confequently raife -
the price of labour, and liable to the lofs of much time,
from being out of employ. LBebdes, they have more
opportunities of drinking and aflociating together, by
which combinations are apt to be formed for preventing
the introduétion of new implements or new modes of hui-
bandry. Aad great inconvenience is often experienced from
the irregular manner in which they come to werk, or their
not coming at all. The fervant who lives on the farm
is likewife much more interelted in getting forward with
the work which is neceflary to be done than the mere day«
labourer; and there is much lets inducement for him ta
carry away different articles: with which he is entrafted, as
cora, hay, &c. from his not being able to keep any fost of
animals to confume them. flesh

It has been dtrongly advifed by an able writer on rural

economy, to employ aétwve young men as much as

in performing farm work, efpecially during the hay and

harvett feafons, as a few fuch as are idle and fluggith

foon {poilall the others. Mix,” fays he, “twoor three

old women, or two or three boys, with a company of men,

and the eflect will be very foon vifible; for the men will

foon conform to the ways of either the old women, or the

playfulnefs of the boys, It is not prudent to employ many

women with the men; and nething but neceffity cansexcufe

it. Two women, after the firlt or fecond day, willdo as

much work as half a dozen alone. If it be neceflary or

convenient to employ a number of both men and women,

it is but. common good management to keep them feparate; :

with this exception, which may be laid down as a maxim;

namely, one man among women, and one woman amon

men. A crutly conceited old fellow will check the goi-

fipping of the women; and it has been remarked that

raking after a young weach has animated as much as a gal-

lon of ale. ‘Iwo are dangerous ; they breed contention,

and rather retard thaw accelerate. ‘Phe moft yaluable fer- -

vant in harvetit isa good carter, It is neceffary to coms

mon management, that he fhould be able, willing, and cares

ful. LEvery pitch of hay and corn, mai fpeaking,

pafles twice through his hands: he loads and unloads, which

are the two moit laborious tafles of harveft; he drives the

team backwards and forwards; if he loiters by the way

the field-men or flack-men muft ftand idle; if he fpill or- >

overtura his load, ov if he break his waggon, or fet his .
horfes, x

FARM.

horfes, the arrangement of the day is broken; and, per-
haps, the damage done by the lofs of time rendered irre-
parable by the next day’s rain. A good carter will not fuf-
fer his wazgon to be over-loaded. The field-men, too, that
is, the pitchers aud affittant loader, fhould be young and
ative, and well matched with the carter.””

It has likewife been fuggefted, that the managing fervant
of a farm fhould be attentive toa variety of other points
and circumttances, in direéting the bufinefs of it. Nothing,
it is contended, contributes more to facility and fatisfaGion
in it than a forecaft toward works which are to be done.
A mifcarriage is ever to be dreaded as a mifchief ; and,
when it is brought on by a want of forethought, it brings
with it a degree of difcredit, and a train of unpleafant re-
flections, which four every enjoyment. ‘This fort of fer-
vant, it, is hinted, fhould have a forecaft toward crops for
three or four years, toward team labour for as many months,
and fhould look forward with the view of hand labour for
fome weeks, according to the feafon of the year. And in
order to bring the matter to a degree of certainty, it is
highly requifite to make out a lift of the fields or parcels
of land of which the farm confifts, with the crops which
each has borne for fome years back, together with the ma-
nurings which they have feverally received, in order that
the future treatment of each may be decided upon with
proper accuracy: and every autumn to form, by the af-
fiftance of fuch lifts, an arrangement of the crops that are
intended for the enfuing year, claffing the fields or pieces of
land according tu the purpofes for which they fhall be in-
tended; thus afcertaining the quantity of each crop, whe-
ther arable or grafs, as well as the quantity of ground in-
tended for pafture, in order that the quantity of team la-
bour may be diftin@ly forefeen, the required {trength be efti-
mated from time to time, and the feveral crops be fown in
due feafon ; and, in order that the ftock of the enfuing fum-
mer may, in due time, be properly apportioned to the in-
tended quantity of pafture ground, as well as that the
works of fummer and harveft may be conftantly before the
eye, and proper hands be engaged in time to perform
them in feafon. And a fort of memorandum lift is advifed
to be kept of the bufinefs to be done immediately or in im-
mediate fucceffion, whether in relation to crops, or to any
other concerns of the farm, that nothing may efcape the
memory ; and that the moft requifite may be brought for-
ward firft, or another which is more fuitable to the itate of
the weather. In this, as in other bufinefs, the principal
objeé&t to be aimed at is that of infuring fuccefs, which
is not only profitable to an employer, but fatisfactory to
the perfon employed. Whereas, a mifcarriage injures at once
the property of the one, and the character, as well as the
peace of mind, of the other. Hence a farm manager ought
to engage in a work, whether of improvement or ordinary
practice, with caution, and to proceed in it with attention
and firmnefs. A ftanding rule refpeGting this main object
of management is, not to attempt too much; and never to
begin a work without a moral certainty of being able to
finifh it in due feafon.

It may be obferved, that, befides the common work of a
farm, as the culture and harvefting of crops, the rearing and
fattening of live ftock, and the bufinefs of markets, there
are many other objets of attention which ought to be con-
ftantly kept in the mind, or the mind’s way, of a manager,
as on them the difference between good and bad, between
correct and flovenly management very much depends ; fuch
as keeping the home-{tall in repair, and free trom impedi-
ments, attending to private roads and drift-ways, keeping
up fences every where in thorough repair, attending parti-

Vou. XIV.

cularly to young hedges, and to the rearing of hedge row
timber, the feeing the gates {wing clear and catch with cer-
tainty, equally to preferve them from injury and to prevent
loofe flock from going aftray, the attending to drains and
water-courfes, to fee that fuperfluous waters have free pal
fage to their proper outlets, and that they be readily dif
charged ; and that in fummer ftri& attention be paid to
drinking-pools and other watering places of ftock, as well as
to the itate of pafturage, and the fhifting of pafturing-Lock;
likewife to weeds, as well in grafs grounds as in arable lands,
to fee that not a thiltle blows, nor any other weed matures
its feed, either in the areas or on the borders of fields. And
in winter much care is neceffary not only to fee that the
flock are regularly fupplied with proper fodder, but that
fufficient fhelter and comfortable refting-places are afligned
them. At this feafon, too, the watering of grafs lands
fhould be attended to, as much as the nature of the fitua
tion will admit ; and to the accumulation of manure an un-
remitted care fhould be beftowed the year round, as much
depends upon it. On the whole, the performing thefe and
other objects with propriety requircs repeated examinations
of every part and particular under his care, committing to
his memory whatever demands his more immediate attention ;
fo that whether he is on the {pot, or arranging his plan of
operation in the hour of leifure, it may be prefeut to his
mind, and take its proper courfe.

The bufinefs of a managing fervant, during the time of
work, lies in the field, in executing the plans he has formed,
in pafling from one fet of work-people to another, not more
to fee that the different operations are rightly performed
with proper difpatch than to order any required ailiftance
(to the teams efpecially) in order that every part of the ma-
chine may be kept in profitable motion. In the ordinary
operations of hufbandry, and on common occaiions, a iteady
even pace fhould be recommended, equally for the good of
the working animals and the work which they are perform.
ing ; yet there are times when quick difpatch is neceflary,
and then it is his duty to encourage good {peed by his ex-
ample, and by promifes of reward, if the occafion require it.
At all times, asd on every occafion, idlenefs is a crime
which ought not to be fuffered to pafs with impunity. It
is a direct fraud ; and a manager fhould guard againft it
with the fame care and affiduity as againft pilfering. A day
labourer, who idles away an hour, robs his employer of an
hour’s wages ; and thereby injures him as much as if he
were to fteal a faggot of equal value. This is a truth
which requires to be deeply impreffed on the minds of la-
bourers, as the impreffion has been known to have had a
good effet. It is, however, juftly obferved, that the right
ordering of fervants and work-people is a difficult branch of
moral duty, and which forms an important part of that of
the mazager of a farm. They require to be treated accord-
ing to their refpe€tive merits; encouraging good ones by
extra wages Or other rewards. Some men are worth double
the wages of others, as day-labourers ; yet cuftom makes no
diftinGion between them in this refpe&t! Hence t)
priety of engaging the beft workmen the country affords,
and retaining tuem by civil treatment and fuitable encou-
ragements, The managing fervant fhould contilantly keep
his work-people at a proper diftance, without deltroying
that free communication of opinion refpecting the work ia
hand, which, on ordinary occafions, every intelligent work-
man fhould be allowed. A itanding rule of coaduct in the
ordering of workmen is, never to find fault without occa,
fion, nor to commend without reafon. Good fellows will
not brook the former, nor will bad ones be mend
latter. Butit is right to habituate workmen

pro-

d by the
1 general to

be

FARM.

be told of their real faults; firft in the mildeft terms the oc-
cafion will admit of, referving the warmth of temper for
extraordinary occafions ; and then it is prudent to fting them
with keen, rather than to load them with heavy wurds, to
endeavour to ftir up their pride rather than their malice or
refentment. Much of the fmoothnefs and uniform fuecefs
of bufinefs depends on the manner of communicating orders
to workmen. If orders be loofely or inaccurately given,
it is unreafonable to expe that the execution of them
fhould be faultlefs. It is difficult to explain bufinefs in
words with fufficient accuracy to ruftic workmen ; and if a
third perfon is fuffered to intervene, errors are inevitable.
The managing fervant fhould therefore make a point of
giving orders in perfon, and, if poffible, on the {pot, to the
men who he means fhall execute them. ‘Then he can ex-
plain himfelf to them intelligibly and fully, or affit them in
marking out their work, ‘T’here is always danger in merely
verbal orders, and ina meffage certain mifchief. It fhould
be a conftant rule with him to fet his men to a frefh work
in perfon; and if it be out of the common way of hufbandry,
to ftay by them or dire&t them with his own hands, and
return to them again and again until he finds them com-
pletely in their work. In this view, as well as for other
reafons, this fort of fervant fhould be mafter of every im-
plement, tool, and operation belonging to his profeffion ;
and if he fhould find himfelf deficient in any particular, he
fhould practife it, day by day, until he make it familiar to
him: or how is he to correét a bad workman, or to know
when to be fatisficd with a good one, who, knowing when
he is right, will not bear the reproaches of ignorance? He
has no other way of fecuring the efteem and attachment of
good workmen, and of finifhing in a workman-like manner
every thing that he undertakes, than by making hinfelf
matter of bis bufinefs ; without which little fatisfaGtion will
arife from it to himfelf, or profit to his employer. And in
the general principles of condu@, in his dealings and inter-
courfe with other meu, punGuality is one of the moft effen-
tial. Method is the beft affiftant of punétuality ; and clear
accaunts are fome of the beft refults of method. Thefe
fhould invariably be kept with accuracy, and be fent to the
proprietor in weekly, mouthly, and annual periods, fo as to
fhew the daily ftate of the work, the monthly ftate of re-
ceipts and payments, and, laftly, the whole ftate of accounts
and balances. In this way a variety of evils and errors are
checked and guarded againtt:

There is a great variety in the methods of engaging and
employing farm-fervants. In mo{t of the more northern
counties it is the cultom to hire them by the year, in
which cafe they commonly live in the houfe. But in many
of the fouthern diftri&s this is not the cafe, they being
nearly, if not wholly, in the fituation of day-labourers.
And this method, though by no means to be commended,
for the reafons already noticed, feems on the increafe,
probably owing to there being fomewhat lefs trouble in the
family. There are likewile different cuftoms in the manner
of employing them. In Surrey it is moltly an eftablifhed
rule for every man in the harveft feafon to work by the acre,
or the month, and not by the day. Where a labourer is
conftantly employed through the year, he expeéts in the
harvelt to be conftaatly employed in mowing, reaping, and
other works of this kind, by the acre; or to have his
harveft month ; that is, an advance of wages certain,, wet
or dry, daring that length of time, commencing when it is
the moft fuitable to the farmer. ‘This is a convenient piac-
tice, as they are always at command in cafes of emergency,
and nothing but the continuance of rain till the barns are
empty can render them burdenfome, In many other. dif-

tri€is, practices fomewhat fimilar are found to prevail, and
have an equally beneficial tendency. In thefe cafes they are
not allowed, in general, to regard any particular hours in
the work, though in other cafes the hours of labour are
moftly in the {ummer from fix in the morning to fix at night,
and in winter from the time that it becomes light until it is
dark.

The rates of wages are fo very different in different
places, that it is almoft impoffible to reduce them to any
order; but in moft diflricts they may ftand fomewhat as
below.

Men. Wages. Former. Prefent.
Ploughman . . . +), 10to 16 Ts ta 25
Carter or waggoner . . . 8 to 15 15 to 20
Bailiff or yard-man . . . . 8 to 14 14 to 16
Boyars VP Saree ane! ot as eos 8 to 12

Women. ;
Dairy-maidhe Ree Sree “eee ortanee Io to 14
Under dairy-maid . . . . 3to 4 5 toy 7

Thefe wages are exclufive of bed, board, and wafhing
in the houfe. In molt of the-northern counties they have
been nearly doubled in the courfe of the lait twenty years.
And in thofe of the fouth the rife has been equal in molt
places, but in fome confiderably more,

Many fuggeftions have been offered by writers on rural
economy, in regard to the means of regulating the rate of
wages of farm-fervants and labourers, but hitherto, per-
haps, with little fuccefs. Inthe ‘ Agricultural Report of
the Board, for the Weft Riding of Yorkhire,’’ it is ftated
that the only mode of making them proportional to the nfe
or fall on the value of money and provilions, is, to pay them
in kind; that is, with a certain quantity of corn, as the
parties may agree, which, at all hazards, infures them a com-
fortable fubjiftence, and prevents them from a daily or
weekly vifitation of the markets. Where they are paid in
money, it is fuppofed to expofe the thoughtlefs and in-
attentive to a variety of temptations, but that when paid
in kind they cannot raife money to gratify the whims of the
moment. It is hinted, that in thofe counties where this
mode of payment has been long eftablifhed, the ploughmen
and labourers are on the whole better fed, live more com-
fortably, and rear healthier children, than in thofe parts
where, from being paid in money, the currency of the ar-
ticle facilitates the expenditure, and prevents them from
laying by a ftock of provifions for their f{upport, when out of
work, from accidents or diftrefs. In the part of the country
where the writer refides nearly the whole of the farm-
fervants are paid in this manner. They have a certain
quantity of grain; maintenance for a cow, fummer and
winter ; a piece of ground for planting potatoes, and raifing
flax upon; and whatever fuel they require driven gratis.
Thefe, with the privilege of keeping a hog and a few hens,
enable them to live, and bring up their families in a com-
fortable manner; and while their income is confiderably lefs
than people of their ftation in other parts, they are on the
whole better fed, better dreffed, and enabled to give a better
education to their children. Placed under thefe circum-
ftances, they are a refpectable fet of men; and for frugality,
faithfulnefs, and induftry, they will bear a comparifon with
their brethren in apy quarter. It is confequently advifed to.
introduce a fimilar method of paying farm-fervasts into this
diftri@, which, although it might at firft be attended with
fome difficulties, would contribute to the public good,
and to the advantage of the labouring peafantry in various
refpects. The writer of the ‘ Report for the County of
Hereford,” has likewile fated, that if a certain proportion

between

oy

FARM.

between the price of labour, and the average price of wheat,
could be fixed by law, fo as to render the applications for
parochial relief neceffary only in cafes of very large fami-
lies, of unufual illnefs, of fcanty feafons, or any other real
emergency ; the meafure, it is prefumed, would be honour-
able to the country, would ftimulate induftry and fidelity,
check difkonefty, and endear to their native foil a nume-
rous clafs of ufeful perfons.

In attempting any plan of this nature, various difficul-
ties, both of a local and general kind, would prefent them-
felves, which no fcheme that has yet been brought for-
ward, fo far as we know, feems to have fufficiently pro-
vided againit.

Farm Servant?s Rooms, the buildings or other places
where fervants of this kind fleep and lodge. Thefe rooms,
efpecially where the farms are large, fhould always, if pof-
fible, be quite diftin@ from the houfe. Where the farms
are of much extent, and confequently a great number of
fervants wanted, particularly where they are unmarried,
fuitable and convenient rooms for fleeping in, and where
they find their own provifions, for preparing and. drefling
them in, are not merely requifite, but of confiderable ad-
vantage to the farmer, as well as the men, as they fave
much time, which would otherwife be loft, in going to their
meals ; belides keeping them together in a fober, fteady
ftate, ready for their different employments. Inthis way,
too, the fervants are a great deal more comfortable, and
live far more cheaply than when they go te the public-
houfes to eat their meals, as is much the cafe in the more
fouthern parts of the kingdom, and by which their man-
ners too frequently become depraved, their conftitutions
enfeebled by intoxicating liquors, and much ufeful time
often loft to their employers as weil as themfelves.

But inconveniences of this kind are probably the beft
guarded againft by having fuch fervants, when it can be
done, in the houfes of the farmers, in which cafes the
eating-rooms for them fhould be fo placed as that a facility
may be given of overlooking them. But the rooms for
lodging in fhould, at the fame time, be quite detached and
diftin@&, as being the fafeft and moft proper when con-
trived in that way, as fuch perfons are frequently carelefs
and negligent of their candles and fires, befides being irre-
pate in other parts of their conduét. In whatever fituation
uch rooms may beerected, it is effential that the ground-
floors fhould be formed of ftone, brick, or fome other in-
combuttible material, while the upper ones are laid with
platter, as in fome of the midland diftriéts. Or, as being
more readily laid, brick in fome cafes may be had recourfe
to. See Froor.

Farm-Yard, in Agriculture, is the area or plot of ground,
on the fides of which the farm buildings are erected, and
which for the moft part adjoins, or is connected with, the
houfe, It is the fpace of ground that comprehends the hve

ftock, and in which they are foddered, the dung prepared,

the tools laid up, and the various neceffary operations of the
farm executed, It is a matter of the utmoft importance to
the farmer to have thefe yards conveniently formed and ar-
ranged, as, where this is the cafe, there is a confiderable
faving of both time and labour in performing the different
kinds of work in them. Yards of this kind have very dif-
ferent fizes, fhapes, and diftributions of their buildings, ac-
cording to their fituations and other cireumftances. One

rincipal obje& fhould conftantly be, that of giving the

odder which is to be confumed, of whatever fort it may be,
a progreffive courfe from the ep or ftack-yard,
through the cattle-houfes and fheds to the dung-ftead, with-
/ut incurring unnecefiary labour in carrying it different ways.

And another point that fhould be particularly attended to
is, that all the different materials which are converted to the
ufe of animal food fhould pafs from the kitchens, dairies,
and other places, to the hog-ftyes or other convenient places
of confumption for them. By a nice attention to the diftri-
bution of the buildings, in forming fuch yards, many other
advantages and facilities may likewife be given to yards of
this defcription.

The author of «* Modern Agriculture” has remarked, that
a farm or foddering yard ona {uitable plan is well known
to be an highly requilite appendage to all fuch farms as are
well regulated, and is confidered as indifpenfable by the moft
enlightened farmers. Where the farm buildings are ereéted
in the {quare form, the court yard ought to be paved to the
extent of nine or ten feet from the bottom of the walls all
round. The earth fhould be excavated from the remainder,
fo as to form a hollow towards the centre. hen a thick
coat of gravel, or, what is better, chalk, thould be laid over
the whole, which would anfwer the double purpofe of
keeping the place dry, and facilitate the fhovelling up the
rotten dung. Care fhould alfo be taken to have proper
drains to carry off {uperfluous water, in order that the yard
be kept dry. It would be very advantageous to have a
pond for the reception of this fuperfluous water, which
fhould be fo placed as to flood any of the adjoining fields
at pleafure, during the proper feafon.

By the writer of the “ New Farmer’s Calendar,” it is
obferved, that it would be nugatory to hold forth about
afpect, ftraight lines, or right angles, in the formation
of a farm-yard ; fuch confiderations will ever be poftponed
to thofe of local convenience ; it will be fufficient to infift,
that the fpace be ample and properly divided, the offices
fofficiently numerous and commodious, and the whole
fheltered on every quarter. In the arrangement of the
offices, namely, the dwelling, barns, ftables, cattle-houfes,
and fheds, the material objeéts ought to be fuch a pofition
as may contribute to convenience, and the abridgment of
labour, as already noticed, and at the fame time afford the
largeft poffible proportion of fhelter; this laft, however,
muft obvioufly, the writer thinks, gives way to the former
confideration ; and, as a fubftitute, all the vacant places or
expofures may be well barricadoed with a lofty, warm, and
fubftantial fence. Mr. Marfhall’s idea, of an angle of the
buildings prefenting to the north, by which pofition the
two fides would afford fhelter in the moft material points,
from the north-weift to the north-eait, is, he thinks, happil
conceived. Refpeéting the number of yards, no precife
rule can, he fays, be expeted any farther than to ftate,
that, in the fmalleft concern, a divifion is neceflary, and in
thofe of greater magnitude two main yards, with ap-
pendages for ftacks and other purpoles, conveniently fitu-
ated, will properly defcribe the home-ftall. A barn feems
the natural divifion of two yards, fince it will ferve the
common purpofes of both.

The defeription of the plan of a farm-yard is afterwards
offered to the attention of the farmer. A circle of fufficient
extent being marked out, and the area properly levelled
and hollowed in the centre, the whole of the needful farm.
buildings of every defeription, barns, granaries, milk houfe,
{tables, ox and cow-houfes, pig-ityes, ftore-rooms, and
fheds, are to be erected around, in the moft convenient
order in point of ufeful contiguity, and with reference to
fhelter in the coldeft expofures. The area being fo fpacious
that the buildings will not completely furround it, every
vacancy is to be filled up with a good fence; with or with-
out a lean-to and roof, as a fhed. Asmany of thefe fheds as
are required may be run up againit any of the buildings,

Xz that

FARM.

that none of the cattle of the fold need be abroad, or feed
in the rain or fnow. Divyifions and fub-divifions may be
made at will, with hurdles, faggots, or poits and rails, for
the purpofe of every requifite feparation of itock. The
number and pofition of the entrances to be regulated by
Jocal convenience, the gates being boarded to render the
‘fecurity complete. The ftack-yard mult be formed without
the circle, the corn-ftacks being placed within the leatt
diitance poflible of the barn or threfhing-machine; thofe of
hay and ftraw in an equal degree of convenient proximity
to the backfides of the ftables and cattle-houfes. It is
obyious that the back parts of the buildings will afford con-
venient walls for fheds or ere€tions of any kind, fhould a
very large ftock or peculiar circumftances render it neceflary
to fold a part without the circle ; the communication, or
rather the whole fyllem, may, it is afferted, be rendered
complete, by furnifhisg all the principal buildings with
entrances for cattle backwards, as wellasin front. In the
invefligation of this {cheme, however, it will eafily be per-
ceived, that a mere pedantic literal adherence to the figure
of a circle, to which every other confideration mult yield,
is not. fo much intended, as a generally round compaét in-
clofure ; neverthelefs, it feems that the nearer the figure
approaches to a true circle, the lefs will be the wafte of
ground and expence in fencing. Although not abfolutely
neceflary, it would be a point of great convenience, it is
fuppofed, for the backfide of the dwelling-houfe, confifting
of the dairy and other out-offices, to forma part of the
fold-yard circle. The wafh of every kind from the kitchen
and dairy fhould be faved, with the utmoft care, and led by
proper finks and pipes into a capacious under-ground
ciftern, from whence it may be pumped into the hog-
troughs, the ftyes being placed within a reafonable diftance
for the fake of that convenience. Adjoining the dairy
fhould be found the cow-houfes and fatting-houfes for oxen ;
the pig-ftyes next ; between the flyes and the ox-ftalls is a
handy fituation for a boiling and wafhing-houfe, in which
an oven alfo, or kiln, is an excellent convenience. The
lofts above the different offices might, it is fuggefted, com-
municate by doors through their feveral partitions, with the
granary, threfhing- mill, and barn, affording the convenience
of wheeling facks of corn, or chaff, to every part. Room
above or below muft be afforded likewife for hay, potatoes,
cabbages, and every other article of provifion of that {pecies.
In feeding {talled oxen, to approach them at the head in-
ftead of the feet is much the beft method; for which end
a gang-way, fufficient to admit a large barrow, may be left
between the wall and their head-boards, thefe being made
to flide. Such is the practice of feveral diftill-houfes which
feed oxen; and it has been recommended, where cattle feed
at racks appending to the barn-fide, to have fliding boards,
through which the threfhers may puth the itraw, without
having to quit the bara, in order to replenifh the racks.
A chaff-houfe fhould be conneéted with the barn; and we
will fuppofe the oppofite range, whether ftables, fheds,
ftore or cattle-houfes, to have an appropriate fhare of thofe
conveniences of conneétion already flated, that as little wafte
as poffible may be made of time, labour, and materials in
executing the farm-yard bufinefs.

And it is farther fuggefled, that, in an extenfive farm,
where it is ever inconvenient and expenfive to cart manure
to the diftant grounds, the great convenience of out-ftalls
appears very ftriking. It is not meant to infinuate that
there are never any out-yards upon large farms, but that
they are not in general enough attended to, fo as to render
them ef fufficient utility. A yard of this defcription,
well fenced in, might, it is fuppofed, contain a cottage
for a labourer and his family, a itable for a plough-team,

with fheds for ftraw, cattle, and fheep; but threfhing in
diftant barns is imprudent ; and of two evils it would be the
leatt to cart the ftraw from heme, ftacking or houfing it at
the out-ftalls. Thefe different hints deferve to be well con-
fidered by the proprietors of farms before they begin to ereét
farm conveniences of this kind.

There are likewife a few other obje¢ts that demand par-
ticular regard in forming new farm-yards. A great variety
of opinions have been offered in regard to the nature of the
fituation for receiving the ftall and yard manure, it being by
fome confidered the beft on a furface which is perfe&tly /evel ;
while by others it is conceived better where this is a little
raifed; and by others again, who are very numerous, the
hollow is, on the contrary, decidedly fupported as the bet.
And to this laft the author of the treatife on ‘* Landed
Property,’’ is, from long experience, inclined to afford his
affeut. But though he thinks it fhould be hollow, it does
not follow that it fhould be deep. Its principal ufe, befides
that of holding the dung, being to bring the rain water
falling within the yard into the {tate of flagnation, and to
let it pafs off fuperficially, fo as to prevent any thing of a
ground current from carrying away the dung, either ina
ma{s, or thick fluid condition; merely fuffering the more
watery particles to run off into a refervoir or receiver, con-
ftructed for the purpofe of preparing or preferving them
for being made ufe of afterwards. It is fuggeited, that two
feet on the lower fide, or deepefl part, may be a mean depth;
the bottom of the walte water channel being laid fix or eight
inches lower.than the rim of the hollow or bafon; the depth
of water that it can contain, when free from dung, cannot
be more than fixteen or eighteen inches, and as it is neceflary
to good farm yard management, that as foon as the dung
colleGted duriag the winter feafon has been removed, that
fome fort of earthy materials fhould be depofited evenly over
the bottom of the bafon, for the liquid matters to operate
upon, and bring into a ftate of manure, throwing upon
them all the different fubftances that can be brought toge-
ther in the courfe of the fummer and autumn; by which
means, from the bafon being nearly filled up at thefe periods,
the dung collected during the winter will be raifed and fup-
ported out of the way of water, whichis fuppofed by fome
to prevent the converfion of the different fubftances into
manure. It is evident that fuitable drains muft be formed
from the ftalls of the different Jarge animals, as well as from
the pig-ftyes, and other buildings, where any fort of ftock
is fed and kept, to the hollow or bafon, in order to convey
the; liquid matters; the mouth of the outlet channel being
well fecured from being choaked up, by piling the dung up
to a great height above it ; a fuitable well or pit being pro-
vided and kept ready for the reception of the fuper-abundant
liquid to filtrate and difcharge itfelf into. When the farm
has land of the grafs kind lying in a {uitable manner below
the level of the yard, on which the overflowings of fuch
bafons may difcharge themfelves, every part of the dung
yard may have a fhelving direction towards the receptacle.
But, in other cafes, it fhould not receive any more water
than is fupplied by the atmofphere, which may eafily be
effected by elevating the rma few inches above the fur-
rounding furface of the yard, which muit be occafionally
freed from the matters depofited upon it, by removing them
into the bafon. In thefe cafes the water falling on the furs
face of the yard fhould be conducted to a catch pool to

depofit its ufeful materials, orto a drain made in a convenient .

manner for the purpofe : and that falling upon the buildings
be difcharged, without paffing through the bafon ; except

there fhould be a greater want of liquid than folid mae ,

hure.

From the very flow progrefs which yard manure is found

& A RM.

to make towards the proper {tate of maturation, in the
open air, during the winter feafon, even when piled up in
the dryeft fituation, in confequence of its being conftantly
faturated with moifture and expofed to a cool atmofphere,
the plan of having the receptacle for the dung of a long
{quare form, fo as to be covered with a roof to wholly pro-
teét it from rain water, and defend it from cold, has been
fuggefted, and long fince ftrongly enforced by the Board of
Agriculture. It is fuppofed that by thus giving it the
means of paffing into the ftate of fermentation during the
winter months, its converfion into manure would be benefi-
cially expedited for application to thofe crops which are
put in in the fpring. But it has not yet been fully fhewn
whether the advantage would be adequate to the expence
of fuch buildings, and the additional trouble of depofiting
and removing the manure. It deferves, however, to be af-
certained by careful trials, though it is a method that cannot
be yet fafely advifed for the common farmer.

It is a yery material objeé& to prevent, as much as poffi-
ble, the wafte of farm-yard manure, which takes place at
prefent in moft places; this may perhaps be the moft ef-
fectually done by piling it up in the fituation and manner
which has been already noticed, and detaining the depofi-
tions of the liquid parts in fuitable receivers, making col-
leGions of other proper matters where it can be done with
propriety. It has been fuggefted that the having only a
refervoir for farm-yard liquor is of vaft confequence in thefe
cafes, even where there are no lands proper for letting the
contents upon; particularly where it is provided from time
to time, as noticed above, with fuitable floorings of good
mould or other matters, for abforbing the fediment which
is let fall from the liquor, when in this flagnant con-
dition.

In a dry feafon, when the liquid part is wholly removed
by evaporation, the rich compott thus left fhould be carried
out and {pread on the grafs lands which are under the f{eythe,
as foon as poffible after the crops have been removed from
them. The benefit of a receiver of this fort, whether
formed for carrying on irrigation, or for collecting the muddy
fediment, will,\it is fuppofed, be in proportion to its fize, and
the expence of making it in a given fituation will be ina
fomewhat fimilar ratio; and will moftly pay in an ample
manner for being made. For if one which cofts ten pounds
increafe the annual produce of hay only one load, a tenant
may, it is {uppofed, well afford to pay fix pounds per cent.
for the ufe ar it. It is further flated, that on a floping
wavy furface, a refervoir of this kind may be formed at a
very trifling coft in comparifon to its utility. And the
form or fhape of it is confidered as of no coniequence, pro-
vided, when it is defigned for irrigation, it be fupplied with
a valve, that when full, the water may be let off in a fuffi-
cient body to be diftributed evenly, and with proper effect
over the furface of the land.

All thefe points fhould be fully attended to in forming
new farm-yards, in order that the greateft poffible faving of
manure may be made.

It has been juitly remarked by a late writer on modern
hufbandry, that where the farm buildings are without or-
der or conneétion with each other in the yards, as is too
commonly the cafe in many parts of the kingdom, the dung
is moftly thrown on fpaces of ground allotted for the pur-
pofe oppofite to the doors of the ftables, cow-heufes, fheds,
&c. where it is allowed carelefsly to remain ; its more va-
lable particles, in the mean while, being exhaled by the
influence of the weather till the return of the feafon, when
it is ufually laid on the lands. If the houfes happen to be
fituated on an eminence, the dung lying in fmall quantities

is drained of all its moifture. If, on the other hand, they are
placed in a hollow, the dung is for the moft part allowed to
remain foaked in water. In either cafe its quality muft be
greatly impaired, and its ufefulnefs in promoting vegetation
much lefs than when, by proper attention, all the effence is
retained. The advantages refulting from well-conftruéted
farm or foddering yards are, therefore, the writer conceives,
various and important. By means of them the quantity of
dung is much increafed, and the quality rendered fuperior :
for thefe reafons, he is of opinion, that the advantages of
pofiefling proper accommodation for the cattle on the farm
are more than fufficient to counterbalance the expence in-
curred in creating them. He f-c's himfelf warranted to ftate
this opinion, not merely becauf« it is his own, but becaufe
it is confidered as well-founded by many intelligent farmers
in both kingdoms, with whom he has converfed on the fub-
je&. The difference muft indeed be obvious to every intel-
ligent reader who is at all acquainted with thefe matters.
Where proper houfes and other accommodations are ereted,
the dung is colle€ted into one mafs, the varicus forts care-
fully mixed together, and the fuperfluous water carried off
by proper drains; by which means it retains its properties,
and muft confequently become ufeful, and its effects con-
{picuous, when applied for the purpofe of invigorating the
foil. Whereas, when the dung is allowed to remain in {mall,
detached loofe heaps, the moft valuable parts are.either
drained off or evaporated ; fo that what remaius is compa-
ratively of little value. Although it will be readily admit-
ted, that an active and induftrious farmer who labours under
the inconvenience of having too few farm. offices, and thofe
improperly fituated, may, by his fuperior attention, lay up
as great a ftore of dung, of a good quality, as his lefs affi-
duous neighbour, who is better accommodated as to houfes ;
yet, whoever makes this the fubjeét of general invef¥ization
will find reafon to be fatisfied, that on all occafious where
the proprietors, by liberal arrangements with their tenants,
afford them the requifite accommodation for their horfes
and cattle, there the farm yard dung is in general in greater
abundance, and of a richer quality.

There has been confiderable diverfity of opinion con-
cerning the form of a farm-yard, that affords the greateit
convenience, fome contending for the fquare, others for the
circular, and not a few for the augular or many-fided form.
It is evident, however, that the fhape mutt conftantly mate-
rially depend on the nature of the fituation and other cir-
cumitances which are conne&t2d with it. The fquare form
was that formerly mott in efleem ; but this has lately given
way to thofe of the circular and many-fided forms, as af-
fording a greater number of conveniences, and more room in
the fame extent of building.

The following two plans of farm-yards are of the fquare
form, and have been found highly ufeful and convenient in
atual practice. The firft is ftated, by the author of the
“ Chefhire Agricultural Report,” as being on the farm of
Broom-fields, belongits to fir Peter Warburton. The build-
ings are conitruGted of ftone, which. was obtained from a
quarry in the vicicity, and the whole of them covered with
flate. The ground plaa of all the various buildings and
conveniencics are fhewn at fg. 1. in Plate XVI. on Agri-
culture. Here Mr. Becket, the prefent occupier ef ‘the
farm, has availed himfelf of the opportunity afforded him by
a gentle defcert in the ground from the front of the heufe,
to convey a fmail ftream through the yard over the meadows
below the buildings, by which aa uncommon degree of ver-
dure and lixuriance has been produced, which fully demon-
itrates the benefit which has been derived from the praétice,

The latter is defcribed in the ** Parmer’s Magazine,”’ as be-

I ing

FA

ing conftrnced by David Hunter, efq. at Efmount, in the
county of Forfar, in North Britain; and the plan of
which is reprefented at fi. 2, in the fame plate. In this
A, A, are ftone troughs for the fattening beafts to eat out
of; being formed of hewn pavement, as well as the divifions
which -are arched below ; by which contrivance they can
all be rendered perfectly clean, by pouring water into the
welternmoft, and making ufe of a broom as it is difcharged at
the contrary end. BB, is the groove or hollow behind the
animals, which receives the dung and urine, and which laft
is difci.arged at the opening C, in the ealt wall into a
wooden {pout D, which is moveable at pleafure, fo as to
depofit it on any earthy material that may have been pre-
vioufly laid down for the purpofe, by which means a great
jncreafe of manure is made for futureufe. E, E, E, are three
fmall vents made in the north wall for letting off the moifture
produced by the breathing of the cattle, by which the timber
is greatly preferved, and the animals prevented from fweat-
ing too much or being too hot ; their breath being lighter
than the atmofpheric air requires this fort of ventilation to
expel it. TF, a {mall door in the eaft corner, where there is
a room and bed for a cattle man, that he may be at hand, in
cafe of need. G,G, two doors to the fouthward ,through
which is an eafy conveyance for the dung and dirty litter
into the dung court, in which H, H, are fheds for containing
your wintering ftock. II, the fhed for holding turnips
or other roots, as well as the ftraw and hay that may be
-requifite. K, the door, which is fufficiently wide to back
the carts in, and in which the roots are topped. LL, is
a roomy dung-ftead, for depofiting earthy or other fub-
ftances, for receiving the difcharges of the farm-yard,
ftables, and diflerent ftalls and fheds. MM, is a raifed
caufeway, which ranges all along the feeding ftalls and weft
fide of the dung court,

The great advantages of this conftruétion of farm-yard
and buildings are ns of keeping the cattle more clean,
letting them have their food in a {weeter ftate ; and thereby
thriving better; and the preferving of a much larger pro-
portion of the dung and urine of the animals. Belides, in
this way there are other advantages in having the turnips
or other roots brought from the field without watte, while
they can be topped and the tops confumed green ; in their
being laid in with lefs labour and trouble ; and in there be-
ing no neceffity for ufing them ina frofted or improper con-
dition. y

This is an excellent plan where the praétice of ftall- feeding
cattle is to be carried on.

The two farm yards which are reprefented in Plate XVIT.
on Agriculture, are formed on the angular or many-fided,
and the circular plans, and are calculated for farms of con-
fiderable extent, and under mixed cultivation. Fig. 1. is
the reprefentation of an ufeful one of the former defcription ;
and at fig. 2, is the delineation of one of the latter kind.
They are either of them capable of being varied fo as to
{uit particular intentions. See Farm-Juildings, and Farm-
ffoufe.

Farm-Yard Dung, is that fort of manure which is col-
leéted and raifed in the farm-yard from the difcharge and
treading of different forts of live ftock. It confequently
confifts of the dung and urine of all kinds of cattle, horfes,
hogs, and other animals, intermixed with litter of various
deeentont, and fometimes other forts of more earthy ma-
terials. It isthe moft abundant and ufeful manure that
the farmer has the command of. From its nature, and the
manner in which it is formed, it is evidently a compoft or
compound fubftance, though different in fome refpeéts from
-thofe heaps of manure which are ufually denominated com-

R M.

pofts by farmers. Every opportunity fhould be taken to

increafe, as much as poffible, this highly ufeful material, by

colleGting and depofiting different kinds of proper matters

in the ftallsand farm-yards, which fhould be fuitably formed

for receiving them. See Comros®, Manure, and Farm-
‘ard,

Farm-Yard Manure, is a term frequently applied to the
manure which is railed and provided in the farm-yards. See
Comrost, Farm-Yard Dung, and Manure.

Farm-Yard Management, in Rural Economy, is that fort
of management which relates to the bufinefs and operations
of the farm-yard. In order to augment and procure as
much manure as-poffible, the farm-yard fhould contitantly be
kept covered with fome earthy material, on which the dung
and urine of the cattle may aét, and with which they may
be combined, and thus increafe the quantity of the manure
heap. Good mould, peat earth, and the {crapings of roads
and ditches, are highly proper for the purpofe. Where
there is a pit or referyoir for the reception of the urine and
other liquid matters from the yard, it may be fo placed as to
ferve two yards, and may be bottomed with rammed clay,
and its fides plaftered with fome compofition which will
make it retentive. Into it may be fhot as much ditch earth
or other fubftances as it will properly hold, without caufing
an overflow ; and, inftead of pumping the liquor out ir the
end, as has been bith es it is probably better to fhoot
in earth fufficient to wholly abforb it, afterwards carting
the whole away to the compoft-hill, which is believed to be
the eafier method of the two. Upon the bottom, in the
yard, the layer of manure earth is te be {pread to the thick.
nefs of a foot, if poffible, throughout the whole area, the
quantity in the centre, or drain, being increafed two or
three fold, as having the greater part of the moifture to im-
bibe. ‘The whole mult be kept fufficiently littered, that
the cattle may not poach in the earth with their feet. The
above, or fome method of fimilar effeé, for the prefervation
of articles fo precious to the farmer as the dung and urine
of his cattle, one would fuppofe, a late writer fays, fo fim-
ple and obvious, that common fenfe could never mifs it,
How ftrange then is it, that we fee fuch beneficial meafures
generally negleéted, and that by men who have it in their
power to compafs them, and who pretend to be fenfible of
the value of the meafure? How many hundreds of farm-
yards are there either mere bogs, or with bottoms which
abforb and devour the mofl valuable part of the manure, or .
with a defcent towards a pond, a road, or a ditch, where it
runs off, to be in part or totally diflipated and lof? But
what is ftill more fingularly abfurd is, that a pond or drain
fhall fortunately {top the groffer part of this wafte, and yet
it fhall be fuffered to accumulate for years unobferved and
untouched! This is by much too frequently the cafe.

With the view of promoting ftill more the purpofe men-
tioned above, from every ftable or cattle-houfe, a drain, it is
obferved, will be neceffary, in order to conduct the urine to
the proper receptacle; not a mere common gutter, in which
the liquid finks or itagnates, keeping a conftant puddle at
the heels of the animals; there ought to be a grating, or
fink-plate, to every two ftalls at leaft, which, with the
drain itfelf, fhould always be kept free and pervious. The
entrance to the chief cattle-houfe is ufually over a pavement
of convenieat wicth. ‘The dung from the different houfes
muft, both for convenience and prefervation fake, be ftowed
near at hand; for, fhould it be wheeled into the area, it
would be trodden to waite, that is to fay, either bound
down too hard, or too much fcattered, inftead of which it
may be at once placed in a ftate proper for fermentation and
putrefaction. Either flight pits may be made oppolite P

the

FA

the ffable door, and bottomed with marle or earth, or the
dang may be made up in clumps or hills; in both which
cafes the nice and fcientific cultivator may, if he pleafe,
cover with ftraw or ftubble, in order te prevent exhalation,
and to promote the putrefactive procefs. The heaps
growing to an inconvenient bulk, an auxiliary dung-hill
muft be pitched in the neareft fituation; thus, in acertain,
perhaps fufficient, degree, with attention and a little inge-
nious contrivance, the dung may be preferved from ex-
pofure to the external air. In cafe of its too great aridity
or drought, in the hot feafon, and with the view of re-pro-
ducing B icitation, no method is better, the writer fup-
pofes, than to ftirinto the heap mud, weeds, flop of any
kind, or foul water from ponds, ditches, and other fimilar
places.. Others, however, advite that the manure raifed in
the fold-yards fhould be wholly removed from them every
fix or eight weeks, and thrown up into heaps, in order that
fermentation may be more fully carried on, in confequence
of the more free admiffion of air and moifture, as by fuf-
fering it to continue longer in fuch places it is liable, from
the exceffive treading of the cattle and other forts of live
ftock, to become fo hard, in particular parts, as to prevent
the regular procefs of converfion from going on; and in cafe
of the feafon becoming dry for fome length of time, to un-
dergo decay in a partial manner only, which is very difad-
vantageous to the farmer. On this principle, therefore, the
practice fometimes had recourfe to, of turning over the ma-
nure in the farm-yards, in the verna! feafon, when the wea-
ther is dry, and the dung fo compa& and deftitute of
moifture as te require being cut and removed in large lumps,
is evidently wrong, as by blending the dry parts with the
more moift ones, the procefs of decay is greatly checked
and retarded, and the forming of good manure prevented.
The lighter and more evenly the heaps of the materials
can be thrown together, the more quickly they take on
heat, decay, and become good manure. And if the ma-
nure of feveral different forts of animals be blended toge-
ther, {uch as that of hogs, neat cattle, and horfes, it is fup-
pofed by fome to’be fo much the better, the fermentation
proceeding more rapidly.

It is confidered by many a very improper practice to have
this fort of manure, in a {tate ready for application, any
great length of time before it is wanted, as was formerly
much the cafe ; as the moft rich parts of it are continually
going off by evaporation and folution, and of courfe the
itrength of the manure much leffened.

Where this fort of manure is to be formed from the roots.

of different kinds of weeds and other plants, and various
coarfe vegetable productions, a much greater length of
time will be required to bring it into the condition of good
manure, than would otherwife be the cafe.

Te has been the fubjeét of difpute, the writer noticed
above fays, whether or not it be preferable, in point of in-
tereft, to keep cattle enough to confume all the ftraw as’
meat, without any being allowed for bedding: the affirma~
tive, he thinks, not improbable ; but it is a length in cattle-
feeding to which few will be difpofed to proceed: But to
go upon the fuppofition of fodtering abroad, nothing can
be move plain than the benefit-derived to cattle from warm
littering and fhelter ; and it is equally obvious, that young
and growing flock thrive much better in the-range of a
yard, than whew confined in a ftalk being» alfo much’ more
agreeable to their natural liking, This idea extends to
ftore-pigs, which are- almoft’ indifpenfable in a ry as
gleaners of what would be watte to every other defcription
of animals. Some are for confining all cattle to the houfe

throughout the wivter, and even recommend the expence.

R M.

of entirely covering in the yard with a roof of deal board?,
a greater premium, im his opinion, for the perfeGiion of
dung, than fuch perte¢tion, if attained, would ever repay.
In cafe of a very large ftock, it would be to incur no flight
rifks of contagion. It‘would be to run into the extreme of
the continental pratice, where they exceedingly injure the
health of their cattle by too clofe houfing, ftifling heat,
and hot watery flops. Theirs and our common fyfem
form, he thinks, two extremes. He has long alfo, been
decidedly of opinion, that fheep are equa!ly entitled to the
benefit of the home-fold with any other defcription of ftock,
and that they will repay it in an equal proportion: they
mutt, however, be folded apart from the other cattle. By
keeping yards properly formed for them, well littered down
with ftraw or other fuitable matters, and having them put
into them during the night, vaft flores of excellent manure
might be formed. Where deer are kept they might alfo be
had recourfe to in’ the fame way with’ gréat benefit in the
view of manure.

Great care and attention are requifite in the management
of every kind of ftock in the farm-yard, as well in refpe& to
the proper foddering of them as the keeping of them clean.
Each fhould be performed with great regularity and exai-
nefs. The farmer fhould himfelf make frequent examina-
tions, and fee that all the different defcriptions of ftock go
on in a proper manner, and that nothing is neglected by the
fervants who are employed in the yard bufinefs.

The prefent mode of managing farm-yard manure, pre=-
vious to its being laid on the land, is ftated by a late writer
to be in almoft every part of the kingdom, where regular
farm-buildings have not been ereCted, extremely negligent
and improper, and fuch as calls loudly for reform. This
will appear more efpecially neceffary, he thinks, when we
reflect on the fmall number of farms that are properly ac-
commodated with farm-offices, compared with thofe that=
are deprived of neceflary accommodations in this refpec. -
We mnit, then, perceive that the evil, in regard to the mif-
management of farm-yard dung in Great Britain, is as ex
tenfive as it is ferious. The lols of manure in this way muit
be prodigious all through the country. Reform has, how-
ever, begun to take place in moft of the improved diftri@s,
and will, no doubt, be gradually introduced into the others,
as the advantages of it become better underftood. See
Manure, and Farm-Yard.

Farms, Letting of, is the cuftom, praGice, or bufinefs
of getting, or providing them with fuch tenants as are pro-
per and adequate to the cultivation. and management of
them. This is evidently a matter of great confequence to
the proprietors, -as their advantage depends materially upon
hoth, in fo far as their rents and the improvement of theic
lands are-concerned: It of courfe behoves them to a@ with
confiderabié attention in the adjufting-of the bufimels» Thers
are feveral different methods of managing itjas by»public aue-
tion, the higheft bidder being the tenant; by ticket or
written propofals, the higheft offer having the farm; aud
by the afking of more rent-than the farm is worth, fo as to
clofe with the perfon- promifing the largeit reat, without
regarding his qualifications or fitnefs as a tenant.

The two firit methods are eafy and convenient {Gr obtain-
ing tenants for farms, where the owners or minagers of
them are not’ well acquainted with the «value of the
lands, or the qualifications of the tenants. And where: the
filly imprudent cuftom prevails on eftates of letting the ma
nager have a profit on leafes or agreements for-farms, this
manner of letting them becomes ftill mere agreeable, as it is
three to one that either the farms are let too dear, or that’
the tenants are unequal to their management ; confequent!»

7 there.

FAR

there is a fair profpe& to the drawer of the leafes of their
being to be re-let inthe courfe of avery few years. Fur-
ther, if he have not only a handfome profit upon every pair
of leafes, but is allowed or accuftomed to take fees of entry,
the prolpets are fill more bright and promifing. And
where, in addition to thefe, there is a further profit on deeds
of diftrefs and furrender, how can a perfon be blamed who
has probably a large family to fupport, for letting farms by
auclion or by propofals; or for agreeing with an adven-
turer, or with any man as ignorant as himfelf of their real
value, for more money than they are worth; or for fcrew-
ing up the tenants in poffeffion to rents they can never pofli-
bly pay ; when he knows, perhaps, that by fo doing he
fhall not only enhance his income, but gratify his employer.
It is juflly fuggefted that it is the employer not the agent,
who, under this falfe principle of management, is playing
the lofing game! LExceffive rents are only nominal.
They look well on a rent-roll while they have a right to
{ftaud there. But if the arrears of rent be received through
the diftrefs and ruin of the tenant, the injury done to the
eltate, not to mention its lofs of character, is to be deducted
from the nominal rent. At length, when the lands are
completely exhaufted, the buildings let down, the gates
and fences broken and deftroyed, the water courfes choaked
up, and the roads impaffable, the tenant, fays Mr. Marfhall,
runs off, and the farm lies unoccupied, a very blank in the
rent-roll. Such, he contends, is the impropriety of this
method of proceeding in the tenanting of theeltates. To
the life tenant of an eftate, who has no intereft whatever in
the remainder, and whofe life is worth but a few years’ pur-
chafe, fuch a mode of proceeding might claim, he fuppoles,
a fort of juttification. But that, in the poffeffor of an heredi-
tary property, which is expected to defcend to the fon and
fon’s fon, fuch an improvident practice becomes, he fays,
altogether irrational. It might be deemed an aé of folly
in a young man; and of cruelty as wellas folly in one of ri-
per years ; whofe fucceffor might thereby be involved in
perpetual difficulty ; and his own memory in confequence
be fhrowded in difgrace. The writer, in hts various exami-
nations and reviews of the different departments of the king-
dom, hasfeen much mifchief and mifery refulting from this im-
provident and impolitic plan of management in the letting
of farms.

It is ftrongly fuggefted, that if the intimate connection
which fubfifts, which muft -fubfift between owners and oc-
cupiers, be well confidered, and how much the intereit of
the former depends upon the condué of the latter, it is but
common prudence to be {crupulonfly nice and attentive to
the choice of tenants. And as in every fituation there is
at all timesa fair rental value, or market price, of lands, as
of their produéts, there appears to be only one rational
and eventually profitable method of letting a farm, which is
that by fixing the rent and choofing the tenant. As in this
mode there is the greateft chance of fecuring proper tenants,
efpecially in fo far as the good cultivation of the land is
concerned and the due payment of the rent.

FARMER, aterm which fignifies a perfon whofe bufi-
nefs is the cultivation and management of farm lands, and
the feveral kinds of live ftock neceffarily conneéted with
them, as well as the different products which are afford-
ed from both. Farmers may be ftill further diftinguifh-
ed, according to the nature of the farms, and the forts
of management under which they are conduéted, into
arable, grazing, dairying, and hay or grafs farmers.

The farmers of this country may now probably be di-
vided into two claffes, the large and the fmall, which
differ very materially in their habits and opinions. The

FAR

views and notions of the latter are moftly narrow and
confined, in confequence of the want of education, re-
fulting from their fituation in fociety, which does not
permit them to improve themfelyves 10 any high degree.
It is perhaps on this account that farmers of this fort
are fo backward in admitting any innovations on the
methods of hufbandry to which they have been accuftom-
ed: incapable of perceiving the benents that might be
derived from propofed alterations, they are too apt to
adhere to the prattices which they have received from
their anceftors, and to tranfmit them unchanged to their
potterity. Their habits having been formed to fome par-
ticular fyftem or practice, they centinue to purfue it
with a blind unvarying attachment.

On the contrary, the large farmers, having their minds
more enlarged by education, are much more intelligent,
and actuated by a more judicious and rational fpirit of
improvement. It is to the influence and exertion of this
valuable clafs of farmers that moft of the improvements
which have lately been made in bufbandry in this coun-
try are to be afcribed. They have likewife contributed
in a very material degree to the extenfion and fpread of
that fpirit of invefligation and experiment which, while
regulated by judgment, cannot fail of leading to the
moft important and ufeful refults.

But a late writer on agriculture has arranged the farmers
of this country under the following feveral claffes or heads :
ut, the king ; 2dly, the great proprietors and country gen-
tlemen; 3dly, yeomen, and farmers properly fo called;
4thly, pofleffors of {mall farms ; 5thly, cottagers, including
different defcriptions of people who cultivate {mall farms,
and a few acres adjoining towns and villages; and, 6thly,
the unproduétive clafs of hufbandmen.

It is fuppofed that in regard to the firft, it will not be
denied that the governments of modern Europe have hi-
therto encouraged the towns in preference to that of the
country ; andin fome meafure deprefled agriculture in or-
der to advance manufaéturing and commercial induftry,
While, on the other hand, the government of the immenfe
territory of China encourages agriculture more than all
the other arts; infomuch, that the condition of a farm
labourer in that country is faid to beas fuperior to that of
an artificer, as with us itisinferior. Itis not believed dif-
ficult to trace thefe different fyftems of policy to the fame
fource, however apparently inconfiitent they are in them-
felves. The increafe of commerce and manufactures in the
different kingdoms of Europe has always been attended with
an increafe of revenue to the ftate, and which, in confe-
quence of being brought more fpeedily, and with lefs ex-
pence into the exchequer, than that ariling from agriculture,
becomes thereby more advantageous ; while the fovereigns of
China derive the greateft part, if not the i of
their revenue from the produce of the foil. From thefe
oppofite fyftems of political eooneraiy another might,
it is imagined, be ettablifhed, infinitely better calculat-
ed to promote the interefts of the nation, by afford.
ing the means of fupporting a more numerous popu-
lation than is poffible to be done by adhering to either
of the former. Were agriculture, manufactures, and
commerce alike encouraged, they would all profper in. an
equal degree ; and though the revenues ariling from the.
former might not be fo well calculated to anfwer any fud~
den exigence, yet experience has proved, that, in this king-
dom, they form the moit {ure and permanent refources of the
ftate, asis evident from the land and malt taxes, excife onale,
beer, British f{pirits, cyder, perry, leather, candles, andal-
mott every other-article produced inthe country. ;

If

FARMER,

If this propofition be well founded (and it is prefumed it
will not be controverted), it mutt give the moft fincere
fatisfaction to every lover of his country to fee that the
fovereign of this great kingdom, which has rifen fo high in
fame among nations for the extent of its manufactures and
commerce, has, like another Cato, turned his attention to
the cultivation and improvement, of his native foil, and
thereby done more for the encouragement of agriculture
than could probably have been effected by any other means.
‘The example which his majefty thus holds out for the imi-
tation of the higher claffes of his fubjets canuot, the writer
thinks, fail to be attended with confequences highly bene-
ficial, as has been eminently teftified by the meritorious ex-
ertions of his grace the duke of Bedford and many others ;
while the attention of the other branches of the fegiflature
will naturally be turned to the formation of fuch laws and
regulations in favour of thofe who practife this moft ufeful
art, as will in all probability tend in a very great degree to
the further improvement of the country.

It is flated, that on his majefty’s farm, and under his
perfonal attention, farm-houfes have been built, {wamps and
morafles drained, plantations. formed, and every means
adopted that could contribute to improve the foil or em-
bellifh the landfeape. In carrying on thefe works, liberal
expenditure has been combined with minute favings, which
is indifpenfably neceflary in all the operations of hufbandry,
either where the objeét is profit, or, as in this cafe, a defire
to promote the public good, by endeavouring to create a
fpirit in others for undertaking improvements of a fimilar
nature. na

In confidering the fecond clafs, the writer remarks, that
a confiderable portion of the cultivated lands in Britain is
poflefled by the great proprietors, and fuch as generally re-
fide on their eflates, who may therefore very probably be
denominated country-gentlemen. Exclufive of their do-
mains, or lands around their manor-houfes, thefe proprietors
commonly hold farms, which are kept under regular modes
of cultivation. Many of thefe characters merit high com-
mendation for their fteady and unwearied attention to that
great fource of national wealth, the introdu€tion of better
fyftems of hufbandry ; while others have gone farther, and
not only endeavoured, both by precept and example, to in-
duce their tenants to adopt fuch fyftems as they from expe-
rience had found beneficial, but alfo granted leafes of fuch
duration, and on terms fo liberal, as induced men poffefling
knowledge, enterprife, and capital, to apply them to the
art of hufbandry. It is to be regretted, however, that this
cannot be faid of all the great proprictors and cowntry-gen-
tlemen of this ifland. Many there are who, with a cool in-
difference refpe&ting either the improvement of the country
or the fituation of their tenants, feem to think the chief
bulinefs of a landlord ought to be an unremitting attention
to the extenfion of his rent-roll, without ever duly confider-
ing, that if additional rents are demanded, means fhould be
furnifhed by the introduétion of better fyftems of hufbandry,
improved breeds of live-ftock, and the expenditure of money
in the improvement of the property, by which tenants may
be enabled to difcharge fuch farther obligations. But from
‘the {pirit of improvement which has of late evinced itfelf fo
confpicuoufly, it may be hoped, that in a little time no in-
flance of this kind will be found amongift this highly re-
{peétable clafs of farmers and proprietors of land.

Regarding the third clafs, or the yeomen and farmers, pro-
perly fo denominated, they may be confidered the ftrength
of the ftate. The yeoman and the farmer here alluded to
differ only in one particular; the lands which the former
cultivates are either in part or in whole his own property,

Vou. XIV.

while the latter rents his farm from another. In regard
to induftry, perieverance, and attention to bufinefs, there ie
no difference. Happy in their fituation, removed on the
one hand from the vamities and fuperfluities of high life,
and, on the other, by their honeft induftry from the fear of
poverty, the improvement of their farms cunftituting their
chief ftudy and delight, they {pend their days in independ-
ence, enjoying health and all the rational comforts of life.
It is fuppofed probable that near three-fourths of this king-
dom are pofleffed by peopie of this defcription. Fortunate
it is for Britain that this is the cafe ; for although many of
the proprietoys are entitled to much praife for introducing
improvements into various parts of the country, it is to this
clafs that the nation is indebted for thefe improvements hav-
ing become fo general and extenfive as they.now are.

Concerning the fourth clafs it may be ftated, that in all
the beft cultivated parts of Great Britain, as well as where
improvements have not become general, there are many
{mall farms. Thefe, though not as yet in every cafe ma-
naged in fuch a manner as to produce the greateft crops
which the foil is capable of yielding, are, however, much
better cultivated than they-were 30 or 40 years ago; and
the {pirit for improvements among tenants of this defcrip-
tion appears to be more general than at any former period,
although, from the want of capital, and the little attention
generally paid to them by their landlords, added to their
own attachment to ancient prejudices, they are yet very far
from having attained that degree of ufefulnefs, in an agrt-
cultural view, to which, by adopting proper means, they
may be advanced. The poffeffors of {mail farms are, how-
ever, very ufeful and valuable members of the community :
honeft, peaceable, and induftrious, they breed up their
children in the fame principles, and to thefe are the manu-
faCiurers of our ifland moft indebted for a never-failing
fupply of virtuous and ufeful artificers and labourers in va-
rious ways.

The fifth clafs, or cottagers, are thofe who either refide
in the neighbourhood of large farms adjoining to moors or
commons, or in {mall hamlets. They generally poffefs a
few acres of tillage-lands, from the cultivation of which,
together with what they receive for labour performed to the
farmers, or from carrying on the occupations to which they
had been bred, as weavers, tailors, fhoemakers, blackfmiths,
thatchers, &c. they are enabled to maintain their families,
and to be of great fervice in the bufinefs of cultivation.
Being for the moft part induftrious and inured to labour,
they bring up their children not only without becoming
burdens on the public, but in fuch a manner as to render
them extremely ufeful as members of fociety. Thefe h
Jets and cottages are alfo nurferies whence the Br
farmer draws his centtant fupply of labourers tor performin
his work.

In regard to thofe who cultivate {mall farms, adjoining to
towns or villages, they fall to be defcribed under twe cha-
raGters. The firit are fuch as refide in towns, and are en-
gaged in commerce and manufactures ; but who, for their
amufement, or the Gonvenience of their families, poifeis
{mall farms in the neigkbourhood. Thefe may be denomt-
nated good farmers only in a national point of view
Their farms are indeed in fome cafes well cultivated, the
crops luxuriant, and a full proportion, correfponding to the
extent of the farms, comes to market; but, owing to thei
time and’ attention being occupied with other matters, in
the fuccefs of which they are more immediately interefted,
few of them derive much benefit from their farming opera-
tions. The reafon is obvious ; there is no bufinefs requires
more unremitting care than that of hufbaadry ; and, though

people

a
¥
=

FARMER.

people fo employed may have it in their power to pay atten-
tion to the great leading points, as that of feed-time and
harveft, it is not to be fuppofed they cau fpare time to
fuperintend the execution of many of thofe more minute
operations, on the proper attention to which the profits of
a farm, particularly one fo fituated, principally depend.
The fecond are thote who refide in or immediately adjoining
to towns, and farm fo many acres as enable them to keep
a few milch-cows, or two or three horfes to hire, either for
the faddle or the cart. It is only neceflary to fay, that as,
on account of local fituation, they commonly pay very high
* rents for their lands, they therefore find it for their intereft
to cultivate them in the beft manner, fo as to infure the
greateft poffible crops. The ufes to which thefe crops are
applied, it wiil be readily admitted, tend in a material
degree to the convenience and accommodation of the inha-
bitants, and therefore cultivators of this defcription are to
the inhabitants of thefe towns and villages what the Britifh
farmers are to the nation at large; namely, the means by
which they are furnifhed with many of the neceffaries and
comforts of life. Without the aid of this induftrious clafs
of men, it is evident that manufactures cannot flourifh, as
thofe engaged in them in the various towns would be
obliged to difperfe, and feck thofe fupplics in the country,
without which their fituation would be in 2 great meafure
unfupportable.
While fumming up this account of the cultivators of the
Britifh foil, there yet remains a very numerous clafs to be

taken notice of ; and it is to be regretted, that the appella-’

tion of the unproduétive clafs but too well applies to them.
Thofe are, the great body of the inhabitants in the remote

arts of Scotland, who are without doubt the moit ufelefs
inhabitants in the ifland. This, however, it is but jutlice to
fay, does not arife from any fault of theirs, but from the
negligence of thofe who fhould be their natural guardians
and protetors. They are well known to be capable of
the mott indefatigable exertion and perfeverance, when
taught to look forward to any objet, either of glory or of
intereft. But they are permitted to wafte their time in floth
and indolence. Were the landholders to beftow the proper
attention, which an object of fuch national importance
merits, thefe people might, in a few years, be taught the
firft principles of improvement ; namely, the value of time,
and the beneficial effects of labour. ‘Then, but not till then,
will a knowledge of agriculture and other ufeful arts prevail
amongft them, and take the place of that gloomy melan-
«holy which was introduced under the feudal fyftem, and
has too long held its reign. The greateft part of the cul-
tivated lands in the highlands and iflands of Scotland is
pofleffed in townfhips ; that is, a number of tenants refide in
the fame town or hamlet, and rent {mall lots adjoining. Ia
almoft every fuch cafe the modes of cultivation, and the
implements of hufbandry, are probably little improved from
what they were five hundred years ago, at leait they are
wretched in the extreme, the culture of potatoes being the
only improvement of any confequence that has taken place
for ages. When to this it is added that few attempts have
been hitherto made to introduce either commerce or manu-
faGtures, it will appear evident to every Britifh reader, that
this great body of his fellow-fubjects may, with too much
propriety, be termed an unproduétive clafs, and in their pre-
fent fituation be corfidered as a burden, rather than an ad-
vantage to the Rate. There are notwithitanding many in
fhofe diftri&s who, from the extent of land which they

offefs, their knowledge of agriculture, and the attention
which they beftow on the improvement of the different
Species of live ftock, are juftly entitled to be ranked among

the number of Britifh farmers; and if proper encourages
ment was giver by the proprietors, and fuch medes of ime
provement introduced as the country is mott fufceptible of,
that number would, it is fuppofed, naturally increafe in a
high degree.

{tis of much confequence to farmers in general, that
they confider the nature of their different fituations with at-
tention, as by fuch means they may introduce the moft
advantageous fyftems of management on their farms. They
fhould likewife be particularly atteutive to the raifinge of
various forts of feeds, as well as to the practice of cropping ;
and above all to the keeping of regular accounts. See
Farm. '

Farmer, in Law, he that tenants a farm, or leffee
thereof. Alfo generally every leifee for life, years, or at
will, is called farmer. Farm, or feorme, being an old
Saxon word, fignifying provifions (fee Farm), came to
be ufed inftead of rent or render, becaufe anciently rents,.
or the greater part of them, were referved in provifions,
in corn, poultry, or the like, till the ufe of money became
more frequent. [ence a farmer, frmarius, was one who
held his lands upon payment of a rent or feorme; though
at prefent, by a gradual departure from the original fenfe,
the word farm is brought to fienify thie very eftate or lands
fo held upon farm or rent. See Lease.

As this word implies no myttery, except it be that of
hufbandry, hufbandman is the proper addition for a farmer.

Farmer, in Mining, is the lord of the field, or one that
farms the lot and cope of the kiag.

Farmer, Huu, in Biography, an eminent diviné among
the Proteftant diffenters, no lefs diftingnifhed by his populas
talents as a preacher, than by his learning as a theologian,
was a defcendant from refpectable anceftors in North Wales,
and born’ at Shrewfbury in-the year 1714 Having laid a
fuitable foundation ef claflical literature at a fchool near
Towyn, in Merionethhhire, and afterwards under the tuition
of Dr. Charles Owen, alearaed diflenting minifter at War-
tington, in Lancafhire, he was initiated as a ftudent for the
minittry, in the year 1730, at the academy in Northampton,
then under the fuperintendance of Mr. (afterwards Dr.)
Doddridge. After he had finifhed his courfe of ftudies,
very much to his own honour, and to the fatisfaGtion of his
tutor, he fettled at Walthamttow near London, as chaplain.
to William Coward, efq. and alfo as minilter to the diffenting
congregation in that village. Mr. Coward, although he
made liberal provifion by benefaétions and bequefts for the
education and relief of Proteftant diffenting minifters, was
a man of a peculiar temper, which obliged his. chaplain
fuddenly to remove, and te take up an afylum in the houfe of
William Snell, efq. an eminent folicitor of diitinguifhed.
probity and worth. Here he was hofpitably received, and:
in this family he continued, on terms of the clofelt intimacy
and friendfhip, for more than 30 years. The congregation
at Waltharsitow flourifhed under his paftoral care, and.
became one of the moft confiderable, as to the number and
opulence of its members, in the vicinity of the metropolis.
Mr. Farmer, whilft he regularly difcharged the duties of
his paftoral office, devoted himfelf to thofe itudies, that
contributed to the high reputation which he afterwards.
acquired in the department of biblical literature. The
firit publication of this kind, which attracted notice, ap-
peared in 1761, under the title of “* An Enquiry into the
Nature and Defign of our Lord’s temptation in the Wilder-
nefs,”” 8vo. The fubfequent editions of this tra in 1765,
and in 1776, afforded to the author an opportunity of
eftablifhing his peculiar opinions concerning the nature and
defign of this event, and of replying to his i a

or

at

FARMER.

For an account of his fentiments on the fubje&t, we refer to
the article TeEmrTaTion.

Inthe year 1771, Mr. Farmer publifhed his larger and
more valuable work, entitled «* A Differtation on Miracles,
defigned to fhew that they are arguments of a divine inter-
polition, and abfolute Proofs of the Miffionand DoGtrine of
a Prophet,”’ 8vo. ‘This work, the fubje@ and arguments
of which will be more particularly detailed under the head
‘of Mirac res, is entitled, as one of his biographers fays,
* to pre-eminent diftinGtion for extent of inquiry, profundi-
ty of erudition, matterly criticifm, accurate difcrimination,
and perfpicuity and fairnefs of reafoning.’? By ably ¢ refut-
ing thofe principles of demonif{m, whieh have done fo much
difcredit to the argument drawn from miracles in favour of
the Jewifh and Chriltian revelations,’’? and by eftablifhing
the belief “* that the world is under the government of God
alone, and that no created {pirits, much lefs fuch as oppole
his wife and benevolent defigus, can dilturb that courle and
order of things which he has eftablifhed,” it leads to the
proof of what is ainounced in the title, in a manner that will
ever rank it, in the opinion of competent judges, among the
moit important produétions in the caufe of facred literature.
A charge of plagiarifm having been unjultly alleged againit
the author, in confequence of this ** Differtation,’”” he took
occafion to publiih, inthe year 1772, ‘¢ An [Examination
of the. Rev. Mr. Le Moine’s Treatife on Miracles ;’? in
which he evinces the contrariety of Mr. Le Moine’s opinion
tothe fentiments which he had advanced, and farther confirms
them. Mr. Farmer’snext publication appeared in the year
1775, under the title of ** An Effay oa the Demoniacs of
the New Teftament.’”’ In this treatife he purfues the rea-
foning adopted in his ** Differtation on Miracles,” and dif-
tinguifhes himfelf as the advocate of an hypothefis, which
had been previoufly adopted and fupported by Mr. Jofeph
Mede, Dr. Sykes, Dr. Mead, and Dr. Lardner. It is
hardly neceffary to mention in this place, that thefe writers
have attempted to fhew “* that the diforders imputed to fu-
pernatural poffeffions proceed from natural caufes, and not
from the agency of evil fpirits.”’ (See the articles Demon,
Demoniac, and Demoniacar Pofefion, and Damono-
mania.) Mr. Farmer’s publication led to a freth difcuffion
of this interefting fubjeG&: and drew upon him the attacks
of Dr. Worthington, alearned clergyman of the church of
England, and of Mr. Fell, an acute writer, and a Protef-
tant diffenting minifter. Tio the former opponent Mr.
Farmer thought proper to reply ina feries of “ Letters,
&c.”’ publifhed in 1778 ; but to the latter, whom our author
has, perhaps too freely, cenfured for want of candour, he
addreffled no dire&t anfwer. However, Mr. Fell’s work
produced an elaborate treatife, which appeared in 1783,
under the title of * The General Prevalence of the Worfhip
of Human Spirits in the Ancient Heathen Nations, aflerted
and proved ;”? 8vo. (See Dzmon.) In this treatife the au-
thor has incidentally introduced feveral {tri¢tures on Mr. Fell’s
performance, and fome reflections, which have been thought,
particularly by that gentleman’s friends and the advocates
of his opinion, too acrimonious and contemptuous. In
this controverfy, which was again purfued by Mr, Fell in
the year 1785, candid perfons, whatever may be their pe-
culiar fentiments with refpect to the fubject in difpute,
have regretted that they have been able to difcover too

at a degree of perfonality, and of invective that goes be-

ond the bounds of the ‘* retort courteous.’”? Mr. Darmer
declined any further reply, and refumed the profecution of
thofe general inquiries, in which he excelled ; and from
which the literary world might have derived further adyan-
tage, if his health had continued, and if he had not enjoin.

ed on his executors the urpleafant charge of committing all
his fermons and manufcripts to the flames. Among the
latter was “ A Differtation on the Story of Balaam,”’ which
had been tranfcribed for the prefs, and a colleétion of papers,
prepared.for an improved edition of his Treatife on Mira-
cles.

Having remained fole minifter of the congregation at
Walthamftow for feveral years, he was provided with
an ingenious and able affociate, the Rev. Mr. Ebenezer
Radcliffe ; and, in 1761, he accepted the office of afternoon
preacher to the refpeCtable fociety at Salters’ Hall, in the
city of London, where for feveral years he exercifed his
miniftry toa numerous auditory. He was alfo foon after
eleéted one of the Tuefday leGturers at the above-mentioned
place, atruftee of Dr. Williams’s charities, and one of the
truftees of Mr, Coward’s bequefts. But ashe advanced in
years, he found it neceflary to difcontinue his public fer-
vices ; not withont the regret of the focieties with which he
was conneéted. In the year 1785, the clofe of his life was
embittered by a total failure of fight; for which, however,
he obtained relief by a furgical operation, to fuch a degree
as to enable him to purfue his favourite ftudies. But his ia-
firmities gradually increafed ; and in 1787 he termiaated his
courfe of honourable Jabours, having attained the 73d year
of his age. ‘ Of Mr. Farmer’s charaéter as a {cholar,”
fays one of his biographers, ‘ his learned labours afford
fufftcient teftimony. Asa preacher, he was diftinguifhed
by.a happy variety of thought and expreffion, judicious cri-

-ticifm, liberality of fentiment, and energy and eloquence of

language. His voice was uncommonly clear and harmo-
nious, and his manner of delivery; natural, manly, and im-
prefive. He was a man of ardent but cheerful piety, who
recommended the religion he taught by the exemplarinefs
of his moral condu@, and adorned it by his beneficence
and candour, In conyerfation he was lively, and often bril-
lant ; and in his manner polite and complimentary, fome-
times to excefs. On difputable topics, it was no ealy
matter todraw from him a decided opinion. Upon the
whole, Mr, Farmer is entitled to a high rank among the
diffenting minifters of his time, and {upported an honourable
{tation in the literature of the age.”’? Biog. Brit. Gen.
Biog.

Farmer, Ricuarp, D.D. a celebrated fcholar and
critic, was the fon of a hofier at Leicefter, where he was
born in 1735. He received the elementary parts of his
education at his native town, whence he removed to Cam-
bridge, and was entered a penfioner of Emanuel college :
here he took his degrees, and, in 1760, was appointed claf-
fical tutor of hiscollege. In 1767, he became one of the
preachers at Whitehall, In London he refided very much
with Dr. Afkew, a phyfician, well known for his curious
and. very valuable library, of which Mr, Farmer did not
fail to make a good ufe. He had already engaged in a
courfe of reading which laid the foundation of a work to
which he was indebted for the principal part of his literary
reputation, This was entitled ‘* An Effay on the Learning
of Shakfpeare,”’ firft publifhed in 1766. In this eflay,
Mr. Farmer undertook to thew that, in the time of our
great poet, Englifh tranflations exifted of mot of the claf-
fical writers, and by tracing even the expreflions and mif-
takes of the tranflators in thole pailages of his plays which
allude to the fubjeéts treated by theie writers, he proved
that the untutored Shak{peare had read the. tranilations
initead of the originals. The effay, which went through
feveral editions, was printed in the edition of Shakipeare,
by Stevens and Reed, in 1793.

The netice Mr. Farmer acquired by his performaace waa

> ae the

FAR

the means of his advancement in the church, and he ob-
tained the chancellorfhip and prebendal ftall in the cathedral
of Litchfield ; and, in 1775, he was chofen mafter of Ema-
nuel college, on which occafion he took his degree of D. D.
He was afterwards made principal librarian to the univer-
fity, and ferved in his turn the office of vice-chancellor.
Being a zealous advocate for the exifting order of things,
and attached to the church in its prefent ftate, he was
fingled out for preferment. Lord North conferred upon
him a prebend of Canterbury, and he was twice offered a
bifhopric by the late Mr. Pitt, but he preferred a refidenti-
ary(hip of St. Paul’s, which he exchanged for his prebend.
He was now obliged to refide three mouths in the, year in
the metropolis, which he {pent very agreeably in the fociety
of his friends, and among the firft literary charaters, to
whofe efteem his own learning and acquirements gave him
high claims. He was hoftile to certam academical reforms
which were propofed in his time, but was the chief pro-
moter of improvements in the police of Cambridge, parti-
cularly thofe of paving and lighting the {treets ; and it was
in a great meafure owing to his exertions that the cathe-
dral of St. Paul’s was permitted to receive thofe decorations
of monumental fculpture which, while they exhibit high
merit and national gratitude, will gradually clothe, and
highly adorn the prefent nakednefs of the edifice. Dr.
Farmer died in September, 1797, at Emanuel college, and
to his memory an epitaph was infcribed on a tomb by Dr.
Parr. He publifhed nothing but the effay referred to,
though, while young, he iffued propofals for a hiftory of
Leicefter ; forthis he collected only a few materials, which
were afterwards put into the hands of Mr. John Nichols.
Necrology.

Farmer, Jonn, an Englifh madrigalift of fome merit,
but not fo much as he imagined. In 1599, he publithed
his firft fet of Englifh madrigals, to four voices, profefling
in his preface to have “ fully linked his mufic to number,
as each gives to other their true effet, which is to move de-
light; a virtue,”? he adds, “fo fingular in the Italians, as
under that enfign only they hazard their honour.’ This
boaft made us examine his accentuation of the words of his
madrigals, with fome expectation of finding greater accu-
racy in that particular than was general at the time; but,
on the contrary, his affertion is fo far from true, that there
appears more falfe accent in his fongs, than in thofe of his
contemporaries. :

FARMERY, in Agriculture, the foite or place where the
farm buildings are erected, and the general bufinefs of the
farm principally carried on; the fame as home-{tead and
home-ftall. It is a matter of much importance to have it
conveniently placed for performing the work of the farm.

FARMING, fignifies the art of managing, or general
detail of the bufinefs of a farm. Itis an employment of
eonfiderable difficulty and trouble, as requiring conftant
care, united with great activity and judgment. In order to
conduct it with propriety and advantage, it demands an in-
timate practical knowledge of the various forts of cultiva-
tion and management which are in ufe, as well as of the
nature and value of every defcription of live ftock ; like-
wife a perfect acquaintance with the various methods of
buying and felling, and the conftant ftate of different mark-
ets and fairs. And, befides thefe, there are other minutiz
which are of equal importance to the fuccefs of the farmer.
The advantages of farming differ materially according to
the nature, fituation, and circumi{tances of farms, as well
as the care and management that are beftowed upon
them. It is {tated by the writer of the “ Survey of the
County of Middlefex,’’ that the profits of farming, under

FAR

the old coutfe of two crops of corn and a fallow, have
feldom afforded more than a mere fubfiftence to the farmer,
and the means of eftablifhing his children to run the fame
courfe. But even this, he contends, is no proof againft
the profits of farming per cent. on the capital employed,
which is generally fo {mail a fum, that the foregoing pro-
duce may be a large per centage, and with fedulovs atten-
tion this has been the fa; as from the accounts of parti-
cular families which he has examined, a profit of thirty-two
per cent. per annum on the fum made ufe of hss been de-
monttrated for thirty-five years in fucceffion. Indeed it
feems to be evident that a perfon who employs only 5co/.
and with it brings up a large family, and places them in a
fituation equal to his own, while himfelf retires with an
ealy fortune, could not have done it with a lefs return. But
the great improvements which have for fome time patt
been taking place in agriculture, aided by high prices for
the produce of the foil, are occafioning fuch a rapid rife in
rents ; the taxes alfo, and every expenditure are fo greatly
on the increafe, as muft, he fuppofes, at the lowering of
the price of corn and cattle, put farmers of the old {chool-
to confiderable difficulties, and become one of the means of
inducing them to adopt the new and better practice.
Changes in this way, however, except under particular
circumttances, are very flow in their progrefs.

The profits of arable farming are, in general, *tolerably:
well underitood, therefore they need not be introduced
here.

The following is a ftatement of the produce and expence
of 150 acres of good grafs-land, at the diftance of eight
miles from the London markets.

Acres.
Hedge rows, and wafte of farm ¢ 3 20
Mowing ground . . : : Sli acic.
150
Produce at one cutting forhay . 200 loads.

Average fale of ditto for five or fix years,

/. per load, is - 4 : ; } fe 1,300
After-feed fold for . 3 > : Rated MOOT
Total produce per annum. . : £1,365

Expences.

Four horfes 36/. each ve aye fue fo)
Three men all the year, at 12s. per week 93 ©
Extra labour, of mowing, hay-making,

ftacking, ftraw, thatching, and pul} 97 10

ing, at 15s. . . . :
Taxes, affeffments, and tithes . 3° -130')
Marketing 260 loads of hay, at 4s. . 52 ©
Paid for 300 loads of manure, at 25.6d. 37 10
Tenants’ repairs of buildings . 2 /5O 10
Infurance of flock, andtaxon . ela ®
Pilfermg . ~ ° . ; 2208
Frauds of hay-falefmen ; 2 Toms
Mole-catcher . - ° : t= EO
Intereft of 7oo/. for one yea ° . 35
Total expences . E : : : : - 620
Remains for rent and attention . A ~ - 745

which is equivalent to 5/. the acre.
Suppofe the farmer to pay 3/. the acre rent, it will leave
2i,

FAR
z/, which, on 1g0.acres, is 300/, a-year profit, or 40 per
ent. upon the capital employed.

Thefe charges ftand too low for the prefent period, and
the produce is in fome degree undervalued, but the profit is
in fome meafure fhewn,. :

FARMINGTON, in Geography, a large and flourifhing
townfhip of excellent land in Kennebeck county, in the
ftate of Maine, North America, fituated on Sandy river,
which, in the S.E. part, has falls, that furnifh good mill-
feats, for faw-mills, a carding machine, grift-mill, and full-
ing-mill, already erected. It has a pott-office, and contdins
942 inhabitants; 204 miles N.N.E. of Botton.—Alfo, a
large, pleafaut, and wealthy poft-town in Hartford county,
Connecticut ; ro milesS.W. of Hartford city. This town
is beautified and enriched by ariver of the fame name. In
the compact part of the town, the houfes ftand chiefly in a
ftreet which runs N. and S, along the gentle declivity ofa hill;
and about the centre of the ftreet is a large and handfome
congregational church. Thistown wasfettled in 1645, aud
has 2809 inhabitants.—Alfo, ariverof Conneticut, which
rifes in the flate of Maffachufetts, and runs fouth-eatterly
through Hartland, Bark-Hempftead, and New Hartford.
Qa the borders of Hartford county it receives a weftern
branch, which rifes from feveral ponds in Colebrook, and
continuing this courfe to Farmington, it meets with moun-
tains and turus northerly, feeking a paflage to the Conneéti-
cut. After running 15 miles, it unites with Salmon river, and
rufhing through the mountains and down a cataract of 150
feet, is afterwards called Windfor river, andin a S.E. courfe
mingles with Conneticut river, 4 miles above Hartford.

FARMSTEAD, in Agriculture, the place or fituation
where the farm offices are built, and the chief work of the
farm conducted. It is of much confequence to have it fitua-
ted as centrical as poffible in the farm.

FARMVILLE, in Geography, a {mall poft-town: of
America, in Prince Edward county, Virginia, fituated on
Appomatox river, 210 miles from Wafhington. The river is

affable by boats from hence to Peterfburgh.

FARN Isxanps, two groups of {mall iffands and rocks,
amounting to 17 in number, and fituated in the German fea,
near the Englith coaft, oppofite to Bamborough cattle, in
Northumberland... They have all their refpective names, and
produce kelp, feathers aud eggs of fowls, and fome {feals ;
fome of them bear a little grafs, and feeda cow or two. The
principal, called ** Farn,” is about a mile in compafs, and
has a fort, and a light-houfe, which being never furnifhed
with fire is.of no ufe.. N. lat. 55° 29’. W. long. 1°

!

HARNABY, Tuomas, in Biography, fon of a car-
penter in London, was born about the year 1575. Having
aturn for learning he was well grounded in the elements of
grammar, and laid a good foundation in claffical know-
ledge. In 1590 he was admitted a fervitor of Merton col-
lege, Oxford; but he foon quitted that univerfity, and
went to Spain, where he ftudied in a college of the Jefuits.
With this fituation he was diflatisfied, returned, and entered
on board the fleet of Drake and Hawkins in their expedition
of 1595. After this he ferved in the Low Countries asa
foldier, and having led an unfettled life for fome years, he
landed in Cornwall, fo much depreffed with poverty, that he
was under the neceflity of teaching children their letters for
a very fcanty fubfiftence. He neat taught a yrammar
fehool at Martock in Somerfetfhire, and from thence he re-
moved to London, and opened a feminary near Cripple-

ate, where he attained to a high a reputation, that he is
Pia to have had fometimes as many as three hundred {cho-

Jars atatime. He now futtained a confiderable rank in the

FAR

literary world, by his editions of Juyenal and Perfius; of
the tragedies of Seneca, of Martial’s Epigrams, and .of
Lucan’s Pharfalia, and took his degree of M. A. at
Cambridge in 1616.

At this period he fought for amore retired refidence,
and removed to Seven-Oaks, in Kent, where he contrived to
take boarders. His profeffion was profperous, and he
became fufliciently rich to purchafe fome confiderable
eftates in Kent and in Suffex. In the neighbourhood of
Seyen-Oaks it is prefumed the defcendants of this induftrious
and learned man lived ti!l within thefe few years, when fir
Charles Farnaby, if we miltake not, removed to another part
of Kent, or to the borders of Surrey. At the commence-
ment of the civil wars, Mr. Parnaby incurred the fulpicion
of being concerned in an infurreétion at Tunbridge in fa-
vour of the king. ‘This fufpicion caufed him to be impri-
foned in Newgate; he had a narrow efcape from being
banifhed to America, aud was, after his releafe from Nev-
gate, confined at Ely Houfe. He died at Seven-Oaks in
1647, aged 72 ; highly refpeéted as a beneiaéior to early
claflical education. Befides the works already mentioned,
he publifhed notes on Virgil, Ovid, and Terence ; and many
{mall pieces for fchocls. He drew up alfo, amon other
things, a “Syitema Grammaticum,”’ by order of king
Charles, who intended to fubititutea new Latin grammar
for that taught in fchools. Biog. Brit.

Farnasby, Gitts, a great organ-player and able
pofer, was organift of Chrift church, Oxford, aud in 1592
admitted batchelor of mufic. There are extant of his com-
pofition ‘‘Canzonets to foure voices, with a fong of eight
parts,”? London, 1598. He affilted Ravenferoft in fetting
parts to fome of the pfalm-tunes, publithed at the beginning
of the next century. There are near twenty leffons in queen
Elizabeth’s virginal book, by Giles Farnaby, little lefs diffi-
cult than thofe of Bird and Bull. Thefe great muficians,
the wonder and delight of their times, feem to have had no
conception of brilliancy or embellifhment, but what arofe
from breaking common chords into arpeggio, or rapidly
running up and down the feale in notes tied three, and often
four times. They feem, however, to have been the greateft
players in Europe, till Frefcobaldi introduced a iuperior
ityle of treating the organ, divetted of rapid and frivolous
divifions, which difgrace that moit noble and comprehenfive
of all initruments.

At prefent, the pieces of Bird, Bull, and Farnaby, muft
doubtlefs appear dryand monotonous, for want of air, variety
of movement, and modulation; yet before thefe qualities were
cultivated, expected, or indeed exifting, they fed the ear
with pure and fimple harmony, in a manner which none but
keyed-inftruments could effect; and perhaps their favour
with profeffional muficians was not a little augmented, by
the learning of their contexture, and difficulty of execution.
For however the old matters may be celebrated for their fim-
plicity and fobriety of ftyle, and the moderns indifcrimi-
nately cenfured for multiplied notes, rapidity of perform.
ance, tricks, whip-fyllabub, froth, tumbling, and mere
difficulties ; it would not be very eafy to fiad, among the
molt complicated pieces of modern times, difficulties equally
infurmouatable with thofe in which thefe old fancies and
variations abound, Farnaby was of Truro, in Cornwall,
and nearly related to Thomas Farnaby, the famous fchvol-
matter in Kent.

FARNBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the county of Henneberg; 6 miles E.S.E. of Salzun-

en.

FARNESE, A cexanper, in Biography, duke of
Parma, fon of O@tavio Farnefe, duke of Parma, and of

Margaret

come

FAR

Margaret of Anftria, was bornin 1546. He was educated
in the court of king Philip IL., and early embraced the pro-
feffion of arms, and was prefent in his eighteenth year at the
battle of Lepanto. From this period he interefted himfelf
in every thing that concerned the army 5 rejeGted all indul-
gences to which his rank might have laid claim, and was
clad more like a foldier than a prince. He diltinguifhed
himfelf in the Low Countries during the adminiftration of
Don John of Auttria, and upon his death, in 1578, was ap-
pointed to fucceed him. He now carried on his military
projects with great fuccefs, obliged Maeftricht to furrender,
recovered mott of the towns in Brabant and Flanders, and
laid fiege to Antwerp. This laft town afforded him ample
opportunity for the difplay of all his fill; at length he fhut
up the Scheldt byavatt bridge or mound, an enterprife which
occupied him nearly a year, during which he took Bruffels,
Ghent, and other places, and then entered Antwerp in a
moft triumphant manner in 1585. He granted favourable
terms to the town, and completed his conquelt of the Low
Countries, which have ever fince, till the late war, remained
under the Spanifh or Auttrian fovereignty. He now extended
his views to the Dutch provinces, openly zided by queen
Elizabeth of Eneland; and to carry his point he took the
command of the army, under the title of duke of Parma,
his father-being dead, deftined to the conqueft of England.
The difafters of the grand Armada rendered the defign abor-
tive. After this he made an attempt upon Bergen-op-
Zoom, but was again foiled. Inceffant toils and expofure
to an unhealthy climate had undermined a naturally ftrong
conftitution, and fome ferious fymptoms of dropfy began
‘to appearin him; but he was too important a character to
be allowed the repofe which the nature of the cafe required.
In 1590 he was obliged to march to France in fuccour of
the league which Philip II. was determined to fupport in
its refiftance to Henry IV. The duke performed all that
avas hoped for, and raifed the fiege of Paris, in which he
difplayed great military fill. Henry was fo much hurt at
the condué of the duke, that he fent him a challenge, to
which he replied, “that he was accuftomed to fight at his
own pleafure, and not at that of his adverfary, and that he
fhould not fhun an engagement when he found fuch a mea-
fure expedient.”” Two years afterwards he was again op-
pofed to Henry, and again victorious. This was at Rouen,
which was befieged by the king of France, but being
relieved by the duke, he immediately advanced to the fiege
of Caudebec, where he was wounded in thearm. ‘The king
now preffed clofely upon the duke, and reduced him to
rie {traits for want of provifion. Henry anticipated the
furrender of the whole army, when the duke, by unexpeét-
edly croffing the Seine in his rear, efcaped the difficulty, and
led back his troops fafely to Flanders. This retreat excited
‘the admiration of all military men, and fealed the reputa-
tion of its condu@tor. The duke was at this period in ex-
treme ill health, and demanded a fucceflor, but the king his
matter with much inhumanity refufed to liften to his requett,
and fent him new orders; but death, a ftill greater tyrant
than Philip, ftopped his career in December 1592. A ftatue
of bronze was ereéted to his memory at Rome. Moreri.
FARNHAM, in Geography, a town in the hundred of
‘Farnham and county of Surrey, England, is fituated partly
on a hill which rifes from the river Wye. A caftle was
built here by Henry, bifhop of Winchefter, brother to king
Stephen; and fince that period has continued to belong
to the bifhop of that fee. At different times the building
has been injured by fieges. During the civil wars, in the
time of king CharlesI. it was nearly demolifhed ; being
garrifoned for the monarch, it was invelted by the parlia-

FoA)R

mentary forces, who, after a long confliét, obtained poffef-
fion, and blew up and deftroyed mott of the walls and towers.
Soon after the reftoration, bifhop Merley repaired thie
greater part of the fortrefs, and fixed his refidence within its
walls ; and fince that period it has been rendered a hand-
fome, commodious refidence. The keep is called Jay’s
tower, the afcent to which is by 63 ftone fleps. ‘The area
at the fummit is now occupied as a kitchen-garden.

The town of Farnham is paved and lighted, and having
feveral good houfes, has a refpe€table appearance. It con-
tains 437 houfes, which are occupied by 2508 inhabitants.
The civil government of the place is velted in 12 burgeffes,
who aét under the bifhop. In the reign of Edward II. it
fent members to parliament. In the vicinity of the town
is More-park, which formerly belonged to fir William
Temple. Here is a curious cave, called Mother Ludlam’s
Hole, through which paffes a continual {tream of fine water.
This grotto is formed and decorated by rocks, marble,
troughs, &c. Near this park was Waverley abbey, fome
few fragments of which oaoly now remain. Farnham is
noted for its large market for oats, between Michaelmas and
Chriftmas ; for wheat about Midfummer; and for hops.
Many plantations of the latter are in the vicinity of the
town; indeed, the Farnham hops have long been celebrated
in the aanals of commerce. Here are three fairs annually.

Farnuam, a polt town of America, in Richmond
county, Virginia; 159 miles from Wafhington.

FARNI, atown of Africa, in Bambarra. N. lat. 13° 40.
W. long. 4° 8’. ;

FARNIA, or Farnta Jtalorum, a name by which fome
authors have called the bitter oak ; the cerrus egylops and
a/pris of other writers.

FARNOVIANS, in Ecclefiaflical Hifory, a fe& of So-
cinians, fo called from Staniflaus Farnovius, or Farnetius,
who feparated from the other Unitarians in the year 1568,
and was followed by feveral perfons eminent for their learn-
ing and rank. This feét did not lait long ; for having loft
their chief, who died in 1615, it was feattered abroad and
reduced to nothing. Farnovius was engaged by Gonefius
to prefer the Arian fy{tem to that of the Socinians, and
confequently afferted that Chrift had been produced out of
nothing by the Supreme Being before the creation of this
terrettrial globe. His fentiments concerning the Holy
Ghoft are not certainly known ; however, it appears that he
warned his difciples againft paying the tribute of religious
worfhip to that Divine Spirit.

FARO, in Geography, an ifland of Sweden, about 30
miles in circumference, feparated from the N.E. part of the
ifland of Gothland by a narrow channel. This ifland is po-
pulous and fertile. The principal town of the fame name
is fituated on the S.E. coaft. N.lat. 57°50'. E. long.
19° 12/.

Faro, an open, regularly built trading town of Portu-
gal, in the province of Algarva, or Algarvez, the fee of a
bifhop, fuffragan of Evora. It is fituated at the extremit
of a{mall bay, in a level and fandy territory, is defended by
a {mall citadel, and contains two parifh churches, four con-
vents, and 5000 inhabitants. The harbour is 14 league
below the town. Another arm of the river, or of the fea,
forms an ifland, in which is the fandy cape of Santa Maria,
very near the land. The traé& between the town and the
fea is marfhy ; on the oppofite fide it is flat and fandy ;
and at a diftance appear the fteep hills of San Miguel. The
road to Tavira, 20 miles S.W. of it, is uncommonly plea-
fant. Its environs produce good wine and fruits, particu-
larly figs, which are chief articles of exportation. N. lat.
37°'2" W. long. 7° 52'.

g Faro,

. FAR

Faro, a town of the ifland of Siphanto. N, lat. 36° 53'.
E. long. 24° 49’,

Faro of Mefina, a ftrait of the Mediterranean, between
Sicily and Calabria, about 5 miles wide, remarkable tor the
tide’s ebbing and flowing every fix hours.

FAROE’, a {mall ifland of Denmark, near the S. coaft
of Zealand. N. lat. 54° 57'. E. long. 12°.

FAROER Istanps. See Feroe L/lands.

FARON, a river of France, which runs into the Mexfe,
2 miles below Vifet.

FARONAGUR, a town of Hindooilan, in the fonbah
of Delhi; 35 miles ‘W.S.W. of Delhi. N. lat. 28° 30’.
E’ long. 77° 4.

FAROUT, or Far-out, Head, a cape of Scotland, on
the N. coait of the county of Sutherland; 30 miles E. of
cape Wrath. N. lat. 58° 40’. W. long. 4° 38’.

FARQUHAR, Georce, in Biography, ion of a cler-
gyman in the north of Ireland, was bom at Londonderry
about the year 1678, He received his univerfity education
at ‘Trinity college, Dublin, where he was not diftinguifhed
for fuperior talents, and from which it is fappofed he was
expelled for want of moral condué&t. He difcovered an
early taite for poetry and dramatic exhibitions, which led
him to try his powers as an actor ; but in one of his early
attempts lic had the misfortune to wound a brother-player,
by ufing his {word in miftake inftead of a foil, which put
n end to his hope in that profeflica. In 1696 he came to
London, obtained a lieutenant’s commiffion through lord
‘Orrery, and fuitained the military charafter a contiderable
time. He brought out, in 1698, a play, entitled “ Love
and a Bottle ;” this was his fir effort as a writer for the
ftage, and it obtained for him much popularity. The
*¢ Conftant Couple, or a Trip to the Jubilee,’? was his next
play, which was acted with great applanfe, and which has
maintained its reputation to the prefent day. At this pe-
riod Mr. Farquhar was in Holland, probably in his profef-
fion as a foldier; but his letters contain humorous deferip-
tions of the manners and cuftoms of that country. In 1702
he publifhed a volume of mifcellanies, confifting of poems,
letters, effays, &c.; and inthe following year the “ Incon-
itant, of the way to win him,” was acted.
a lady, whofe violent attachment induced her to pafs hertelf
tpon him as one poilefled of a large fortune. When he
difcovered the ftratagem, he freely forgave her for the
motive. He ftill continued to bring out new pieces; and in
¥7-6 the “ Recruiting Officer’? was a&ted. This has
proved one of his moft popular plays, and is now acted with
much applaufe in all our country theatres ; the humour of
ferjeant Kite, with the incidents of the captain in country
quarters, being levelled particularly at thofe auditors who
are ufually found there. * His lait piece was entitled “ The
Beaux Stratagem,” which, though compofed in fix weeks,
is reckoned the author’s mailer-piece. Notwithitanding his
fuccefs as a writer, he was a neceflitous man, and was obligea
before his death to fell his commiffion to fupply his need.
He died in the {pring of 1707, at the early age of 30, leav-
ing behind him two daughters wholly unprovided for. His
comedies, though not equal to thofe. of Congreve, are
{prightly, pleafant, and natural, interefting in their plots,
and eafy’in their dialogue. They are, however, very licen-
tious ; a chara&ter which belonged to all the comedies of
that period, and which has undoubtedly given a diitafte for
theatrical amufement to multitudes who would otherwife
refort to the theatre for inftruGtion as well as. pleafure.
Biog. Brit.

Farquuar’s J/fland, in Geography, an ifland in the Mer-

He now married”

FAR
gui Archipelago, of an oval form, about 8 miles ia circums
ference. N. lat. 11° 4'.

FARR, a fmall fea-port of Scotland, in the county of
Sutherland, on a bay to which it gives name, in which is a
good falmon fithery ; 48 miles N. of Dornock.

Farr Bay, a bay on the N. coalt of Scotland, in the
county of Sutherland. N. Jat. 58° 34’. W. long. 4° 2'.

FARRA, a town of Japan, on the S. coaft of the ifland
of Niphon ; go miles S. of Jeddo. N. lit. 367 4’. E. long.
139° 12’.

Farra, in Ichthyology, the name given by authors to a
{pecies of the corregonus, not difsriug effentially from the
lavaretus or bezola. This fpecies has had a-great number

“7 “2 . 5

of different names, and been defcribed as-five or fix different
fifh. But all the defcriptions of the feveral authors agree
to prove it to be that f{pecies only of the corvegoni, which
Atedi has diftinguifhed by the name of the corregonus, witts
the upper jaw longer and flat, and with fourteen rays in the
back fin. This name equally agrees with the feveral defcrip-
tions of the farra or ferro, bezola, lavaretus, &e. and they
agree in all the effential charaéters with one another. Sez
Lavarervs and Sarmo.

FARRANT, Ricuarp, in Biography, one of the gen-
tlemen of Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth’s chapel, and
fome time mafter of the children of St. George’s chapel at
Windfor, died about 1585. Dr. Boyce has publifhed feve-
ral of his produ€tioas, which are grave and folemn, but
fomewhat diy. and uninterelting.

FARREATION, FarreaTio, in dutigzity, the fame
with confarreation. 5

FARRENBACH, in Geography, a river of Franconia,
which runs into the Rednitz, 2 miles below Farth.— Alfo,
a town of the principality of Anfpach, 5 miles E. of Lan-

enzen.

FARRIER, a perfon whofe office is to fhoe horfes, and
cure them when difeafed or lame.

An action on the cafe to recover damages lies againit a-
common farrier, who lames a horfe in fhoeinc. him. See.
ASSUMPSIT. ‘A

Farrien’s Pouch, in the JZancge, a leathern bag, in
which they carry:drivers, nippers, fhoes for all fizes of feet,
good fharp. nails, and‘ all that’ is proper for new-{hocing a
horfe that hae loft his fhoe upon the road..

FARRINGDON, in Geography, a market-town in the
hundred of the fame name, and county of Berks, England, is
fituated about two miles fromthe river Thames,.on the we
fide of a hill, thence called Farringdon-hill. The church,
which ftands on an eminence, is an ancient-aad fpacious ftruc-
ture, difplaying different {pecimens of ityles of archite€ture.
It was. built in the- form of a crofa, but with a double
tranfept. The eaft end is remarkable forits antiquity ; the
windows being of the fame form as thofe of the Temple
church in London.. Part of the {pire was deftroyed in the
civil wars ; the remainderis very little higher than the body.
of the church.. A cattle was ere&ed here in the reien of
king Stephen, by Robert earl of Gloucetter ; but the king
{oon reduced it and levelled it with the ground. The fite
is faid to have been granted by king John, in the year
1202, for building an abbey of the Ciftercian order. The
death of king Edward the Elder is recorded in the Saxon
annals to have happened in this town, Farringdon is 68
miles diftant from London; has a good market: on Tuef-
days, and two annual fairs. The population, as returned to
parliament in 1801, was 1691; the number of houfes 309.
Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. i. 4to.

FARRUCH, Cars, a cape on the E. coa ef Majorca,

N, lat.39° 47’. E. long. 3° 18%.
EARSA,

FAR

FARSA, a town of European Turkey, in Theffaly, an-
ciently Phar/alia, the fee of a bifhop; 10 miles S. Livadia.
—Alfo, a town of Italy, in Sabina ; 16 miles N. of Tivoli.

FARSANG. See Parasana.

FARSCHOUT, a town of Upper Egypt, which is ill-
built, and bears every appearance of wretchednefs, Itis fi-
tuated on the weft fide of the Nile, at more than two leagues
from it, and is about a mile in compals. It is the refidence of
a {cheick, who is not only the governor of this town, but alfo
of feveral adjacent diftriéts, to a confiderable extent. The en-
virons are pleafant, and mott of the roads that lead to the town
are planted with Acaciatrees. Between it and the Nile lies
a town called ** Basjoura,”’ the refidence ofa kiafchef. The
harbour of both thetfe places is a {mall village, named Sahet.
Sonnini thinks it probable that Farfchout ttood upon the
{cite of Acanthus, aa ancient city of Egypt, near which
there was a facred wood. Another city of the fame name
flood on the {pot where Dafchour is now built, a little to
the fouth of Saccara. At Farfchout there is a convent of
Francifcans. It lies 20 miles S. of Girgé, the capital of
Upper Egypt. 4

FARSIDUNGA, a town of Bengal; 40 miles N.W.
of Beyhas.

FARSISTAN, Fars, Perfis, or Perfia Proper, a pro-
vince of Perfia, furrounded with mountains on the N.W. and
S., and on the E. feparated by a defert from Kerman. Irak
lies northward; Chufiftan or Chofiftan to the weft; La-
riftan and the Perfian gulf towards the fouth, aud Kerman
eaft. This province contains the beautiful city of Shiraz,
or Schiras, the capital; together with Iftakar, and the
ruins of Perfepolis. 1t is about 420 miles long from N. to
S., and 360 from E. to W. ‘Towards the fouth the air is
very hot, and the land fo fandy, that it produces little elfe
than palm-trees : towards the north it abounds with moun-
tains, on which are found the mot beautiful falcons in
Perfia, wild fwine, and wild cats. The principal produc-
tions of the cultivated parts are rice and fruit. See Per-
SIA.

FARTACK, or Farracn, a fea-port of Arabia Felix,
in the province of Hadramaut, belonging to the fcheick of
Kefchim, 132 miles S.E. of Hadramaut. N. lat. 15° 36'.
E. long. 51°. :

Fartack, or Farta/h, Cape, a cape on the eaft coaft of
Arabia Felix, oppofite to Gardefui or Gardefan ; the dif-
tance between them, in a line drawn acrofs from one to an-
ther, being not above 50 leagues. The breadth between thefe
two lands diminifhes gradually for about 150 leagues, till at
laft it ends in the ftraits, whofe breadth does not feem to be
above 6 leagues. Bruce’s Travels, vol. i. p. 315. N. lat.
15" 30!. KK. long. 51° 4!.

FARTHEL, or FarrHeriinc, among Seamen, was
ufed for the fame with what they commonly call fur/, or
furling, which is taking up the fails, and binding them clofe
to the yards.

FARTHING, a {mall Englifh copper coin, amounting
to one-fourth of a penny.

It was anciently called fourthing, as being the fourth of
the integer or penny.

Fartuine of Gold, acoin ufed in ancient times, contain-
ing in value the fourth part of a noble, or 20d. filver, and
in weight the fixth part of an ounce of gold. It is men-
tioned in the ftat. g Hen. V. cap. 7. where it is enacted,
that there fhall be good and juft weight of the noble, half-
noble, and farthing of gold.

Fartuine of Land, in Rural Economy, a term anciently
employed to fignify a certain quantity of land, but which,
at prefent, is not well afcertained. It would feem, however,

FAS

to differ from that of farding-deal, as Blount has fhewn
from an entry made in an old furvey-book of the manor
of Weit-Hapton in the county of Devon, in which it is
ftated that A. B. holds fix farthings of land at 1264 per
annum. Confequeutly the farthing of land mutt be of con-
fiderable extent, a great deal more thana rood, which ts the
quantity fuppofed by the former term.

FARTIN, in Geography, a {mall river of the county of
Kerry, Ireland, running into the Atlantic ocean, oppofite
to Valentia ifland.

LFARTREY,a river of the county of Wicklow, Ireland,
which runs into the Irifh fea, at the town of Wicklow.

FARUGANIE’, a town of Egypt, on the eaft branch
of the Nile; 18 miles N. of Cairo.

FARUNDEL of Land, a term formerly ufed to fignify
the fame as farding-dale.

FASAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Segeftan ; 35 miles S. S. W. of Zareng. ;

FASCE, Fascio, in Heraldry. See Fesse.

Fasces, in Antiquity, axes ued together with rods or
ftaves, and borne before the Roman magiftrates as a badge
of their office and authority.

Torus, lib i. cap. 5. affures us, that the ufe of fafces was
introduced by the elder Tarquin, the fifth king of Rome,
and that they were then the mark of the fovereign dignity.
In after-times they were borne before the confuls, but by
turns only, each his day; ‘ne fi ambo fafces haberent
duplicatus terror videretur.”? (Livy, lib. ii. cap. 1.) They
had each of them twelve, borne by fo many ufhers, called
lictors. (See Lreror.) Dionyf. Halicarn. lib. iii. eap. 84.

Others will have Romulus the author of the inftitution,
and afcribe the number twelve to the number of birds
which foretold him his kingdom. Others hold that he
borrowed it from the Etrurians, and that the number
twelve anfwered to the twelve nations of Etruria, who, in
creating him king, gave him each an oflicer to ferve him as
lictor. Silius Italicus afcribes their firfl invention to a city
of Etruria, called Vetulonia.

Vhefe fafces confilted of branches of elm, in the middle
whereof was a fecuris or ax, the head whereof {tood out be-
yond the reft. Plutarch relates the reafon of this difpofition.
Publicola took the ax out of the fafces, as Plutarch affures
us, to remove from the people all occafion of terror, After
the confuls the pretors affumed the falces. Cenforin, De
Die Natal. obferves, that the prators had only two, though
Polybius and Plutarch give them fix.

In the government oP the decemviri it was the practice at
firft for only one of them to have the fafces; afterwards
each of them had twelve, in the fame maaner as the kings.

In funeral proceffions it was the cuftom te carry the fafces
reverfed, as a token of erief.

FASCETS, in Gla/s making, the irons thruft into the
mouths of the bottles when made to remove them into the
amealing-tower.

FASCH, Cuarces, in Biography, chamber mnufician to
the late king Frederic II. of Pruffia, and fon of the
celebrated chapel-mafter. He fucceeded Emanuel Bach as
harpfichord player at his majefty’s concerts, His reputation
as a performer was very hig 30 years ago, and in his com-
pofitions for his inftrument the greateft fire and delicacy are
united.

FASCIA, in Archite@ure, by the workmen called
Facia, Facio, or Face, a broad lift, fillet, or band, particularly
ufed in architraves and pedeltals.

The architrave confifts of three fafcie or bands; thus
called by Vitruvius, as refembling fwaths, called in Latin

Saftie.
6 That

FASCIA.

That author admits of no fafcie# in the Tufean and Doric
architrave ; i. ¢. he makes it all plain, without any divifion
or canioning into parts or fafciaz ; but the modern architects
take the liberty to differ from him in this particular.

In brick-buildings, the jutting out of the bricks beyond
the windows in the feveral ftories, except the higheft, are
called fafcias or fafcizx.

Thefe are fometimes plain, and fometimes moulded ; but
the moulding is only, a cima reverfa, or an ogee, at the
bottom, with two plain courfes of brick over it; then an
aitragal, and laiily a boultine.

Fascia, in Anatomy, is the thin tendinous covering
which furrounds the mufcles of the limbs, and binds them
in their places. The term feems to have been fuggefted
by, the analogy of thefe parts to bandages; which they
refemble in embracing and clofely prefling the mutfcles, &c.

which they cover. The word aponeurofis is fometimes
employed. A general account of the ftruéture of thefe
organs will be found under the article Fisrous Sy/lem: we
have to defcribe at prefent the fituation and connections of
the individual fafciz. _ ,

Thefe organs, coniifting of thin fheets of a fibrous texture,
differ confiderably in their itrength at different parts; at the
outfide of the thigh and fore-arm they are very {trong ;
much thinner on the inner fide of the limbs ;_ and particularly
thick and denfe in the fole of the foot. Where they fur-
round the whole of a limb, they generally are connected to
one or more tenfor muf{cles, which have the power of
firetching them. ‘Thefe mufcles, being put in action when
the reft of the limb is exerted, render the fafcie tenfe, and
thus bind down firmly the other mufcles. ‘They are relaxed
when the limb is at reit; and the fafcie confequently
become loofe. We cannot explain very clearly how the
aGtion of mulcles is facilitated, nor how the amount of their
exertion is increafed by the preffure of the fafcie; yet fome
effe& of this kind is probably produced. Workmen often
bind their limbs when about to exert confiderable mufcular
power, on the fuppefition that it favours exertion; and
firm bandaging, as employed in furgery, ferves in many
inftances to ftrengthen parts very confiderably. A perfon
who had bruifed the mufcles of the loins fousd great bene-
fit in a firm bandage round the body; which diminifhed
his pain, and enabled him to move his trunk with eafe,
which before he could accomplith only with the groatett
difficulty. Couriers inthe Eaft, who go on foot for great
diftances, find themfelves benefited by bandaging the trunk.

The habitual compreflion of the fafcie favours the circu-
Jation of fluids in the limbs. Hence the varices, which are
common in the fuperficial veins, placed externally to the faf-
cia, are never met with in the deeper-feated veflels : and the
moft effectual method of curing thefe affections is by the

artificial compreflion of bandages. For the fame reafon,
anafarcous depofits in the cellular membrane always appear
much later and to much f{maller extent within the falcie
.thanin the fub-cutaneous cellular texture.
*_ Fafcize are conneéted, on their internal furfaces, generally
by means of loofe cellular texture, to the muicles: fome-
times, however, the flethy fibres derive their origin from the
_fafcia, which cannot, in fuch cafes, be diffle@ed away with-
_out cutting the fubltance of the mufcle. Sometimes fepta
extend frem their inner furface between the muteles down
tothe bone. Thefe add to the ftrength of attachment, and
offer a furface for mufcular origin. Externally, fafcie are con-
“neGted to the integuments by a yielding cellular ftraGure ;
nd the fuperficial nerves and veins are generally interpofed
en thefe parts.
ee The fafeia of the arm—is one of the thinneft and moft
DUaMEAY OL. XIV.

delicate of thefe orgaus, and approaching in its texture al-
moft to a condenfed cellular fubftance. It feems to arife
among that fubftance in the axilla, and is manifeftly conti-
nuous, at the frontand back of the armpit, with expanfions
proceeding from the latiffimus dorfi and pe€oralis major.
On the anterior and external afpects of the deltoid it does
not feem to exift, commencing apparently below this muf-
cle. Behind, it is continuous with the aponeurofis covering
the infra-{pinatus. Defcending along the arm, it envelopes the
brachial mufcles, and adheres to the feptum at the outer edge
of the brachialis internus. It is contiguous ia a great mea-
fure with the fafcia of the fore-arm, and has attachments to
the two condyles of the humerus.

Every where fub-cutaneous, this fafcia is covered merely
by the fuperficial yeins, lymphatics, and nerves of the ann.
It enclofes all the brachial mufcles, as well as the arteries,
veins, and nerves, which form a large fafciculus defcending
on the inner furface of the limb. _ Its texture, fimply cellular
in many points, offers manifeit tendinous fibres:ia others; and
it exhibits very clearly the continuity of the aponeurotic
and cellular ftrutcres, The pe€toralis major and latiffimus
dorfi are to be regarded as its tenfor mufcles; but they
cannot act on it with very great efficacy, as their fibres pais
very obliquely with refpeét to the fafcia.

Fafcia of the fore-arm.—This covers the mufcles of the
fore-arm. Its origins above are, from the fafcia of the arm,
with which it is continuous, from the production furnifhed
by the tendon of the biceps, and from the condyles of the
humerus. It defcends over the whole furface of the fore-
arm, terminates behind at the annular ligament, which binds
down the extenfor tendons at the back of the wrift, and in
front at the annular ligament of the hand. Separated from
the {kin by the fuperficial veins, nerves, aad lymphatics, this
fafcia covers all the fuperficial mufcles of the fore-arm,
connected to thefe generally by cellular tiflue. Near the
cubital end of the limb it adheres clofely to the muicles;
and fends aponeurotic fepta between them ; viz. in front
between the pronator teres, palmaris longus, flexor fublimis,
and flexor carpi ulnavis; behind between the extentor
carpi radialis brevior, extenfor communis digitorum, exten-
for digiti minimi, extenfor carpi ulnaris and anconeus. Oa
the radial fide of the limb it has no attachment: it is fixed
to the olecranon, and. to nearly the whole inner edge of the
ulna, where it affords origin to the flexor carpi uluaris.

The anti-brachial fafcia differs from that of the arm by its
much greater denfity and ftrength. Its component fibres
decuflate each other in varions directions, without following
any fixed courfe. The biceps flexor cubiti is the tenfor G
this fafcia, by means of the produdtion arilfing from its
ulnar fide, covering the brachial veflels at the bend of the
arm, and expanding into the fafcia at the upper and inner
part of the limb.

The annular ligament of the fore-arm may be regarded
as a part of the fafcia, terminating # towards the back of
the hand. Several fibrous fheaths belonging: to the extenfor
tendons (fee Extensor) are placed under this ligament ;
viz. thofe of the three extenfors of the thumb, the exten-
fores carpi radiales, extenfor digitorum communis, indicator,
extenfor proprius auricularis, and extenfor carpi. ulnaris.
The fheaths belonging to thefe mufcles are independent
of each other; each poffefling peculiar femi-circular fibres
of its own, They are all covered by the annular ligament,
which confifts of longitudinal parallel fibres, very white
and diftin&, and feparated by vafevlar intervals, _ Implanted
in the external and inferior part of the radius, it crofles the
back of the wrilt obliquely, covering and intimately ad-
hering, to the above-mentioned fibrous fheaths, and is at-

Z tached

FASCIA.

tached flightly to the extremity of the ulna, but chiefly to
the os pififorme.

Palmar fajcia, aponeurofts palmaris—is a very ftrong apo-
neurotic layer, compofed of firm and clofe fibres, poflefling
atriangular form, and covering particularly the middle of
the hand, Towards the wrift it arifes from the annular
ligament of the hand (which is defcribed in the article Ex-
TREMITIES), and from the tendon of the palmaris longus.
It is continued to the digital extremities of the metacarpal
bones, growing broader, having its fibres feparated from
each other, and divided at laft into four diftinct portions.
‘There are, however, very obvious tran{verfe fibres conneét-
ing together the longitudinal ones after they have feparated.
Each portion of the fafcia fplits into two divifions, em-
bracing the flexor tendons, and there inferted into the liga-
ments helonging to the digital ends of the metacarpal
bones.

From the edges of the palmar fafcia a thin continuation
is fometimes obferved to extend over the mufcles of the
thumb and little finger.

‘The palmar fafcia is clofely connected to the fkin, fome of
its fibres being apparently conneéted to the inner furface of
that organ. It covers the flexor tendons of the fingers,
the lumbricales mufcles, the trunk and ramifications of the
ulnar artery, and the digital branches of the ulnar and me-
dian nerves, confines thefe organs in their relative fitua-
tions, and gives to the palma firmnefs well fuited to its
office of feizing and holding external objects.

The two following are its tenfor mufcles.

Palmaris longus, ulnaris gracilis, petit palmaire,—are the
different names given to a long and very flender mufcle,
placed in the fore-arm near the ulnar edge of the flexor
carpi radialis. It arifes from the common tendon connected
to the internal condyle, and from the aponeurotic fepta,
which feparate it from the neighbouring mufcles. A {mall
rounded fafciculus of fibres very foon forms a thin and flat
tendon, which takes a ftraight dire€tion to the annular liga-
ment of the hand, where it becomes broader, It is inferted
by a few fibres into that ligament, but is chiefly expanded
into the palmar fafcia. This mufcle fometimes does not
exilt. It is placed between the fafcia of the fore-arm and
the flexor digitorum fublimis. It will exert a moft marked
effe€t in rendering the fafcia tenfe; and it has an equally
ilecided influence in bending the wrift.

The palmaris brevis, or cutaneus,—is a {mall thin and flat-
tened plate of fibres, generally difpoied in feparate fafciculi,
fituated under the integuments on the ulnar fide of the palm
ef the hand. It arifes from the edge of the palmar fafcia,
takes a tranfverfe courfe, and is attached to the integu-
ments of the inner fide of the palm, Covered every where
by the integuments, it lies upon the addu@or and flexor
brevis minimi digit, on the ulnar artery and nerve. It
renders the fafcia tenfe, and draws the integuments in-
wards.

Fafcia of the thigh, fafcia lata, vagina femoris, aponevrofe
erurule.—This, which is the largeft and ftrongeit fafcia in
the body, covers all the mufeles of the thigh. It is ftrongly
connected to the crural arch, in the groin, and it extends
over the bones of the pelvis into the abdomen. It is alfo
concerned in covering the femoral veffels where they appear
at the frant of the thigh, under the crural arch.

The ihacus internus is covered by athin fafcia, to which
the broad tendon of the pfeas parvus is conneéted when
that mufcle is prefent. This fafcia is attached above to the
internal edge of the crifta ilii; on the inner fide to the
brim of the pelvis ; externally, to the pofterior furface of
the crural arch, where it confilts of two layers, with the

circumflex veffels of the ilium paffing between them 5 and in
front it is continued over the os innominatum into the thigh.
This has recently been deforibed by the name of fa/tia iliaca,
Its pofterior furface covers the iliacus internus, a part of the
pfoas magnus, and of the anterior crursl nerve. Its anterior
furface is covered by the {mall fuperticial branches of the
lumbar nerves, which pafs through perforations in the
fafcia, near the crural arch; by the external iliac artery and
vein; and by the peritoneum; all which parts are con-
nected to it by the intervention of a loofe cellular texture.
The attachment of this fafcia to the crural arch is continued
only fo far as where the iliac veffels pafs out; at that point
it defcends to the thigh, forms the polterior part of the
fheath including the femoral veffels, and is continuous with
the fafcia lata. The fecond origin of the fafeia of the
thigh is from the anterior furface of the crural arch, from
the anterior {uperior {pine of the ilium to the point at which
the arch begins to be attached to the pubes. In the
whole of this {pace the fafcia lata and aponeurofis of the
obliquus, externus abdominis, are continuous, and are main-
tained by their continuity in a ftate of reciprocal tenfion.
Hence, when the thigh is extended on the pelvis, all thefe
parts are very tenfe; and they all become loofe on ee
the limb. Hence, too, in the extended ftate, the crura
arch is drawn down towards the thigh, fo as to reprefent a
convex line. ‘The third origin of the fafcia is from the
front edge of the pubes, juft over the attachment of the
pectineus, and under the point at which the crural arch is
inferted into that bone. This portion is continuous with
the iliac divifion of the fafcia. The rami of the pubes
and ifchium, and the outer edge of the erifta ilii, are other
points of origin. Behind, its commencement cannot be
very clearly developed ; it appears to arife infenfibly rer
the cellular fub{tance over the gluteus maximus, and is fir
diitinétly vifible about the tendon of that mufcle.

From the various attachments now enumerated the fafcia
defeends over the thigh, embracing all the mufeles, fending
various productions between them, and terminates at the
knee; 1{t, by mingling in frent with the common tendon of
the extenfors of the knee,*and with its lateral prodnétions;
2dly, behind, by extending over the hollow of the knee,
and being continued into the aponeurofis of the leg; and,
3dly, at the fides, partly by mixing with the laft-mentioned
aponeurofis, and partly by infertions into the internal and
external tuberofities of the tibia.

The fafcia is covered in general fimply by the integuments,
with the addition of the fuperficial veins, nerves, and -
lymphatics. The abforbing glands, through which the
latter pafs, are found in the groin externally to the fafcia.
And at this point the fafcia lata of the thigh, as wellasthe
lower part of the aponeurofis of the obliquus externus ab-
dominis, is covered by athin fheet of condenfed membrane,
conlifting of feveral layers intermixed with the abforbing
glands, and feldom fhewing a very diftin@ fibrous texture,
This has been defcribed by the name of the /uperficial fa/cia ;
and, together with the lymphatic glands, it lies exterior to
the fafcia lata.

The internal furface of the fafcia is in conta&t with the
various {uperficial mufcles of the thigh. On the front it
covers the rectus and valti, and includes the fartorius in a
peculiar fheath. Behind it is placed over the femi-tendinofus,
femi-membranofus, and biceps; fending. between the fhort
head of the latter mufcle and the vaftus externus a ftrony
feptum, implanted in the external lamina of the linea afpera,
and affording origin to the two mufcles. It is interpofed,
for a fhort {pace, between the gluteus maximus and medius;
and. afterwards the front edge of the latter has a moitex-

2 tenfive

FASCIA.

tenfive and powerful connection to it. (See Grutevs.)
In front of the edge of the latter mufcle it covers very
clofely the gluteus medius, which arifes here from the inner
furface of the fafcia, It then enclofes its own tenfor mufcle
in a peculiar fheath, which unites it clofely to the gluteus
mediusand minimus. On the infide of the thigh it covers
the mufcles, without difpatching any produétions between
them.

It is extremely denfe and thick on the outfide of the
thigh ; much lefs fo before and behind ; and thinneft on the
infide; when in the neighbourhood of the perineum, it can
hardly be recognized as pofleffing a fibrous texture. Fibres
decuffating each other in every variety of direétion, compofe
its fubftance. Vetfels and nerves perforate it in various fi-
tuations ; wiz. the faphena minor vein in the ham, and fe-
veral fuperficial nervous twigs on the front and upper part of
the thigh. The mott confpicuous opening, however, is
near the inner end of the crural arch, where the great faphe-
na paffes to the femoral vein. Here we find a large oval de-
preffion, bounded upwards and outwards by a crefcent-
fhaped produétion of the fafcia, called the /emi-lunar cdge
of the fafcia lata, or the falciform procefs. In defcribing
the origin of the fafcialata, we have mentioved its conti-
nuity with the crural arch. Tracing this from the ilium
downwards, we come to a part, near the front of the arch,
where the fafcia is folded inwards, and conne&ed with the
thin pofterior border of the tendon of the obliquus exter-
nus. This portion covers the paflage of the femoral vein,
and forms the anterior boundary of that divifion of the faf-
ela which arifes fromthe crural arch. It terminates here
by a thin, fharp, and lunated edge, of which the upper
corner is connecied to the crural arch, the concavity is turn-
ed towards the oppofite limb, and the inferior corner turns
again upwards and inwards, fo as to form another very
fharp edge, bounding the eval {pace below. The faphena
interna, or ae pailes over this inferior fharp edge to
join the femoral veia. The parts now defcribed bound the
oval opening above, on the outfide, and below. The inter-
nal boundary is wanting, and the depreflion is here continu-
ous with that part of the fafcia lata which covers the pec-
tineus mufcle. By prefling the handle of a knife clofe on
this portion of the fafcia, we elevate the femoral veflels,
fo as to fhew that they are uot here covered by fafcia lata ;
and we prove that the fafcia paffes behind them, and be-
comes continuous on the oppotite fide with the femi-lunar
edge. +,

The tenfor mufcles of this fafcia are the gluteus maximus,
(fee Grurerus,) and the tenfor vagine femoris. The
Taticr, called alfo mufculus fafcie late, and tenfeur apone-
vrotique crural, is placed at the upper and outer border of
the thigh. Elongated and flattened in its form, it increafes

radually in breadth from above downwards. Its origin is

rom the anterior and fuperior {pine of the ilium, where it
lies between the fartorius and gluteus medius ; it defcends,
palling obliquely outwards, and growing broader by the
divergence of its fibres, and terminates by a broad infertion
into the external part of the fafcia lata. It is in conta, at
both furfaces, with layers of the fafcia, which include it,
and unite into one lamina at its infertion, The thin portion
of fafcia, which covers it externally, feparates it from the
integuments : and the potterior layer from the reétus and
vaitusexternus, On its outer edge, it is in contact with the
gluteus medius and minimus.

Befides the tenfion of the fafcia lata, which is the frit
effet of this mufcle, and by which it may be fuppofed to
. aid the aétion of the fubjacent mufcular organs, it rotates
the thigh inwards; and it will affift alfo in bending the

limb on the pelvis. Suppofing the thigh to be fixed, the
tenfor vaginz may incline the pelvis laterally ; and, in
the attitude on one foot, it may rotate the pelvis out-
wards.

The fafcia of the leg, fafcia aponeurotica cruris, aponevrofe
jambiere—analogous in ttruéture, but inferior in itrength to
that of the thigh, envelopes the mufcles placed on the corre~
{ponding part of the lower extremity. Behind, it is conti-
nuous with the fafcia lata; asalfo on the outfide, where it
arifes further from the extremity ef the fibula, and from the
tendon of the biceps flexor cruris; on the infide its origins
are from the expanded tendons of the fartorius, femi-tendi-
nofus, and gracilis. ‘The crural aponeurofis defcends from
thefe points over the potterior, external, and anterior afpeéts
of the leg; but not over the internal, -confifting of the
broad furface of the tibia, which is immediately fubcuta-
neous, aid has the fafcia attached to its two edges. Below,
this fafcia is continued into the fuperior annular ligament ;
on the outfide it is continuous with the fibrous fheaths en-
clofing the tendons of the peronei; within, with the internal
annular ligament ; and behind, it is infenfibly loft tawards
the heel, being apparently confounded with the cellular
fubftatice.

This fafcia lies immediately on the mufcles, being co-
vered externally by the integuments, fuperficial veins, é&c.
It is thick aud very tenfe on the front and outlide of the
leg, binding the mufcles together very clofely. In thefe
afpects its ternal furface gives origin above to the fethy
fibres of the tibialis anticus, extenfor longus digitorum pe-~
dis, and peroneus longus; while below it is conneéted to
the mutfcles by cellular fubitance. Two fepta are continued
from it ; between the extenfor communis and peroneus lon-
gus ; and between the latter mufcle and the foleus. Beth
thefe partitions are attached to the fibula. It is much
thinner, and more loofe on the calf of the leg ; and is at-
tached to the mufcles by a loofe cellular texture. At the
lower part of the back of the limb it divides into two layers 5
a {uperficial and thinner one covering the tendo Achillis ; a
thick and deep-feated divifion paffing in front of the ten«
don, embracing very clofely the mufcles which lie on the
back of the bones, and feparating them from the muicles of
the calf. The latter is fixed to the edges of the tibia and
fibula below, and is infenfibly loft in the cellular fubftance
above.

The biceps flexor cruris, on the outfide; and the farto-
rius, gracilis, and femi-tendinofus on the infide. are the tea-
fors of this fafcia,

Superior annular ligament of the foot.—This is a rong
tendinous plane, covering and confining the tendons on the
back of the foot, and continuous wth the crural fafcia;
Arifing from the fuperior depreffion of the os calcis, where
its fibres are furrounded by much fat, it pafles inwards,
dividing into two layers, which form a fheath including
the tendons of the peroneus tertius, and extenfor longus di-
gitorum ; then continues over the tendons of the extenfor
longus hallicis, and tibialis anticus; and is fixed in front
of the internal mallgolus. A produ&ion of it is continued
over the lait mentioned tendons to the os {caphoides and
plantar fafcia. This ligament differs from that of the hand,
as the fheaths of the tendons are formed in it by the fepara-
tion of its fibres. Continuous above withthe crural fafcia,
it ends below in the dorfal aponeurofis: it is covered by the
integuments, and lies upon the tendons, and the extenfor
brevis digitorum.

The internal annular ligament—isa thick and broad fibrous
plane, ariling from the lower and front part of the malieo.
lus interaus, andinferted into the inner and lower edge at

Z2 the

FAS

the os calcis. It forms the internal concavity of the latter
bone into a channel, containing the fibrous fheaths of the
tibialis pofticus, and flexors of the toes ; the pofterior tibial
nerves and veffels, and a confiderable quantity of fat. The
crural fafcia is continued into it above; it gives origin be-
low to the abduétor hallicis ; and it is covered externally by
integuments.

Dorfal fafcia of the foot.—This is a thin, and fometimes
hardly diltinguifhable fibrous plate, arifing from the front
edge of the fuperior annular ligament ; defeending over the
extenfor brevis digitorum ; flightly attached to the fides of
the metatarfus; and loft towards the toes in cellular fub-
itance.

Plantar fafcia 3 fafcia aponeurotica plantaris ; aponevrofe
plantaire.—This is a very thick, denfe, and firm'fibrous or-
gan, covering the middle and fides of the fole of the foot.
Its origin is from the polterior and inferior part of the os
calcis ; pafling forwards, it foon divides into three portions
feparated by two deep grooves. The lateral divifions clofe-
ly cover the abdudtor hallicis, and the abductor minimi di-
giti; and grow thinner towards the front, where they are
conneéted to the edges of the foot. Theexternal is ftrong-
ly attached to the laft metacarpal bone. Their oppotite
edges are conneéted by erofs portions to the middle divifion.
The latter, which is the principal portion, pafles forwards,
growing broader and broader, and divides at the front of
the metacarpus into five pieces. Each of thefe fubdivides
into two others, which have lateral attachments to the meta-
tarfal bones, and leave an interval occupied by the flexor
tendons, lumbricales mufcles, and the digital veflels and
nerves.

The plantar fafcia is extremely thick and clofe in its tex-
ture behind; but its fibres are more feattered in front.
Many filaments proceed from its inferior furface to the flcin,
intercepting portions of fat. Its wpper furface is in contact
with the three fuperficial mufcles of the foot, and affords a
point of origin to their fibres. It difpatches between thete
twofepta correfponding in fituation to the two grooves al-
ready mentioned. Ithasno tenfor mufcle.

The fa/cia tranfverfalis—is a thin production extended
from the crural arch between the tranfverfus abdominis and
peritoneum ; fee Osriquus externus abdominis.

Bichat ; Anatomie defcriptive, vol. 2. Murray, De faf-
cia lata, Upfal; 1777. Barth, Mufkellehre ; with plates.
Cooper’s platesof herniz,part 2, withthe defcriptions. Burn’s
ebfervations on the ftrudure of the parts concerned in
crural hernia; inthe 2d volume of the Edinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal; p. 265.

Fascra, in Surgery, a bandage, fillet, roller, or liga-
ture. See BAnpaGe.

Fascia, or Mafciole, in Roman Antiquity, were pieces
of cloth, ufed by the Romans, who wore neither ftockings
nor breeches, for wrapping their legs and thighs; and they
were denominated from the parts which they covered, viz.
tibialia and femoralia.

Fascia, in Affronomy, two rows of bright {pots ob-
ferved on Jupiter’s body, appearing like {wathes or belts.

The fafciz, or belts of Jupiter, are more lucid than the
reft of the difk, and are terminated by parallel lines. They
arefometimes broader, and fometimes narrower; nor do
they always poflefs the fame part of the difk.

. Huygens likewife obferved a very large kind of
fafcia in Mars; but it was darker than the reft of the difk,
and took up the middle thereof. See Betts.

FASCIALIS, in Anatomy, a mulcle of the leg, called

alfo fartorius.

FASCICULATE, in Botany, applies to leaves when

FAS

gathered together into a tuft, as in the larch and cedar 5
and occafionally to fuch {mall leaves as form axillary cluf-
ters in feveral plants, witnefs the pink or Sandwort tribe,
fome f{pecies of Se/ago, and many others. <A faiciculate or
cluttered item is a preternatural luxuriance, or difeafe, of
that part, in which numerous branches or {tems appear to
cohere longitudinally into one, affuming a broad, flat figure,
crowded with leaves, flowers, or both, at the extremity,
and bearing occafionally a few fcattered leaves here and
there at the fides. We have feen it in the Ath, Helly,
Daphne, Antirrhinum, Ranunculus, &c. © In compound
flowers, as the Anthemis or Matricaria, the receptacles are
fometimes united into one linear feries. In the Top-knot.
Pea, Pi/um comofum, Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 38, the fafcieu-
late ftem is a permanent vatiety, propagated by feed. The
legume of this pea has no cartilaginous linmg, and is there-
fore eatable entire. —Fafciculate flowers are fuch as grow in
a peculiar form of inflorefcence, termed a fa/ciculus. See
that article. S.

FASCICULUS, a fafcicle, is one form of infloref-
cence, compofed of feveral flowers, fupported on little
ftalks varioufly inferted and fub-divided, colle€ted into a
clofe bundle, level at the top; as in the Sweet William,
Dianthus barbatus.

Fascicutus, in the Afateria Medica, a term fome-
times ufed to exprefs a certain quantity or meafure of
herbs.

By fafciculus is meant fo much as may be held in the arm
when bent, and refted on the top of the hip, Phyficians.
note it in prefeription by fa/c.

FASCINATION denotes a fort of witchcraft, fup-
pofed to operate by the influence either of the eye or the
tongue,

The word is formed from the Greek, Bacxasvev, which
fignifies the fame.

Ancient writers diftinguifh two forts of fafcination, one
performed by looking, or the efficacy of the eye. Such is
that fpoken of by Virgil in his third eclogue :

“ Nefcio quis teneros oculus mihi fafcinat agnos.”

The fecond by words, and efpecially malignant praifes,
Such is that mentioned by the fame poet in the feventh
eclogue :

“ Aut, fi ultra placitum laudarit, baccare frontem
Cingite, ne vati noceat ma'a lingua futuro.” ;

Horace touches on both kinds in his firft book of epiftles.:

« Non iftic obliquo oculo mea commoda quifquam
Limat, non odio obfcuro, morfuque venenat.”’

Among the Romans there was a deity called Fafcinus,
who prevented fafcination or enchantment. i.
FASCINE, a bundle of boughs, twigs, &c. firmly
bound together, and made of certain dimenfions, according
to the ufe for which it may be intended. Fafcines are
much ufed in field-fortification, for the purpofe of retaining
loofe foil within certain {paces, fuch as the merlons of bat-
teries, the defences of trenches, the raifing of epaulements,
&c. Simple as the formation of a fafcine may appear, for
it is nothing more than a faggot, much attention to method
is requifite towards their being rendered equal in fize, and
compaét in every part. When fuch a convenience can be
had, it is proper to make them on treftles, or any kind of
fupport placed at about two feet afunder from centre to cen-=
tre: forked fticks driven into the ground anfwer admirably,
as they receive the feveral fticks, but allow ample {pace for
the bands, which fhould be of hazle, birch, or other pli-
ant tough wood, that will bear to be well twilted. In ~

4 :

,

FAS

firftinftance a flrong piece of very {mooth cord, technically
termed a “ choke-rope,”? fhould be pafied round fo as to
draw the bundle astight as poffible, and to bring the whole
within a certain girth marked on the rope by means of any
diftingt token ; if deficient, the fafcine mult be filled up to
that meafurement. That being effe&ted, the bands are fe-
verally paffed round at leaft twice, and firmly fecured by
twifting their ends together, and by pafling them between
fome of the twigs: thefe bands fhould never be more than
a foot apart. ?

Five men fhould be employed at each fafcine; three to
make up on the treftle, and two to colle& and prepare the
twigs, bands, &c. attention being paid to placing all fhort
pieces in the middle of the diameter. Dirch and fir are
confidered the beft wood for this work. It is alfo found ex-

edient to double fome very long pieces at the ends of a
P icine, fo as to ferm a loop, through which a ftake may
be driven for the purpofe of fecuring the ends more firmly
‘than they can poflibly be when left ragged. Fafcines are
made of various dimenfions, according to the works for
which they are intended; generally, they are about 18 feet
in length, and ro or 12 inches in diameter 3 fuch being
fuited to the revetement, or facing of embrafures. When
intended for the exterior, or the ining of the merlons, they
are ufually made 8 feet long for the former, and 12 for the
latter purpofe: the diameter the fame as thofe for the re-
vetements of embrafures.

French fafcines, from 4 to 6 feet long, and from 4 to 9
inches diameter, are ufed in fieges, chiefly for the purpole
of binding works of {mall bulk, and for upholding loole
foil in parts where no great ftrength is requifite.

Water fafcines are ufually made about 6 feet long, and
from 1 to 2 feet thick: they are ufed to cover marfhy fpots,
fo as to give a firm footing ; but where the water is more
than a few inches deep, they fhould be well laden with
ftones, &c. to caufe their fettling to the bottom. Great
care mult be taken to arrange them properly, fo that the
-wheels of carriages may not be obitruéted : with this view

they are generally laid acrofs the road, having their fur-

faces well filled up with fap-faggots, which are rarely
more than 3 feet in Pk, or more than 8 inches in thick-
nefs. ;

Covering fafcines are ufed to form the tops of magazines,
or of faps. Thefe fhould be made remarkably ftrong, of
the thickett branches, and generally bound upon fubftan-
tial poles, that they may beara great weight ; it being com-
mon to load them to the depth of many feet, with al, fo
as to defeud the-interior from ricoghet fhots, grenades, &c.
The dimenfions of fafcines for this purpofe mut depend on
circumftances ; where timber can be obtained, it, of courfe,
is preferred, otherwife every en eavour mult be ufed to
render this fub{titute as firm as circumftances may admit.

The general computation is, that five men will make
two fafeines 18 feet long, and a foot thick, within an
hour, provided materials are at hand: if to be brought from
a diftance, more men muft be employed. The treitles, or,
which are better, the forked tticks, fhould ftand at fuch a

_ height as’ may enable the binders to put on the bands with
litele or no flooping. Experience proves that except for
the lining of embrafures, for which fafcines 18 feet long
are preferable, thofe of from 8 to 12 feet are the moft con-
venient ; fuch may be eafily carried, and rarely require any
cutting. It is proper, however, to have feveral 18 feet
long made, for the purpofe of binding the corners of a
merlon, &c. and to remark, that care fhould be taken not
to let two joints ftand one above the other.

FAS

The following will be found reqnifite for the conflruce
tion of a fafcine battery of two guns, or howitzers,

go Fafcines each 9 feet long,
20 Ditto 18 ditto.

This number will face the outfide, as well as the infide,
of the epaulement ; which, if the earth be ftiff, will not
always prove neceflary, at leaft not higher than the foles of
the embrafures on the outfide. In the latter cafe, five
fafcines, of nine feet each, will be fpared for other ufes.

A mortar-battery will not require any long faftines, (7. ¢.
of 18 feet,) for lining the embrafures ; but if a battery be
fo expofed as to require a fhoulder (epaulement) to cover
it in flank, about bfty fafcines, of nine feet, will be neceflary
for that purpofe. The fimpleft method of afcertainiag the
number of fafcines for a mortar battery, or for any other
plain breaft-work, is to divide the length of work to be
fafcined, by the length of each fafcine in feet ; mu'tiply py
the number of layers, and the refuit will thew the number
of fafcines required.

Every fafcine will require a picket for every yard of its
length, and one for its extremity ; thus, one of 18 feet will
require feven pickets ; nine feet, four ditto.

_Obferving, that where any fra€tional part exceeds a foot,
an additional picket mutt be piven. By adding to the above
computation 30 fafcines of nine feet, and ro of 18 feet, tlie
number of fafcines, and confequently of pickets, for every
additional gun may be afcertained. But as, owing to the
damages ufually fultained from the fire of the enemy, repairs
will often be neceflary, it is proper to have a certain number
of {pare fafcines, at fome fecure depot, for that purpofe;
and as parts of the wadding, &c. are apt to be impelled to-
wards the fafcine-revetements of the embrafures, water
fhould always be at hand for their extin@tion. Nothing is
more common than for the befieged to make a fortie, with
the intention of burning the breaching and mortar bat-
teries.

FASCINERY, in Engineery, fignifies wattled wood or
hedge-work for groins, &c. to retain the pebbles or beach,
and break the waves on the fea fhore. Smeaton’s Reports, i,
2

Tr
FASCIOLA, in Zoology, a genus of inteftinal worms;
with which man, and varions animals, are afliێted. The
body is flattifh, with an aperture at the anterior extremity,
aud another in the middle of the abdomen, or at a diftance
beneath. Some are of confiderable magnitude, being front
an inch to two inches or more in Jength, while others are
{carcely perceptible, and they differ alfo in their habits of
life, being either folitary or gregarious. They occur molt
frequently in the mucus of the itomach, or the inteftines,
and liver; or fotnetimes in the flefh immediately under the
fin, examples of which have been obferved in many kiuds
of fifhes, and in fome quadrupeds. When they occupy the
biliary canal in animals, they tumefy all the parts, and bes
come the fource of many maladies, an effeét too generally
experienced in that ufeful creature the common fheep, and
alfo in cattle. The particular kind with which the fheep is
infeited (F. hepatica } is known among agriculturifts by
the familiar name of Fluke, or Gourd-worm, and is fuffiie
ciently under{tood to be the occafion of the dropfy ; aud
alfo of that diforder ufually called the rot, ii which cafe
the wool falls off the infe&ted carcafé, and the animal
perithes miferably. Sometimes thefe pernicious internal
depredators are found in brooks, and other watery places,
where it is concluded they have been vomited up by the
afflicted fheep, and dropped into the water.

The labours of Goeze, Miiller, Bloch, and other natu
ralifts have tended, in a remote degree, to elucidate the
hiitory

PAS CIOL A,

hiftory of thofe particular {pecies which infeft the more
ufeful kinds of domeftic animals in Europe. Much, how-
ever, we are perfuaded, fill remains to be obferved, even in
this partial branch of the enquiry; there are probably
many other fpecies which infeft thofe animals already exa-
mined, but which, from their ambiguity of charaéter, or
extreme minutenefs, have hitherte eluded the vigilance of
the obferver. Again, thofe which infeft the inferior tribes
of European animals have {carcely claimed the lealt atten-
tion, and fuch as are peculiar to animals in hotter climates
than thofe of Europe appear, with one or two exceptions,
to be utterly unknown. The latter we conceive to be
numerous indeed, and this idea is rendered probable, when
we confider how exceedingly conducive the heat, even of
our own climate, is known to be to the increafe both in fize
and numbers of thofe deftructive inmates. ;

Thefe vermes are declared hermaphrodite, and the fup-
pofition is plaufible, becaufe it has been afcertained, from
accurate in{fpeCtion, that among the immenfe numbers of the
gregarious kinds which occafionally occur together every
individual is furuifhed with ovaries ; but it muift alfo be ad-
mitted that we are not fo fully converfant with the myitery
of their generation and manner of life as to {peak with
certainty even from this circumftance, although it hence
appears an admiffible opinion The fafciele adhere by
means of the abdominal as well as the anterior pore, the
latter of which is however the true mouth through which
they derive fuftenance, and from whence the intettinal
cavity may be traced to the inteftines, and thence to the
vent or abdominal pore. The inteftines are flexuous, and
the ovaries placed laterally.

Species.
* Infefling Man.

Humana. Doever.verm. Cleric. Lumbr,
* * Infefting Mammalia,
Vuuris. Orbicular; head thick, rounded, and fepa-

parated from the trunk by a circular arch; pofterior part
flexuous at the fides; tail with two cylindrical membrana-
ceous appendages each fide. Goeze.

Found in the inteftines of the fox, and is not perhaps of
this genus.

Purori. Minute and fubrotund, with two approxi-
mate pores. Goeze.

Length an inch and a half; the fpecies found in the in-
teftines of the polecat.

Metis. Thick; head triangular.

Inhabits the inteftines of the badger.

Vespertitionis. Elongated and tapering with red
inteftines. Mull.

Body reddifh fufcous, and flefhy, with minute dots dif-
pofed in tranfverfe ftriz. This kind is found in the inteftines
of the long eared bat, which it frequently penetrates and
occafions death

Hurarica. Ovate and fub-petiolate Linn. Depreffed-
ovate, whitith fufcous with the anterior part lengthened and
tubular. Fabr. &c. Limax ovate, livid with acute margin,
Amoen. Acad. Planaria latiufeula, Goeze.

Infefts the liver of fheep, where it is generally found ad-
hering by a pere at the extremity, and another in the mid-
dle of the abdomen, and occafions the diforder in fheep
called the rot. The body is about an inch long, broader
on the fore part, and terminated by a tube, the back
marked with furrows. ‘The five following kinds are con-
dered by fome as varieties of hepatica.

Boum. In the liver of cattle, Mull.

Goeze.

In the liver of fwine. Goere.
In the liver of boar. Cleric.
In the liver of deer. Borlafe.
Eour. In the liver of the horfe. Buffon.
Evarut, Body conic-ovate, with a very large aperture
behind ; mouth afflurgent and remote.

Inhabits the fLomach of the ftag, and is gregarious.
e** Infofling Birds.

Bitts. In the gall-duét of the black eagle.

Body thick, and gregarious.

Bureonts. Inhabits the inteflines of the buzzard.
Goeze.

Body with two pores,

Mitvr. Body flat with a double pore ; inteftines fron«
defe. Goeze.

Small. Found in the inteftines of the kite.

Strricis. Body roundifh, witha fingle pore. Goeze,

In the inteflines of the kite. Perhaps not of this
genus.

Pur:yis. Very minute; thape various, inclofed in a
cyft, and tenacious of life. Braun.

Found in the thorax of the owl, (ftrix aluco) and alfo
under the fkin in the common hedge hog. Probably not
of this genus.

Awnatis. Reddifh and roundifh, with a fingle pores
te Cuculanus conoideus, Bloch. Hirudo fafetolarts.

Ail. :

An internal worm, f{uppofed to be of this genus, and
which is found in the intettines of the common dometlicated’
duck. The body is {mall, pellucid, and fometimes white ;
the anterior part ending in a truncated triangle, the pofterior
rounded ; inteltines black and flexuous; ovaries lateral.

Anseris. Oblong-ovate, with oppofite papilla placed
in two rows; pores approximate.* Froelich.

Found in the rectum of the common goofe.

Gruis. Inhabits the inteftines of the crane. Bloch.

This may not be fpecifically diftinét from fafciola anatis.

Arpex. Sub-orbicular. Goeze. ;

Found in vaft numbers in the inteftines of the bitterny
which it often penetrates.

** * * Infefling Reptiles,

Saramanprz. Oblong, fub-linear, refembling an vil-
flafk ; pores remote. Froelich.

In the rectum of the falamander.

Rana. Sub-clavated, mouth feffile. Goeze.

Found in the inteflines, lungs, and liver of the frog ; is
very flow in motion, contracting itfelf into a globular form,
and when dilated is broad and flattifh.

Uncinurata. Pofterior part of the body armed with
two elaftic hooks. Braun.

Inhabits the frog under the common integuments of the
abdomen, and occurs either folitary, or in number; its
motion refembles that. of the common leech.

Xe * Infefling Fifbes. “i
Bivopis. Elongated, round, and caudated, with a pa-
pillary lateral pore. Mill. Zoega, &e.
Infefts the inteftines of various fifhes ; the body is of equal
thicknefs, with papillary pores; the anterior one larger, and
extending over the fore part of the body ; tail filiform, and

Porcorym,
Apri.

Crrvi.

Braun:

5

half as long as the body.
Ditiscna. Elongated, round, with a projecting exca-

vated lateral pore. Zoega.
Infefts the inteftines of various fifhes; the body is
wrinkled, and tapering behind; the anterior part. fome-
what

FAS

what bifid at the end, the divifions unequal, and excavated

at the tip.
AnGuiti#. Inthecommon eel. Lewenh.
Scapra. Elongated, round, tranfverfely ftriated, and

ferratulate at the margin. Mill.

In the ftomach of the whiting pout. The body is
fearcely pereeptible to the naked eye; pellucid, and pro-
truding from the mouth a hard and hollowed {pharule,
with a white double filiform veffel, and another blackith
flexuous one filled with eggs extending the whole length of
the body.
wae: Linear, and flightly deprefled; no neck.

ull.

Length half an inch, colour cinereous, form rounded at
the extremities. t

Brennirt. Linear, and flat; neck inflated with a di-
vergent truncated bafe. Bloch.

Found in the inteftinal mucus of the viviparous blenny ;
fize fmall, being almoft imperceptible to the naked eye;
colour white, pellucid, and generally curved into an obtule
angle; lateral pore large, placed in the angle of the body,
and prominent when in motion with two white veficles.

Scorpius. Elliptic, and perforated at one end with a
minute papilla; no neck. Mull.

In the inteftines of the Father lather; invifible to the
naked eye, pellucid, whitifh grey, obtufe at each end, and.
filled with eggs.

Pratessz, Elliptic, and green. Miill.

Extremely minute, opaque, divided into fix alternate
{paces of green and white ; terminal pore large, lateral one
placed in the middle ; eggs deep green. Found in the in-
teftinal mucus of the plaife.

Lucioprercea. Ovate-oblong, aud flightly ventricofe ;
oan fhort; margin of the terminal pore dilated and fmooth.

ull.

Size of a grain of fand; colour brownifh ; neck cylindri-
cal; lateral pore flightly prominent, and narrower down-
wards. Inthe inteftines of perca lucioperca.

Pexc#. Ovate, ventricofe; neck fhort ; terminal, pore
nodulous at the margin. Miill.

Found in the inteftines of the ruffe, and in fize rather
exceeding the former. The body is brown; neck white
and cylindrical, granulated, and terminated by a pore ;
Jateral pore feated at the bafe of the neck; bedy obtufe
behind.

Lacena. Body rotund; neck long. Braun.

In the inteftines of the common river perch.

Varica. Linear, round, neck divergent, obtufe, and
perforated beneath the tip. Mull.

Found in the ftomach of the falmon. This is of an
elongated form, often diverging into an acute angle, fmooth
when extended, and rather wrinkled when contra¢ted ; late-
ral pore nearly in the middle; a double filiform white vefi-
cle down each fide, and connected below with two white
opaque bodies of an ovate form; eggs numerous, fcattered,

yellowifh green, and contained in a flexuous hyaline tube ;

each of the eggs inclofed in a pellucid membrane.
Pied Elliptic, hyaline, and rufous in the middle.
ull.

Infefts the inteftines of falmo eriox; the fize very
‘minute; anterior part of the body retraétile, and exten-
‘file, including a filiform conglomerated inteftine, and two
veticles.

_ Farionis. Oblong and a little depreffed; the fore
“part with fix equal lobes on the margin. Mull.

In the inteftinal mucus of the falmon. The body is

yellowifh, and about the twelfth part of an inch in length ;

FAS

the margin obtufely crenulated ; the anterior lobes nearly
{quare and membranaceous. A

Umsraz, Oblong, flat, with a narrower retractile neck,
O. Fabr.

Found in vaft numbers beneath the fkin in the back of
the falmo umbla. The length is one-eighth part of an
inch; the body is whitifh, and refembling a flafkk, broader
behind, and obtufely truncated, the margin acute.

Luci. Lanceolate, with a crenated depreffed margin ;
neck long and round. Mill. ,

An inch and a half in length, the colour bright red;
found in the ftomach and cefophagus of the common
pike.

HAcecis.
Leuwenh.

Bramz. Oblong, round, tapering, and obtufe at the
bafe ; neck rounded and flightly incurved. Mull.

In the inteftines of the bream. The body is white, the
lateral pore at the bafe of the neck.

Jests. Body ovate, the anterior part narrower. Bloch.

Found in the inteftines of cyprinus jefes, and refembles
a flaflk, or long-necked bottle. :

Truttz. Oblong, with two white lucid orbicular
fpots behind the lower aperture. Freel.

In the reétum of the trout.

Found in the ftomach of the herring,

Cravata. Body roundifh, livid, wrinkled, and clavated °

behind. Linnzan Tranf.

Found in the ftomach of the feomber pelamis, in the
Paciticocean. The length is about two inches; the body
whitifh brown, with a blueifh caft, and annulated with fine
wrinkles; towards the lower extremity fpherically gibbous,
and terminating in an aperture; neck flender ; pore larger
than the terminal one.

Spart. Inthe mucus of f{parus aurata, &c. La fa/ciole
de la dorade, Bofc.

Brunneae Inthe mucus of fparus aurata. La fa/ciole
bruné, Bofc. A
Caupata. In the mucus of fparus aurata. La fa/ciole

caudate, Bofc.
RX RHE Infefting Worms.

Loricrints. Body oblong, white; mouth with tranf-
verfe papille. O. Fabr.

Found in the inteftines of the cuttle-fith.

FASHION. The word is French, fagon, which fig-
nifies making.

Fasuion is particularly ufed among Artificers, for the
trouble, time, and labour, employed in a piece-of work,
particularly of filver or gold.

It is by the fafhion that the workmen’s wages, or falary,
are regulated.

The word is alfo ufed to denote the prevailing mode
or tatte.

Faswions, a name fometimes given to the farcin.

Faswion-Pieces, in Sea Language, two pieces of tim-
ber which form the breadth of a fhip at the itern, and are
the outmoit timbers of the ftern on each fide, forming its
fhape, and united to the ftern-poft, and to the extremity
of the wing-tranfom, by a rabbit, and a number of {trong
nails or frikes driven from without.

FASIANO, ia Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Bari; 12 miles S. of Monopoli.

FASIKANTI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon;
zo miles W. of Xenday.

FASSETS, among Jewellers. See Facets.

FASSUS, in our Old Writers, is ufed for a faggot of
wood. . It feems to come from the French fai/eaw.

FAST, ,

ya

FE AS-6: oF:

FAST, a fpace of time wherein a perfon takes little or
no food.

For the advantages of falting with regard to health, fee
ABSTINENCE.

The Bramins never bleed their fick, but make them fatt.

Vast is peculiarly ufed for an ab{linenee on account of
religion, or a fpace of time wherein the church prohibits
the ufe of food, or at leaft reftrains it to certain kinds,
and to certain hours.

Vafting has been praétifed by moft rations from the re-
moteftiantiguity. The Jews obferved fafts from their firlt
ettablifimem. Mofes appointed one folemn fait before the
feaft of expiation: and others were initituted by the fol-
lowing prophets on different occafions ; fo that in the ume
of Zacharias there were four regular fatts, viz. in the
months of June, July, September, and December. To
thefe they have fince added three others, in memory of fore
diitrefies they have at different times fuffered. Befides
thefe there are various kinds of faits, fome for devotion,
others for the new moons; and fome among them kept an
anniverfary faftyin memory of the tranflation of the Septua-
gint, in order to expiate the bafe compliance of their doc-
tors for a foreign prince, and the outrage offered to the dig-
nity of their law, which, in their opinion, was only defigned
for themfelyes: ‘* Non fecit taliter omnrnationi.”’

There is no occafion to deferibe exaétly the various ob-
fervances that accompanied thefe aéts of humiliation, as
they are generally known. Their abitinence lafted twenty-
feven or twenty-eight hours, beginning before fun-fet, and
not ending till fome time after fun-fet the next day. On
thefe days they were obliged to wear white robes, in token
of their grief and repentance ; to cover themfelves with
fackcloth, to lie on afhes, to {prinkle them on their head,
and on great occafions to cover the ark of the covenant. In
order to complete their abitinence, they eat nothing at night
but alittle bread fteeped in water, feafoned with falt, and
bitter herbs and pulfe. Some of them continued the fol-
lowing day and night praying in the temple, or fynagogue,
bare-footed, and occafionally fcourging themfelves.

Thofe that would be particularly informed of thefe
aufterities may confult Maimonides, Leo of Modena, and
Buxtorf.

The Egyptians, Pheenicians, and Affyrians, neighbours
to the Jews, had alfo their fafts. ‘The faft of the Ninivites,
occafioned by the preaching of the prophet Jonas, is too
well known to be infifted on.

Nor were the Greeks without their fafts. Ariftotle in-
forms us, that the Lacedzmonians having refolved to fuc-
cour a city of the allies, ordained a general faft through the
whole extent of their dominions, without excepting the do-
meftic animals ; and this they did for two ends, one that
they might {pare provilion in favour of the befieged, and
the other to draw the bleffing of heaven on their enterprize.
The Athenians, among others, had the Eleufinian and
Thefmophorian fafts, the obfervation of which was aceom-
panied with ftri& fafting, particularly among the women,
who fpent one whole day fitting on the ground in a mourn-
ful drefs, without taking any nourifhment ; on which ac-
count this day was called verse.

In a word, all the Pagan deities, whether of the male or
female fex, required this duty of thofe that defired to be
initiated into their mytteries, of the priefts and priefteffes
that gave the oracles, and of thofe that came to confult
them.

In italy fafting was obferved much in the fame way.
The inhabitants of Tarentum, being befieged by the Ro-
mans, demanded fuccours from their neighbours of Reg-

gium, who itamediately ordained a fa throughout their
whole territories, with the fame intention as the Lacedx-
monians, viz. to render the gods favourable, and to fpare
provifion for their allies. Their enterprize having had good
fuccefs by their throwing a convoy with provifions into the
town, the Romans were obliged to raife the fiege ; and the
Tarentiacs, in mempry of this delivery, inflituted a perens
nial faft. So that here we have two fafts for the fame
event ; that obferved by thofe who were the means of ob~
taining the deliverance, and that obferved by them who re-
ceived it. ‘The Roman fenate, Livy tells us, being alarm-
ed by many prodigies, happening in a train one after an-
other, ordered the decemyiri to confult the Sibyliine books ;
who having executed their commiffion, declared, that to pre-
vent the fatal confequences, it was necefiary to eftablifh a
fait in honour of Ceres, to be obferved every fifth year.
That Jupiter had ftated fafts at Rome, appears from the
following paflage of Horace, where a mother is intro-
duced praying to Jupiter for the recovery of her fon from
a quartan ague, and promifing that the patient fhould purify.
himfelf in the Tiber on the morning of the falt-day ijacred
to that god: .

“ Frigida fi puerum quartana reliquerit, illo
Mane die quo tu indicis jejunia, nudus
In Tiberi ftabit.’”’

Fafting muft have been very facred at Rome, fince we find
it practifed by kings and emperors. Nua Pompilius,
Julius Czfar, Auguftus, Vefpafian, and others, we are told,
had their ftated faft days; and Julian the Apoftate was fo
exact in this obfervance as even to outdo the priefts them-
felves, and the moft rigid philofophers.

In a word, every country, nation, and religion have had
at all times their prielts, druids, g Micon and philos
fophers, who diftinguifhed thentioe by their frugality,
aufterity, and abftinence. The practice of the Pythago--
reans is well known; their whole life was a continued lent,
but with this difference between them and us, that they be-
lieved the ufe of fifh equally unlawful with that of fleth.
They lived entirely on bread, fruits, and pulfe, with great
fobriety, in imitation of their mafter Pythagoras ; though in
this ref{pe& they mult have fallen far fhort of him, if we may
believe Diogenes Laertius, who fays that he continued his
fafts for no lefs than forty days. Apollonius Tyaneus, one
of his moft famous difciples, could never by all his endea-
vours equal his matter in this point, though his fafts greatly
exceeded the ordinary intervals.

The gymnofophiits or brachmans reckoned fafting among
their religious duties. Father Le Compte, in his memoirs,
tells us, that the Chinefe have at all times had regular faits
with form of prayers, for preferving them from barrennefs,
inundation, earthquakes, and fuch like public calamities.
The Mahometans too, who poffefs fo large a part of Afia
and Africa, have times of fafting, called by them ramadan
(which fee) as regular as we have lent; and their dervifes
are remarkable for their mortitication and fafting. Compte,
Mem. tom.il. p. 142.

The Turks are to ferupulous on the point of fafting, that
they will not at thofe times fo much as take the fmell of
any perfume by the nofe. They hold that odours them-
felves break falt. If they bathe, it is forbid to put the
head under water for fear of {wallowing any of it ; and as
for women, they are forbid to bathe at all on faft-days, for
a reafon peculiar to the fex.

It was not unufual among the ancients to faft on account
of dreams. Ny

Mr. Bayle obferves, that whole books have been written

on

FAS

on long fafting. Cyriacus Lentulus has compofed one, “ De
Prodigiolis Inediis.”” Fortunius Licetus, profeffor of medi-
‘cine at Padua, befides a great many others, has publifhed
one book in folio, * De us qui diu viyunt fine Alimento,’’
or © De Feriis Altricis Anime.’’

Though falting is not pofitively enjoined by Chrift or his
Rpoftles, a practice prevailed among the firit Chriftians of
joining abftinence with their prayers, efpecially when they
were engaged in affairs of extraordinary importance. Put
in the moit ancient times we find no mention of any public
and folemn fafts, except upon the anniverfary of Chrifl’s
crucifixion. However, in procefs of time, days of falting
were gradually introduced, firft by cuftom, and afterwards
by poditive appointment ; though it is not certain what
thofe days were, nor whether they were obferved in the tint
century. Mr. Mofheim acknowledges, that thofe who af-
firm, that in the time of the apoftles, or foon after, the fourth
and fixth days of the week were obferved as ‘alts, are not
deftitute of {pecious arguments in favour of their opinion.
Ecclef. Hilt. vol. i. p. 131. Svo.

Towards the clofe of the third century fafting was held in
much greater efteem, from a notion that it ferved as a fecu-
rity againft the power of demons, who directed their ftrata-
gems principally againit the luxurious. ‘The Latins, con-
trary to the general cuftom, fafted the feventh day of the
week ; and as the Greeks and Orientals refufed to follow
their example, this afforded a new fubje¢t of contention
between them. About the end of the fourth century this
notion ftill more generally prevailed ; and fafting was alfo
confidered as the moft effeGtual means of appeating the
anger of an offended deity. Hence proceeded the eitablifh-
ment of this practice as an indifpeniible duty, by exprefs
laws enacted by the rulers of the church. ‘The Quadrage-
fima or Lent faft was held more facred than all the rett,
though it was not yet confined to a certain number of days.
But as fafting became more general, it was contrived to
render it more eafy ; and therefore a mere abftinence from
flefh and wine was judged fufficient : which opinion pre-
vailed from this time, and became univerfal among the La-
tins. Ib. vol. i. p. 293. 398.

The ftri&t canonical fait only allows of one meal in
twenty four hours. IF. Thomaflin obferves that the ancient
faft was to fup without dining, i.¢. only to take one meal,
and that not till atter noon: adding, that to dine without
fupping, was a breach of the faft. The practice of the
Latin church was to faft thirty-fix days in the year; which
is, as it were, the tithe of the year.

Tertullian wrote an exprefs treatife, ‘‘ De Jejuntis,’’ of
fafts, to jupport the new laws of fafting, which the Mon-
tanifls were for impoling.

The ancient catholics allowed of no obligatory or com-
manded fafts befides that preceding Ealter, fince called
Lent ; the terms of which were to forbear eating till the
evening. —

The other fafls obferved were only of devotion ; fuch
were the fourth and fixth feria ; # e. Wednefdays and Fri-
days. .

This Lent faft was called /fation. Befides thefe there
were occafional falts enjoined by the bifhops, &c. See
Asstinence and Lenr. ;

~ Some introduced the xerophagy into fafts; that is, the
ufe of dried fruits for their meals ; and made a practice of
abftaining not only from all meats and wines, but alfo from
fucculent fruits, for the whole twenty-four hours ; and fome
reduced themfelves to bread and water: but this was more
than was commanded,

Vow. XIV.

FAS

Fast-days are thofe appointed by public authority, to
be obferved by falting and humiliation. See AzstineNce,

Fasr-ground, or Fasr-country, a term ufed by fome of
our Miners to exprefs what others call the fhelf'; which fee.

FASTAGE, fignifies the feagh, fleet, or refufe {mall
{par from a vein.

FASTERMANS, or Fastrinc-men, q-d. homines ha-
bentes, was ufed in our ancient cuftoms for men in repute
and fubftance ; or rather for pledges, fureties, or bond{mea,
who, according to the Saxon polity, were faft bound to
anfwer for one another’s peaceable behaviour.

FASTI, in Antiquity, the Roman calendar; wherein
the feveral days of the year, with their feafts, games, and
other ceremonies were exprefled.

The Romass had their greater and Jeffer fafli. The creat
falti were called the fafti of the magiftrates; and the leffer,
the falti calendares,

The faiti calendares; which were what was properly aud
primarily called faiti, are defined by Feitus Pompeius to be
books containing a de!cription of the whole year 258.26 ephe-
merides, or diaries, ditinguifhing the feveral kinds of days,
feiti, profefti; fafli, nefalti, &c, he author of thefe was
Numa, whe committed the care and direétion of the fai
to the ‘pontifex maximes,’’ whom the people ufed to go
and confult on every occafion. This cuitom held till the
year of Rome 450, when C. Flavius, fecretary to the pon-
tilfices, expofed in the forum a lift of all the days on which
it was lawful to work; which was fo acceptable to the
people, that they made him curvle edile. Liv. lib. ix.
cap. 46. Ed. Crevier. tom. i. p. 573.

Thefe leffer fafti, or fafti calendares, were of two kinds,
urbani and ruftici. The fafti urbani, or fafti of the city,
were thofe which obtained, or were obferved in the city.
Some will have them thus called becaufe they were expofed
publicly in divers parts of the city ; though by the various
inferiptions or gravings thereof on antique ftones one would
imagine that private perfons had them likewife in their
houfes. Ovid undertook to illuftrate thefe fafti urbani, and
comment on them mm his ‘ Libri Faftorum,” whereof we
have the fix firit books {till remaining ; the fix laff, if ever
they were written, being loft. Befide Ovid, feveral other
authors had undertaken the fame fubjeét, particularly
L. Cincius Alimentatus, Fulvius Nobilior, Maturius Sabi-
nus, Cornelius Labeo, C. Licinianus, and Nifus; of all
whom Macrobius makes mention in his “ Saturn.?? and
preferves fragments of each; befides a work of one Bebius
Marcus, intitled, ** De Faftis Diebus,’’ quoted by Ful-
gentius, ‘* De Prifco Sermouie.”’

In the greater faiti, or fafti of the magiftrates, were ex-
preffed the feveral feafts, with every thing relating to the
gods, religion, and the magiftrates; the emperors, their
birth-days, offices, days confecrated to them, and feafts
and ceremonies eftablifhed in their honour, or for their prof-
perity, &c.

With a number of fuch circumftances did flattery at
length {well the fafti, when they became denominated magni,
to diltinguifh them from the bare calendar, or faiti calen-
dares.

In the fafti ruftici, or country fafti, were expreffed the
feveral days, feafts, &c. to be obferved by the country
peoples for as thefe were taken up in tilling the ground,

ewer feafts, facrifices, ceremonies, and holidays, were en-
joined them than the inhabitants of cities; and they had alfo
fome peculiar ones not obferved at Rome. .

Thefe ruftic fatti contained little more than the ceremonies
of the calends, nones, and ides; the fairs, ficns of the
zodiac, increafe and decreafe of the days, the tutelary gods

>
Aa of

FAS

ef each month, and cértain diredtions for rural works to
be performed each month.

Tasti was alfo a chronicle or regifter of time, wherein
the feveral years were denoted by the refpeétive confuls, with
the principal events that happened during their confulates ;
thefe were called alfo fafti confulares, or confular fafti.

Osuphrius Panvinius, Pighius, Sigonius, and Janflen
d’Almelooven,, have given us the fafti confulaves; the
two firft, with long and learned comments, wherein are ex-
preffed not only the confuls, but alfo the di€tators, magiltri
equitum, triumphs, and ovations. Pighius even adds as
many of the other officers as he could find, viz. pretors,
tribunes, &c. J. d’Almelooven confines himfelf to the con-
fuls alone.

Fasri is ftill applied to the archives and public records
wherein are kept hiftorical memoirs of public and remark-
able events that have happened to a people.

In the like fenfe the martyrology is called the facred fafti
of the church.

The Jefuit Du-Londel has compiled the fafti of Louis
le Grand, &c.

Fasti, or Dies Fafti, alfo denoted court days.
Day.

The word fafti, faftorum, is formed of the verb furi, to
Speak, becaufe, during thofe days the courts were open,
caufes might be heard, and the praztor was allowed fari, to
pronounce the three words, do, dico, addico; the other
days wherein this was prohibited were called nefa/fi: thus

Ovid,

s¢ Tlle nefaflus erit, per quem tria verba filentur:
Faftus erit, per quem lege licebit agi.”

See

Thefe dies fafti were noted in the calendar by the letter
F: but obferve, that there were fome days ex parte fatti,
partly fatti, partly nefafti; ze. juftice might be diftributed
at certain times of the day, and not at others. Thefe days
avere called intercifi: they were marked in the calendar thus;
F. P. faftus primo, where juftice might be demanded during
the firft part of that day.

FASTIGIATI Furni, in Chemifiry, furnaces fitted
with feveral aludels.

FASTIGIUM, in Archited@ure, the fame with pedi-
ment. :

FASTING Men. See Fastermans.

FASTNEL, in Geography, the name of a rock in the
Atlantic-ocean, not far from Cape Clear, on the fouthern
coaft of Ireland. N. Jat.51°17'. W. long. 9° 30!.

FASTOLFF, Joun, in Biography, knight and knight-
banneret, a renowned general, governor and nobleman in
France during our conquefts in that kingdom, under
Henries IV. V. and VI. of England, was fon of John
Faftolff, efq. of Yarmouth, and of Mary, daughter of
Nicholas Park, efq. and born, it is prefumed, about the
year 1377- He is fuppofed to have had a good education,
and his father dying while he was young, he became ward
to John duke of Bedford, who was afterwards regent of
France. The firft public employments in which Faftolff was
engaged feem to have been under Thomas of Lancafter,
afterwards duke of Clarence, the then lord-lieutenant of Ire-
Jand, which was in 1401, and it is probable he was with
him again in that country in 1405, 6, and 8, as in the begin-
ning of 1409,he was married in that kingdom toa rich young
widow of quality, named Milicent, lady Caftlecomb, re-
li of fir Stephen Scope. The marriage was folemnized
on the feaft of St. Hilary, and Fattolff obliged himfelf in
a bond of a rooo/, to pay her an hundred pounds a-year in

EAT

the nature of pin-money during her life, There feems good
evidence that fhortly after his marriage he went to France,
where he was, according to the teftimony of Caxton, full
forty years, fo that he could not have been a companion
with, or follower and corrupter of prince Henry ; of courfe
Shakefpeare could not have drawn his fir John Falttaff from
this gentleman: “The one,”’ fays the writer of the article
in the Biographia Britannica, *¢is an old humourous, va-
pouring, and cowardly, lewd, lying, and drunken de-
bauchee, about the prince’s court, when the other was a
young and grave, difcreet and valiant, chalte and fober
commander abroad, continually advanced to honour and
places of profit, for his brave and politic atchievements,
military and civil; continually preferred to the truft of one
government or other, of countries, cities, towns, &c. or as
a general and commander of armies, in martial expeditions
while abroad, made knight-banneret in the field of battle;
baron of France, and knight of the garter in England,’’
&c. &e. In the year 1413 Faltolff had the caftle and do-
minion of Veires in Gafcony committed to his cuftody and
defence. He was afterwards engaged in the celebrated
battle of Agincourt, in which, it is faid, he fignalized him-
{elf by taking the duke d’Alengon prifoner. For his emi-
nent fervices in this and other great battles he received. the
honour of knighthood, and the manor and demefnes of
Fritenfe, near Harfleur, beftowed upon him during life,
For various other inftances of high military prowefs he was
elected, about the year 1425, knight of the garter. In O&o-
ber 1428 fir John Faftolff with others were difpatched with
fupplies to the Englifh army who were befieging Orleans ;
two immenfe French armies were fent to prevent the fuccours
being delivered ; thefe, by the valour of fir John, were de-
feated, and he accomplifhed the tafk for which he was fent
without difficulty. "his circumftance has been celebrated
as almoft unparalleled in hiftory. After frefh viétories, and
much aétive fervice in France, where many years he had the
government of Normandy, he returned to his native home,
and though living in retirement he was a zealous friend of
thofe to whom he could be ferviceable. He died m the
year 1459 or 60, and was buried in a chapel of the abbey
church of St. Bennet in Norwich; fo highly was he vene-
rated, that John Beauchamp, lord ef Powyke, appointed by
his will a chaunt efpecially for the foul of fir John Faftolff,
Biog. Brit.
FAT, in Anatomy. See Ceritutar Subfance.

Fat, Animal. For the chemical properties of this fub-
ftance, fee the articles O11, anima/, and Sewacic acid.
See alfo Apeps.

The way of preparing fat for medicinal purpofes is to
take out the fkins, veins, fibres, &c. wafh it till it be-
comes unbloody ; then melt it by a gentle heat, with a little
water, till the water is evaporated; ftrain, put it into
an earthen veffel where it will fix, and preferve it from
air.
Fat of Whales. See Buusper.

Fart, in Agriculture, is a term which is frequently ap-
plied to fuch neat cattle and fheep ftock as are ready forthe
butcher. :

Far, in Rural Economy, is aterm which is often applied
to the large wooden veffels in which various forts of liquors
are contained, while they, undergo the ftate of preparation,
as ale, beer, cyder, &c. It is, however, more frequently
written vat. See Vat.

And it likewife fignities, with, brewers and maltfters, the
large wooden veffel which, forexpedition, is employed to
meafure malt, and which contains one quarter, or eight

L bufhels,.

FA T

bufhels, aceording to ftatutes 1 Hen, V. cap. 10, and
it Hen. VI. cap. 8.

It isalfo applied to a veffel or pan of lead, which is made
ufe of in the preparation of falt. See Saur.

Far alfo denotes an uncertain meafure of capacity ; thus,
a fat of ifinglafs contains from 3+ hundred weight to 4 hun-
dred weight ; a fat of unbound books half a maund, or 4
bales; of briftles, 5 hundred weight; of wire, from 20 to
25 hundred weight; and of yarn, from 229 to 221 bun-
les.

Ear-Hen, in Rural Economy, is a term often provincially
ufed to fignify the weed called goofe-foot.

~FATA Moreana, or the Caflles of the Fairy Morgana,
the common appellation of a fingular phenomenon, which
is fometimes feen in the Faro of Meffina, or ftraits of
Reggio, between the ifland of Sicily and the coait of Cala-
bria. The origin of this eppellation is doubtful, or rather
uuknown ; yet fome authors are pleafed to derive it from
pevrgos, melancholy, and yxvw, inducing exhilaration ; alluding
to the pleaiure which its appearance gives to the {petators ;
for whoever has been an eye-witneis of this phenomenon,
exprefles himfelf as having been highly delighted by it.

This phenomenon has been noticed asd deferibed by va-
rious authors ; viz. Kircher, Angelucei, Scotus, Giardina,
Gallo, Leanti, Minafi, Brydone, Swinburne, ‘and others ;
but of all thefe authors, Fr. Antonio Minafi, who had
thrice been f{pectator of this remarkable appearance, feems'
to defcribe it ina more explicit manner. His differtation on
the fubject was publifhed at Rome in the year 1793.

The north-eait angle of the ifland of Sicily comes very
near the fouthern extremity of the kingdom of Naples.
The channel between thefe coa{ls is narrow, and confined
between two ridges of mountains. In this channel the wa-
ter is continually agitated, and thrown into ridges and
whirlings hy the violence of the current, by the particular
direction of certain winds, and by the irregular conforma-
tion of the coafts. At times it likewife happens that a
very denfe vapour is accumulated, and condenfed over the
water of the channel. ‘* When,”’ Minafi fays, ‘ the rifing
fun fhines trom that point whence its incident ray forms an
angle of about 45 degrees on the fea of Reggio, and the
bright furface of the water in the bay is not difturbed either
by the wind or the current, the {peCtator being placed on an
eminence of the city, with his back to the fun, and his face
to the fea; on a fudden there appears in the water, as ina
catoptric theatre, various multiplied objects ; viz. number-
lefs feries of pilalters, arches, caftles well delineated, regu-
lar columns, lofty towers, fuperb palaces, with balconies
and windows, extended alleys of trees, delightful plains
with herds and flocks, armies of men on foot and horfeback,
and many other ftrange figures, in their natural colours and
proper actions, pafling rapidly in fucceflion along the fur-
face of the fea, during the whole of the fhort period of
time while the above-mentioned caufes remain.

«« But if, in addition to the circumftances before defcribed,
the atmofphere be highly impregnated with vapour, and
denfe exhalations not previoufly difperfed by the action of
the wind or waves, or rarefied by the fun, it then happens
that in this vapour, as in a curtain extended along the chan-
nel to the height of about four or five and twenty feet, and
nearly down to the fea, the obferver will behold'the fcene
of the fame objeéts not only reflected from the furface of
the fea, but likewife in the air, though not fo diftin& or
well defined as the former objects from the fea.

Laftly, if the air be flightly hazy and opaque, and at
the fame time dewy, and adapted to form the iris, then
the above-mentioned objects will appear enly at the far-

-

E AT

face of the fea, asin the firtt cafe, but all vividly coloured,
or fringed with red, green, blue, and other prifmatic co-
lours.’”?

Thefe appearances induced this author to diftinguifh the
phenomenon into three {pecies under diftin& denominations ;
viz. calling the apparition on the water by the name of
marine morgana; that in the air by the name of aerial
morgana; and that which is attended with fringes of co-
lours, the prifmatic morgana.

This defcription of the phenomenon coincides upon the
whole with other accounts, fo far at leaft as to the appear-
ance of fomething extraordinary on the furface of the fea, or
in the air, vapour, fog, &c. not much abgve the furface
of the water ; but when the minuter part culars are inquired
into, then all the accounts differ confiderably from each
other. - In truth, the phenomenon is always different, tran-
fient, and furprifing ; hence it is no wonder that the accounts
fhould be found to differ. The imagization, which readi-
ly fupplies the imperfect perceptions of the fenfes, may
doubtlefs influerce confiderably the correétnefs of the ac-
counts. ‘The objeéts which are deferibed as appearing per-
feG and well defined by fome, are faid to be extremely in-
diftinct aud indefinite by others; yet all feem to coincide ia
faying that figures of human beings and of other terreftrial
objects are exhibited by the fata morgana; thus Leanti
fays that the fky appears crowded with a variety of beautiful
objects, fuch as palaces, woods, gardens, veffels, and fuch
like, together with figures of human beings, and other ani-
mals, that appear to move amongit thofe fixed objects.

Notwithftanding the difagreement of the accounts with
refpeCt to particulars, the appearance of the phenomenon,
which has been obferved by a vaft number of creditable au-
thors, ancient as well as modern, cannot poffibly be doubted ;
hence philofophers have endeavoured to account for it upon
the known laws of optics, and of other natural powers ; but
notwithftanding their exertions, a thorough explanation of
the appearance itil! remains a defideratum. In his attempts
to explain this phenomenon, Minafi firft defcribes the city
of Reggio on the coaft of Calabria, oppofite to Meflina,
together with the adjacent parts, and then endeavours to
prove that all the objeéts which are feen in the fata mor-
gana are the reprefentations of thofe objects which ftand en
the coait. He fays, “that the fea in the ftraits of Meffina
has the appearance of a large inclined {peculum ; that in the
alternate current or tide which flows and returns in the
ftraits for fix hours each way, and is conftantly attended by
an oppofite current along the fhore to the medium diftance of
about a mile anda half, there are many eddies and irregula-
rities at the time of its change of direGtion; and that the
morgana ufually appears at this period.”

After various other confiderations he at laft accounts for
the appearances, by the {uppofed inclination of the furface
ofthe fea, and its fub-divifion into different plains by the
contrary eddies. He explains the aerial morgana by refer-
ring it to the reflective and refractive powers of effuvia fuf-
pended in the air.

Mr. Brydone, in his tour through Sicily and Malta, {peak-
ing of the attempts that have been made for explaining the
phenomena of the fata morgana, fays, “ they think it may
be owing to fome uncommon refraction or refleGion of the
rays, from the water of the ftraits ; which, as it is at that
time carried about in a variety of eddies, and vortexes, mult of
confequence, fay they, make a variety of appearances on any
medium where it is refleéted. This, I think, is nonfeafe ;
or at leait very near it. I fufpe& it is fomething in the na-
ture of our aurora boreelis ; and, like many of the great
phenomena of natures, depends upon electrical cautes ;

>

wa? which,

RAF

which, in future ages, I have little doubt will be found to
be as powerful an agent in regulating the univerfe, as gra-
vity isin thisage, oras the fubtile fluid was in the laft.”

We fhall laitly prefent our readers with a ftatement of
the conjectures which Mr. Nicholfon was enabled to derive
from an examination of the accounts, obfervations, &c.
«¢ Tt feems,”” he fays, “‘ that, by the fituation of the Faro
of Meffina, the current from the fouth, at the expiration
of which this phenomenon is moft likely to appear, is fo far
impeded by the figure of the land, that a confiderable por-
tion of the water returns along fhore. 2. That it is pro-
bable the fame coafts may have a tendency to modify the
lower portion of the air im a fimilar manner, during the
fouthern breeze; or, 1n other words, that a fort of bafon
is formed by the land, in which the lower air is more dif-
pofed to become motionlefs and calm than elfewhere. 3.'That
the morgana marina prefents inverted images below the real
obje&s, which are multiplied laterally, as well as verti-
cally ; and that there are repetitions of the fame multiplied
objects at more confiderable vertical intervals. 4, That the
aerial morgana is not inverted, but, as I am difpofed to
conjeGture, is more elevated than the original objects.
5. That the fringes of prifmatic colours are produced in
falling vapours, fimilar to many appearances which have
been defcribed by ‘authors, but not accurately explained
by the general principles of refraétion through fpheres of
water. The fhip is referred to by Minafi as an objeét fur-
rounded by thefe fringes, whence it appears that the co-
lours apply to the dire&t rays from objeéts, as well as to
thofe of the marine morgana. 6. The various other ob-
jects in tne defcription afford matter fer queftion and con-
jecture ; but none perhaps which it may be proper to en-
large upon, until the theory be better known. 7. It feems,
at all'events, more probable that thefe appearances are pro-
duced by a calm fea, on one or more ftrata of fuper-incum-
bent air, differing in refraGtive, and confequently reflective
power, than from any confiderable change in the furface of
the water, with the laws of which we are much better ac-
quainted than with thofe of the atmofphere. 8. By at-
tentive refleGtion upon the facts and reafonings in Mr. Hud-
dart’s paper, (Phil. Tranf. for 1797,) we may form a
theory to account for the ereét and inverted images: the
polithed furface of the fea may perhaps account for the ver-
tical repetition ; but for the lateral multiplication we mutt
have recourfe to refleGting or refra¢ting planes in the va-
pour, which appear nearly as difficult to deduce or eftablifh,
as thofe which have been fuppofed on the water.’”? Phil.
Journal for Augult, 1797.

FATAGAR, in Geography, acountry of Africa, fituated
to the fouth-eait of Abyflinia; about N. lat. 9°. E. long.

OR ATATINDA, a town of Africa, m the country of
Woolly, on the river Gambia, about 500 miles from its
mouth, where the Englifh had a factory, but were com-
pelled to abandon it in the year 1734, by the conduct of
the king of Tomani; 19 miles S. of Medina. N. lat.
15> 20', W. long. 13° 8’.

FATE, Farum, ina general fenfe, denotes an inevita-
ble neceffity depending on fome fuperior caufe.

Fate is a term much ufed among the ancient philofophers.
itis formed a fando, from /peaking, and primarily implies
the fame with viGaue viz. a word or decree pronounced
by God; ora fixed fentence, whereby the Deity has pre-
fcribed the order of things, and allotted every perfon what
fhall befal him, :

The Greeks call it suaguen, guafi ten@, nexus, a chain,
orneceffary feries of things indiffolubly linked together.

P&T

All things, fays Plato, are in fate; # ¢ within its
{phere or fcheme, but all things are not fated ; and he thus
explains the diftinGtion: it is not in fate, fays he, that one
man fhall do fo and fo, and another fufer fo and fo, for
that would be deftrutive of our free agency and liberty ;
but if any one fhould choofe fuch a life, and do fuch or
fuch things, then it is in fate that fuch things and fuch
confequences fhall enfue upon it. The foul, therefore, is
aderrorovy free and uncontrolled, and it lies withia itfelf
to act or not; and there is no compulfion or neceffity
here; but what follows upon the aétion fhall be accom- ~
plifhed, xa§” ciapyevm, according to fate, or the conttitu-
tion of things; e. gr. that Paris fhould bear off Helen by
force was fomething dependent on himfelf ; but that a wat
fhould enfue is the confequence. Ex. Alcinoo de Platon.
Dogmat.

The fame philofopher, as cited by. Hierocles, obferves
to this purpofe: the choice of action is in our own power ;
but the juit award or retribution of good or ill which en-
fues upon the choice, lies in the breait of thofe etherial
judges who are appointed under God.

But befide this fenfe of the word wherein it is ufed, fome-
times to denote the connection of caufesin nature, and fome-
times in the divine appointment, the word fate has a farther
intention, being ufed-to exprefs a certain neceflity or ex-
ternal defignation of things, whereby all agents, both ne-
ceffary and voluntary, are {wayed and dire&ted to their ends.
See Necessity.

Some authors divide fate into affrological and flotcal.

Fate, Affrological, denotes a neceffity of things and
events, arifing, as is fuppofed, from the influence and
politions of the heavenly bodies, which give law both
to the elements and mixed bodies, and to the wills of
men. ‘ a" '

In which fenfe the word is often ufed by Manilius,
“ Certum eft & inevitabile fatum: materizque datum eit
cogi, fed cogere ttellis.”? . :

Fare, Stoical, or fatality, is defined by Cicero an order
or feries of caufes, wherein caufe being linked to’ caufe,
each produces the other; and thus all things flow from
one prime caufe. Chryfippus defines it a natural invariable
fucceffion of all things ad eferno, each involving the other.
The Stoic idea of providence is, not that of an infinitely
wife and good being, wholly independent of matter, freely
direéting and governing all things, but that of a neceffary
chain of caufes and effects, arifing from the aétion of a
power, which is itfelf a part of the machine regulated by
it, and which, equally with that machine, is fubje& to the
immutable law of neceflity. Hence, it appears, that pro-
vidence, in the Stoic creed, is only another name for abfo-
lute neceffity or fate, to which God and matter, or the uni-
verfe which confifts of both, is immutably fubje&.

Thus the poet: the Parent of all things made laws at the
beginning, by which he not only binds other things but
himfelf. So Seneca: Eadem neceffitas & deos alligat.
Irrevocabilis divina pariter & humana curfus vehit. Ipfe
ille omnium conditor & reétor feripfit quidem fata, fed
fequitur : femel fcripfit, femper paret.’? (See Srorcs.)
The dotrine of the Stoics concerning fate, was ftrenuoufly
oppofed by Carneades. See CARNEADES.

The eternal feries of caufes mentioned by the Stoics the
poets call Moin and Parce, or Deflinies.
} Fate is divided by fome later authors into phy/fical and

ivine.

Fate, Phyfical, is an order and feries of natural caufes
appropriated to their effects, om ;

This feries is neceffary, and the receflity isnatural. The

7 principle

BAT

principle or foundation of this fate is nature, or the power
and manner of aéting which God originally gave to the fe-
veral bodies, elements, mixts, &e. By this fate it is that
fire warms, bodies communicate motion to each other,
the fun and moon occafion the tides, &c. and the effeéts
of this fate are all the events and phenomena in the uni-
verfe, except fuch as arife from the human will. See
Narvre.

Fare, Divine, is what we more ufually call Provi-
dence. Plato in his Phedo includes both thefe in one de-
finition, as intimating, that they were one and the fame
thing, atively and paflively confidered. Thus, « Fatum
eft ratio quedam divina, lexque nature comes, que tranfiri
nequeat, quippe a caufa pendens, que fuperior fit quibuf-
vis impedimentis.”” Though that of Bocthius feems the
clearer and more juft, “ Fatum,” fays he, “ eft inhzrens
rebus mobilibus difpofitio, per quam Providentia fuis queque
neétit ordinibus.”’

FATESH, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, and dil-
tri& of the government of Kurfk ; on a rivulet falling into
the Svopa. ,

FATHER, Parer,a term of relation, denoting a perfon
who begot a child, either male or female.

Among the ancient Romans the fathers of three children
had very confiderable privileges allowed them as fuch.
By the law of Romulus a father had an abfolute and un-
limited power over his children. Amongft the Lace-
dzmonians, as we learn from Ariftotle’s Politics, the father
of three children was excufed from the duty of mounting
guard for the fecurity of the city ; and a father of four
children was exempted from every public burden. Concern-
ing the duties and claims of fathers and mothers; fee
Parent.

Fatuer, Adoptive, is he who takes the children of fome
other and acknowledges them as hisown. See Aporrtion.

Faruer, Putative, is he whe is only the reputed or fup-
pofed father. Jofeph was putative father of our Saviour.

Farner, Natural, is he who has illegitimate children.

Faruer-in-Law, is a perfon married to a woman who
has children by a former hufband, &c. to which children he
is faid to be a father-in-law,

Fatuer is alfo ufed in Theology for the firft Perfon in
the Trinity,

Faruer is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe on divers moral
and {piritual occafions. Thus, it is applied to the patriarchs ;
as we fay Adam was the father of all mankind, Abraham
the father of the faithful, &c.

Fartuers, Apofiolical. See ApesToical.

Faruers, in an Ecclefiaffical Senfe, denote the ancient
prelates and doGtors of the church.

The fathers aflembled at the council of Nice : Chryfof-
tom, St. Bafil, &c. were Greek fathers, and St. Auguttine,
St. Ambrofe, &c. were Latin fathers.

The appellation of fathers is ufually confined to the theo-
logical writers of the firft fix centuries.

Learned men have differed in their opinion concerning
the degree of efteem that is due to the ancient fathers, more
efpecially as moral writers. Whilit fome reprefent them as
the moft excellent guides in the paths of piety and virtue :
others place them in the very loweft rank of moralifts, con-
fidering them as the very worft of all inftru@tors, and treat
their precepts and decifions as perfectly infipid, and, in many
refpeéts, pernicious. Although we allow that in the writ-
ings of the primitive fathers there are feveral fublime fenti-
ments, judicious thoughts, and many things that are natu-
rally adapted to form a religious temper and virtuous cha-
rater 5. yet it muft be confefled that they abound {till more

FAT

with precepts of an unreafonable and exceffive aufterity,
with fteical and academical di€tates, vague and indetermi.
nate notions, and, what is {ti!] worfe, with decifions that are
abfolutely falfe, and in evident oppofition to the precepts
of Chrift. In later ages, and particularly towards the clofe
of the eighth century, the labours and indultry of divines
were totally employed in colleCting the opinion? and autho-
rities of the fathers, i. e. the theological writers of the firft
fix centuries; and fo blind and fervile was their veneration
for thefe doétors, that they regarded their di€tates as infalli-
ble, and their writings as the boundaries of truth, beyond
which reafon was not permitted to extend its refearches.
The Inifh, or Hibernians, who in the eighth century were
known by the name of Scots, were the only divines who
refufed to difhonour their reafon by fubmitting it implicitly
to the ditates of authority. Naturally fubtile and faga-
cicus, they applied their philofophy, fuch as it was, to the
illuftration of the truth and doétrines of religion: a method
which was almoft generally abhorred and exploded in ail
other nations. It is much to be lamented, that the fathers
of the Chriftian church foon departed from the fimplicity
of the apoftolic aye, and corrupted the purity of the
Chriftian faith. This is chiefly to be afcribed to the two
following caufes; viz. firlt, the practice which at that time
fo generally prevailed of clothing the do&trines of religion
in an allegorical drefs; and, fecondly, the habit of fubtle
f{peculation, which the more learned converts from Paganifm
brought with them from the fchools of philofophy. The
practice of allegorical interpretation prevailed in a very
great degree among the Gentile converts, who had been
educated in the Alexandrian fchools, and among thofe
Jewifh Chriftians who, by the fame help of allegory, had
been inftruted in the Cabbaliftic doftrines, which before this
time had {prung up in Egypt, and paffed thence into Judza.
Several of thofe fe€ts of Chriftians, who were called Here-
tics, particularly the Valentinian Gnoftics, made ufe of alle-
gorical Ianguage to difguife the unnatural alliance which
they had introduced between the fanciful dogmas of the
Oriental plilofophy, and the fimple do@rine of Chrift. The
orthodox fathers of the church, too, defended themfelves
with the fame armour both againft heretics and infidels ;
applying with more ingenuity than judgment the fymbolical
method of interpretation to the facred {criptures. _ In the
fame manner in which Philo and other Alexandrian Jews
had corrupted the Jewifh church, Clemens Alexandrinus,
Origen, aud other difciples of the Alexandrian fchool, in the
fecond’ century, introduced error and corruption into the
church of Chrift. Among the Chriftian fathers, who had
abandoned Paganifm on account of its inferiority to the
dogtrine of Chriftianity, there were not wanting advocates
for different fetts of Grecian philofophy. When Origen
and his followers, together with many others, favoured the
Eclectic method of philofophifing, which had been followed
in the Alexandrian fabiscls: they eafily perfuaded them-
felves, that as a coalition had been effected in thefe {chools,
between Plato and Anitotle, it would not be difficult to
accomplifh a fimilar coalition between Jefus Chrilt and
Ariftotle. Others reafoned in the fame manner with*«re-
{pect to the doftrines of the Stoics. The Epicurean was
almoft the only fe& which met with no patrons among the
Chriftian fathers. But the fe& which obtained moit favour
in the Chriftian fchool was the Platonic. See Pratonics.

It fhould be readily acknowledged, that the early teachers
of the Chriftian church were honeft and zealous advocates
for the caufe of Chrift; and that many of their apolagies
difcover an extenfive acquaintance with ancient philofophy

and learning, and ferve to caft much light ppop- the philo-
fophical

PATHE R.

fephical and thealogical hiftory of preceding times. But it
mutt, at the fame time, be candidly confeffed, that in the heat
of controverfy they not only fell into various miftakes, but
made ufe of urfatisfactory methods of reafoning, which
betray imbecility of jadgment, or inattention to the principles
and rules of good writing. The works of the fathers,
inftead of being diftinguifhed by correcinefs aad ftrength of
argument, furaif innumerable examples of feeble reafoning,
of interpretations of {cripture irreconcilable with good fenfe,
and of a carelefs admiffion of {purious writings, as genuine
authority. This charge might be eafily fub{tantiated againft
Trenzus, LaGtantius, Arnobius, Jerom, and others. For
their defeéts in found argumentation we may affign feveral
reafons. [heir injudicious zeal induced them to grafp at
every fhadow of argument againft their opponents; and
their want of {kill in the art of reafoning led them often to
aniftake fhadows for realities. Their fondnefs for allegory
dazzled and confounded their underftandings, fo that they
were unable to diftinguifh between fanciful refemblances and
folidarguments. They had not learned to diftinguifh accu-
rately between the light of revelation and that of reafon, and
therefore fuppofed that their reverence for the former
obliged them to depreciate and vilify the latter. Ambrofe,
a learned man, but a bad logician, advifed that in difputes
where faith is concerned reafon fhould be laid afide. Bafil
called reafoning the devil’s work. Others who admitted the
carefulnefs of ufing the weapons of Ariitotelian logic in
defence of Chriftianity, contended that Chriftians were pof-
fefled of a better logic, confifting in the demonilration of
the fpirit, and that they who poffefled this might defend
their caufe without the arms of human reafon. It might
be alleged, as another proof of their want of judgment, that
they gave eafy credit to falfe tales, and received, without
due examination, fuppofititious writings, which they ob-
truded upon others, and to which they referred as fufficient
authorities. Nor is it poffible to exculpate them from the
charge of haviag made ufe of, and even juftified, difhonett
aéts and pious frauds, after the example of their adverfaries.
Befides, the ftyle in which their works are written is, for the
moft part, tumid and puerile ; and in fearch of the dazzling
ornaments of falfe eloquence, they foon loft themfelves in
the clouds of ob{curity.

Among the caufes which promoted the corruption of
their moral doGtrine, we may reckon the praétice which
they borrowed from the Alexandrian Jews, of affixing an
allegorical meaning to the words of fcripture. Indeed it
«could not be expeéted that they fhould fucceed better in
their interpretation of the facred writings, when they un-
dertook to deduce moral doétrines from them without ftrictly
adhering to the rules of found criticif{m, and without being
accurately acquainted with the general principles of morals.
Another principal caufe of the corruption of the Chriftian dec-
trine of morality was, that it was very early tinétured with
the enthufiaftic {pirit of the Alexandrian philofophy. To
this fource we are to trace back the numerous.adulterations
of the fimple morality of the New Teftament, which are to be
found in the “ Shepherd of Hermas,’’ and in the writings of
Juftin Martyr, Ireneus, Athenagoras, and Tertullian. Upon
the whole we may oblevve, that the Chriftian fathers con-
tributed little towards the improvement of true and found
philofophy. Through feveral centuries they partook of
the fpirit of the Alexandrian fchool, and the Ecleétic me-
thod of philofophifing platonifed Chriftianity. And when,
in procefs of time, the philofophers themfelves began to
forfake Plato and follow Arilftotle, the Chriflian fathers
preferred the Stagyrite as the more accurate philofopher.
in this preference they were confirmed by the example

of the Saracens; and hence arofe that pernicious cor-
ruption, both of theology and philofophy, the « Scho-
laftic fyftem.”? At the fame time, the adulterated Pla-
tonifm of Alexandria continued among the Greek Chriftians,
and produced the §* Myitic Theology.’’

The Chrittian fathers, from the bezinning of the fecond to
the feventh century, may be divided into two claffes: thofe
who flourifhed before, and thofe who flourifhed after, the
inftitution of the EcleGtic {24. The firft clafs commences
with Juftin Martyr ; the fecond with Origen. The apof-
tolic fathers, wlio had derived their knowledge of Chrifti-
anity, and their habits of thinking, from the apoftles and
evangclifts, manifeft, in their genuine writings, few traces
of the Grecian or Alexandrian philofophy. But, when
men who had been educated in the Pagan fchools became
converts to the Chriftian faith, they brought with them
their philofophical ideas and language, and aflociated them
with the do¢trine of Chriftianity. Among thefe Chriftiaa
philofophers, the firit, and moft celebrated, was Juftin Mar-
tyr, who bleuded Platonic notions and language with the
fimple doGtrine of Chrillianity, and wrote concerning God
and divine things like a Chriftian Platonift. Tatian was
his difciple; and his apology for Chriltianity, entitled,
« Oratio ad Grecos,”’ every where breathes the fpirit of
the Oriental philofophy, and tie whole tenor of it concurs
with his hiftory to prove, that he wasa Platonic Chriftian.
We may alfo rank among the Platonifing fathers Theophi-
lus of Antioch, Athenagoras, Ireneus, Tertullian, and
Clemens Alexandrinus. To thefe we may add, among
thofe who flourifhed after the eftablifhment of the Ecleétic
fyftem, Origen, Anatolius of Alexandria, Arnobius, Eu-
febius Pamphilus, Didymus of Alexandria, Augultine,
Synefius, an African bifhop, and others, who chiefly flon-
rifhed in the eaftern countries. In the weftern world ap-
peared Claudianus Mamertius, Boethius, Aneas Gaza, Za-
charias, Philoponus, aud Nemefius. See Brucker’s Hilt.
of Phil. by Enfield, vol. ii.

Farner is alfo a title of honour given to prelates and
dignitaries of the church. The right reverend father in
God, lord Bifhop of, &c. “* Ab cure fimilitudine patres’
appellantur.”’

Fatuer is alfo applied to the fuperiors of conyents,
&c. (See Assor.), The father-general; father-provincial,
ex-provincial ; father prior, fub-prior ; father definitor, in
the order of Benedjétines ; father guardian, in that ef the
Francifeans ; father corrector, among the Minims, &c.

Fatners isalfo applied plurally to all congregations of
ecclefiaftics, whether regular or fecular; as the fathers
Cordeliers, Capuchins, Auguttins, Jacobins, &c. The
fathers Jefuits, fathers of the Oratory, Barnabites, Thea-
tine of the Miffion, &c. See each under the proper ar-
ticle.

Fatuers of the Chriflian Do@rine is a denomination
belonging to twe religious orders: one in{tituted in France
by Cefar de Bus, and confirmed in 1597 by Clement VIII.
and another in Italy founded by Culani, a Milanefe
knight, and eftablifhed by the authority of Pius V. and
Gregory XIII.

Faruers of Soma/qua, or regular clerks of St. Maieul, is
the appellation of a religious order deduced from the name
of the place where their founder refided. It was firft
formed into a diftinét fociety by Jerome /miliani, a noble
Venetian, and confirmed by Paul II]. and Pius iV. in
1540 and 1563. Their office was the in{truGtion of the
young and ignorant, and the relief of orphans. ,

Faruers is alfo ufed for perfons venerable for their age

_ or quality, or the fervices they haye done the public.

Thus,

FAT

Thus, at Rome the fenators were called con/erfe fathers,
patres conferipti, Ke.

Faruer La/ber, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name given to
a fifh, called by fome authors, though improperly, /cor-
Coe: and /corpius marinus. It is properly of the cottus

ind. See Corrus Scorpius. ,

FATHIMITES, or Faruemires, the defeendants of
Mahomet by Fathima, or Fathema his daughter.

The dynafty of Fathimites, i.e. of princes defcending m
a dire& line from Ali and Fathima his wife, Mahomet’s
daughter, commenced in Africa in the year of the Hegira
296, of Jefus Chrift 908.

The Fathimites afterwards conquered Egypt, and efta-
blithed themfelves therein in quality of caliphs.

The Fathimites of Egypt ended with Abed, ic the year
of the Hegira 567, 268 years after thelr firit eftablifhment
in Africa, and 28 years after the conquelt of Egypt

FATHOM, in Rural Economy, is a long meafure, which
comprifes fix feet, being taken from the utmoft extent of
both arms, when fully ftretched out intoa right line. It is
made ufe of in the meafurements of mines, quarries, wells,
and pits.

This meafure is chiefly ufed at fea, or by feafaring
people, for expreffing depths of the fea, lengths of cables,
&c. It is hardly ever ufed on land, except fometimes by
miners.

The length of the fathom formerly differed a little, ac-
cording as it was uled on veffels of greater or lefs fize.
Thus in the old edition of Chambers’s dictionary, the fol-
lowing explanation is given. ‘* There are three kinds of
fathoms accommodatea to the different ranks of veffels.
The firlt, which is that of men of war, contains fix fect.
The middling, or that of merchant fhips, five feet anda
half ; and the {mall one, ulfed in flayts, fly-boats, and other
fifhing veffels, only five feet.”

At prefent, however, the meafure of a fathom is uni-
verfally confidered as being equal to fix feet exaéily.

ATHom is alfo ufed in feveral countries, particularly
Italy, fer the common yard or ell, whereby things are ordi-
narily meafured in commerce.

In this fenfe it is more commonly called brace or braccio,

.d,arm. In Mufcovy the fathom contains feven Englith
feet, and about one-tenth of an inch.

Fatruom-Za/e, in Mining, is a term for work, let to
workmen by the fathom meafure in length, as the driving
of foughs and levels generally is.

Fatuom is a meafure equal to two yards, or fix feet in
length, in generalcorrefponding with the French toife, where-
by the feale of military meafures in that country is generally
regulated. The French foot being nine lines, or about 7.
parts longer than the Englifh, requires, that in eftimating the
fortifications, and other buildings, &c. of that quarter, we
fhouldin general terms make an allowance of about one toot
in fifteen and a half, for an excefs on their part. There-
fore, when we fay that the line of defence of a French fortrefs
meafures 155 toifes French, it will, according to our feale,
give full 165 Britifh fathoms, fuck as are commonly in ule
throughout our marie. ‘This meafure has given rile to a
term now perfeétly familiar smong us; namely, ‘to fathom
the depth of water,”’ &c.; meaning, to afcertain how many
fathoms it may meafure from the furface to the bottom.
We have likewife a derivative cxpreflion, whereby the word
‘fathom is applied. metaphyfically ; thus, we fay, ‘there
js no fathoming that fellow’s thoughts ;”? meaning, that he
is too deep for usto get to the bottom of his defigns.

FATIABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the foubah of Agra, built. in 1041 by Modoud, king of

FAT

Ghizni; r5 miles $.S.E. of Agra.—Alfo, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the crcar of Hiffar; 57 miles W. of Hiffar.

FATIAH, atown of the Arabian Irak, on the Enu-
phrates; 15 miles S.W. of Korna.

FAT? ESS, in Medicine. See Corputrncy-

FATO, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the eaft fide of
the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63°52' EE. long. 22° 44’.
FATSISIO, an ifland of Japan, about 80 miles from the
fouth coalt of the ifle of Niphon, whither the emperor ba-
nifhes the grandees who have offended him, to be employed’
in making filk ituffs embroidered with gold. The ifland is
barren, and almoft inacceffible. N. lat. 33> 40’. E. long.
140° TO’.

FATTALAGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude;
20 miles §.E. of Sumbul

FATTAPODR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; eight
miles W. of Karabad.

FATTECONDA, a town of Africa, in Bornou. Ne
lat. 14% 20'. W. long. ro 20!

FATTENING, ia Rural Economy, the art or procefs
of rendering any fort of animal fat. orfit for food. Itisa
bufinefs in which much care and circum{peétion ave requifite,
as well as confiderable knowledge of the nature of animals.

FatrtrenrnG of Cattle, the means of preparing them for
the purpofe of the butcher. It is.a procefs which is capa-
ble of being accomplifhed in feverat different methods, but
the moft ufual is that of grazing them in rich feeding
pattures. It is likewife effeGted by keeping them in warm
convenient houfes, or fheds, and feeding them regularly with
oats and cther fortsof grain, either ground or in the theaf;
different kinds of roots,. as common and. Swedifh tumips,
carrots, parfuips, potatoes, &c. with fome fort of dry food;
and by the ule of oil-cake in the fame manner. Thefe
modes are termed ftall-feeding, from the animals being kept
up in the ftalls; and there is much advantage in keeping
the houfes properly dry and warm, and the troughs for the
food perfeétly clean and fweet. It is alfo effeatial tha che
food fhould be given them in a regular manner, in fuitable
proportions, and properly varied,. where different forts are
employed. See Srauu-Leding.

This applies equally to neat cattle and fheep; but the
fattening of early lambs, and of calves, is meftly accom-
plifhed by the fuckling of them. See Carr-Suck/ing, and
House-Lams Suckling.

FarrentnG of Colours; among Painters; denotes a
coagulation of the oil, which frequently happens on its be--
ing mixed with feveral kinds of pigments; whence, after
being kept for fome time, it is rendered of.fo vifeid or gluti-
nous a confiftence as to be wholly incapable of being work-
ed with either brufh or pencil.. This alfo happens fome-
times after the colours have been f{pread or laid on the pro-
per ground; in which cafe, one part of the vil will run off
in {mall ftreams or drops, while the other will remain with
the colour, without fhewing the leaft tendency to dry.
Oils likewife will fatten by long keeping, or by being ex-
pofed for a confiderable time to the fun and air..
PFatreninG of Horfes. See Horsrs.

FATTIK, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital
of the kingdom of Josli, N. lat. 14°. E. long. 16° 48".

FATTIKO, .a town of Africa, in. the Kingdom of Jes
marrow.

FATTIPOUR, or Faterovr, a town of Hindooftan,,
in the foubah of Agra, anciently called « Sikari,”” but on
being rebuilt by Acbar- changed its name. It was oncea
magnificent city, but isnow ina ftate of decay ; 28 miles
W. S. W. of Agra. N, lat. 27° ro’. E. long. 78° 8/.—
Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 35 miles W.S.W-

of

FAU

‘of Lucknow.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Nagore: 25 miles N.W. of Didwana—Alfo, a town of
Hindoottan, in Bahar, on the Gundack ; 30 miles N.N.W.
of Patna.

FATTY-KAN-DURGA, a town of Hindooftan, in
Moultan ; 35 miles N.N.W. of Moultan

FATUARILI, in Antiquity, were perfons who, appearing
infpired, foretold things to come.

The word is formed of Fatua, wife of the god Faunus,
who was fuppofed to infpire women with the knowledge of
futurity, as Faunus himfelf did the men. Fatua had her
name from fari, q.d. vaticinart, to prophefy.

FATUUS Ients See Icnis Jatuus.

FAVAGNANA, or Favocnana, in Geography, an
ifland in the Mediterranean, about 7 miles in circumference,
near the W. coaft of Sicily ; anciently called gu/a, or Ca-
praria. Ithas good anchorage in a convenient harbour, and
fome years yields from its fifheries 80,000 livres. N. lat.
Bere elong. 02 Zhi

FAVALLI, in Bizgraphy, an Italian finger, with a fo-
prano voice. He feems to have been the firit finger of that
country and kind who made any impreffion on French ears.
He was fo beloved by Louis XIV. for his fine voice, and
the pleafure which his ftyle of finging gave that monarch,
that he permitted him to fhoot in the royal manors, and
even in the park at Verfailles. He firft arrived in France in
1674, and his powers feem to have been miraculous.

. FAVANT, La, in Geography, ariver of Naples, which
runs into the fea, g miles S.S.E. of Squillace.

FAVARA, a river of Sicily, which runs into the Me-
diterranean, about 5 miles S. of Modica. — Alfo, a town of
Africa, in the country of Barca; 30 miles E.S.E. of Der-
na.—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto, ona
river of the fame name; 10 miles W. of Noto.

FAVAROTA, atown of Sicily, in the valley of Ma-
zara; 15 miles. W.N.W. of Palermo.

FAVART, Cares Simon, in Biography, one of the
moft agreeable and pleafing lyric French poets of the latt
century. He was born at Parisin 1710, educated in the Je-
fuits’ college, and gave very early {pecimens of a happy dif-

‘pofition for French verfification, At twenty years of age
h2 compofed a poem on the Floral games, and was crowned.
Many beautiful ftanzas of his writing were already in circu-
lation. .Upon the merits of thefe juvenile pieces he was en-
gaged at the comic opera. - ‘La Chercheux d’Efprit, or Ni-
cette in fearch of Wic,’? which had been preceded by many
other comic operas, were fo favourably received, as to fix his
reputation. His‘ Chercheux d’Efprit”? being regarded as a
matter-piece in its kind, the royal academy of mufic, or the
great opera, claimed: his talents, and he produced for that
‘theatre the ballet of “Don Quixot.” (See Batret.) In
1744 he married the daughter of a mutician in the band of
Staniflaus, king of Poland, Juitinade Roncerai, who by a
conftant fuccefs was one of the principal fupports of the
comic opera. Her talents of different kinds, acting, finging,
playing on the harp, and dancing, all by turns, fhe exhi-
bited with equal grace and perfeCtion. We faw her in the part
of Roxalana in the ** Three Sultanas,’’ at near 60, at, look,
fing, romp and dance (with her petit nex retrouffé,) with as
much feeming vivacity as if fhe had been only 16. Her va-
rious eftimable talents and condu jultified the choice of an
author as eminent for the delicacy of his talte as the decorum
and propriety of his manners. He fignalized his “zeal on
every interefting occafion for his country, and was employ-
edby the court at different feftivals, and honoured with the
title of mafter of the revels, with a ‘penfion of rooo livres.
6« At the peace of 1762 he wrote, Sy order of the govern-

the armsare capable of folding.

FAWU

ment, a piece of one a&, for the theatre Frangois, called
‘* |’Anglois a Bourdeaux ;’? and the celebrated madame
D’Angerville, who had quitted the ftage, returned to play
the principal part. The fuccefs of this work was crowned
by his being prefented to the king, who conferred on him
another pention. Men of letters difcovered in the Enghifh-
men at Bourdeaux”’ the agreeable author of “ Ninette a
la Cour,’ and the “* Three Sultanas,”” and regretted that
theatrical etiquette forced him to lavifh on the Italian flage
talents worthy of the French. The connoifleurs have nevey
been fo unjuft as to attribute to him the works of others,
particularly as he has always with fcrupulous delicacy in-
formed the public of any afliflance he might have received
from his intimate friends. He was the firft who tried to
teach us to liften to ltalian mufic. In adapting it to French
words, Philider affited him, and they fucceeded. The
purity and elegance of his ityle, with the gaiety of his fer-
timents, are the principal characterillics of this amiable au-
thor.’ Laborde.

FAUCHET, Craupr, was born at Paris about the
year 1529. He was made prefident of the“ Cour des
Monnoies,”’ an ofiice which he was obliged to fell to pay
his debts. From Henry 1V. he obtained a penfion, with
the title of hiftoriographer. He was an able antiquarian,
and well verfed in all books relating to the fubje&, making
himfelf fome important additions to the ftock. He died in
16¢1, leaving behind him (1) ‘ Antiquités Gauloife et
Trancoifes,” in two parts: the firft brings down the hifto-
ry of Gaul to the arrival of the Franks: the fecond from
Pharamond to Hugh Capet. (2) ‘ A Treatife on the Li-
berties of the Gallican Church’? (3) “ A Treatife on the
Origin of Knights, Coats of Arms, and Heralds.” (4)
* Origin of the Dignities and Magiltrates of France.” His
ie were colleéted and publifhed in gto. at Paris in 1610.

oreri.

FAUCIGNY, or Faussieny, Cantona in Geogra-
phy, a province of Savoy, bounded on the N. by the te:ri-
tory of Chablais, on the E. by the Valais, and the du f
Aotfta, and on the S. and W. by the Genevois. Wood and
pafture form the principal riches of thiscountry. It is di-
vided into Upperand Lower; the chief towns of the former
are Salanche, Samoens, Taninge, and Flumet, and thofe
of the latter are Clufe, Bonne, and Bonne Ville. This
province now belongs to France, and conttitutes part of the
department of the Leman.

FAUCOGNEY, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton in the dittrict
of Lure ;-g miles N. of Lure. The place contains 983 and
the canton 10,205 inhabitants, ona territory of 200 kilie-
metres and in 17 communes.

FAUCON, or Fatcon, in Gunnery, a name formerly
given toa fmall piece of cannon, whofe diameter was 22
inches ; weight, 750 pounds ; leegth,7 feet ; load, 24 pound ;
fhot, 24inches-diameter ; and 24 pounds weight. See Can-
NON.

FAUCONCOURT, in Geography, a town of France,
ea department cf the Vofges ; 4 miles N.W. of Ramber-
viller.

FAUCONET, or Farconer, in Gunnery, a very
{mall piece of ordnance, whofe diameter at the bore was 23
inches; weight, 400 pounds; length, 6 feet; load, 1+ pound;
fhot, fomething more than two inches diameter; and 14 pound
weight. See Oxpnance and Gun.

FAUD, in Agriculture, a provincial term employed in
fome places to fignify a trufs of fhort-ftraw, or as much as

Pe
FAVELONE,

FAV
FAVELONE, in Geography, a river of Naples, which

runs into the fea, 4 miles from Squillace.

FAVENTIA, in Aacient Geography, a town inthe S.E.
part of Gallia Cifpadana. See Farnza. ;

FAVERGES, in Geography, a town of Franee, in the
department of Mont Blanc, and chief place of a canton in
the diftrict of Annecy. The place contains 2,156, and the
canton 12,143 inhabitants, on a territory of 240 kiliometres,
and in 16 communes. 4

FAVERNEY, atown of France, in the department of
the Upper Saone ; 7 miles N. of Vefoul. N. lat. 47° 46/.
E. long. 6° 11’.

FAVEROLLE, a town of France, in the departinent
ofthe Marne ; 12 miles W. of Rheims.

FAVEROLLES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Cote d’Or; 12 miles E. of Chatillon-fur-
Seine.

FAVERSHAM, a market town in the hundred of the
fame name, and county of Kent, England, is fituated on
a navigable arm of the river Swale, and confilts principally
of four ftreets, forming an irregular crofs, in the centre of
which is the Guildhall and market place. Theugh a-bo-
rough by prefcription as well as charter, it does not appear
ever to have been fummoned to return members to parlia-
mint ; ithas, however, been the place of meeting of a Wit-
tanegemot, or Council of the Wife Men, aflembled by king
Athelitan, about the year 930, “ to enact laws, and cou-
Ritute methods for the future obfervance of them.”? At
that time, and long before, the town formed part of the
royal demefnes ; and from the high value of the market and
appendages, as ftatedin the Domefday record, it appears to
have been then a place of confiderable refort and traffic. In
1147, king Stephen founded an abbey here for Cluniac
monks, to whom he granted large endowments and privi-
leges, which were confirmed by fucceflive fovereigns: the
abbots fat in twelve parliaments, in the reigns of Edward
J. and I1.; and the abbey poffefled the right of fan€tuary,
Li appears to have been attached even to the parifh

ch, from the time of the diffolution till the reformation.
The furrender of the abbey eftates was ftrenuoufly oppofed
by the abbot and monks ; but refiftance being vain, the deed
was figned July 8, 1538; the grofs revenues of the abbey
at that time were ftated to be 355/. 125. 2d. annually ; the
nett income :86/. 125. 64d. ‘The buildings were extenfive
and numerous, but moft of them have been long deftroy-
ed; the two entrance gateways remained till the middle
of the laft century, when they were taken dowa on ac-
count of their ruinous flate.

’ Faverfham has been an appendage to the port of Do-
ver from a very remote period; its cultomary propor-
tion of aid was one fhip for forty days annually. At
the fieze of Calais, however, in the time of Edward LIL,
this town furnifhed, two fhips and fifty-three mariners.
This connection with the Cinque Ports may probably ac-
count for the diltinguifhed privileges and charters ({carcely
to be equalled by any town in the kingdom) which Faver-
fham has immemorially been favoured with by different fo-
vereigns. ‘The charter under which it is ftill governed was
granted by Henry VIII., A.D. 1545; the froin is
thereby vefted in a mayor, twelve junats, (the mayor being
one,)* twenty-four commoners, a fteward or recorder, a
town clerk, and two chamberlains.

« Faverfham,” fays Leland in his Itinerary, ‘is encluded
ynone paroche, but that ys very large.» Ther cummeth a
creeke to the towne that bareth veflels of xx tunnes; and
amyle fro thens north-efl, is a great key, cawled Thorn, to
difcharge bigge veflels. The creeke is’ fedde with bakke

Vor. XIV.

FAV

water, that cummeth fro Ofpring.”? In the furvey of mari-
time places in Kent, made in the reign of Elizabeth, this
town is ftated as having 380 inhabited houfes ; 18 fhips or
veffels, from five to forty-five tons burthen ; and 50 perfons
occupied in merchandize and fifhing. The quay, called the
Thorn, mentioned by Leland, has long been out of ufe ;
but its place has been fupplied by three new quays or wharfs,
formed clofe to the town, where all the fhipping belonging
to the port take in and difcharge theircargoes. Since Le-
land’s time - great improvements have taken place in the na-~
vigation of the creek ; and veffels of eighty and an hundred
tons burthen can now come up to the town at common tides ;
whilft, at {pring tides, the channel is deep enough for fhips
drawing eight feet water; the corporation are invelted with
the management of the navigation, the expence being de-
frayed by port-dues of very ancient eftablifhment. Upwards
of 40,000 quarters of corn are annually fhipped here for the
Loudon markets ; hops, fruit, wool, oylters, &c. are alfo
fent in confideravle quantities from this port, to which
above thirty coalting veffels (exclufive of fithing fmacks)
belong, of from 40 to 150 tons burthen; the imports are
principally coals and fir timber, iron, tar, &cc. from Sweden
and Norway. A branch both of the excife and of the cuf-
toms is eflablifhed here; the former under the direGioa
of a colle€tor, furveyor, and other officers ; the latter under
a fupervifor and affiftants. The oytter fithery of Faver-
fham is a very extenfive concern, and forms the principal
fource of its trade, affording fupport to upwards of an hun-
dred familics. Here, as at Milton and Rochetter, the na-
tive broods fall very fhort of the confumption ; and vaft
quantities of {pat or eggs are annually colleéted from differ-
ent parts of the furrounding feas, even as diftant as the
Land’s End in Cornwall, and the coafts of Scotland and
France, and placed in the beds belonging to this fithery,
there to increafe and fatten.

The company of the “ free-fifhermen and free-dredger-
men of the hundred and manor of Faverfham”’ are under the
immediate protection and jurifdiion of the lord of the
manor, as tenants thereof ; and he appoints a fteward to
hold two annual courts, called admirzlty, or water, courts,
for the neceffary regulations of the fifhery. No perfon is
admitted as a free dredger unlefs he has ferved an appren-
ticefhip of feven years to a freeman, and is married. The
right of the fifhery was anciently an appurtenance to the
manor of Milton, but was feparated from it by king John,
and granted, with the property of the grounds, to Faver-
fham abbey ; in that grant the company of free-dredgers of
Faverfham is firft mentioned, but it is generally fuppofed to
have exilled from time immemorial. Before the war, Fa-
verfham oyfters, to the amount of between 3000/. and
4000/. were annually exported to Holland. '
manufature carried on in the vicinity of Faverfham is that
of gun-powder, which is under the fuperintendance of a
branch af the ordnance eftablifhed here, the principal offi-
cers of which area florekceper, a clerk of the cheque, and 4
matter fireworker, who all have re{pectable houdes. The
various mills, ftorchoufes, &c. are chiefly fituated on th
ftream that flows from Ofpringe, aud forms feveral fmall
iflands in its courfe to the Faverfham creek. This maavy-
fature is {uppofed to have been eftablifhed here prior to the
reign of Elizabeth; but it was a private concern, and
continued till about the year 1760, when the :
works were purchafed by government, and {von af
were rebuilt in a more fubitantial and fafe manner.
the care that can be exerted is, however, fufficient to pre-

on ’
she only

is

vent accidents by the occafional ignition of the powder.
The mott dreadful exploii hat has occurre took plac
rea@iul explofion that has occurred took place

Bb ix

F A V:

jn April 178%, when the corning-mill and dufting-houfe
were deflroyed by the blowing up of about 7009 pounds of
powder, which fo impregnated the air with fulphur, for
many miles round, as greatly to affect 'refpiration, The
quantity of powder anvually manufactured here is computed
at between 12 and 13,000 barrels; the perfons employed
are nearly 400.

The church of Faverfham is a fpacious and handfome
edifice, built of flint, in the form of a crofs, and coigned
with ttone. It confifts principally of a nave, with aifles,
chancel, and tranfept, with a light tower at the welt end,
ornamented with pinnacles, and terminated by an o€tagonal
{pire, 73 feet high, On the north fide of the church-yard
isa free grammar-{chool, founded in the 18th year of queen
Elizabeth, and endowed with certain lands then in the pof-
feffion of the crown, but which had been given in the i8th
of Henry VIII. to the abbey of Faverfham, by Dr. Cole, a
Kentifhman, warden of All Souls’ college in Oxford, for
the *¢ maintenance of a fchool, wherein the novices of the
abbey were to be inftru@ted in grammar.’’

The town has been greatly improved within the laft 40
a f{pacious avenue was formed, by which it
The contizuous
The

years ; in 1773
was laid open to the high London road.
roads have fince been rendered more commodious.

it¥eets alfo have been new paved and lighted, under an act’

of parliament obtained in 1780. Faverfham is fituated 48
miles diftant from London: has two annual fairs, and two
markets, well fupplied with all kinds of provifions, on Wed-
nefdays and Saturdays; and was returned under the act of
parliament in 1801 as containing 570 houfes, inhabited by
3304 perfons.

Anioug the eminent natives of this town, feveral were fur-
named de Faverfham: of thefe Hamo de Faverfham was a
learned Francifcan friar, who became provincial of his order,
and died in Italy, at an advanced age, in the year 1244; and
Simon de Faverfham was chancellor of the univerfity of
Oxford about 1304. The celebrated mufician, Dr. John
Wilfon, was alfo born in this town, in 1595. Hatted’s
Hittory of Kent.

FAUFEL, in Botany, Cluf. Exot. 187. SeeAreca, fp.t.

FAUGELAT, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
right bank of the Nile.

FAUGH, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to
fignify a fallow, or land lying in the ftate ef tillage without
being cropped. It likewife implies land which is repeatedly
ploughed over without any intervening erops. It is moftly
made ufe of in the more northern parts of the ifland, and
frequently written fuuf.

FAUGHAN, or Fanan, in Geography, a river of the

county of Londonderry, Ireland, which rifes in the moun-

tains feparating that county from Tyrone, and winding to

the welt receives a confiderable addition from the Glenrandle
river near Clady. It afterwards takes a north-eattern di-
reCtion, and being navigable for {mall craft {carcely one mile,
runs into Lough Foyle, not far from the place where the
river Foyle alfo runs into it. Sampfon’s Londonderry.

FAVIDA, an ifland in the gulf of Georgia, difcovered
by the Spaniards in the year 1791, near the W. coaft of
North America, from which it is feparated by a channel,
called « Canal del Nueftra Signora del Rofario,”? 30 miles
in Jength from N.W. to S.E. and from 2 to 5 in breadth.
The N.W. point is named Point Marfhal, and the S E,
point, Point Upwood.

FAVILLAE Satis, in Natural Hiffory, a name given
by Vitruvius, and fome of the more ancient writers, to the
nitrum or nitre of the ancients. Our chemical writers, who

have been ufed tu delight much in hard-names, have applied

FAU

the fame phrafe to exprefs our nitre; but this is a very dif-
ferent falt from the other.

FAVISSA, among Antiquaries, a hole, pit, or vault,
under ground, wherein js kept fomething of great value.

The word feems formed of fovif/a, a diminutive of fovea,
a pit or ditch.

The favilfa, according to A. Gellius and Varro, was
much the fame with what the ancient Greeks and Romans
called Srcavpor, thefaurus, and what in fome of the modern.
churches is called archives and treafury. In the Capitol
there were divers faviffe. They were fubterraneous places,
walled and vaulted, having no entrance or light but bya
hole at the top, which was ufually itopped up with a huge
ftone.

They were chiefly deftined for keeping the old worn fta-
tues and other ancient moveables formerly ufed in the
temple ; fo religioufly did that people refpe€t and pre-
ferve whatever was confecrated. Catullus would have
lowered the floor of the Capitol, but that the fayiffe pre-
vented him.

Feftus, however, gives usa different account of the fa-
ville. According to that author they were wells or pits of
water near the temples, and for the ufe thereof, the fame.
with what the Greeks called on¢a20:, navel, as being round, .
&e. Gellius likewile gives them the name of cifterns, as,
well as Feftus ; but itis apparently for no other reafen than
that they bore a refemblance to them in figure.

In effect, the two notions are pretty ealily reconciled ; it
being certain that the treafuries of fome of the ancient
Greek temples were the cifterns or refervoirs of water where-
in people ufed to wafh themfelves before they entered the
temple. ;

FAULBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the county of Wertheim; 3 miles W. of Wertheim.

FAULQUEMONT,, a town-of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton in the
diltri&t of Metz, near the river Nied; 16 miles E. of Metz.
N. lat. 49° 3'. E. long. 6°40’. The place contains 1,05
and the canton 13,555 inhabitants, on a territory of
kiliometres and in 35 communes.

FAULT, in Mining and Geology, is a term pretty gene-
rally ufed for the fiffures which are found dividing the mea-
{ures or itrata of the earth, which form one OF the moft
curious and important facts that the cruft or furface of the
earth prefents. The great prevalence of faults, and the im-
portant interruption which they fometimes give to mining, _
have occafioned them to be noticed by the practical miners
of every diltri& ; and, as is too often the cafe, they have re-
ceived from them a great number of different names, in dif-
ferent diftrifts, or according to the mede in which they ap-
pear to affeQ the vein or feam which they are working, In
the courfe of our reading or practice we have met with all
the following names for faults ¢ viz.

Break Gath Ridge

Breatt Gaw Riit

Cleft Gulph Rife-dyke

Crack Hitch j Shake

Depreffioa Horle Shift

Dip-dyke Jump | Slip

Down-catt | Knot Trap-dowr
Down-leap Leap-up | ‘Trap-up
Down-trap Leap-down ‘Trouble 4
Dyke Let-down Up-caft

Fall t Load Up-leap :
Fault Lum Up-trap

Fiffure Mare Vein

Fleoking Mear Wam

ae al

FAU

and probably others! Doubtlefs there are fome which we
never heard or met with. The above lift frengly fhews
the neceffity for a reformin the language of mining. That
faults are real breaks or mechanical fraétures of the ftrata,
‘no one who has ever feen and examined one can poflibly
doubt ; and fince the worn {tate of their furfaces, or of the
‘edges of the ftrata which they feparate, has been attended
to, there cannot remain a doubt but moft of them have had
‘a fliding motion, or formed the vertical junétion between two
‘mafles of flrata. which often flid or ground forcibly agaiaft
each other, as Mr, Farey has obferved, and which gaye the
‘firlt rife to a new theory on this and many other points in
geology. (Philofophical Magazine, vol. xxx. p. 258.)
‘The direction of faults feldom differs greatly from a perpen-
dicular to the planes of the ftrata, which they interfe@, al-
though they are fometimes much inclined to the perpendicu-
Tar to the horizon. hey generally proceed in ftraight
lines, or nearly, until they interfeét into other faults, which
they never fail to do. The quantity of the fink, or rife, on
one fide, compared with the ether, is feldom the fame for
any great length of the fame fault, but it decreafes one way,

“until the meafures on the two fides will at a certain place be

found to match; -and it is believed, that in fome places,
‘where the fault continues forward, that the fame is reverfed,
and the fide which before had the meafures the highelt, now
“has them the lowelt, and increafingly fo. On the contrary,
af a fault be purfued in the direCtion in which it increafes
“the derangement of the meafures, a point will be found,
where it either terminates by interfeGiing into another, or
crofs fault, or fhould it continue its firft direction, in which
it will begin to decreafe, and perhaps continue to do fo until
the meafures ceafe to have any derangement in their levels, but
‘are merely feparated by a fiflure ; and where, if a crofs fault
“occurs, the fame may be faid to terminate, and actually does
fo, againtt the folid face of the meafures on the oppofite
fide of the crofs fault in fome initances. It is believed by
fome, that the principal faults generally take the fame direc-
tion as the flinos, or natural joints, by which the rock is di-
vided into blocks, in which cafe they are faid by the quarry-
men or miners to agree with the face of their work. In
mineral diftri€ts it is certaiu that the faults are much influ-
‘enced in their directions by the mineral veins, which are of
‘older formation, and that the principal ones follow the veins,
‘dividing the matters they contain inte two parts, and when
‘the fraéture has happened through the rib of ore, the fame
is in a very curious manner polifhed, as Mr. Whitehurft ob-
ferves, under the name of /licker-fides, which fee. This
‘preference of the faults for the mineral veins has occafioned
molt of the cliffs or facades in the denudated mineral
“diftriGs of Derbythire and Staffordthire to happen at the
fide or fkkirt of the vein; and in foe inftances confiderable
“veins of ore have been worked at the foot of fuch cliffs, as
at Middle-peak, Runtor and Yoke-cliff veins near Wirk{-
‘worth. It feems furprifing, that cireumftances fo extraor-
“dinary and important as attend the faults fhould have en-
‘gaged fo little of the attention of the writers on mining and
geology as we find by their works. Mr, William Martin,
though in moft refpects a very accurate obferver, in his re-
cent work, * Outlines of the Knowledge of Extraneous
Foffils,” p. 372, confiders mineral vélns and faults as having
‘the fame origin, and indeed almott contounds them toge-
‘ther.

It is neceffary to obferve, refpecting the term fault, and
‘many others in the above lift, that they not only mean the
fiffure or feparation itfelf, and the derangement of the {trata
‘occafioned thereby, but alfo are applied to the folid and ex-
traneous matters with which the fiffure or fault is in general

FAV

filled; for it often happens that the fiffure is of fome
width, fometimes many yards, and is wedged quite full of
matter, generally clay, with fome mixtures of other fub-
ftances, and fometimes angular and rounded ftones are
among thefe. A large portion of the faults are water-tight,
and hold up the {prings of water contained in phe tate oa
one fide of them. But it is not true, we believe, that water
is ever lodged in the fault itfelf, as Mr. Kirwan afferts (Geol.
Eff. 296.), but it frequently happens, that the cutting ofa
fault by miners, that is, the driving a paflage through it, or
the burfting-in of a thin fault, lets in a great body of water
to the mine, which was before pent up in the porous ftrata
and open cracks of the rocks on the other fide, which has
probably occafioued his miftake. In the neighbourhood of
old mines in particular, the xtmoft precautions are often ne
ceflary in cutting or even approaching the thin faults, for
fear of drowning the miners by a fudden influx of water.

FAUNALIA, in Antiquity, fealts celebrated by the Ro-
mans in honour of the god Faunus.

The deity Faunus, to whom the folemnity was devoted,
and from whom it was denominated, was the fame among
the Romans with the Pan of the Greeks.

The Faunalia were held on the day of the nones of De-
cember ; #.¢. on the fifth day of that month. The princi-
pal facrifice was a roe-buck ; or rather, according to Ho-
race, a kid attended with libations of wine, and burning of
incenfe.

It was properly a country feftival, being performed in the
fields and villages, or in the midft of woods, with peculiar
jey and devotion, :

Horace gives us a very gay defcription thereof in the
eighteenth ode of his third book :

a Tener pleno cadit hoedus anno:

Larga nec defunt Veneris fodali
Vina craterz : vetus ara multo.
Fumat odore.”’

Struvius, in his Roman calendar, marks the feaft of Fan-
nus on the day of the ides of February, which is the thir-
teenth day of that month ; and the Faunalia he places oa
the fifth of the ides of December, or the ninth of that
month; and in chap.ix. he fhews, that there really were
two Faunalia, the one in February, mentioned by Ovid,
Fatt. lib. vi. ver. 246. the other on the ninth of December,
mentioned by Horace, in the place juit cited.

FAUNS, Faun, among the ancients, were a {pecies of
demi-gods inhabiting the forefts; called alfo Sylvans, Syl-
vani, and little differing from the Satyrs. They delighted
more particularly in vineyards, and they generally appear as
attendants of Bacchus, in the reprefentations of Bacchanal
feafts and proceffions.. They were reprefented as half men,
half goats, having the horns, ears, feet, and tailofa goat, a
very flat nofe, and the reft human.

The Roman Fannns, we have obferved, was the fame
with the Greek Pan, Now, in the poets we find frequen
mention made of Fayns and Panes in the plural number ; in
all probability, therefore, the Fauns were the fame with the
Panes.

Though the Fauns were held for demi-gods, yet they were
fuppofed to die after alonglife. Arnobus fiews that their
father gr chief, Faunus himfelf, only lived 120 years.

FAVONIUM, in Botany, from favs, a honey-comb, in
allation to the appearance of its receptacle after the feeds ave
fallen. Gaertn, v. 2.431. t..174, Clafs and order, Syage-
nefia Polygamia-frujiranea. Nat. Ord. Compefiie oppo/iti
folie, Linn. Corymbifere, Jul.
~ Gen. Ch. Contmon Calyx double ; the external of many

Bbh2z unequal,

FA.

unequal, elliptical, entire, {pinous leaves, the outer ones
much the largeft ; internal fimple, of one leaf, firmly united
with the receptacle, bordered with numerous, unequal,
fpinousteeth. Cor. compound, radiant ; florets of the dif
androgynous, tubular, five-cleft, regular: thofe of the ra-
dius neuter, ligulate, three-toothed. Stam. Filaments five;
anthers united intoatube. Pi. Germen obovate, crown-
ed; ftyle rather longer than its own corolla; ftizmas two,
revolute. Peric. none, except the permanent calyx. Seeds
folitary, inverfely pyramidal, {mooth, lead-coloured ; crown
membranous, of one leaf, cut half-way down into numerous
radiating teeth. Recept. broad, naked, deeply cellular, the
cells irregular, with thick, even, fmooth edges.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked, deeply cellular. Down many-
toothed. Florets of the radius ligulate. Outer calyx
many-leaved ; inner many-toothed.

1. EF. fpinofum. (Polymnia fpinofa; Linn. Suppl. 384.
Choriftea fpinofa; Thunb. Prod. 163. Didelta {pinofa ;
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.256. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2262.)
See Dipevta, where this plant is defcribed, but from
which genus we are now convinced, by Gertner’s remarks,
it ought to be removed.

FAVONIUS, among the Romans, the wind which blew
direG&tly from the weit.

FAVORINUS, in Biography, a celebrated Platonic
philofopher, who flourifhed under the reigns of Trajan and
Adrian, was born at Arles in Gaul, and ftudied under
Dio,Chryfoftom. He was himfelf profoundly {killed in
philofophy, and wrote numerous books on the fubject. He
taught with much reputation at Rome, and at Athens.
He was highly refpeGted by Adnan, and frequently dif-
puted with that prince, though not always with the decifion
of aphilofopher. Being once reproached for having tamely
given up a point in debate, he replied “ are you altonifhed
that I fhould fubmit to the fuperior learning of one who has
thirty legions of troops at his command ?”” He is reported
to have been an eunuch, and is faid to have felt furprife at
three things, viz. that being a Gaul, he cowld {peak Greek
fo well ;—that being an eunuch, he fhould have been ac-
cufed of adultery ;—that being a fubje&t of envy and
jealoufy, he fhould be permitted to have lived fo long.

Favorinus, VaArinus, who flourifhed in the 16th cen-
tury, was born near Camerino, a ducal town of Umbria.
He ftudied under Angelo Politian, and John Lafcaris at
Florence, and was patronized by Lorenzo the Magnificent.
Having determined on an ecclefiaftical life, he undertook
the care of acongregation, and was appointed preceptor to
John de Medici, afterwards pope Leo X. Favorinus was
appointed keeper of the Medicean library in the year 1512,
and two years afterwards his former pupil nominated him to
the bifhopric of Nocera ; the duties of this high office he
performed, fo as to obtain high and very general refpect,
till his death, which happened in 1537. His principal
work, as a literary man, was a Greek lexicon, entitled
« Magnum Ditionarium, feu Thefaurus Lingue Grece,”
&e. fol. This work is wholly in Greek, and furnifhes
f{cholars with the various explications of words, which are
to be found in other lexicons. It has gone through many
editions, but the moft beautiful and corre is faid to be
that of Venice in 1712. He was author of feveral other
publications. Moreri.

FAVORITE, in Oraithology.
roftris.

FAVORITO, in the /talian Mufic, is an epithet given
to fuch parts of any compofition as are performed to the
greateft advantage. Thus, choro favorito is a chorus in
which are employed the belt voices and inftruments to fing

See Fuxrica flavi-

FAV

the recitativos, play the ritornellos, &c. This is otherwife
called the /ittle chorus, or choro recitante.

FAVOUR, in Commerce. See Days of Grace.

Favour, in Mythology, a deified perfon among the
ancients, of whom we merely learn, that Apelles made a
fine picture of this deity.

FAVOURABLE Lake, in Geography, a lake of N,
America, in N. lat. 52° 50’. W. long. 92° 30’, which is the
fource of two large rivers, at the mouth of one of which,
emptying into Winnipec lake, ftands the Canadian houfe,
The other is the S. W. brancn of Severn river.

FAUP, one of the Caroline or New Philippine iflands,
in the Pacific ocean.

FAUQUEMBERQUES, a town of France, in the
department of the ftrait of Calais, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri& of St. Omer, 11 miles S. W. of
St. Omer, The place contains 1,250, and the canton 14,852
inhabitants, on a territory of 1824 kiliometres, and in 24
communes.

FAUQUEMONT, or Varkensere, or Falkenberg,
a town of France, in the department of the Lower
Meufe, fituated on the Geule; 12 miles W. of Aix-la-
Chapelle.

FAUR, Guy Du, Lord Du Pizrac, in Biography, un
eminent lawyer and man of letters, was born of a diftin-
fk family at Touloufe in 1528. He was educated at

aris, and then went to Italy, to perfeé himfelf in junif-
prudence. On his return he figured away with high repu-
tation in the parliament of his native city, and was chofen
a deputy to the ftates of Orleans in 1559, at which he had
the firmnefs to prefent a memorial of grievances to the king.
He was afterwards feleted as ambaflador from Charles 1X.
to the council of Trent, where he ably defended the rights
of the Gallican church. In 1565, he was nominated advo-
cate general in the parliament of Paris, and in this capacity
he compofed an apology in Latin, for the infamous maflacre
of St. Bartholomew. He next accompanied the duke of
Anjou, afterwards Henry III. when he went to take pof-
feffion of the crown of Poland. He was fele&ted to ae
high diplomatic ftations, but was at length charged with
indulging an amorous paflion for the queen of Navarre.
Some refpectable writers treat this charge as a mere calumny.
He died in 1584, leaving behind him, as memorials of his
literary charaéter, ‘Pleadings and Harangues,” “A difcourfe
on the Soul and the Sciences,” but his name is chiefly famous
for a feries of moral maxims in French verfe, entitled
‘¢ Quatrains ;”” they are written with elegance and fpint,
were extremely popular, and have been tranflated into the
Latin, Greek, and modern languages. Moreri.

FAURANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in La-
vora; 17 miles E. of Naples.

FAVRE, Antony, in Biography, was born at Bourg-en-
Breffe in 1557, ftudied at Paris and Turin, and was raifed
to feveral important pofls under the duke of Savoy, and
finally was made governor of that country, and all the pro-
vinces beyond the mountains. He was alfo pretident of the
council of the Genevois for the duke of Nemours. His
character for profeflional knowledge, and ftri€t undeviating
integrity, was extremely high, and he might have attained
to confiderable rank in France under Lewis XIII. could
he have induced him to quit Savoy. He died in 1624..
His works on jurifprudence were publifhed in ten vols. folio,
of which the principal is entitled «* Codex Fabrianus.’?
This has been referred to in all. the parliaments of France.
Moreri.

Favre, Cxraupe, lord of Vaugelas, fon of the preceding,
was born in 1585, and early brought up in attendance upon

the

FA WU

the court. He was made gentleman in ordinary, and after-
wards chamberlain to Gafton, duke of Orleans, whom he
followed in all his fortunes, though to the ruin of himfelf
and his profpeéts. He was a diltinguifhed member of the
French academy, and devoted his whole leifure time to the
ftudy of his native language, by which he has perpetuated

his name. He publifhed “ Remarks on the French
Beata” and a tranflation of “ Quintus Curtius.” On
the latter he is faid to have {pent thirty years, and it ac-

cordingly obtained forhimahigh reputation. Lewis XIII.
had fettled upon his father and family a penfion, the pay-
‘ment of which, however, had ceafed, but was renewed to
‘Claude, with a view of inducing him to engage in the com-
‘pilation of the diGtionary of the academy. On this occafion
Richelieu faid to him, “ I hope you will not forget the word
penfion in your di€tionary.’”’ ** No,’’ my lord, replied Favre,
<¢ and ftill lels the word gratitude,”’ a delicate, but forcible
reproof for the cardinal. Favre died infolvent in 1650.
Morert.

FAUSSE, Fr. in J7ufic, falfe, out of tune, by being
too high or too low. There are falfe voices, as there are
falfe ftrings. It is fuppofed that this is occahioned by a bad
ear, but the mifchief is done before the found arrives at the
ear; and we have known perfons fing out of tune, who ftop
perfectly well in time on the violin, and who judge very
accurately of the intonation of others. It is often from
defedt of the organ, which is difobedient to the will of the
‘owner, that falfe intonations occur ; intonationi perfidi.

Fausse-Bray, in Fortification, is a {trong parapet, or
a low rampart, formed by a continuation of the revetement
of the fearp, carried up to fuch a height, generally about
feven feet, as fhould enable the defenders to fire direCtly into
the covert-way, and to obftrué the affailants not only from
making any lodgment there, but from attempting the paf-
fage of the ditch. Thefe are certainly points of importance,
and it fhould feem that the faufle-bray poffefled in itfelf
the means of anfwering every part of its intention ; and fuch,
indeed, would probably have continued to be the cafe,
were it not that the invention of ricoghet-firing, by which
the ball is made to lob along the interior of a defence, (fee
Enrivape and Erauremenr) totally difqualifies the
faufle-bray from being confidered a place of fecurity. Add
to this moft formidable objeGtion, that, where the rampart
ts furnifhed with a revetement of mafonry, the {plinters oc-
cafioned by fuch fhots as may {trike thereon, prove more
deftructive than the open fire of many fituations apparently
more expofed.

In confequence of fuch important defe€ts, modern engi-
neers have totally difcarded the faufle-bray as a defence,
though it may be advantageoufly conftructed in certain in-
ftances as the only effeCtual means of preventing the rub-
bith occafioned by the breaching-batteries of the aflailants
from falling into the ditch, fo as to afford the means of af-
cent. In lieu of a fauffe-bray, it is now the practice to
planta very ftrong fence, a few feet diftant from the foot of
the rampart, for the above purpofe, as well as to conceal
fuch perions as may have occafion to pafs along the berm.
The defence of the covert way, and of the pailage of the
ditch, is found to be more effectually fupported by the con-
ftrution of a low work, called a tenaille, (fee ConstTRuUC-
v10N Military,) placed before the potternsin the curtains ;
and from which the fre is more powerful than that from the
flanks ; it being more horizontal, and much nearer.

Fausset Chenille,in Natural Hiffory, a term uled by Mr.
Reaumur, and other of the French writers, to exprefs a
large clafs of worms produced from the eggs of feveral
{pecies. of four-winged flies.. Thefe worms. have greatly

FAU

the appearance of caterpillars in their general form, fo that
they have deceived many writers on infects into an opi-
nion that they were really fo ; but M. Reaumur has fhewn
that they are very different. Hift. Inf. vol. ix. p. 133.

Fausse Quarte, Fr. in Mufic, another wame for the tri-
tonus, or fharp 4th. See Tritonvus.

FAUSSET, Fr. is that kind of voice which fings
an octave above its natural compafs, to imitate a boy or a
female. A voice on this occafion refembles a flute or organ
pipe over-blown, or blown with a fharper current, when it
breaks into the oftave. See Ocrave and Fatser.

FAUST, Joun, in Biography, a goldimith at Mentz,
celebrated on account of the fhare which he had in the
invention of the art of printing. It has never been
afcertained to whom we are chiefly indebted for this
admirable art. Claims have been made for perfons named
Guttemberg and Scheffer, and it has been afferted that
Fault only furnifhed money to Guttemberg to enable him
to bring the invention to a ftate of maturity, he having
previoufly, at Strafburgh, made the attempt with carved
blocks. Scheffer, who was fon-in-law to Fauft, invented
punches and matrices. To the firft work that was printed the
names Fauft and Scheffer are attached ; this was entitled
“¢ Durandi Rationale divinorum officioru:n,” 1459. Among
other works to which thefe names are attached are the Bible,
and two editions of the Pfalter. Thefe were executed with
charaGters engraved on wood, and are now exceedingly rare,
and confidered as mafter-pieces of typography : the charac-
ters are cut to imitate the fineft writing, and the initial lJet-
ters are printed in three colours, blue, red, and purple. It
has been faid that Fauft went to Paris to fell fome copies of
his bible, and having fold them at a low price, in com-
parifon of what was given at that time for manufcript
bibles, and at different rates, his cuftomers having heard of ©
his mode of printing them, profecuted him on account of
the overcharge. From this period Fauft never appeared at
Paris, and it is thought he died of the plague in the
year 1466.. Nouv. Did. Hilt. See Praintine.

FAUSTED, in Mining, is a refufe fort of ore and fpar,
intended to be drefled over again.

FAUSTINA Borpone, in Biography, a celebrated female
finger at the early part of the latt century; fhe was a Venetian,
anda {cholar of Michael Angelo Gafparini of Lucca. She in
a manner invented a new kind of finging, by running divifions
with a neatnefs and velocity which aftonifhed all who heard
her. She had the art of fultaining a note longer, in the
Opinion of the public, than any other finger, by taking her
breath imperceptibly. Her beats and trills were ftrong and
rapid ; her intonation perfeé&t ; and her profeffional perfec.
tions were enhanced by a beautiful face, a fymmetric figure,
though of {mall ftature, and a countenance and geiture on
the ftage, which indicated an entire intelligence and _poffef-
fion of the feveral parts fhe had to reprefent. She firit ap-
peared, as a theatrical finger, at Venice, in 1716, when {he
performed in the opera of * Ariodante,”’ compofed by Carl.
Fran. Pollarolo. In 1719, fhe appeared on the fame ftage
with Cuzzoni and Bernacchi, in an opera compofed by her
matte: Gafparini. Here fhe is called Wirtuefa:di Camera
of the Elector Palatine. In 1722, fhe fung in Leo’s opera
of * Bajazet,” at Naples; and,in 1725, we find her at Vienna,
where, according to Apoftolo Zeno, fhe received great hoe-
nours, as well as prefents. At the palace of prince Lichten-
itein, finging to a great affe.ably, fhe was prefented with 4
purfe contend a hundred pieces of gold {ungheri rofpi);
and near as much more at the French ambaflador’s. “ But,’”
fays this poet, ‘* whatever good fortune or encouragement fhg
meets with, fhe merits it.all by her courteous and polite man-

NETS

FAU

érs, ag well as talents, with which fhe has enchanted and

ained the efteem and affection of the whole court.”? The
fame author fpeaks ‘ della bravura di Fanfina,”’ and the
« bella mufica di Porfile,”’ in an opera by the Abate Pafquini,
performed at Vienna, 1725 ; and of the regret exprefled by
the whole court at her quitting that city to go to London.
She remained here but two fealons, and then returned to Ve-
nice, where, in 1732, fhe was married to the celebrated Saxon
compofer Haffe, and foon after went to Drefden, in the fer-
vice of which court fhe remained till the year 1756. At
the bombardment of that city by the late king of Pruffia,
Hiaffe, her hufband, had all his manofcripts burned, which
were to have been printed at the expence of his mafter and
patron, the elector.

A late writer upon mufic, of confiderable merit with refpect
to the prefent times, though frequently erroneous as to the
paft, {peaking of the Fauitina, fays that her agility of voice
has feldom been equalled ; a matchlefs facility and rapidity
in her execution; dexterity in taking her breath, ‘exquifite
fhake, new and bnilliant paflages of embecllifhment, and a

thoufand other qualities contributed to inferibe her mame

among the firft fingers in Enrope.

The Cuzzoni, an exyuifite finger in a “different ftyle
from that of the Fauttina, being here at the fame time,
occafioned fuch frefh feuds among the nobility and gentry,
fubfcribers to the Royal Academy, as form an era in the an-
nals of mufical contefts ; for fo dilputable were the talents of
thefe two fingers, that in Handel’s opera of * Aleffaudro,””
the flames of difcord were kindled to fuch a height among
the frequenters of the opera, and patrous of the art, as to
excite a greater degree of enmity than even the theological
and political parties of High church and Low, or of Whig
and Tory, which then raged in this country.

it was related by the Hon. Mr. Walpole (late earl of
Orford) that his mother, the lady of fir Robert Walpole,
had thefe two firens at her houfe to fing in a concert, at
which were all the firft people of the kingdom. She was
under the greateft difficulty how to fettle the precedence,
or prevail on either to relinquith the pas, which could only
be accomplifhed by renouncing the pleafure of hearing el-
ther of them herfelf: the knot could not be untied, but it
was cut, by the following expedient. Lady W. finding it
jmpoflible to prevail on one to fing while the other was pre-
fent, took Faultina to a remote part of the houfe, under
the pretence of fhewing her fome curious china, during which
time the company obtained a {ong from Cuzzoni, who fup-

ofed that her rival had quitted the field. A fimilar expe-
dient was practifed in order to get Cuzzoni out of the
room, while Fauftina performed.

The Fauftina hada mezzo-foprano voice that was lefs clear
than penetrating. Her compats was only from B flat to Gin
alt. ; but after this time fhe extended its limits downwards.
She poffeffed what the Italians call «* un cantar granito;”” her
execution was articulate and brilliant. She had a fluent tongue
for prenouncing words rapidly and diftinétly, and a flexible
throat for divifions, with fo beautiful and quick a fhake
that fhe could put it in motion upon fhort notice, jult when
the would. The paflages might be fmooth or by leaps,
or confifting of iterations of the fame tone, their execution
was equa'ly eafy to her as to any inftrument whatever.
She was doubtlefs the firft who introduced, with fuceefs,
a {wift repetition of the fame tone. She fung adagios with
great paflion and expreflion, but was not equally fuccefsful,
if {uch deep forrow were to be imprefled on the hearer, as
might require dragging, fliding, or notes of fyncopation,
znd tempo rubato.

She had a very happy memory in arbitrary changes and

- words their full power and expreflion.

FAU

embellifhments, and a clear and quick judgment in giving ta
In her action fhe
was very happy; and as fhe perfe&tly poffefled that flexi-
bility of mufcles and features, which conititutes face-playing,
fhe fucceeded equally well in furious, amorous, and tender
parts: in fhort, fhe was born for finging and ating. The
violence of party for thefe two fiagers, Cuzzoni and Fauf-
tina, was very great.

For, according to Tofi, their contemporary, and a moft
excellent judge of their feveral merits, their talents, and
ftyles of finging, were fo different, that the praife of one was
no reproach to the other. ** Iudeed, their merit,” fays he,
“ js {uperior to all praife ; for with equal force, in a differ-
ent ftyle, they help to keep up the tottering profeflion from
immediately falling into ruin. The one is inimitable for a
privileged gift of finging, and enchanting the world with.a
prodigious felicity in executing difficulties with a brilliancy,
I know not whether from nature or art, which pleafes to ex-
cefs. The delightful foothing cantabile of the other, joined
with the fweetnefs of a fine voice, a perfe& intonation,
ftri€tnels of time, and the rarelt productions of genius ir
her embellifhments, are qualifications as peculiar and uncom-
mon, asthey are difficult to be imitated. The pathetic of
the one, and the rapidity of the other, are diftinétly charac.
teriftic. What a beautiful mixture it would be, if the excel-
lences of thefe two angelic beings could be united in a fingle
individual !?? (Offario fopra il canto fig.) Are not thefe re-
flegtions applicable to the two great fingers ( Banti and Bil-
lingtom) of the prefent time, who have each their exclufive ad-
mirers? It isa very ancient remark among mutfical critics, that
pathetic fingers have no brilliancy of execution, nor thofe
pofleffed of great agility of throat, much pathos. Would it
not have afforded more delight to perfons of tafte and dif-
cernment, to hear two great performers at the head of dif-
ferent ilyles, than the perpetual {truggle of two contending
firens in the fame ftyle ? ‘Then, after taking fides, partifans
have an opinion to defend, which generates difputes that
feldom end fhort of contempt and hatred of each other.

In June, 1772, we found the old Fauftina and her hufband
the admirable Hafle, commonly called Saffoni by the Tha
lians, and their two daughters at Vienna. She was then.about
72, but lively, and curious after what was tranfaGting in the
world. The daughters were very fine fingers in different
ftyles. On the Fauttina being afked to fing, fhe cried out :
Ah! non poflo; ho perduto lutte le miei facolta !”? Alas!
I am no longer able, I have loft all my faculties !”? This
worthy family remained at Vienna till the year 1775, then
retiring to Venice, the place of the Fauftina’s nativity where
the daughters were well married, fhe ended her days in 1783
at the great age of 81; and Haile died foon after, at nearly
the fame age.

PAUSTINO, Si, in Geography, a town of South Ameri-
ca, in New Granada; 40 miles N. of Pamplona. N. lat
6° 55’. W. long. 71° 24". ‘

FAUTAGC, a town on the eaft coal of Madagafcar
S. lat. 24°. E. long. 47° 45!. i

FAUVILLE-EN-CAUX, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton
in the diftii&t of Yvetot 3 ro miles N. of Caudebec. The
place contains 1,346, and the canton 10,956 inhabitants,

on a territorial extent ef 112} kiliometres, in 20 coms

munes.

FAUX, Fr. in Mufie, falfe.

Faux-Bourdon, Fr.
BURDEN.

Tau x-Bourdon, Laflard humble bee, in Natural Hiffory
aname given by Reaumur and other French naturaliits to

the

See Fausse. :
See Farso-Borpone, and Fa-

EA Y¥.

the bees ufually called by us drones, and by the common
people of that nation bourdons, confounding them with the
common humble-bee under that name. See Drone.

Faux Puceron, aname given by Reaumur and otheis to
a genus of infeéts much refembling the pucerons in many
things, but differing in fome material circumftances. The
two principal kinds of thefe are found on the back of the
leaves of the fig-trees, and in little hollow balls at the fum-
mits of the branches of box, formed of the upper leaves
vitjated by. the bitines of thefe creatures,

FAUXVILLERS, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Foréts, and chief place of a can-
ton in the diftri@ of Neufchateau. The place contains
938 and the canton 5,841 inhabitants, ona territory of 255
kiliometres and in 14 communes,

FAWKES, Francis, in Biography, was born in York-
fhire about the year 1721. He received his grammar
Iearning at Leeds, whence he was transferred to Jefus
college, Cambridge. He was educated for the church,
and prefented to the vicarage of Orpington, with St.
Mary Cray, in Kent, by archbifhop Herring, whofe death,
in 1757, was noticed in an elegy by Mr. Fawkes. In 1761,
he publifhed a volume of poems by fubfcription, and took
a part in fome periodical publications. In 1767, he pub-
Jifhed an eclogue, addrefled to the honourable Charles
Yorke, on partridge fhooting. He is more celebrated for
tranflations than for original compofitions. His yerfions of
Anacreon, Sappho, Bion, Mofchus, and Mufeus, were po-
pular, and are ftill in good repute. In 1774, he exchanged
his vicarage for the re€tory of Hayes, where he died in
1777. After his deceafe a tranflation from his pen of the
s* Argonautics,”” was publifhed by fubfcription. <* He pof-
feffed,”? fays his biographer, “an eafy fiow of verfification,

_and though his di€tion is not highly poetical, yet it has the

merit of extraordinary clearnefs, which leaves no hefitation
about the meaning of the original.”” Gen. Biog.

FAWN, among Huniers, is a buck or doe of the
firll year, or the young one of the buck’s breed in its firft

ear.
Fawn, in Geography, atownfhip of America, in York
county, Pennfylvania, on the W. bank of Sufquehannah
river, onthe Maryland line ; containing 1,214 inhabitants.

FAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Indre and Loire ; 13 miles S. of Chinon.

Fay-Billot, Le, a town of Vrance, in the department of
the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, inthe dif-
wi of Langres; 12 miles S. E. of Langres. The place
contains 1,999, and the canton 11,453 inhabitants, on a
territory of 2774 kiliometres, and in 23 communes.

Fay-/e-Froid, atown of France, in the department of *
the Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri 3 Le Puy; 15 miles E.S.E. of Le Puy. The
place contains 525, and the canton 5,590 inhabitants, on a
territory of 175 kiliometres, and in 6 communes.

Fay, To, in Ship Building, is to fet any two pieces of
wood fo as to join clofe together : the’ plank is faid to fay
to the’timbers when it bears or lies clofe to all the umbers.
_FAYAL, in Geography, the mott wettern of the Azore
iflands. This ifland derives its name from the great number
of beech-trees (Faya, in Portuguele,) which grow here ;
befides which it abounds with other wood. It is about 27
miles long, and 9 wide: the climate is good, the air is mild,
the winter-cold is never felt, and the heat of fummer is
countera@ted by refrefhing winds. The bullocks and hogs of
this ifland are very good, but the fheep are remarkably poor ;
poultry, vegetables, and fruit may be had at a reafonable
Price: but the chief produce of the ifland is wheat and

FAY

Indian corn, with which they fupply Pico, and fome of the
other ifles. Birds are numerous, and the coait affords abun
dance of fifh. Fayal, although the mo& noted for wine,
does not raife fufficiest for its own confumption; this are
ticle is raifed on Pico, and thence brought to De Horta,
for foreign fhipping. The chief town is called Villa de
Horta, or Orta. Fayal was firft peopled by Flemings, who,
grudging the expence of a Portuguefe garrifon, undertook
to defend the ifland. But they had reafon to repent of their
prefumption; for the Englifh, at different times, made de-
{cents upon the ifand, and took it ; they deftroyed the for-
tifications, after having feized and burnt a fguadron of rich
homeward-bound thips that lay in the harbour. Since this
time a Portuguefe garrifon has conftantly been maintained in
the ifland. N. lat. 38° 32! 24". W. long. 28° go! 54!

Fayat, Bay er Road af, is fituated at the E. end of the
ifle, before Villa de Horta, and facing the W. end of Picoy,
It is 2 miles broad, and 3-4ths of a mile deep, being of a
femi-circular form. The depth of water is from 20 to to
and eyen 6 fathoms, and the bottom fandy, except near the
fhore, where it is rocky, and alfo beyond the line which.
joins the two parts of the bay. It is not a bad road; but
the winds meit to be apprehended are thofe which blow
from between the S.S. W.and S. E. Round the S. W.
point there is a cove, called Porto Piere, in which a fhip.
or two may lie in tolerable fafety.

FAYD, a town of Syria, on the frontiers of Arabi
Deferta ; 400 miles E. of Damatcus.

FAYDIT, Ansetm, in Biography, a native of France,
who flourifhed:towards the clofe of the 12th century. He
is celebrated asa Proyengal poet, and for his excellent fing-
ing, by which he-made himfelf agreeable to perfons of
rank. He not only compofed, but reprefented comedies,
which obtained fo large a fhare of popular favour, as to put
the author in poffeflion of confiderable wealth, which he.
{quandered away in licentious pleafures, and vain expence.
In poverty, he was fortunate enough to attra& the notice
and favour of Richard Ceeur-de-Lion, king of England, who
had a paflion for poetry, and by bim was once more railed
tova ftate of afluence. Arter the death of Richard, Fay-
dit returned to Aix, where he married a woman as im-
prudent as himfelf, but who. died fhortly after marriage.
He next went to the court of the marquis of Montferrat,
and afterwards to that of the lord of Sault, where he died
about 1220. - He wrote a poem on the death of his patren
king Richard; another, entitled “ The Palace of Love,’
and feveral comedies, of which one, entitled “ L’Heregia
dels Prettres,”” The Here/y of Priefis; was written to gra-
tify and flatter the wifhes of perfons of rank, who at that
period were, favourers of the opinions of the Albigenfes,
and who he probably expected would become his friends
and patrons. Moreri-

Faypir, Perer, a French prieit, born at Riom, in
Auvergne, about the middle of the 17th century. In
1662, he entered into the congregation of the Oratory,
from which he was expelled for having publifhed a treatife
on the principles of the Cartefian philofophy. He after-
wards became famous for the part which he took in the
controverfy between pope Innocent XI. and France, in
which he compared the pantuiff with pope Anicetus in his
difpute with Polycarp, and with pope Vicor in his differ~
ence with Polycrates and the Aliatic bifhops’ concerning
Eafter. This led to other controverfies of much repute
at the time, but which may now be well configned to obli,
vion. In 1695, he publithed “ Illuitrations of the doce
trine, and of the Ecclefiattical Hiitory of the fir two
centuries 5” and, in the following year, ‘ A treatife on

ae

the Trinity ;”? for which he was accufed of tritheifm, con-
victed and imprifoned at Paris. His fuffering had no ten-
dency to reprefs his zeal, though it probably led him to
caution in his future publications. But the freedom of his
language, and the want of attention and refpe&t which he
fhewed to certain illuftrious individuals, excited their anger
fo much, as to procure an order from the fovereign that he
fhould retire to his native place, where he died in 1709.
His other works are, “ A Colleétion of Memoirs,” intended
to: fatirize “ Tillemont’s Ecclefiaftical Hiftory,?? which
were foon fupprefled; ‘* Remarks on Virgil, on Homer,
and on the Pcetic Style of the Scriptures,” in 2 vols.
A critique on Telemachus, entitled « Telemaco-manie.”
And other pieces in Latin verfe, and French profe.
Moreri.

FAYE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Maine and Loire; 10 miles S. of Angers.

Fave /e Vinenfe, in the department of the Indre and
Loire ; 2 miles S. E. of Richelieu.

FAYENCE, a town of France, in the department of
the. Var, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of
Draguignan, celebrated for its manufaéture of earthen
ware; 10 miles-N.E. of Draguignan. The place con-
tains 2,712 andthe canton 9,488 inhabitants, ona territory
of 1923 kiliometres, in 6 communes.

FAYETTE, Mary-Macparen Procue DE LA
VerGNeE, Counte/s of, in Biography, a lady in high favour
at the court of Lewis XIV. She was intimately connected
with the wits of that period, who were accuftemed to al-
femble at her honfe, and to many of whom fhe was a liberal
benefaétrefs. Segrais was her particular friend, and in his
name the celebrated romances entitled “ Zaide,’? and ‘ The
Princefs of Cleves,”’ were given to the public, but he has
himfelf teftified that his part in them was only contributing
to the plot and difpofition, and that the filling-up and or-
naments were entirely by Madame de la Iayette. Thefe
were extremely popular, and they are fpoken of by Voltaire
as the firft in which the manners of perfons of condition
were painted, and natural adventures were defcribed with
eafe and grace. She wrote likewife ‘ Memoirs of the
Court of France in the years 1688 and 1689 ;” * The
Princefs of Montpenfier ;?? ‘¢ The Hiftory of Henrietta
of England ;”? and “ Divers Portraits of Perfons about the
Court.” Thefe were all very much admired for the grace
of ftyle, and the delicacy -and livelinefs of defcription.
She died in 1693. During her life fhe was ever molt flat-
tered With the praife of having a judgment fuperior to
her wif, and loving the truth above all things. Moreri.

Fayette, in Geography, an American fettlement in
Tioga county, New York, between the Unadilla and the

nain branch of the Chenengo. It is laid out in roo lots of
f{quare mile each, as nearly as the ground will permit.

FayeTre, a eounty of Pennfylvania, bounded N. by
Weitmoreland, S. by part of Maryland and Virginia, and
W. by Monongahela river; 39 miles long and 29 broad;
containing 473,280 acres; divided into 17 townthips, of
which Union is the chief. The number of inhabitants is
20,159.

Fayette, a diftri@ of North Carolina, comprehending
fix counties, viz. Moore, Cumberland, Sampfon, Richmond,
Robefon, and Anfon. It-is bounded N. by Hillfborough,
S.E. by Wilmington and Newbern, W. by Salifbury, and
S. by the ftate of South Carolina. It is 120 miles in length,
and 50 in breadth, and contains 41,358 inhabitants, of whom
$206 are flaves. The furface is varied with hills and dales,
and is in general well watered.

Fayette, a county of Kentucky, 24 miles long, 20

Paty

broad, bounded N. by Scott county, N.E. by Bourbos,
E. by Clark, S. by Madifon and Jeffamine, and W. by
Woodford. 'The foil is excellent, though it lies on an emi-
nence. ‘The number of inhabitants is 12,233, of whom
3786 are flaves. The chief town is Lexington.

Fayetre, a town in Kennebeck county and ftate of
Maine, bounded welterly by Livermore, eafterly by Mount
Vernon, Wayne, and a large pond, called Great Amere-
fkogcen pond. It has 532 ishabitants.

FAYETTEVILLE, fo called in honour of the marquis
La Fayette, a fourifhing poft town of North Carolina, plea-
fantly fituated in Cumberland county, on the welt fide of
the N.W. branch of Cape Fear river, nearly at the head of
the navigation ; roo milesabove Wilmington, and 61 fouth-
erly of Raleigh. The town is fituated about a mile froma
the river, near the junétion of Blount’s and Crofs creek;
on both fides of the creek are about 400 houfes, and hand-
fome edifices for public ufe. The ftreets are regularly laid
out, and the principal ones are 100 feet wide. Here are
three mills, two confiderable diftilleries and breweries, and
feveral extenfive tan-yards. This town carries on a con-
fiderable trade to Wilmington in tobacco, wheat, flour,
beef, pork, flax-feed, hemp, cotton, butter, lumber, ftaves,
naval ftores, &c. The town ftands in a fettlement of Scots
Highlanders, and has a poft office, and 1656 inhabitants.
N. lat. 35° 11! W. long. 79°.

FAYORO, a town of hath, in the province of Aragon,
at the conflux of the Matarana and the Ebro; 15 miles S,
of Fraga.

FAYOUM, Faioum, or Ferum, a province of Egypt,
on the weft fide of the Nile, exteuding from the river to,
the lake Berkit Caroun or Burkit-el-Kerun, the ancient lake
Moeris. This was formerly the province of Arfinoe,
(which fee,) interfe€ted by canals, which formed a commu-
nication between the river and the lake, and diftinguifhed
by its beauty and fertility, as well as the variety and value of
its productions. Since that period this province has, by the,
oppreffion of the Turks, undergone a very great change 3.
inftead of flourifhing cities,it now prefents to view cottages”
and hamlets built of mud, canals nearly choaked up, and
the fea of Moeris reduced to two-thirds of its former extent ;.
and yet the obferver will difcover the fame produ@ions
which Strabo has defcribed, and the fame abundance where-
ever the waters can penetrate. The Copts {till cultivate
the olive and the vine planted by their fathers. They
gather an excellent grape, of which they make a white
wine of very agreeable flavour, The whole country
is at prefent covered with corn, with barley, with dourra,
or Indian millet, which follow one another in regular fuc-
ceffion during feven or ‘eight months. The fuperb flax,,
the fugar-cane, and all forts of vegetables, {pring up al-
moft without culture. The cucumber, and various forts of,
excellent melons, line the banks of the rivulets. Groves of
fruit trees, among{t which are the date-tree, the fig-tree, the
banana, the caffia, &c. are here and there difperfed over,
the plain; near the villages are groves of rofe-trees, from
the odoriferous flowers of which they diftil the rofe-water,
which forms a valuable branch of commerce. The canals:
and the lakes abound with fifh, which fupplies the neigh-,
bouring provinces at a cheap rate. When winter is cover-;
ing the northern ‘countries with fnow and hoar-froft, ionu-
merable flocks of birds come to winter in lake Moeris, and.
the canals of Faioum. The inhabitants take a vaft number.
of geefe, with golden plumage and of an excellent flavour ;.
wild ducks that are fat and delicate, teals, fwans, of whofe.

fkins they make furs, and pelicans. Savary’s Letters on
Egypt, vol. i. .

6 Fayoum,

FAZ

“ Favoum, or Faioum, a town of Egypt, and capital of
the province above defcribed, which formerly poffeffed pub-
lic baths, markets, and colleges, divided by the canal of
Jofeph into two parts, and furrounded by gardens. At
prefent it is only half a league in circumference, and is
fituated on the eaftern bank of the canal. The remainder
is deftroyed; the colleges no longer fubfift; the houfes
built with brick, dried in the fun, prefent the dreary afpec
of a heap of cottages. The inhabitants are poor, and,
under oppreflion, deftitute of energy; and all the arts
are reduced to fome manufactures of mats, coarfe carpets,
and the diftillation of rofe-water. This town is governed
by a cachef, in the name of one of the beys of Grand Cairo.
Several Arabian {cheicks, who poffefs lands in the neigh-
bourhood, compofe his council, and they repair to the divan
two or three times a week, when the governor invites them.
Their chief is held in high eftimation ; but harmony among
the members of the adminiftration is of fhort continuance.
‘The frequent fucceflive wars at Grand Cairo difturb the tran-
quillity of the provinces, and the victorious party deprives
the poffeffors of their governments and their lands; 49 miles
SSW. of Cairo. N. lat. 29727'. E. long. 30° 39/.
Savary.

FAYS, a town of France, in the department of Upper
Marne; five miles N.W. of Joinville.

FAZILPOUR, a town of Hindooitan, in Guzerat ;
i2 miles N. of Brodera.

FAZULA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; three
miles N. of Lucknow.

FAZULAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar;
3x3 miles N.W. of Bahar.

FAZZELLO, Tuomas, in Biography, was born at
Sacca, a town of Palermo, in the year 1498. He was entered
in the order of Dominican monks, and was their provincial,
and might have heen cleéted general of the order, had not
his own modefty thwarted the meafures taken for the pur-
pofe. He was ten times chofen prior of the monaltery at
Palermo, and died in poffeffion of that office in 1570. He
wrote many works, but the moft confiderable was a ‘ Hif-
tory of Sicily,” written in Latin in 20 books, which firft
appeared in Palermo in 1558, and which has paffed through
feveral editions, and was tranflated into the Italian language.
Moreri. ;

FAZZIO, Barruoremew, was born at Spezio, on the
coatt of Genoa, in the beginning of the rsth century. Though
of very humble defeent, he became learned in the ancient
languages, and tranflated ** Arrian’s Hiftory of Alexander,”
He likewife wrote a hiflory of that prince in ten books;
and a hiftory of the war between the Genoefe and the
Venetians, which commenced in 1377. He is chiefly re-
garded for his work “ De Viris [luftribus,”? which con-
tains brief eulogies of the moft famous men who were his
contemporaries, with anecdotes of their lives, and an account
of their principal works. This was not publifhed tilla long
time after the death of the author, when Mehus annexed
fome MS. letters of Fazzio relating to the hiftory of the
times. We have likewile two moral treatifes by Fazzio,
the one entitled ** De Humane vite Felicitate ;’? and the
other, De Excellentia & preitantia Hominis;” anda Latin
poem. The early part of life he paffed at Genoa, whence
he was invited to the court of Alphonfo, king of Naples, a

reat patron of learned men, where he remained till his death
i 1457- His ftyle is faid to be generally pure and elegant,
écially in comparifon with that of other writers in the fame
jod. A great hatred prevailed between Pazzie and Lo-
renzo Valla, on account of their rivalfhip for the favour of

Vor. XIV.

FE

Alphonfo, and each wrote four books of invectives againft
the other. Gen. Biog.

FAZZOLO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
Capitanata ; 13 miles S.W. of Manfredonia.

FE’, Santa, a town of Spain, in the province of Gra-
nada, near the Xenil, built by Ferdinand and Ifabella in
the year 1491, during the fiege of Granada: it is fituated
in a fertile tract, and though a {mall town, contains about
2000 inhabitants ; five miles N.W. of Granada—Alfo, a
town of Spain, in Aragon; five miles S. of Saragofla.

Fr!, Santa, a province of South America, in the vice-
royalty of New Granada; and the name is fometimes given
to the vice-royalty itfelf from that of its capital.

Fs! de Bogota, Santa, the capital of the vice-royalty
of New Granada, fituated near the river Funza or Pati,
which at the diftance of 35 miles falls into the Magdalena.
This city was‘founded in 1538 by Quefada the Conqueror.
Although it lies at a confiderable diftance to the eait of the
grand chain of the Andes, which paffes N. of the province
of Carthagena, between the rivers Magdalena and Cauca,
and though it is only four degrees from the equator, the
climate is unexpectedly rather cold. It ftands ina beau-
tiful and fpacious plain, called Alcarazes, and the foil is
fufficiently fertile. The city is large and handfome, and its
{treets are wide and well laid out. There are four {quares,
and five bridges over two little rivulets, called San Francifco.
and San Auguttin, which {pring from the eaftern mountains,
and run weitward both of the city and its plain, which
is about 20 leagues in length and 11 in breadth, till they
join the Funza, called allo the river of Bogota. The
whole year, fuch is the temperature of the climate, may
here be called a perpetual fpring, and the fertility of the
foil produces two harveits. The cathedral is magnificent,
and has 16 prebends. Here are alfo three parifh churches
and eight convents, with four nunneries, and the great
hofpital of San Pedro. Befides two religious colleges for
education, there is the univerfity of St. Thomas, with a
large public library, eftablithed in 1772. This beautiful
city prefents feveral other churches and chapels. The po-
pulation is thought to exceed 30,000 fouls ; and the inhabit-
ants are generally of a good character: and though phleg-
matic in their appearance, their ftature and afpeé are agree-
able, and their wit acute. Juftice is adminiftered by two
alcalds, according to the code of the Indies, with an appeal
to the Royal Audience. The municipality is compoied
befides of fix regidors and other officers. The inhabitant
are, in general, not rich, and many of them are occupied 11
trade, the means of which, however, are rare and uncertain ;
the fecular jurifdiction of this capital comprehends feven
little diltri€ts in its neighbourhood, with 52 villages, and

or7 Indians, not including the people of colour, fuppofed
to be fourfoldthat number. N. lat. 4° 6’. W. long. 78° 30’.
For other particulars, fee Bocora.

Fe’, Santa, a town, or rather a village of America, thouzh
it is the capital of New Mexico, fituated 2400 miles N. of
the capital city of Mexico. It is the fee of a bifhop and re-
fidence of a governor. It was founded, in +682, on the
fkirts of a high chain of mountains, whence {prings a cleat
river abounding in excellent trout. The river iffues from a
lake on the fummit of the mountain, and pailes through the
middle of the tewn. ‘The climate refembles that of Spain,
having feafonable rain and fnow, the {pring being mild, and
the fummer heats maturing cotton in abundance; the popu-
lation eonfilts of 300 Spanith families, the Indians in that
diftri not wifhing to live in the. fame town with their
malters. The furrounding territory is clear of woods, fer-
tile and pleafant, producing wheat, maize, garden plants,

Ce fruits,

REA

fraits, and particularly grapes, of which good wines are
made. ‘I'he paftures are well watered, and replenifhed with

chorfes, cattle, acd fheep. The Rio Bravo rifes 50 leagues
N.W. of the capital, difufes fertility, and has its margins
adorned with beautiful woods, and its ftream abounding
with excellent fifh. The ucighbouring mountains are
cloathed with tail batrea pines, and with thofe of a Imaller
fort which bear large cones ; the other trees are oaks of dif-
ferent kinds, fapines and others which form excellent tim-
ber. The animals are deer, bears, wolves, foxes, wild
fheep, and {tags of the fize of a mule, the horus of which
are not lefs than two yards in, length, probably the moofe
deer, There are mines of tin, which do not defray the ex-
pence of working. N. lat. 36° 50’. W, long. 108’ 48’.

Fe!, Santa, a town of South America, in the vice-royalty
of La Plata, or Buenos Ayres, at the confluence of the river
Salado with the Plata, built by Ferdinand V. The town
is of a {quare form, aad furrounded with walls, fanked with
towers, and adcep ditch. The two flreets interfec& each
other in the form of a crofs. It contains one parifh and
ope convent. The environs abound in filk, corn, wine, and
fruit; and game is plentiful, S. lat. 31° 50’. W. long.
60’.

. Fe’ @’ Antioquia, Santa, the capital of a province fo
called, fituated on the river Cauca, in the vice-royalty of
New Granada; highly celebrated for its rich mines of
gold. N. lat. 6° 48!. W. long. 74° 36’.

Fe! de Chiribique, Santa, atown of South America, in
New Andalufia, on the coalt; 24 miles W. of Cumana.
N, lat. 10° 5’, W. long. 65°.

Fr'!, or Foy, Santa, a placein the middle of Veragua,
.a province in the Audience of Guatimala, in North Ame-
rica, where the king of Spain keeps officers for cafting and
refining gold. It ftands at the fource of a river which runs
into the North fea.

Fe’, Santa, a city of Paraguay, in South America, 150
leagues S. by W. of the city of Aflumption, feated on the
river Paraguay. ‘The inhabitants are chiefly employed in
hufbandry, grazing, and weaving cloth. They fell their
_produ@tions and manufactures advantageoufly in Brazil.

FEABES, in Rural Economy, aterm applied in fome
places to goofeberries; and which is fometimes written
feaberries.

FEAGH, in Mining, fignifies the refufe fpar and rub-
bifh of a mine.

FEAL, in Rural Economy, a term often ufed in the
more northern diftriats to fignify the turf or {ward of grafs
land, when cut up or pared from the foil, for the purpofe of
forming fods. This fort of cutting or flaying off the fur-
face of old grafs lands was formerly very common, but from
its being found highly prejudicial, has been lately much
laid afide, and fhould be wholly difcontinued.

Feau-D:ke, a term applied in the northern counties to a
fence which is conflituted either wholly or partially. of fods
or feal cut from the adjoining grafs land.

Feav-Manure, in Agriculture, is that fort of earthy ma-
nure, which is produced from the decompofition and decay
of the grafly furface of land which has been cut in the man-
ner of feal, and thrown together in a heap for the purpofe.
When incorporated with a little dung it forms an excellent
top-dreffing for hay-lands.

Fea, wasanciently ufed for faithful; hence the tenants
by knights fervice ufed to fwear to their lords to be fea/and
deal; that is, faithful and loyal.

_ FEALE, in Geography, a river of the county of Kerry,

Ireland, which rifes in the weftern part of the county of
Limerick, and pafles the towns of Abbyfeale and Liftowel ;

FEA:
after this it meets the river Gale, and with it forms the
Cafhin, a river which is navigable for eight or ten miles, and
rims into the eftuary of the Shannon,

FEALTY, Fipexriras, denoted, under the feudal
fyltem, an obligation on the part of the vaflal to be faithful to
his lord, and to defend him againft all his enemies; and by
the feudal law-an oath of fealty was required to be taken by
all tenants to their landlord, which is couched in almoft the
fame terms as our ancient oath of allegiance ; except that
in the ufual oath of fealty there was frequently a faving or
exception of the faith due to a fuperior lord by name, under
whom the landlord himfelf was perhaps only a tenant or
vaflal. But when the acknowledgment was made to the
abfolute-{uperior himfelf, who was vaffal to no man, it was
no longer called the oath of fealty, but the oath of allegi-
ance, in which the tenant fwore to bear faith to his fove-
reiga lord, without any faving or exception. See Artes
GIANCE.

Tealty is ufually mentioned as fynonymous with homage ;
but it differs from it, as homage confifts in taking an oath
when the tenant comes to his land, and is done but once,
being an obligation which is permanent, and binds for ever,
whiich fealty does not. :

They differ alfo in the manner of the folemnity; for the
oath of homage is taken by the tenant kneeling, but that
of fealty is taken ftanding, and includes fix things, which
are comprifed in the words incolume, tutum, utile, hone/lum,
facile, pofibile.

Incolume, that he do no bodily injury to the lord ; tutum,
that he do him no fecret injury in any thing which is for his
defence, asin his houfe or caltle ; honeflum, that he do him
no injury in his reputation ; u/i/e, that he do not damage him
in his poffeffions ; facile and poffibile, that he make it eafy
and not difficult for the lord to do any good which other-
wife he might do: all which is nae A comprifed in Leg,
Hen. I. cap. 5.

He that holds land by this only oath of fealty, holds in
the freeft manner; for all, even thofe that have fee, hold
per fidem & fiduciam ; that is, by fealty at the lealt.

This fealty is alfo ufed in other nations, as in Lombardy
and Burgundy.

Indeed, as the very firft creation of this tenure grew from
the love of the lord towards his followers, fo did it bind the
tenant to fidelity, as appears by the whole courfe of the
feuds, and the breach thereof is lofs of the fee.

Hottoman, in his ** Commentaries de Verbis Feudalibus,””
fhews a double fealty ; the one general, to be performed by
every fubjeét to his prince, anfwering to our oath of allegi-
ance; and the other fpecial, required only of fuch, as in
refpeét of their fee are tied by this oath towards their lords,
We read of both alfo in the Grand Cuftomary of Normandy,
&e.

Fealty fpecial was with us performed either by freemen
or villains. By 17 Ed. II. ftat. 2. the form of this oath is
appointed, and as now oblerved it is as follows: “I A.B.
will be to you my lord C. true and faithful, and bear to you
fealty and faith for the lands and tenements which I hold of
you; and I will truly do and perform the cuftoms and
fervices that I ought to do to you. So help me God.’?
The oath is adminiftered by the lord or his tteward ; and
though it is negle&ted in fome manors, yet in copy-hold
manors, where courts are kept, and copy-hold eftate granted,
it is generally ufed. Every lord, of whom tenements are
holden at this day, may, and ought to call upon his tenants
to take this oath in his court-baron, becaufe if it be long
neglected he may lofe his feignory, and the profits arifing
from efcheats and other contingencies. ;

Fealty

FEA

Fealty is incident to all forts of tenures, except from
frank-almoign and tenancy at will. bn 5

FEAR, in Lthics, is the apprehenfion of fome evil likely
to befal us, attended with a defire of avoiding it. This
paffion has been found to leffen perfpiration and urine.
Fear, in JZythology, was a deity among the Grecks,
and afterwards adored by the Romans, together with
« Palenefs,’’ its infeparable companion. When men were
{truck with the view of events, of which the caufes were
unknown, and which infufed a terror into their minds that
required foreign relief, they made a divinity of the difturb-
ing paffion itfelf, from which they fought to be delivereg, by
addreffing to it vows and prayers. It is not poffible to
determine the precife time when they began to pay adora-
tion to thefe two divinities. "They were known, however,
to the earlieft poets of Greece. Hefiod, after having told
us in his Theogony that fear was the daughter of Mars and
Venus, adds, in the defcription of Hercules’s buckler, that
this god was reprefented upon it in his chariot, accom-
panied with fear and terror. Homer (Il. 1. 4.) gives thefe
goddefles the fame original. Accordingly, whenever he
makes the god of war appear in battle, he gives him fear,
terror, and flight for his retinue ; he alfo places the fame
divinities fometimes upon the tremendous gis of Minerva,
and fometimes upon the buckler of Agamemnon. (Il. 1. 11.)
A divinity, fo well marked by thefe two poets, and fo
formidable in herfelf, could not fail to command religious
worfhip. Accordingly they had recourfe to gifts and
facrifices, in order to appeale and to be delivered from her.
In a battle fought by Tullus Hoftilius, the Albans, who
had declared for him, withdrew and joined the enemy. His
men were at firft difmayed, and all feemed to be loft, when
that prince vowed to erect a temple to fear and paleuels ;
this vow produced its effects; the foldiers refumed their
courage, and Tullus gained a complete victory. ‘his
event, which is the era of introducing the worthip of thefe
two goddeffes into Rome, is marked upon two medals of
the ae of Hoftilia. Upon the one isa head with the
hair erect, the countenance raifed towards heaven, the
mouth open, and a terrible afpeét, which are lively figures
of the divinity whom the medal reprefented. The other
exhibits a meagre face inuch lengthened, the hair laid flat,
and a ftaring afpect. And this is the true portrait of pale-
nefs, which is the effeét of fear. According to Plutarch,
the Icacedemonians placed the temple of fear by the tribunal
of the “ Ephori,”? from a perfuafion that nothing is fo
neceflary as to infpire the wicked with fear of fevere chattife-
ment. Moreover, fear was joined in oaths with the other
Bers fEf{chylus informs us, that in the folemn oath taken
‘by the feven chiefs of the Thebau expedition, in the midit
of facrifices, all of them holdin, their hands in the blood of
ae victims, {wore by fear, by the god Mars, and by Bel-
ona.

Fear, Putting in, in Law, is the criterion that diftin-
guifhes robbery from other larcenies. For if ont privately

eals fixpence from the perfon of ancther, and afterwards
keeps it by putting him in fear, this is no robbery, for the
fear is fublequent (1 Hal. P. C. 534.) However, it is not
neceflary, though ufual, to Jay in the indiétment that the
robbery was committed by putting in fear ; it is: {ufficient,
if laid-to be done by violence. And when it is laid to be
‘done by putting in fear, this does not imply any great
degree of terror or affright in the party robbed; it is
enough that fo much force, or threatening by word or
-geflure,. be ufed, as might create an apprehenfion of danger,
or induce a man to part with his property without or againit
his confent. (FPoit. 128.) |

FEA

Tzaa, Caps, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of North
Carolina:. N. lat. 33° 50’. W. long. 78° r1'.

Fear River, Cope, a river formed by the union of two
ftreams, which unite near Wilmington in North Carolina,
and run into the fea at Cape Fear.

FEARN, a town of Scotland, in the county of Rofs ;
four miles S. E. of Tain.

FEAST, or Festivat, a church folemnity, or rejoicing
in honour of God ora faint.

The word is formed of the Latin, fefum, which fome
derive a feriari, to keep holiday ; others from the Greek,
ioriun, I feaff or entertain, of irra, hearth, fire.

Feafts, and the ceremonies attending them, have made
great part of the religion of almoft all nations and feéts ;
witnefs thofe of the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Hebrews,
Chriftians, and Mahometans.

The Egyptians had fix principal feftivals, w/z. the firkt,
celebrated at Bubaftis in honour of Diana; the fecond, at
Bufiris, for the goddefs Ifis; the third, at Sais, for
Minerva; the fourth, at Heliopolis, in honour of the Sun ;
the fifth, at Buthos, was the feftival of Latona; and the
fixth was celebrated at Pampremis. in honour of Mars. ‘The
feftival at Bubaftis was peculiarly folemn. The people
flocked thither from all parts, and the Nile was for feveral
days overfpread with barges, decked with ornaments, and
accompanied with mufic. The number of {pe€tators at this
feftival was computed to be 700,cc0; who abandoned
themfelves to mirth and revelling, and who confumed on
this oceafion more wine than they uled throughout the whole
year. At the feltival of Bufiris, the facrifices were followed
with a flagellation, from which neither mea nor women
were exempted. The feftival of Minerva at Sais was
diftinguifhed by the great number of lamps which were kept
burning during the night. The whole ceremony m the
feftival of Heliopolis, and that of Buthos, was to offer
facrifices upon that occafion to the Sua and to Latona,
But that which they celebrated at Pampremis in honour of
Mars, was attended with this fingularity ; the priefts bore
upon a four-wheeled chariot the ftatue of that god, inclofed
in a {mall chapel of gilt wood ; and while they endeavoured
to force the chariot and ftatue into the temple of that
divinity, men armed with clubs ftood in the way to hinder
it, and as the prieits likewife had arms, an engagement
enfued, it which it muft naturally be fuppofed many people
loft their lives; though the Egyptians maintained that no
perfon died of the wounds which were received on that
occation.

The firft feafts among the Greeks were celebrated in fo-
kemn affemblies of the whole nation, on occafion of their
games, as the Olympic, the Pythian, the Iithmian, and
Nemean ; in procefs of time they had many others, the
principal of which are enumerated in the courle of this work.
Sce Potter’s Arch. vol. i. cap. 19, 20.

The Romans alfo had abundance of ftated feafts in ho-
nour of their deiti¢és and heroes: fuch were the Saturnalia,
Cerealia, Lupercalia, Liberalia, Neptunalia, Confualia,
Portymnalia, Vulcanalia, Palilia, Divalia, &c. See Sa-
TURNALIA, &c. x!

They had alfo feafts inftituted occafionally ; as Carmen-
talia, Quirinalia, Terminalia, Floralia, Compitalia, Lemu-
ria, Vernalia, befide other moveable and occational ones ;
as to give thanks to the gods for benefits reseived; to im-
nlore their affidance, or to appeafe their wrath, &c. as the
Seales Feralia, Bacchanalia, Ambarvalia, Amburbalia,
Suovetaurilia, and divers others, particularly denominated
feria ; a8 Sementine, Latine, &c. See cach of thote feafls
and feria in its proper place.

Cta Tke

FEA

The featts were divided into days of facrifice, and days
of banqueting and fealting ; days of games, and days of
reft, or feriz. a

There being but little hiftory wrote, or at leaft publithed
in thofe days ; one end of feafts was to keep up the re-
membrance of paft occurrences.

The principal feafts of the Jews were the feafts of trum-
pets, that of the expiation, of tabernacles, or the dedica-
tion, ef the paffover, of pentecoft, and that of purifica-
tion, The modern Jews have other feafts marked in their
calendar of modern inttitution.

The Mahometans, befides their weekly feaft, or fabbath,
which is kept on Friday, have two folemn feafts, the firtt
of which is called the Feaft of Victims, and celebrated on
the tenth day of the laft month of their year; and the
fecond, called Bairam. The Chinefe have two folemn
feats in the year, in memory of Confucius, befides others of
lefs note on other days of the year.

Feasts among us are either immoveable or moveable.

Feasts, Immoveable, are thofe conftantly celebrated on
the fame day of the year; the principal of thefe are Chrift-
mas-day, or the Nativity ; the Circumcifion, Epiphany,
Candlemas, or the Purification; Lady-day, or the An-
nuuciation, called alfo the Incarnation and Conception; All
Saints, and All Souls; befides the days of the feveral
apottles, St. Thomas, St. Paul, &c. which with us are
fealts, though not ferie. See each feaft under its proper
article.

Feasts, Moveable, are thofe which are not confined to
the fame day of the year. Of thefe the principal is Eatter,
which gives law to all the reft, all of them following, and
keeping their proper diftances from it; fuch are Palm-
Sunday, Good-Fniday, Afh-Wednefday, Sexagefima, Af-
cenfion-day, Pentecoft, and Trinity-Sunday. See Easter,
SEXAGESIMA, PENTECOST, [RINITY, Kc.

The four feafts which our laws take {pecial notice of are,
the Annunciation of the blefled Virgin Mary, or Lady-day,
the 25th of March; the Nativity of St. John the Baptilt,
held on the 24th of June; the feaft of St. Michael the
Archangel, on the 29th of September; and that of St.
Thomas the Apoitle, on the 214t of December: on which
quarterly days rent on leafes is ufually referved to be paid,
5 and 6 Ed. VI. cap. 3. 3 Jac. I. cap. 1. 12 Car. II.
cap. 30. :

Belide thefe feafts, which are general, and enjoined by
the church, there are others local and occafional, enjoined
by the magiftrate, or voluntarily fet on foot by the people ;
fuch are the days of thankfgiving for delivery from wars,
plagues, &c. Such alfo are the vigils or wakes in commemo-
ration of the dedications of particular churches. See
Vici, &e.

The prodigious increafe of feaft-days in the Chriftian
church commenced towards the clofe of the fourth century,
and was occafioned by the difcovery that was then made of
the remains of martyrs and other holy men, for the com-
memoration of whom they were eftablifhed. Thefe, inftead
of being fet apart for pious exercifes, were abufed in
indolence, voluptuoufnefs, and criminal practices. Many of
them were inftituted on a pagan model, and perverted to
fimilar purpofes.

Feast of the Dead, is a folemn religious ceremony in ufe
among the favages of America, fome of whom thus teftify
their refpeét for the deceafed every eight years; and others,
as the Hurons and Iroquois, every ten years.

Feast is alfo ufed for. a banquet, or a fumptuous meal,
without any immediate view to religion.

PEA

The ufe of the word, in this fenfe, arifes hence; that a
part of the ceremony of many of the ancient feftivals, both
thofe of the Heathens and the agape of the Chriftians, was
good eating; though Mr, Huet ¢hoofes to derive the word
from fe/inare, which in an ancient Latin verfion of Origen’s
Comment on Matthew, fignifies fo feaff; “ Ut veniens illus
Jefus feftinet cum difcipulis fuis.”? In ail antiquity, both
errs and profane, facrifices were little more than religious
eatts.

It has been often obferved by authors, that there is no
nation in the world comes near the Englifh in the mag-
nificence of their feafls. Thofe made at our coronations,
inttallments, confecrations, &c. tranfcend the belief of alf
foreigners ; and yet itis doubted whether thofe now in ufe
are comparable to thofe of our forefathers.

The Perfians never difcourfe and deliberate of their moft
important affairs but in the middle of their featts.

FEATHARD, in Geography, a pott town of the county
of Wexford, Ireland, which was formerly flourifhing, and
fent two members to parliament, but which has now faller
to decay, and has loft its privilege as a borough by the
union. It isa feaport, feparated by a fmall neck of land
from Waterford harbour, 81 Irifh miles S. by W. from
Dublin, and 14 S.from New Rofs, See FerHarp.

FEATHERS, in Comparative Anatomy, conttitute the
peculiar covering of the clafs of birds. In no other tribe of
animals are they met with; for the plumes which belon
to fome of the lepidopterous infe&ts are different from the
feathers of birds, both with refpe& to their ftru&ure and
mode of growth. No bird is entirely deprived of feathers,
although fome fpecies want them on certain parts of the
body. The turkey and vulture have the head and part of the
neck uncovered. The oftrich and the wading birds have
bare thighs : thofe birds which have ceres, combs, cr pieces
of flefh on the head, have thofe-parts without feathers, as in
the bald coot, feveral gallinacex, &c. The aptenodytes
want feathers even on the wings. Many birds have patches
or {pots about the fide of the head, upon which there are no
feathers.

The feathers which make the proper clothing of the bird
are of two kinds, the dow and common fhort feathers ;
the former is placed under the common feathers: it gives
an entire covering to fome water birds at a very early age ;
of this the young goofe is a familiar example. The down
is defigned to defend the bird againft cold and wet ; aad
hence it is fo abundant upon the lower furface of thofe birds
that frequent the water.

Although the common feathers cover the whole body,
they do not grow from every part of the fkin: they are

thickeft upon the fhoulders and loins, along the under part of

the neck and breaft, and do not exit upon the lateral lines
of the neck or breaft, or about the umbilicus. This ar-
rangement, and their being directed downwards and back-
wards, allows them to cover the body more neatly, and to
remain unrufled during the motions of the bird. ;

The Jarge feathers, or quills, fituated upon the wings and
tail, fhould rather be confidered as inftruments of motion
than as an integument: thus we find them ftrong and un-
yielding in their texture in birds of flight, more efpecially
thofe that have heavy bodies, as the fwan, goofe, turkey,
&c. while they are wanting in the wings of thofe birds that
do not fly, as the oftrich, aptenodytes, &c.

There are other long feathers that differ both from the
quills and common feathers, with refpe@ to their ftru€ture and
pofition. Of thefe we may mention thofe of the creft of
the peacock, and fome of the crane kind, the hypoc on-
driac feathers of the birds of paradife, the rump feathers

of

FEATHERS,

of the peacock, &c. thefe feem defigned for ornament
alone.. ‘

There are many other varieties of feathers, but as thefe
are more the concern of the naturalift than of the anatomiift,
we fhall not dwell upon them at prefent, and hereafter only
notice fuch peculiarities in the external appearance of fea-
thers as illuftrate the ftru€ture of thefe parts.

The anatomy and mode of growth are effentially the
fame in all kinds of feathers ; but we fhall take our defcrip-
tion chiefly from the large feathers, or quills, as being the
moft convenient for the purpofe.

Previous to the appearance of the firft feathers, the fkin
of birds is in a degree covered with hairs, except under the
belly: thefe grow in tufts, or fafciculi, each containing about
ten or twelve hairs. Cuvier flates thefe tufts to be implanted
in a bulb or follicle, which, as he conceives, contains the
rudiments or fheath of the feather. When the fheath is
protruded from the flin, it carries with it the fafciculus of
hairs, which then appears to arife from its extremity. In
general, the hair very foon falls off from the feather, but
in fome' of the accipitrine birds it is found attached for a
conliderable time to the end of the feather, refembling fine
down. :

All feathers are originally contained in tubular fheaths ;
thefe penetrate the fkin, and become apparent, ulually a
few days after the bird leaves the ihell. "The quills are firft
obferved ; after thefe, the down makes its appearance, and
then the common feathers. Thefe latt are found to be ar-
ranged in a quincunx order.

The ftruéture of the fheath is exceedingly curious: it is
round, or tubular ; the extremity, which is affixed in the fin,
is blunt and perforated, in order to give paflage to the bulb
or vafcular part of the feather; the external end is origi-
nally-clofe, and of a pointed-fhape. The parietes cf this
tube appear to be of an horny nature, although they are
thin and extremely fragile: it readily fplits into lamina,
more efpecially at the external extremity; it is thicker,
fofter, and lefs brittle towards the end conne&ied with the
fin.

The root ef each fheath is accommodated in a corre-
{ponding excavation of the integuments: this is lined by a
refleCtion of the cuticle, which appears, after reaching the
bottom of the ce//, to return outwards, by pafling on the
proper fheath of the feather, in which fituation it is ex-
tremely thin and delicate. The cells which enclofe the
fheaths of the feathers are ufualiy very deep in the wings
and tail ; their internal lininy is alfo ftrong in that fituation,
and they adhere to the periofteum.,

If the fheath of the feather be opened at a very early
period, it will be found to contain a wa/zular pulp, (of
which more hereafter) ; and around this may be feen fome
colouring matter, in a foft and almoft liquid ftate, which,
if examined, will be found compofed of a number of little
thin proceffes, or lamin, already pofleffing the form of the
barbs of the future feather; thefe are therefore the firit
parts which are produced ; they foon acquire more itrength
and firmnefs, and become attached to the /haft or /alk of
the feather, which isthe part next fecreted.

As foon as the point of the feather is completely formed,
it perforates the external end of the fheath, which is ealily
ruptured. The feather in this way gradually increafes, to
accommodate ,which the fheath alfo enlarges, and becomes
on the feathers of the wing and tail a contiderable tube.

In proportion as the feather is formed it paffes out of the
torn end of the fheath, which becomes further lacerated by
this means, and drics from expofure to the air, and falls off

in fhreddy plates or feales, fhewing its original firu€@ture to

have been Jaminated.

The barbs, while enclofed in the fheath, are coiled round,
in order to gain room ; but on paffing out unfold and take
their proper figure.

After the fhaft and barbs of the feather are entirely
formed, the tubular part, or that which in quills is called
the barrel, is produced. Cuvier defcribes this part as being
formed by the confolidation and drying of the fheath in
which the-fhaft grew ; ut it appears to us to be fecreted,
like the other parts of the feather, by the vafcular pulp.
The tube, ina full-grown feather, always appears to be the
continuation of the back part of the fhaft. The fheath,
however, adheres more clofely to the tube than the reft of
the fhaft, and hence that fhreddy membrane which is
obfervable on the barrel of a quill before it is cleaned.

The vafeular fubflance, or pulp, fo often already alluded
to, poffefles a very fingular ftru€ture. Cuvier calls it a
gelatinous cylinder ; but although aimott fo foft and pulpy
as to merit that name, it is an organifed body, confifting of
numerous cells, and provided with a large fupply of blood.
An injection of a coloured fluid from any of the neighbour-
ing arteries renders the pulp of the feather entirely red, and
feems to pervade every part of it, as if it was fhed into it,
or extravafated in its fubitance.

We have failed to trace any branches of nerves into the
pulp, although they can be eafily diffe€ted as far as its
origin or root: in this circumftance it refembles the vafcu-
lar bulbs of hair and fpines, and the pulps of the teeth,
into the fubftance of which, we believe, no perfon has yet
clearly purfued the branches of nerves.

The pulp, after fulfilling its purpofe, viz. the fecretion of
the feather, undergoes a fingular change of ftruG@ure: it
lofes all vafcularity, becomes perfeétly dry and tranfparent,
and puts on the appearance of a number of empty mem-
branous cones, or funnels, inferted the one into the other.
This change has been afcribed to the part being dried by
expofure to the air; but, that it is effe¢ted by a “procefs of
ablorption, and by the ceffation of vafcular a@ion in the
arterial branches, is fully proved by the cleannefs and the
gifappearance of all colour in the degenerated pulp. The
above change goes on gradually, beginning at the extremity
of the pulp, fartheft from the root of the feather, and
keeps regular pace with the growth of the feathers. Avs
the pulp dies or degenerates along the grooved fide cf the
fhaft, itis rubbed off ; but in the tube of the feather it is
preferved, and makes that well-known jointed membra-
nous body which we take out of the® barrel of the quill in
making a pen.

The converfion of the vafcular pulp into dry membra-
nous cells neceffarily produces a confiderable vacancy in
the tubular portion of the feather, which is fupplied by air.
The means by which this airis obtained, and its chemical
compofition, have not heretofore been known. In making
fome experiments, with the view of analyfing the air.con-
tained in quills, we difcovered how it is admitted into the-
tube. Some quills, plucked from a living goofe, being in-
troduced into a quickfilver bath, and their ends being cut
off while in the bath, a fufficient quantity of air was ob-
tained by turning their open ends up into an inverted jar.
While this was doing, it was obferved, that if the open-erd
of the quill was pufhed downwards into the bath, the
quickfilver rofe in the barrel, asin a thermometer. This led
to the conclufion, that there muit be an opening through
which air could pafs out, and of courfe alfo into the barrel
of the quill: fome further examination dete&ed a foramen
fituated at the upper part of the barrel, juft where the

groove

FEATHERS.

xroove of the fhaft terminates. This opening is extremely
{mall, while *the quill is fixed in the wing, and: becomes
almoft entirely lobed by the drying of the feather after it
is plucked: it is the remnant of the paflage in which the
portion of the vafcular pulp that went to the inner, or
grooved fide of the fhafts, was originally fituated : for the
pulp is divided at its external extremity into two branches,
one of which goes onin the continuation of the tube in the
back of the fhaft, and the other belongs to the greoved, or
inner fide of the fhaft. :

The above obfervations put it beyond all doubt that the
hollow portions of feathers are fupplied with air from the
atmofphere, inftead of being fecreted, as fome have fuppofed.
As this air cannot be expelled and removed} and as it 1s ina
degree expofed to the influence of the blood of the vafcular
pulp, it was to be prefumed, that it underwent the fame
change as air which had paffed through the organs of re-
fpiration. With the view of afcertaining the fact, the fol-
lowing experiments were made upona confiderable portion
of air collected under quickfilver, in the manner already
mentioned, from the quills of a living goofe.

Some nitrous gas was firft admitted into the inverted jar,
eontaining the air of the quills, and produced a very flight
diminution of the column of air. Some weak folution of
ammonia was next introduced, which diminifhed the quan-
tity of air very confiderably: this was fuppofed to proceed
froma folution of fome nitrate of mereury, which had formed
on the furface.

A fecond quantity of air was collected in a glafs tube in
a fimilar manner. On admitting a portion of lime water,
and fhaking the tube, the water became flightly turbid, and
no material diminution of the column of air was obfeived.
Nitrous gas was next introduced, when the red fumes were
inftantly formed: in order to get rid of the fuperfluous
nitrous gas, a quantity of the folution of fulphat of iron
avas pafled up into the tube; a diminution in the bulk of the
original air was now evident, and amounting, as was fup-
pofed, to about the one-fixth of the whole. It was calcu-
dated that this portion of air contained carbonic acid gas in

| the proportion of about one-fifteenth part. Thefe experi-
sments were made with the affiftance of the heft chemitt of
the prefent age. We have fince repeated them nearly in
the fame manner, and have obtained fimilar refults. The
air admitted into feathers lofes a portion of its oxygen, and
acquires a certain quantity of fixed air; but it is not fpoiled
an the fame degree as if it had pafled through the lungs,
por to the fame extent that, from reafoning on the fubject,
ewe had been prepared to expect.

Feathers, when fully formed, befides the degenerated
pulp upon which they grew, ufually contifl of three parts,
the tube or barrel, the /baft or fiali, and the barbs, with
their darbules.

The tube is a cylinder of a horny fubftance ; it is tranf-
parent, on account of its only containing air, and the dry
anembranous cells which remain from the vafcular pulp ; its
fize isin general {mell in proportion to that of the whole
feather, except in the quills, where it is of a confiderable
fize. It is largeft in the large anferime and gallinaceous
birds, as the turkey, fwan, goofe, &c. ; and hence the quills
of thefe birds are the fitteft to be made into pens. ‘The
tube, when minutely examined, appears to confilt of two
4ayers, or lamine ; the external is a circular plate, and ex-
hibits fome flight linear impreffions running round the barrel
in.a tranfverfe dire@tion; it is likewife more denfe and tranf-
parent than the internal, which has its parts difpofed in
a@ longitudinal dire€tion, and is fmooth on-the internal
Surface.

The cavity of the barreliis continued a little way inte
the back part of the fhaft, in which it is gradually loft, and
in fome birds of flight, as the eagle, hawk, llork, &c. it is
continued for a very, confiderable diltance into the fhaft.
No part can be better contrived for uniting the advantages
of ftrength and levity than the barrel of quills.

The /haft 1s likewife compofed of a circular and a longi-
tudinal layer, or plate ; it, however, appears opaque, in cons
fequence of being filled with a pithy {ubitance. This lat is
often of a white colour; if refembles very much the me-
dulla of vegetables in a dried ftate, but is more compaét and
clofe in its itru€ture, The fhaft is the principal part of moft
feathers. The back, or external fide of the fhaft, is fmooth;
the oppofite, or inner furface, prefents a groove, which runs
along the middle of the fhaft for its whole length, giving it
the appearance of having been originally compofed of two
pieces. The two fides, or intermediate furfaces, of the
fhaft, are lighter in their texture than the external and
internal furfaces.

The darés ave implanted along the two edges of the ex-
ternal furface, or back of the fhaft. Upon the exiftence,
fize, colour, and form of thele, chiefly depend the cha-
racter and appearance of the feather.

The barbs, when minutely examined, are feen to fend off
proceffes from the edge of their potterior furfuce, exaGly in
the fame manner as they avife themfelves from the fhaft :
every barb, therefore, may be properly confidered as a fhaft
1) mMintature, .

Semetimes both the barbs and darbules are wanting, as
in the quills of the caflowary, of which the fhafts are long,
f{mooth, and pointed, refembling the {pines of the porca-

ine.

In loofe floating feathers, as thofe of the oftrich, &c.
tthe barbs are not clofely applied to each other, and give off
ufually barbules on each fide, which have no immediate con-
neCtion with one another. In general, however, the barbules
of one barb are inferted or interwoven with thofe of the
next barb, fo that the feather prefents a continuous furface
to the air or water. When the feathers are ruffled, the con-
nection of the barbules is deftroyed, and the adjuftment of
the feathers confifts in laying the barbs neatly the’ one be-
fide the other, by which the barbules fall into each others
interttices,

The adhefion between the barbs of the wing-feathers in
many birds of flight and water-birds is rendered very firm.
In the goofe, for inftance, the barbs of the quills are plates
or laminw, which have each a concave and convex furface.
The barbs, therefore, are received the-one iuto the other, and
are befides united by a row of barbules along their upper
or pofterior edge. A deyree of the fame {tructure is found
in the wings of all birds that fly. The intention of the
barbs adhering together is the fame as the feathers being
laid one upon another; by both thefe circumftances the bird
is enabled to prefent an unbroken furface to the impulfe of
the air during flight, and defend its body from being wet.
The quills of the wing and tail appear to have, in general,
but one row of barbules, which being placed obliquel
upon the pofterior edge of the barbs, are enabled to pafs
acrofs and touch each other.

The feathers that form the creft of the peacock have no
barbules in their middle and inferior part. The feathers of
the creft of the balearic crane aretwilted ina {piral manner, and
their barbs are only fine hairs. The creft of the little egret
(ardea garzetta) is compofed of fimilar feathers. The tuft
of feathers at the boctom of the neck of the male turkey
may be alfo regarded as barblefs. ;

The barbules are long, diftin€, and unattached to each

, other

FEATHERS.

ether in the hypochondriac feathers of the birds of pa-
radife, the rump feathers of the peacock, thofe on the thighs
of the myGeria and balearic crane, the feathers of the
toucan, and thofe placed around the earsof the owl, &c.

The feathers of the noéturnal birds of prey have the
barbs covered with long filky down, from which arifes the
flow and tilent flight of thole birds fo neceffary to their ha-
bits of life.

The feathers ot the bulfinch, the purple throated Afy-
cabcher (mufcicapa rubricollis’, the Tanagra fepticolor, thofe
of the head of the red-headed manakin, and of the ram-

hates momota, &c. have the barbs fine and filky.

The rump-feathers of the golden thrush, thofe of the tail
of the jay, and of the neck of the common duck, have the
barbs fet clofe, and furnifhed with long, fine, foft barbules,
peeled upon the furface in fuch a manner as to refemble
atin.

In fome foreign birds, as the humming-birds, the galbulas

and trogons, paradifea aurea, &c. the barbs of the feathers
are broad and fmooth upon the furface, and being of a bril-
liant colour, produce the appearance of polifhed metals.
' In the ruby necked humming-bird the feathers of the
head and throat, and thofe of the head and belly of the
amethyftine humming-bird, are fo extremely brilliant as to
refemble precious ftones, as the names of thefe birds imply.
This effet is produced by the barbs which terminate the
fhaft being fo very denfe and highly polifked.
of the tail-feathers in the wood-pecker are fingularly ftrong,
it being by the tail that thefe birds fuftain themfelves in a
great meafure when taking their prey.

The appearance of fealing-wax on the wings of the waxen
ehatterer (ampelis garrulus) arifes from the end of the fhaft
being without barbs, and formed into a folid round difk,
_ In the down of all birds the fhafts are extremely fine and
delicate, and often imperceptible. The barbs are long,
aoe and floating : and the barbules are long, loofe, and
ilky.

The chemical compofition of feathers agrees fo nearly
with that of hairs, that we need not enter into particu-
lars upon this part of the fubje&t. Feathers, however, con-
tain a lefs proportion of mucilage, and receive lefs moifture
from the body ; but although feathers are fo dry, even when
attached to the living bird, they lofe much of their pliancy
and frefhnefs after being fome time plucked.

In the Plate defigned to illuftrate the anatomy and mode
of growth of feathers, fig. 1. reprefents a portion of {kin of
a bird recently hatched, upon which the hairs are feen that
precede the appearance of the feathers. Fig. 2. fhews one
of the young fheaths, bearing on its extremity fome of thefe
hairs. Fig. 3. is aportion of the wing on which the fheaths
of the quills are fhewn of different fizes, The cells are laid
open, to expofe the roots of the feathers and the vafcular
pulps pafling into them; a the fubftance of the wing; 4544
the feather-fheaths ; ccc the pulps penetrating the bafe of
the fheaths ; dd the lining of the cells turned back. Fig, 4.
is the end of a fheath, fhewing the foramen by which the
pulp enters the feather. Fig. 5. exhibits the fheath rup-
tured at its external extremity, through which the end of
the feather is feen to protrude ; a the fheath, fhewing the
appearance of being compofed of circular fibres ;, 4 the fea-
ther. - Fig.6. fhews the fame feather removed from the
fheath; a the vane or fhaft, with the barbs imperfe@ly un-
folded ; 2a part of the tubular portion of the fhaft. Fig. 7.
reprefents the pulp taken out of the fheath, and that part
which had formed the fhaft and barbs decayed and dry ; a
the pulp ftill foft and vafcular; 4 the part which having

2

The barbs

done its office is degenerated; ¢the feather. Fig. 8. isa
magnified view of the pulp, feparated from all its connec-
tions. Fig. g. is a view of the pulp laid open, in order to
expofe the blood-veffels. Fig. ro. exhibits the pulp as it
exilts when completely degenerated. Fig. 11. is the lower

ortion of a quill, to fhew the foramen for admitting air
Into the barrel ; @the groove of the inner fide of the thaft
leading to the opéning ; 4 indicates a fpeck, which marks
the fituation of the foramen. Jig.12. is the quill of a
ftork laid open at the back part, in order to expofe the con-
tinuation of the tube into the fhaft. Fig. 13. is given as
an example of a loofe floating barb, with the barbules on
each fide, and not intended for attachment to the adjoining
ones: this view is magnified. Fig. 14. is a magnified re-
prefentation of a barb of a goofe’s quill; a the convex fur-
face which lies in the correfponding convexity of the next
barb ; / the fingle row of {tiff oblique barbules.

Fearuers. The chemical compofition ot feathers ap-
pears, by Mr. Hatchett’s excellent experimeats (Phil.
Tranf. vol.xc.), to be nearly the fame as that of hair,
nail, and cuticle, and confifts of infpiflated albumen mixed
with a very minute portion of gelatin, and a little animal
oil. The proportion of infpiffated albumen is fo large, that
feathers may be boiled for many days in water with fcarcely
any lofs, the albumen being infoluble in this liquid, and the
gelatin being fo fmall that the liquor gives no precipitate
with tan, and very little with nitro-muriat of tin.

FeaTHEersS, in Commerce, make a confiderable article,
particularly thofe of the oftrich, heron, fwan, peacock,
goofe, &c. for plumes, ornaments of the head, filling of
beds, writing pens, &c.

Geefe are plucked in fome parts of Great Britain five
times in the year; the firft plucking is at Lady-day for
feathers and quills; and the fame is renewed for feathers
only four times more between that and Michaelmas. (See
Fen and Goose.) In cold feafons many geefe die by this
barbarous cuftom. Thofe feathers that are brought from
Somerfetfhire are efteemed the beft, and thofe from Ireland
the worft. Eider down is imported into this country from
Denmark, and is furnifhed by thofe ducks that are inhabit-
ants of Hudfon’s bay, Greenland, Iceland, and Norway :
Hudfon’s bay alfo affords a very fine feather, fuppofed to
be of the goofe-kind. "The down of the fwan is brought
from Dantzick, whence we have alfo a great quantity of
cock and hen feathers. The beft method of curing feathers
is to lay them in a room in an expofure to the fun, and when
dried to put them in bags, and beat them well with poles te
difcharge the duit.

Featruer-bed,

FEATHERS, dy plea, See Ben.

FEeaTuers, fcalded,

FEeaTuHERs, in Agriculture, are fometimes employed as
manure, where they can be colleéted in any quantity ; but,
when ufed in this way, the pens, ftumps, and other refufe
of them are chiefly the parts had recourfe to, being pro-
cured from the fhops of the poulterers, &c. in large
towns. S

Frearuer, in the Manege, a fort of natural frizzling of
the hair found in many parts of a horfe’s body, but more
commonly between the eyes. In fome cafes it refembles
an ear of barley, and in others an oilet-hole. Many are
of opinion, that when the feather is lower than the eyes
it is a fign of a weak eye-fight ; but this remark is not cer-
tain.

VeatuEr-edged Boards, in Rural Economy, are fuch
boards as are fawn thinner on one edge than the other, in

order

FEA

order to lap over each other, being much employed in
building fmall farm-fheds, &c. where great expence is to be
avoided. :

Featuer, Prince’s, in Gardening, a common name of a
{pecies of the amaranthus, See AMARANTHUS.

Fearuer, Roman, called in French ef2e Romaine, isa
feather upon a horfe’s neck, being a row of inair turned back
and raifed, which forms a mark like a fword-blade juit by
the mane.

Featuer, Mid, in the Englifh Salt-works. See Mrp.

Fratuer, Sea. See Gorconta.

FeatHers, Fofil, in Natural Hiflory. Different writers
have defcribed organic remains, or reliquia, found in the
flrata, under the name of feathers, ornitholithi, &c. Mott
of the drawings of pretended foffil feathers which we have
feen, have had a confiderable refemblance to the iron-{tone
foffil which Mr. Parkinfon has figured in the fifth plate,
(fig. 5.) of the firfl volume of his Organic Remains, and
he confiders it as a kind of leaf or vegetable produétion, and
we think with good reafon.

FEaTHER-out, in Geology, is a term which has been of late
ufed by Mr. W. Smith and others, in deferibing fuch flrata
as do not end abruptly, or in the face of a fudden hill, but
whofe lower beds advance fo far beyond the fuperior ones,
as to end by imperceptible degrees; acafe which frequently
occurs.with fome particular itrata, and gives much trouble
to a mineralogical furveyor in tracing their fuperior and in-
ferior edges, and deferibing the furface they include ona
map. In denudated diftrigts, it is very common to find
ftrata, which are of pretty uniform hardnefs, feathering-out
fo far, that it is difficult to trace their limits, except by the
flight and almoft imperceptible ta>lets which the harder
beds oceafion, as mentioned by Mr. Farey, Philofophical
Magazine, vol. xxxiii. p. 262.

FEATHERED Cotumsins. See THALicTRuM.

FEATLY, Dante, in Biography, was born at Charl-
ton in Oxfordfhire, in 1582. In 1594 he was admitted a
{cholar of Corpus Chriiti college, where he took his degree
of B. A.in 1602. He purfued his theological ftudies with
great ardour ; and on account of his learning and polifhed
manners was appointed chaplain te the embafly fent to the
court of France, where he refided three years, and obtained
a diftinguifhed reputation as a preacher. Upon his return,
in 1613, he took his degree of 5B. D. and was prefented with
the reétory of Northill in Cornwall, and immediately after
was appointed domettic chaplain to Dr. Abbot, archbifhop
of Canterbury, who in a fhort time prefented him with the
reGtory of Lambeth. This was followed by other prefer-
ments of confiderable worth. In 1625 he married, and
quitted the palace xt Lambeth for a houfe at Kennington,
of which he became poffeffed in right of his wife. During
the civil wars he had nearly loft his life by fomeenthufiafti-
cal foldiers who had conceived the opinion of his holding
popifh principles. Though he twice efeaped their fury,
his property was very much deteriorated by their ravages.
Tn 1643 he was nominated one of the aflembly of divines, not
only on account of his learning, but becaufe he was zealoufly
attached to the Calviniftic dotrines. This latter circum-
ftance induced the affembly not only to treat him with great
re{peét, but to permit him to {peak freely his own opinions
in favour of * epifcopacy,’’ and againit the * covenant.”?
He was by his own friends deemed orthodox and loyal ; but
lord Clarendon and others will not allow him that praife, on
account of his attending againft archbifhop Laud when on
trial. Lord Clarendon afferts that the king fent hima letter
commanding him to follow the example of the other epifco-

EES

pal divines who had quitted the afflembly, which occafioned
his writing to archbifhop Uther, affigning reafons why he
could not obey the royal mandate. This correfpondence
was by fome means laid before parliament, and was the ruin
of Featly ; who was found guilty of a breach of an ordi-
nance which prohibited the members of the aflembly from
divulging their opinions without confent of one or both
houfes. He was accordingly deemed a betrayer of the par=
liamentary caufe, imprifoned, {tripped of his preferments,
and expelled the aflembly, His {pirits were not broker by
this ufage, but his health began rapidly to decline; he fup-
plicated parliament to be permitted to exchange his prifon
for apartments in Chelfea college, for the fake of change of
air: this favour he obtained, but it was then too late; he
died in 1644. His charafter is given in few words by Wood,
who fays that ‘“ he was mott ferioufly and foundly pious
and devout.” _Neal’s. Hift. of Puritans by Toulmin.

FEAZING, at Sea, is the ravelling out of the cable or
any great rope at the ends.

FEBABO, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital
of a diftri@ in the Libyan defert, inhabited by the Tibboo ¢
160 miles S. of Augela. N. lat. 26° 50’. IE. long, 22° 5’.

FEBRICULA, in Medicine, the diminutive of febris,
fignifying a flight fever, has been fometimes applied to the
heétic fever, and fometimes to the low nervous fever, fo
denominated ty Dr. Huxham. In the latter acceptation
principally we have a treatife on the * Febricula, or Little
—— by fir Richard Manningham. See Nervous
"eUVUers

FEBRIFUGE, from febris, fever, and fugo, I drive
away, a term which is applicable to every remedy for
fever, Lut was originally employed to denote the quality
of thofe medicines which were believed to have fome pe+
culiar or fpecific power in arrefting febrile difeafes. The
word, however, is now feldom employed; becaufe no re-
medy pofleffed of any fpecific anti-febrile power is known,
Autimonial medicines, indeed, and the neutral falts, in con-
fequence of their diaphoretic quality, are fometimes called
febrifuges ; but the term is not applied to them with more
propriety than to the purgatives which are given, or even
to the gruel which the patieats drink, If there be a re-
medy, whicl: can be faid direétly to fupprefs febrile aGtion,
it is, we believe, cold water, freely applied to the furface,
and taken internally, (See Coip.) Hence the term * fe-
brifugum magnum,”’ ufed a century ago by the reverend -
Dr. i eee although it called forth the raillery and ri-
dicule of the faculty, was, perhaps, not lefs juft than em-
phatical. (See his treatife, entitled « Febrifugum Mag-
num, or Common Water the beft Cure for Fevers,?? Lon-
don, 1723.) ‘The cinchona, or Peruvian bark, has been
termed the greateft febrifuge, probably on account of its
efficacy in the cure of intermittent fevers, or agues, but,
ftri@ly {peaking, it is a preventive in thefe cafes; fince its
efficacy confifts in preventing the return of the fever, by
pak eee the body in the interval ; and not in allaying
the fever itfelf, over which it has no power. The fecret
preparation of antimony, which Dr. James employed, and ~
which was fufficiently popular for many years, as a febri-
fuge, to enrich the inventor and his family, poffeffes no other
power in allaying fever, than its operation as a purgative
and diaphoretic. See Fever. ren “4

FEBRIS. See Fever. ’

Fesris Amphemerina, from zu$s and *pépx, a day, an ap-
pellation given by fome of the moderns to that form of re-
mittent fever, in which fimilar remiffions and exacerbation;
occur daily, in order to diftinguifh it from’ the daily inter-

4 mittent,

a J FEB

mittent, which is called febris quotidiana: (See Sauvages,
Nofol. Method. clafs ii. order ii. genus 6.) It has been alfo
denominated by Latin writers quotidiana continua. (See Sen-
nertus de Febribus, lib. ii. cap. xiv.) “ Ett febris perpetuo
quidem durans,”’ fays this author, “et nunquamad drueckios
deveniens, fingulis tamen diebus exacerbationes fuas habens a
one fanguini permixta.”’ It is the fynechees or continent
ever of Morton, erroneoufly fo called: and the febris latica
of feme writers in barbarous Latin. The terms 22. 2npepirxs
amphemerina, as well as cathemerina, and methemerina, ée-
rived from the fame root, with the addition of the prepofi-
tions xe7% and perx, were applied by the Greeks to this
' fever, as well as the quotidian intermittent. See Remir-
TENT.

'Fesris Anginofa, a term applied to fevers:accompanied
by a fore throat, or angina. See CyNxancue.

Fesris Defecatoria, the fame with depuratoria, a term
ufed by Sydenham, Quefnay, and other htmoral patholo-
gifts, to denote fuch a fever as terminates by a critical dif-
charge, which was fuppofed to rid the fyltem of morbid
humours. See DeruRAToria.

*Fesris Elodes. See Evopes.

Fesris Ephemera. See EPHEMERA.

Fenris £pialos. See Epiavos. ‘

Fesris Gaffrica, an appellation applied to thofe modi-
fications of tever in which the ftomach and bowels are more
particularly affeted; as with pain, diarrhea, efpecially
when the ftools are of a morbid appearance, or fetid, &c.
(See Burferius, Inft. Med. Praé. vol.i.) The fame variety
of fever has alfo been denominated febris ftercoralis, and
by Quefnay fievre excrementeufe.. (Traite des Fieyres,
tom. ii.)

Fesris Hemitritea, rysrecrosz, the fame with femi-ter-
tian. See Fever, Semi-tertian.

Fenris Lypiria. See Lypiria.

Fenris Phricodes, from Qeixn, febrile chill, called alfo fe-
bris horrida and horrifica, a variety of fever in which the ri-
gors or chills are frequent. See Puricopes.

Fenris Synochus, allo Synocha, different modifications
of continued fever, the former term being applied to the
milder, the latter to the more violeut, inflammatory or ar-
dent fpecies. See thofe words.

Fexris Triteophia, a remittent fever with the remiflions

and exacerbations occurring only on the alternate days ; it
differs from the tertian intermittent, as the febris amphime-
rina differs from the quotidian. See Remitrenr.
- Fesris Tetartophia, a remittent fever, with the remiffions
and exacerbations on the fourth day from the commence-
ment, that is, with an interval of two days petween each
remiffion ; and differing from the quartan, as the preceding
article from the tertian intermittent. The triteophia and
tetartophia have alfo been denominated tertiana continua,
and quartana continua. See Remirrenrt.

Fesris 1yphodes. See Tyruus.

FEBRUA, or Fesrvara, in AZythologyy am appellation
given to Juno as the goddefs of purification, and as prefiding
over women in the pains of labour and childbirth. She
was fo denominated, becaufe the pontiffs paid her a peculiar
worfhip on the firft day of February.

Fesrvua, in Antiquity, a featt held by the Romans in the
mouth of February, in behalf of the manes of the deceafed.

Macrobius tells us that facrifices were here pertormed,
and the aft offices paid to the fhades of the defun@. (Saturn.
lib. i. cap. 13.) c\nd.from this feaft it was that the month
of February took its name.

- The defign of thefe facrifices is fomewhat controverted :
Pliny fays they were performed to render the infernal gods
~»Vov. XIV.

FEC

propitious to the deceafed; though fome of the moderns
have imagined that they were intended to. appeafe the
deceafed themfelves, and were offered immediately to them
asa fort of deities. What confirms the former fentiment
is, that Pluto himfelf is furnamed Februus. They laited
twelve days.

The word is of an ancient ftanding inthe Latin tongue ;
from the very foundation of the city we meet with fedrua
for purifications, and februare, to purge or purify. Varroy
(De Ling. lib. y.) derives it from the Sabines; Voffius
and others from ferveo, J am hot, becaufe purifications
were chiefly performed with fire and hot water. Some go
higher, and even deduce the words from 4}5), phur, or
phavar, which in the Syriac and Arabic has the fame
fignification with -ferbuit, .or eferbuit, aud might probably
likewifle fignify to purify ; for phavar, in Arabic, denotes
a@ preparation given to women in child-bed to bring away
the after-birth, and other impurities remaining after delivery
much as among the Romans, who gave the name Februa to
the goddefs fuppofed to prefide over the delivery of women.
Ovid. Fatt.

FEBRUARY, Fezruarius, inthe Roman Chronology;
the fecond: month. of their year, fo called from Februa, a
feat held therein.

In the firft ages. of Rome, February was the laft month
of the year, and preceded January, till the decemviri made
an order that February fhould be the fecond month of the
year, and come after January. See BissexTiLe.

FE CAMB, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriét of Le Havre, nine miles S.W. of Dieppe.
The place contains 7009, and the canton 14,981 inhabitants,
on a territorial extent of 825 kiliometres, in 13 communes.
The principal commerce confifts of linen, ferges, lace, leather,
and hats: the herring fifhery employs many veffels: and
fmaller boats tfhalong the coaft. N. lat. 49 46/. E. long.
0° 28’.

FECES. . See Faces.

FECIALES, or Fosctares, an order of pricfts or
officers confifting of twenty perfons, among the ancient Ro-
mans, appointed to proclaim war, negociate peace, &c.

Feftus derives the word from feria, J firike, as ferire fe-
dus fignifies to conclude a treaty ; and accordingly, inftead of
feciales, he would have it wrote feria/es. Others derive it from
fedus, which was anciently written fedus ; or from ides,
faith ; others from facto, feci, I make, &c. becaufe they
made war and peace. Voflius choofes to derive it from
fatu, of the verb fari, to peak : in which fenfe the feciales
fhonld be the fame with oratores ; which fentiment is alfo
confirmed by the authority of Varro, who fays they were
called indifferently, fecia/es and eratores. De Vit. Popul.
Roman. lib. ii.

The feciales were a fort of heralds or kings at arms, who,

when the Romans had any difpute with their neighbours,
were fent firft to demand the thing pretended to be ufurped,
or require fatisfaGtion for the injury alleged to be done.
If an anfwer.was not returned by them that was fatisfactory
to the people and the fenate, they were difpatched again to
declare war, and.the like in, treating of peace, the feciales
being the only perflons appointed to negociate between the
fenate, &c. and the enemy.

Plutarch, in the Life of Numa, and Halicarnaffeus, lib. i.
obferve, that they were firft inftituted by that prince. The
latter adds, that they were chofen out of the beit families
in Rome; that their office, which was reputed a fort of {2-
cerdotium, or prieithood, only ended with their life; that
their, perfons were facred and invioluble, as thofe of other

Dd pricits}

REC

prielts ; that they were even charged to fee the republic did
not declare war unjuftly ; that they were to receive the
complaints and remonftrances of nations who pretended to
have been any way injured by the Romans; that if thofe
complaints were found jut, they were to feize the criminals,
and deliver them up te thofe they had offended; that they
were invefted with the rights and privileges of ambaffadors ;
that they concluded treaties of peace and alliance, and took
care they.were executed ; and, la{tly, abolifhed them if they
were found not to he equitable. Livy, lib. i. cap. 24. af:
cribes their inftitution to Ancus Martius, in theyear of
Rome 114. See alfo Aul. Gell. lib. xvi. cap. 4.

But Varro affures us, that in his time moft of thefe fune-
tions of the feciales were fet afide ; as thofe of the ancient
heralds at arms are ameng-us at prefent ; though Plutarch
obferves, that they had ftill fome authority in his time.

The feciales. were crowned with verbena, vervain, when
they went to declare war; their head was covered witha
veil, over which the erown was applied; in this equipage
they proceeded to the frontiers of the'new enemy’s:country,
and threw.a bloody dart or javelin into the ground within
the fame. In Livy,’and other ancient authors, we have the
formula ufed in fuch declarations.

FECKENHAM, Joun’ pe, in Biography, the laf
mitred abbot who fat in the houfe of peers, was born of.
poor parents, who réfided in a mere cottage on Feckenham
forelt, in Worcefterfhire, from which place he derived -his
name, that of his family being ** Howman.”? His natural
abilities induced the parifh prieft to educate him, aad then
to obtain for him an admithon into the monaftery’at Eve-
fham. When he was eighteen years of age, he was fent to
Gloucefter college, Oxford; where he ‘vefided a fufficient
time to improve himfelf im académical learning, and then he
was recalled to his abbey. Upon the diffolution of this
place, in 1536, he hada yearly penfion of one hundred florins
allowed him during his life. He now returned to Oxford, and
in a fhort time took his degree, and was appointed chaplain
to Dr. Bell, bifhop of Worcefter.. He wasafterwards chap-
lain to Bonner, bifhop of Loadon, and, in 1549, when-Bon-
ner was deprived of his bifhopric, his: chaplam was com-
mitted to the Tower of London. The caufe of his impri-
fonment was firft promiling, and then refufing, to adminitter
the facraments after the Préteftant manner. He was after-
wards, to ufe his own expreffion, * borrowed from prifon: to
take part in different difputations on the points at “iffue
between the Proteftants and Papifts,’”? which were held at
the houfes of fome perfons of high rank, and was carried
into Worcefterfhire, where he {till held a benefice to main-
tain folemn public debates with Hooper, the bifhop of that
diocefe. Thefe difputations producing no change in his re-
ligious opinions, he was moit fhamefully remanded to the
‘Tower, where he was kept till the acceflion of queen Mary,
in 1553. He was rfow made chaplain to the queen 3 and
alfo chaplain to Bonner, by whom he was prefented to the
prebend of Kentifh Town, in St. Paul’s cathedral. ‘He was
deputed to lady Jane Grey, to attempt her converfion two
days before fhe was executed, but his miffion proved to be en-
tirely fruitlefs. From the prebendary of St. Paul’s, he was, in
the year 1554, raifed to the deanery ; and received other va-
luable preferment. In the fame year he was appointed to
difpute againft Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, before thofe
exemplary charaéters were committed to the flames by order
of the bloody queen, and her {till more infamous prelates.
Feckenham, it is believed, was no party in thefe horri-
ble crimes, and abhorred even the office of attempting to
change the opinions of men, whom in his heart: he could
not but refpeét. He was kind and humane, and diftinguifhed

3

FEC
himfelf in. performing a thoufand good offices for the: dfs

flied and perfecuted Proteftants. He went fo far in this’
caufe as to offend his bigoted mittrefs, who probably begam ©

to be:f{ufpicious of his principles. In 1556 he was created
D.D. out of refpeét to his learning, piety, benevolence, and
other virtues, without being called on to perform the ac
cuftomed exercifes.

pointed Feckenham. abbot of the fame, with epifcopal
power over the monks. When Elizabeth came to the
crown in 1558, fhe did not require to be reminded of her
obligations to this worthy man, who had pleaded for her
liberty when imprifoned by her fifter, but offered him the
higheft promotion in the church, provided he could
conform to the changes then in contemplation: ~ This
his confcience obliged him to refufe: he went much farther;
he thought it his duty to oppofe the reformation in the heufe
of peers, where he fat as a mitred abbot in the loweft place
on the bifhop’s form. . For his fteady attachment to his own,
principles, and for the eloquence with which he pleaded
againit the innovations of the times, he was committed to*
the Tower in 1560, and continued in that prifon ull 1663,
when he was removed to the cuftody of Dr. Herne, bifhop
of Winchelter, who probably engaged to convert him from
his errors : a‘taflc much too difficult for the prelate, who, it
appears, in a few months, fent him back to the Tower:
Shortly after, at the folicitation of his friends, he was re=
moved to the Marfhalfea, from which he foon obtained a com+
plete difcharge. 1n 1574, he was again imprifoned, and res
leafed upon giving bond for his appearance when Called ons
It muft be obferved, that this mode of giving and taking
bond is often reforted to as an apology for the government,
when they know that they have flretched the limits of their
power, and by fubmitting to give bond or bail for appear-
ance, the aggrieved and injured perfon, in truth, juftifies the
condu& of thofe who-have inflicted the injury. Fecken-
ham, at length, wearied with frequent profecutions, ac-
knowledged the queen’s fupremacy, but could be perfuaded
to go no farther, and he was again imprifoned at the
caltle of Wifseach, where he fpent the remainder cf his
days, and died in 1585. Camden calls him “a learned and
good man, that lived long, did a great deal of geod, and al.
ways folicited the minds of his adverfaries to benevolence.”
Fuller f{tyles him a man cruel to none, courteous and cha=
ritable to all who needed his help. Burnet and others bear
their teftimony likewife to the excellence of his character:
Biog. Brit.

FECULA, in Chemifry. This term is ufually applied to
any pulverulent matter extracted from any part of a vegeta-
ble, fimply by breaking down its texture, wafhing with wa-
ter, and fubfidence. It is therefore a moft minutely divided
fub{tance, capable of being fufpended in cold water, but not
diffolved. a

The moft important.of thefe is the amylaceons fecula, a
nutritive infipid fubftance contamed abundantly in grains,
feeds, and roots, and which, when extraéted, purified, and
dried, forms the common Starch, the manufa&ture’ of which
will be deferibed under that article. be

Mok parts of vegetables will furnith this fecula, but it is
particularly found in grains, feeds, and roots, united with
an extractive and faccharine matter, fometimes with glaten
and vegetable albumen, with mucilage, and oil. Of “roots,
the tuberous and bulbous are thofe which contain the moft
fecula; the medullary part of trees and plants alfo abound
with it. te ante are

The extraction of the fecula-is very fimple, but it cannot
always be obtained free from-colour and tafe. The root

: or.

Inthe fame year, queen Mary reftored .
the monaftic foundation of Weftminfter Abbey, and: ap- ~

EE C
or grain mutt firft be broken down into a pulp by rafping

or other mechanical means, and then wafhed with cold water,
which becomes immediately turbid. This is to be haftily
poured off from the fibrous part of the pulp through a coarfe
fieve, and allowed to remain at reft for a few minutes, during
which the fecula fubfides to the bottom in the form of a
very fine clofe-grained powder, but without any tenacity or
cohefion, and of the confiftence of very fine wetted fand:
The fuperaatant liquor always remains fomewhat'turbid, and
generally coloured with mucilage or extrad. ‘The fecula
fhould be wafhed repeatedly with abundance of cold water,
till this comes from it quite infipid and colourlefs.

It fhould be obferved, however, that it is only from a
few of the grains and roots of plants that the’extraction of
. the fecula is thus eafily effeGted ; for where this fubftance is
intimately united with oil and mucilage, as in the almond,
and many other kernel feeds, the whole is rendered uniformly
diffufible in water nearly in an equal degree, and the fecula
will not be depofited pure by mere fubfidence, nor indeed is

there any way by which it can be obtained very pure’

when in this combination. ;

The chemical properties of pure fecula (taking fine
flarch as an soles are the following :

{t is a white powder, nearly, if not entirely, infipid, fonte-
what adhering to the tongue, but not foluble in the mouth.
When examined with a lens in a goad light it appears com-
pofed of {mall femi-tranfparent grains, with a fattiny glofs,
and fomewhat of a cryftalline arrangement. It is not eafily
moiftened with cold water, but when rubbed with this fluid
it makes an incohefive mafs, which, on drying, cracks into
{mall pieces. When wetted and kept in a moderate warmth,
the mixture flightly ferments and turns four.

Boiling water, however, ats very differently on fecula,
for it diflolves that fubftance fpeedily and totally into a thick,
tenacious, tranf{parent jelly, which becomes {till more tena-

_ cious by long boiling, as is feen in the ordinary domettic
ufe of ftarch. When liquid ftarch is flowly dried, it fhrinks
in every direétion as the water evaporates, and finally be-
comes a tranf{parent brittle fub{ftance, exactly refembling
gum-mucilage.

Mott of the acids diffolve fecula with eafe, efpecially when
affifted with heat, and with nearly the fame products and
appearances that attend the ation of the fame acids on
mucilage.

The alkalies alfo diffolve fecula readily, but the precife
chemical effeéts of thefe agents have not been much ex-
amined.

FEC

derately, afford a turbid green juice, which, when filtered,
ives a clear but tenacious juice, that. pafles through the
filter, whilft there remains bebind a green pulp, which is the
fpecies of fecula in queftion. - Rouellé was the firit. who
pointed out the nature of this fecula, fhewiag that it. was
totally different from the amylaceous fecula, but bore a {trong
refemblance tothe gluten-of wheat, mixed, however, with a
kind of refinous fubftance foluble in alcohol, to which the
green colours chiefly owing.
‘- Prouft has alfo given fome valuable obfervations on thig
fubje€€ (Journal de Phyfique, tom. 56.) of which the fol-
lowing is an abftraé.

When any of the green turbid juice of plants, (fuch as
of hemlock, crefs, cabbage, &c.) is heated, it becomes ropy,
and {Gon coagulates in part, forming a tough, green, gluti-
nous mafs, that feparates from the liquor, which laft now
lofes* its*colour and remains limpid. ‘he heat - of .1457
is fufficient to feparaté all this fecula, which is lefs than
what is required to coagulate albumen, one circumitance
that éftablifhes fome difference between this fecula and albu-
men, to which it has been likened by Fourcroy, I the co-
agulated fecula is gently dried, it hardens into an elaftic
horny fubftance, which will not again unite with .water.
Tf this fecula, either before or after coagulation, be kept
under water in warm weather, it becomes offenfive in a day’s
time, and has the naufeous fmell and other circumitances at-
tending the putrefagtion of animal matter. .The water in
which this fecula has long been kept contains fulphuretted
hydrogen,‘and carbonat of ammonia.

This fecula is precipitated from the native juice by almoft
any neutral falt, which, probably, is merely owing to the
fuperior affinity of the falt for the water in which the'fecula
is held diffolved.

When the entire green feculous precipitate, formed by
heating the recent juice, is treated with alcohol, a portion
only diffolves therein, leaving about 80 ger cent. of the
whole precipitate untouched. The alcoholic folution, eva-
porated to drynefs, leaves a foft green fubRance, fomewhat
refembling a refin, but differing from it in not being fepa-
rated from the alcoholic folution on addition of water. Al-
cohol, added to the entire juice of the plant recently ex-
preffed, produces a white precipitate, and leaves a green re-
finous folution. Oxymuriatic acid deftroys the green co-
lour, both of the entire juice and of the alcoholic folution.

On the whole, it feems probable that the green fecula of
the herbaceous vegetables confifts of two parts, namely,
of a green fubftance, foluble in alcohol, and very fimilar to

. When ftarch is heated ftrongly in the open air, it firft be-. the refins ; and of another principle, coagulable by a very

comes yellow, then brown, and red, foftens, puffs up, exhales
‘a white pungent acid fmoke, and leaves a bulky foft coal.
The produéts of its diftillation per fe are, a water loaded
with pyromucous acid, fome drops of a red-brown oil, much
carbonic acid, and hydrocarbonous gas. The athes of
the coal, when fully calcined, contain a little potafh and
phofpbat-of lime.
Starch, when kept dry, and fecluded feom the air, will
remain long unaltered, though at lait it runs into clots, and
acquires a four mufty fmell.
. In chemical properties the amylaceous fecula bears the
ftrongett refemblance to mucilage. :
«Of the green Fecula of Plants. —This fubftance, which has
been the fubje& of much curious inveltigation, muft be care-
fully diftinzuithed from the amylaceous fecula laft deferibed,
to which indeed it has no other refemblance than in the
mere circumitance of being fometimes obtained in a fine
pulverulent form by {pontaneous fubfidence.
- Many of the green Jucculent vegetables, when preffed mo-

>

gentle heat, {nfceptible of putrefaction, like animal matter,
producing much ammonia when heated, foluble in alkalies,
and which bears a very ftrong analogy with animal gluten.
FECULENT, or Facutent, isapplied to the blood
and other humours, where they abound in feces or dregs,
or have not the proper and ufual degree of purity.
FECUNDATION of Puants, in Vegetable Phyfrole-
ey, is now generally believed to be accomplithed by the ac-
tion of the pollen of the anthers upon the fligma. (See A
tHER#.) This doétrine, having been previoufly ailerted t
feveral phyfiologitts towards the end of the feventeenth ce
tury, was varioudly illuftrated and finally eflablithed by Lia-
neus towards the year1732. His fubfequent publications
all tend to confirm it, efpecially his prize diflertation, pub-
lifhed by the Imperial Academy at Peterfburgh .in 1760,
tranflated into Englifh, with notes, by the author of the
prefent article in 1786. Whether the hypothelis

Ne
Vv
h-

in that work, that the itamens, or male organs, ve their
origin from the cortical part of the plant, and the piftils, or
Dd2 female

FEC

female ones; from the medullary fubftance, be founded in
truth, is not to our prefent purpofe. There are many
faéts and analogies which fupport that theory ; and what
theory, in the hands of an ingenious man, is deftitute of
fuch fupports? The idea is altogether {peculative ; and
the dogtrine of vegetable impregnation, which we thall now
briefly explain, is entirely independant of it.

As far as the flowers of any plant have been clearly afcer-
tained and diffeGted, they are found to confilt of two effen-
tial-kinds of organs, the fkamens and pillils. The effential
part of the former is the anther, a capfular body containing
the pollen; which laft, even after it is diflodged from the
anther, is found to be alfovin general capfalar, aes in
{ome inftances of a glutinous fub{tance. In either cafe the
pollen finally difcharges fomething, in the form.of a vapour
or eflence, by which its final purpofe is anfwered. _The
eflential part of the piftil or piftils, on the other hand, is the
fligma belonging toeach. This is formed fo as tv receive
and retain the pollen, being either downy or concave, often
irritable, and efpecially furnifhed with a peculiar vifeid
moitture of its own, which caufes the pollen, when of a
dry nature, to explode, and when otherwife, to give out
its eflential fubftance, fo as to be communicated through the
medium of the faid peculiar moifture, to the rudiments of
the feeds, which by that means alone are enabled to bring to
perfection the latent embryo of the future plant within them,
er, in other words, to become prolific. It has been afcer-
tained that feeds, however apparently perfe&t in all their
other parts, have no embryo unlefs the pollen has acted upon
them as above-mentioned. (See Emspryo and Corcutum.)
‘That the pollen is not of an excrementitious nature, and has
fundtions to perform after it has left the anther, is evident
from its elaborate ftructure, and highly elattic, and appa-
rently active, contents, which are fubfequently difcharged.
"That its funGtions, whatever they may be, are not perform-
ed by any clandeftine communication with the infant feeds,
through the other parts of the flower, is demonttrated by
the great numbers of flowers which have the ftamens in one
individual, and the piftils in another, of the fame f{pecies,
growing on different ftalks or even diftinét roots. That the
fligma 1s no lefs important an agent than the pollen, ap-
pears from its vitality being retained till it has received that
{timulus, and no longer, while the parts immediately connect-
ed with the ftigma, deftined to contain, protect, or here-
after to tranfport, the growing feeds or fruit, remain in full
vigour till their deftination is accomplifhed. Thus the
ftyles of many umbelliferous plants, aud various others, after
their ftigmas are entirely withered, become lengthened, har-
dened, or recurved, fo as to form hooks by which the mpe
feeds {tick to the coats of animals, and are by that means
widely difperfed. Other flyles become feathery crowns or
wings, through whofe fupport the feeds are wafted away by
the wind, as in moft compound flowers. In every cafe
the fligma, however elaborate an organ originally, will be
found: to have long fince difappeared, its ** fountains of life”
having kcea dried up as foon as the ends of its creation were
accomplifhed. That the female organs of a flower are, dur-
ing their growth, before fecundation, independant of the
male ones, or ftamens, is proved by removing the latter, and
impregnating their appropriate piltils with pollen from an-
other bloffom of the fame fpecies, which will then as effec-
tually perfeét their feeds as if they had received pollen from
the anthers which naturally belong to them. This laft ex-
periment is molt fatisfa€torily performed on flowers that laft
but one day, as the various {pecies of Glaucium or Horned-

Oppy- A :
Innumerable collateral circumftances confirm the doctrine

4

PED

of vegetable fecundation here advanced. Ifthe pollen be
caufed to explode prematurely by adventitious moiiture, be-
fore it reaches its final defination at the ftigma, its purpofe
is defeated, and the appropriate piftils prove barren. This
happens to corn and fruit-trees ocealionally, from fuper-
abundant and uninterrupted rain. Cold alfo is hurtful, as
benumbing the vital energy of the ftigma and its concomi-
tant parts. Exceflive, irregular, or unhealthy nourifhment
fometimes changes the nature of the ftamens and piltils, fo
effeCtually as to transferm them into other parts of a flower,
chiefly petals, thereby entirely defeating their natural pur-
pofe, and producing thofe beautiful monflers called double
flowers, which generally return to a natural fkate, if reftored
to their natural foils and fituations. Accidental or artificial
crofs fecundation, by application of the pollen of one flower
to the ttigma of another nearly akin, ‘thereby producing
mule offspring, more or Jefs refembling both its parents,
but, like animal mules, only tranfiently, imperfectly or not
at all, prolific, is perhaps the moft conelufive proof of the
truth of thisdo€trine. Lianzeus performed fuch an experi-
ment on the Tragopogon pratenfis, whole flowers are yellow,
by fprinkling its fugmas with pollen taken from Tragopogon
porrtfolius, whofe flowers are dark purple. The offspring
bore purple flowers, yellow at their bafe, than which no-~
thing could be more conclufive ; and the many varieties, or
feemingly new {pecies, of Cape Geraniums, which come up
{pontaneoufly from feed ripened in our gardens, and fooner
or later decline and difappear, afford no lefs evident confir-
mation of the fexes and fecundation of vegetables. S.

FECUNDITY, or Forcunpiry, Fertility, or that
quality ofa thing which denominates it fruitful.

The fecundity of divers plants is very extraordinary. My
Dodart has an exprefs difcourfe on this fubjeét, in the Me-
moirs of the Academy of Science ; wherein he fhews, that,
at a moderate computation, anelm, one year with another,
yields 329,000 grains or feeds, each of which, if properly
lodged, would grow up into a tree : now an elm ordinarily
lives 100 years, confequently, in the courfe of its life, it
produces near 33,000,¢00 feeds, all which arife trom one
fingle feed. ‘

He thews farther, that the fame elm, by frequently cutting
off its head, &c.might be broughtto produce 15,840,000,003
feeds, and, confequently, that there are fo many aétually
contained in it.

Fecunpity of Fifh. See Fisu.

FECUNSUM, in Geography, a town of Japan, on the
N. coaft of Niphon; 28 miles N. of Noto. ; :

FECURI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon,

‘on the gulf of Jedo; 65 miles S. of Jedo.

FECYUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Gallia Narbonnentis, fituated on the bank of a lake, near
the fea, at the mouth of the Rhéne, in the country of the
Vol{ci Arécomici.

FEDALA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Africa, in
Morocco, ona bay of the Atlantic, forming the road belonging
to this town, fcarcely fufficient to fhelter a few fmall veffels ;
8 leagues S. of Monfooria. ‘The above-mentioned bay is
partly formed by a little point of land which projects into
the fea, and which has been improperly denominated an
ifland. In the year 1773 the reigning emperor, having per-
mitted a great quantity of corn to be brought out of the
matadores contiguous to this road, determined to avail him-
felf of the opportunity thus offered for building a city, by
obliging the merchants, who wifhed to have any part.
the corn, to build fome houfes; and thus the town of Fea
dala was begun in a very advantageous fituation; but no
fooner was the corn dilpofed of than the town was aban-

doned ;

«*

FED

Goned ; fo that it was ruined before it was finifhed. ‘The
road of Fedala being defended by the coait, which, on the
fouthern fide, perceptibly extends to the welt, fhips may
fafely anchor here in winter; but, in fummer, when the
winds blow ftrong from the N.N.W., the fwell of the fea
is very incommodious.

FEDER Sea, a lake of Germany, in the circle of
Swabia, about 12 miles in circumference ; communicatipg
with the Danube by ariver called Krantzach; the lake is a
little to the eaft of Buchau.

FEDERATION, or Conreprration, applies prin-
cipally to a certain coalition among powers, generally
adjunétly fituated, and nearly equal in power, for the pur-
pofe of maintaining their independence, or for the conquelt
of fome obnoxious people, with whom none of the parties
could cope unlefs aided by the forces of his neighbours.
This excellent policy has been on many occafions reforted
to as the means of felf-defence, and, whea duly maintaincd,
has rarely failed to’accomplifh its intent ; but, unhappily,
we experience in this branch of politics all thofe evils infe-
parably attendant upon every combination of perfons whole
views aid interefts are not {ridtly in unifon 5 jealoufy, am-
bition, and refentment for fuppofed flights, rarely fail to
banifh that harmony, on which alone the fafety of all mutt
depend. Of this, we have a lamentable inftance in the late
difmemberment of the German empire, of which the feveral
members allowed themfelves to be {wayed by hopes and ex-
pectations, fuch as muft ultimately prove illufive; in the
mean time they enable him, who fhould have been confidered
their common enemy, to deftroy the very foundation of their
fafety, both general and individual, and to extend that
power, which had already proved itfelf too extenfive, to
admit that Europe fhould repofe in peace, or even preferve
its independence.

In like manner we fee that immenfe federation, formed in
the heart of Hindooftan by the Mahrattas, proceeding
with hafty ftrides towards its diffolution. There the feveral
princes allowed themfelves to be aétuated by ambition; each
wanted to become the head of a formidable empire ; each
viewed his neighbour’s dominions with a longing eye, and

~viewed his every at with fufpicion and doubt. Hence it
was no difficult tafk to fet the whole at variance, and to fow
difcord fo abundantly among them, as to raife an impene-
trable barrier again{t reconciliation, and future co-opera-
tion.

Though not fo evidently marked, a certain charaéteriftic
of this defeription may be traced in the conduct of thole
Indian tribes inhabiting the interior of North America.
Formerly, to infult one, was to challenge the whole ; but
fince they have become familiarized to the ufe of {pirituous
liquors, and been taught to look forward to their own
feparate interefts, each tribe has been, to a certain degree,
eftranged from: the federation, and all have confequently
beea, more or lefs, bereft of both property and power.
Tn this cafe, however, we are induced to throw a veil over
the privations, and the fufferings of a people who have con-
tributed fo little, if at all, to the welfare of the world at
large ; viewing them as ferocious, fanguinary, and treache-
rous, we may be permitted rather to exult in, than to con-
demn thofe encroachments which carry with them civiliza-
tion and improvement ; we therefore feel no difpofition to
become their partizans.

' With refpeét to that federation or league which has
been fo often attempted, and fo invariably baffled, for the
narrowing our maritime influence, little need be faid. So
long as our minifters remain faithful to their trait,) we may
confide to the Britifh navy the charge of fupporting that

w

ftriking a charaGer in moft of the {pecies, the

PLE

exalted character for which it is not indebted to eripty
panegyric, but to its own fubftantial merits.

The Britith empire, while its three component parts, viz.
England (including Wales), Scotland, and Ireland, though
governed by one king, had their refpeGiive parliaments, and.
confequently feparate eftablifhments and different laws ;
could be confidered only as a federation. A very curfory
review of paft events in thofe feveral portions of the united
kingdom muft fatisfy every refleéting mind, that human
wifdom cotild not have devifed a more prudent, or a more
neceffary meafure, than the abolition of thofe diltin@ forms
of legiflation, upon which our enemies ever depended for
fupport. It is true the minds of all are not as yet recon-
ciled to the combiaation, but we may fafely venture to pre-
di&, that potterity will do juitice to the fagacity and in-
tegrity of that minifter who bound our whole population
to each other, by mutual advantage ; a much {tronger tie
than could poffibly be effected by federation.

FEDIA, in Botany, a name which originated with
Acdanfon, and feems to be derived trom Fedus, an ancient
word for Hadus,akid. This derivation might at leaft be
probable, if the Media of Adanfon, like that of fubfequent
authors, included the Lamb’s Lettuce, but it contilts of
Faleriana fidirica only, to which the name is not in that
fenfe appropriate, except by a very lax concatenation of
ideas. Stilllefs furely can it be deduced trom fedus, filthy,
foctid, or mean.—Adanfon Fam. des Pl. v. 2. 152. Gaertn.
t. 86. Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 18. Michaux Boreali-Amer. y. 1.
18. (Valeriana; Linn. Gen. 22. Schreb. 29. Willd. Sp-
Pl. v. 1. 175. Sm. Fl. Brit. 37. Juff. 195. Valerianella ;

‘Tourn. t.52. Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 5. Locufta; ibid. t. 6.

Polypremum ; Adanf, loc. cit.) Clafs and order, Triandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Dipfasee, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, very fmall, with three
or four teeth, at length varioufly dilated, permanent. Co,.
of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube gibbous ; border five-clefi,
regular or irregular, bluntifh. Stam. Filaments three, fome-
times four, five, or fix, inferted into the corolla, awl-thaped,
ereGt, nearly as long as the border ; anthers rouadifh. Pip.
Germen inferior, of three cells ;, ftyle thread-fhaped, the
length of the ftamens; ftigma notched. Peric. Capfule
coriaceous or membranous, not buriting, crowned with the
calyx, of two abortive cells and one fertile. Sced folitary,
ovate, fmooth. :

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, with three or four teeth.
Corolla of one petal, five-cleft. Capfule crowned, without
valves, with oxe fertile cell. Seed folitary.

Perhaps this genus may properly be feparated from
Valeriana, but it is a quettion of fome difficulty. their na-
tural affinity being very great, and the ftruGure of the parts
of frutification in both extremely various. J edia confiils
of 12 {pecies in Vahl’s Enumeratio Plantarum, that author
railing to the rank of fpecies, feveral herctofure efteemed
varieties of Valeriana Locufla, Linn. Sp. Pl. 47. Engl. Bor.
t: Sir. Among thefe are V. dentata, Sm. Vl. Brit. 1385.
Engl. Bot. t..1370.

F. cornucopie (Valeriana cornucopia ; Linn. Sp. P). 44
Sm. I'l. Grae, Sib. t. 32.) is one of the handfomeft, but it
is onc that moft betrays a ftriG relationthip to Vaérisna,
and perhaps ought to combine the uvo genera. If every
Faleriana had.that feathery crown to the fruit, of which
no traces are found in the flower, and which makes fo

ditt

would be obvious and certain, and when they are ; ro-
perly examined, in flower and in fruit, it may be found te
hald good. If not, we prelume Fedia can f{earcely be fup

ported,
FEDOA,

FEDOA, ih’ Ornithology, the great Godwit, a {pecies

of Scolopax, which fée.

Fenoa, is alfo a name given by Willughby and Ray to
the Stone-Curlew or thick-kneed buitard, the CHarapRius
Oevdicnemus. .

FEE, Feup, Peudum, Feodum, or Ficf, an eftate, land,

tenement, lordfhip, or the like, held of a fuperior lord,
on condition of fealty, homage, or, other acknowledg-
ment.
The word is derived by fome authors from fedus, as arif-
ing from a treaty o: alliance made with the lord; but the
opinion of Selden feems the beft authorized, whe deduces
it from the Saxon, feoh, fripendium, the fee being a kind of
prebend to live upon; and accordingly we find, that im an-
cient! times it was ufed for the wages and appointments of
officers. It is obferved by Pontopiddan, in his Hiflory of
Norway, that in the northern languages odh fignifies pro-
perlys and therefore feedoh, or feudum, will denote /iipendiary.
property.

The term fee is properly applied to lands and tenements,

which, we hold in perpetual right, on condition of an ac-.

knowledgment of fuperionty in a higher lord. | See
TENURE. 3

'Yhe writers on this fubjeét divide all-lend and tenements
wherein a man has a perpetual eftate to him and his heirs
into allodium and feudum. F

Alindium is defined to be a man’s own land, which he
pofleffes merely in his own right, without acknowledgment
of any fervice or payment of any rent to another; and this
is property in the higheft degree.

Feuduni, or fee, is that which we hold by the benefit of
another, and for which we do fervice or pay rent, or both,
tothe chief lord ; in which'fuperior the ultimate property
of the land refides. And therefore fir Henry Spelman de-
fines a feud or fee to be the right which the vaflal or tenant
hath in lands, to u/e the fame, and take the profits to him
and his heirs, rendering to the lord his due fervices: the
mere. allodial propriety of the foil always remaining -in the
lord. This allodial property no fubje@t ‘im England has ; it
being a received, and now undeniable, principle in the law,
that all the lands in England are holden mediately or imme-
diately of the king. ;

Originally a feud was only an eftate for life; and thofe
to whom it was granted were called waffalli, who by fuch
means were brought to a ftriéer difcipline and obedience
to the princes, and were bound to ferve them-in wars.

The origin of fees or feuds is one of the darkeft and
molt intricate points in modern hiftory. Some attribute
the invention to the Lombards. Sir Thomas Craig in-
clines to this opirion, and fays, that the Lombards, after

they were fubdued by Charlemagne, not only retained their.

ancient cuftoms, but at the return of that emperor into
France tranfmitted them with him into the remoteft parts
of that kingdom. In reality, the conftitution of feuds
had its original from the military policy of the Northern or

Celtic nations, the Goths, Huns, Franks, Vandals, and.

Lombards, who fpread themfelves over Europe at the de-
clenfion of the Roman empire. ‘This is’ rendered probable
by the demand which the Cimbri and Teutones, nations of
the fame original, are recorded to have made on the Ro-
mans on their firft irruption into Italy, about a century be-
fore the Chriftian era. They demanded of the Romans,
“ Ut martius populus aliquid fibi terre daret, quali ftipen-
dium: ceterum, ut vellet, manibus atqte armis fuis utere-
tur ;” i.e. they defired fends to be allowed them, which
they

were to hold by military and other perfonal fervices. -
(L. Florus, lib. iii. cap. 3.) Having brought this conititu-_

FEE

tion from their own countries,’ they contirined “it in their

. re{pective colonies as the moft likely means to fecure their

new acquifitions ; and for this purpofe the victorions gene-
ral allotted large diftris of land to the fuperior officers of
the army ; and thefe again diftributed fmaller parcels to the
inferior officers and more deferving foldiers. However, the
feudal policy was only brought by degrees into that ftate,
which we find eftablifhed in the empire’ under Conrade the’
Salic, who was the firft emperor that rendered fiefs here-
ditary, and in France under Hugh Capet. Sir Thomas
Craig has diftinguifhed four {tates of the feudal law ; its in-
fancy, comprehending the period between the firlt overflow-
ing of the northern nations and the year 6503 its child-
hood, the time in which fiefs, which were before annual,
or at moft for life, were extended to the fons of the vaflal,
and.no farther, viz. from the year 650 to the year 80e,,
when Charlemagne was crowned emperor; its adolefcence,
from the times of Charlemagne to thofe of Conrade II. or
the Salic, who began his reign in the year 1024, and not
only confirmed the inheritance of fiefs to the fons and grand-
fons of the vaffals, but permitted one brother to fueceed
another in his paternal eltate: but even after the alteration
made: by Conrade, it was not uncommon in Germany to
grant fiefs only for life; a charter of this kind occurs as
late as the year 13763 and its maturity from this period
forward, when feuds were permitted to defeend to collaterals
as far as the feventh degree. Others find fome appearance,
of the duties of a vaflal to his lord, in the ancient relations
between the patron and his client; and others look for its
rife in the Roman Beneficia.

The emperors, it feems, diftributed lands among the
ancient legions on condition of their holding themlelves
ready at all times to take up arms in defence of the fron-
tiers of the empire, which affords us a good image enough
of feuds, though in all probability their firfl origin fhould
be traced higher; but in procefs of time their nature was
changed, and duties were annexed to thein which originally
were not. .

Du-Moulin makes no doubt, but that thofe diftribu-
tions of land called denefices, were the firft matter of fees >
for which reafon he ufes the terms denejice and feud pro-

. mifcuoufly, as if they were the fame thing ; and yet

there was a good deal of difference between them, as there
was neither fealty nor homage, nor the other feudal rights
annexed to the benefice ; and that the benefice was not he-
reditary. } . 4 ;

Probably benefices, (fee Brnericr,) began then to be
called feuds, when they became hereditary ; and when thofe
of whom the benefices were held began to demand faith
or fealty from them. This fealty feems to conftitute the
fees the word fee itfelf fignifying, in the ancient Norman
language, faith.

There is no fixing the precife era when thefe changes com-
menced ; for fees, {uch as they now are, were not blifhed
all at once; but in different couutries they took place at
different times, and in different manners.

The great lords, after the deftruction of the Roman em-
pire, having in feveral parts ufurped the property of their
benefices,. laid likewife hold of the jurifdiétion, and made
their vaffals their fubjects; fo that each became a fort of
petty fovereign in his own territory. :

Mezeray obferves, that the donation of fees to the no-
blefle of France commenced under the reign of Charles
Martel.

Hugh Capet, when he came to the crown, was himfelf
fo little eftablifhed that he durft not eppofe thofe ufur-
pations, and was forced to fufier what he-could not,

redrefs.

FEE.

fedrefs. See Le Fevre, De l’Origine des Fiefs, and Al-
taferra’s- Origines -Feudorum primoribus Galliz. See
Fevpum. iam
The origin of fees in England, Camden carries as fat
back as the time of Alexander Severus. That prince have
ing. built a wall in the north of England to prevent the in-
curfions of the Pits, he fome time after began to negle&
the defence thereof, and gave, as Lampridius, in Vita Alex.
Severi, affures us, the lands conquered from the enemy to
thofe of his captains and foldiers, whom that author calls
< limitarios duces, &-milites ;”’ 7.¢. captains‘and foldiers of
the frontiers; but it was on this condition, that their heirs
fhould continue in the fervice, and that the lands fhould
never defcend to private perfons; i..c. to fuch as did not
bear arms. That prince’s reafon was, that people, who in
ferving, defended their own, would ferve with a great deal
more zeal than any others. Such, according to Camden,
was the rife of fees in our nation. Britan. p. 651.
However, the feudal polity originally derived from the
Northern ‘nations, and gradually eftablifhed on the conti-
nent of Europe, was not univerfally received in England,
thongh fome traces of it may be difcerned in the times of
the Saxons, who'were firmly fettled in this ifland as early
as the year 600, and incorporated with the national confti-
tution, till the reign of William the Norman ; and this was
done not by the mere arbitrary will and power of the con-
-queror, but by the univerfal confent of the common coun-
cil of the kingdom, on the fame principle of felf fecurity
which had before induced the other nations of Europe to
adopt it. The era of formally pal essay 2 the. feudal te-
nures by law was probably the latter end of the year 1086,
when the king was attended by all his nobility at Sarum,
_and all the principal land-holders fubmitted their lands to
the yoke of military tenure, became the king’s vaffals, and
did homage and fealty to his perfon. This ingraftment of
the feudal tenures and other cuftoms of Normandy upon
the ancient Saxon laws of Edward the Confeffor, produced
a different political fyftem in this country, and changed both
power and property in many refpeéts; for thofe hereditary
eftates of the Saxon nobility and gentry which were allodial,
and not fubje& to any feudal fervice, were converted into
feuds, and other lands which were of a feudal nature, and
holden by military fervice, haying been. granted only at will,
or for a certain number of years, or at moft for life or lives,
and the grants of which were. called benefices, were made
hereditary fiefs: The feudal rights claimed in confequence
of this eltablifhment by the king over his tenants, and by
them over their’s, were confiderably mitigated by the char-
ter of Henry J. But, notwithttanding this charter, for-
mer. grievances were'revived and aggravated by Henry and
his fucceflors, till in the reign of king John, they became
fo intolerable, that they occafioned his barons, or principal
feudatories, to rife up in arms againft him; which at length
produced the famous great charter, (fee Macna Cuarra,)
at Runningmeed, which, with fome alterations, was con+
firmed by his fon Henry III. Upon the whole it appears
from the hiflory of feudal tenures, and the alterations that
have taken place with regard to them, in the fucceflive
fteigns of Henry I., John, Henry ITE, and Charles, that
the liberties of Englifhmen are not (as fome arbitrary wri-
fers would reprefent them) mere infrmgements of the king’s
prerogative, extorted from our princes, by taking advantage
of their weaknefs ; but a reftoration of that ancient contti-
tution, of which our anceftors had been defrauded by the
art and fineffe of the Norman lawyers, rather than deprived
by the force of the Norman arms. See Conquest.
~ Although the barbarous nations, which framed the feudal

fyftem, and from which it feems to have originated, fettled
in their new territories at different times, came from different
countries, {poke various langnages, and. were under the
command of feparate leaders, the feudal policy and laws
were eftablifhed, with little variation, in every kingdom of
Europe. Hence fome have concluded, that all thefe na-
tions, notwithftanding fo many apparent circumftances of
diftinétion, were originally the fame people. It may, how-
ever, with greater probability, be afcribed to the fimilar {tate
of fociety and of manners to which they were accuftomed
in their native countries, and to the fimilar fituation in which
they found themfelves on taking poffeffion of their new do-
mains. Asthe conquerors of Europe had their acquifitions
to maintain, not only againft fuch of the ancient inhabitants
as they had f{pared, but againft the more formidable inroads
of new invaders, felf-defence was their chief care, and feems
to have been the fole object of their fir inititutions and
policy. Inftead of thofe loofe affociations, which, without
diminifhing their perfonal independence, had been fufficient
for their fecurity, while they remained in their original
countries, they faw the neceflity of confederating more clofely
together, and of relinquifhing fome of their private rights in
order to obtain public fecurity. Every freeman, therefore,
upon receiving a portion of the lands which were divided,
bound himfelf to appear in arms againft the enemies of the
community. This military fervice was the condition upon
which he received and held his lands; and as they were ex-
empted from every other burden, that tenure, among a war-
like people; was deemed both eafy and honourable. The
king, or general, who led them to conqueft, had the largeft
portion allotted to htm; and he parcelled it out among thofe
who entered into an obligation to bear arms in his defence,
His chief officers imitated his example, in diftributing por-
tions ef Jands'anong their dependants, upon the fame con-
dition. Thus, a feudal kingdom refembled a military ef-
tablifhment rather than a civil inftitution. The names of a
foldier and'a freeman were fynonymous. Every proprietor
of land, girt with a fword, was ready to march at the fum-

‘mons of his fuperior, and to take the field againft the com-

monenemy. ‘The feudal government, however, though ad-
mirably calculated for defence againit the aflauits of any
foreign power, was defeétive in its provifions for the interior
order of fociety. The bond of political union was extremely
feeble; and the fources of anarchy were innumerable. The
powerful vaffals of the crown foon extorted a confirmation
for life of thofe grants of land which, being at firft purely
gratuitous, had been beftowed only curirg pleafure. They
then fucceeded in having them converted into hereditary
poffeffions ; and at length in tendering them unalienable.
‘Phe crown vaffals, after having fecured the pofleffion of their
lands and dignities, were led by the feudal inftitations.to
new, and {till more dangerous encroachments on the ptere-
gatives of the fovereign. They obtained the power of fu-
preme jurifdiGtion, both civil and criminal, within their own
territories; the right of coining money; together with the
privilege of carrying on war againft their private enemies in
their own name, and by theirown authority. Subordination
was almott loft, and perfons of fuperior rank afpired at inde-

‘pendence. Hencea kingdom, confiderable in name and extent,

was broken into as many feparate’ principalities as it contained
powerful barons. A thoufand eaufes of jealoufy and dif-
cord fprang up among them, and gave rife to as many wars.
Every country in Europe, wafted or kept in continual alarm
during thefe endlefs contefts, was filled with caiftles and
places of itrength, ereéted for the fecurity of the inhabitants,
not againit foreign force, but againit internal hottilities.
Indeed an almoft univerfal anarchy prevailed, The guilty

elcaped

: as a Je

-efcaped punifhment, and the innocent could not find pro-
tection. Such was the ftate of Europe with refpect to the
interior adminiftration of government from the 7th to the
rith century. his fyftem likewife prevented nations from
adtiug with vigour in their external operations. Befides,
the feudal anarchy had a fatal influence on the character
and improvement of the human mind. Without the pro-
tection of regular government, and the certainty of per-
fonal fecurity, it cannot be expeéted that men will make
any progrefs in the arts and fciences, or aim at attaining re-
finement in tafte or manners. In lefs than a century after
the barbarous nations fettled in their new conqueits, almoft
all the effets of the knowledge and civility which the
Romans had f{pread through [Europe difappeared. The
human mind, neglected, uncultivated,*and depreiled, funk
into the moft profound ignorance. ‘I'he inhabitanss of
Europe during this period were not only ftrangers to the arts
which embellith a polifhed age, but dettitute of the virtues
which abound among people who continue ina fimple itate.

Having curforily mentioned feveral of the difadvan-
tages and pernicious effects of the feudal fy{tem, and they
were fufliciently great, we ought not to omit fome few cir-
cumftances that may be alleged in its favour. This {yf-
tem, in its very nature, {tood oppofed to the arbitrary power
of the crown, and provided for the political liberty of all
thofe who poflefled any portion of landed property. This
fyftem alfo nourifhed a manly and vigorous fpirit, which,
however hurtful in fome of its immediate effects, has been
eminently ferviceable in the progrefs of fociety. We mutt
add, that the feudal fyftem caufed even the clergy, too/fre-
quently the tools of abfolute monarchs, to be the great
aflerters and promoters of freedom. This faét is afcer-
tained by various inftances that occur in our own hiftory.
The bifhops, in confequence of the feudal tenures, found it
their intereft to unite with the barons and great landholders
in refilting the encroachments of our princes ; and they did
it, in feveral cafes, with diftinguifhed ability and fuccefs.
"The bifhops were particularly m{trumental in obtaining the
famous Macna Cuarra (which fee.) The moft import-
aut and valuable articles of that inftrument were probably
owing to Stephen Langton, archbifhop of Canterbury.
With refpeé& to the clergy in general, notwith{tanding the
ignorance and bad conduct of too many of them, and the
abfurdity of their tenets, they were very ufefal in mode-
rating and reftraining the diforderly fpirit of the feudal
times. They often interfered in the caute of humanity aud
jultice. They were the only depofitaries of the knowledge
and literature that remained in the world ; and the monattic
inftitutions, in particular, were the chief prefervers of agri-
culture, and of both the neceflary and elegant arts.

But to return from this digreflion. ‘The diforders in the
feudal fyftem, together with the corruption of tafte and
manners confequent upon thele, which had gone on in-
créafing during a long courfe ef years, feem to have attained
their utmoft point of excefs towards the clofe of the 11th
e:ntury. From that era we may date the return of go-
verument aud manners in a contrary direétion ; and it is not
difficult to trace a fucceffion of caufes and events which
contributed to abolifh confufion and barbarif{m, and to in-
troduce order, regularity, and refinement. Among the
principal of thefe we recount the Crufades, the formation
of cities into communities, corporations, or bodies politic,
and granting them the privilege of municipal jurifdiction ;
for when the inhabitants of cities obtained perfonal freedom
aud municipal junifdiction, they foon acquired civil liberty
and political power. The feudal fyftem, however, did not
decline with equal gradations in all parts of Europe. li

did not decline fo faft in Scotland as in England ; nor, while
it was a feparate kingdom, did their commons ever acquire
the fame power. This was owing to the low ftate of com-
merce, induftry, and arts, among the Scots.

We may obferve that there are confiderable remains of
the feudal fyftem at this day in Europe. In Germany it
fubfitts, in many refpeéts, as much as ever. The hufband-
men of Poland are confined to the glebe; as they are alfo in
Bohemia, in Swabia, and in other parts of Germany ; and
even in France, in fome provinces remote from the capital ;
we fee, faid Voltaire in his time, fome remains of this flavery.
The mott vifible traces of this fyitem in England are in the
forms of law ; almoft all the remains of the feudal fyitem
in England, except thele forms, having Leen abolifhed in
the reign ot Charles II. by aét of parliament. The feudal
law carried with it a fyftem of prvate rights, which fwal-
lowed up all others wherever it came, and involved likewife,
in giving effeét to thefe rights, a fyflem of ‘ forms,” which
remain even where the original rights are no more. It is
particularly worthy of notice, with refpeét to the feudal
fyftem, that a form of government fo uniform in its ‘princi’
ples fhould have branched out, as it were, under different’
circumitances, into other forms fo totally different from one
another as are the coniftitutions of the feveral European
{tates ; which were almoit all, originally, equally feudal,
and, therefore, neceflarily fimilar to one another. But what
is moft of all remarkable with refpe& to the feudal fy{tem is,
that a form of government, fo ill calculated to fecure the
moit valuable ends of fociety, a conflitution fo totally in-
confiftent with fecurity and liberty, and fo unfriendly to
commerce and {cience, fhould, in feveral initances, have ter-
minated, by the natural courfe of things, in governments
under which men enjoy the greateft fecurity, together with
all defirable liberty; and where the utmott {cope is given to
the genius of man in the extenfion of arts, manufaétures,.
commerce, and fcience. Lord Lyttelton’s Hilt. of King
Henry. II. vol. i. p. 59, &c. vol. iti. p.97, kc. Black
{tone’s Comm. vol. 1i. cap. 4. Robertlon’s Ch. V. vol. i.

All our lands in England (the crown-land, which is in
the king’s own hand, the right of his crown, excepted) are
of the nature of feud or fee. For though many have land
by defcent from their anceftors, and others have bought
lands, yet land cannot come toany, either by defcent or pur-
chafe, but with the burden that was laid on him who had
the novel fee, or who firit received it as a benefice from his
lord to him, and fuch as fhould defeend from him, or to
him it fhould be otherwife conveyed and transferred ; fo that,
no man has diredum dominium; 1. é. the very property or
domain in any land but the prince in’ right of his crown.
(Camd. Britan. p. 93.) Though he who has fee has jus per-
petuum, and utile dominium, yet he owes a duty for it; fo
that it is not ftri@ly his own. Indeed, as much is im-
ported by the terms in which we exprefs our highett right in
lands, &c. the moft a man can fay is, “ I am feifed of this
Jand in my demain, or demefne as of fee.’? ;

The grand and fundamental maxim of all feudal tenure is
this ; that alllauds were originally granted out by the fove-
reign, and are therefore holden, either mediately or imme-
diately, of the crown. The grantor was called the proprie.
tor, or Jord, who retained the dominion or ultimate pro-
perty of the feud or fee; and the grantee, who had only the
ufe and poffeffion, according to the terms of the grant, wag
ftyled the feudatory, or va//al, another name for the tenant.
or holder of the lands. The manner of the grant was by.
words of gratuitous and pure donation, ‘“ dedi et conceffi,’?
which are itill the operative words in our modern deeds of
feoffment. . ‘Chis was perfe¢ted by the ceremony of corpo-

J BEE, f

tal inveftiture, or open and notorious delivery of poffeffion in
‘the prefence of the other vaflals, which perpetuated among
them the era of the new acquifition, at a time when the
art of writing was little known ; and therefore the evidence
of property was repofed in the memory of the neighbour-
hood ; who, in cafe of a difputed title, were afterwards
called upon to decide the difference, not only according to
external proofs adduced by the litigant parties, but alfo
by the internal teftimony of their own private knowledge.
The vaffal or tenant took an oath of fealty (fee Feary),
and upon inveftiture did homage to his lord; (fee Ho-
mAGE.) This was followed by the fervice which he engag-
‘ed to perform to his fuperior or lord, in recompence for the
land which he held. In pure, proper, and original feuds,
this fervice was two-fold ; to follow, or do /wit to the lord
in his courts in time of peace ; and in his armies or warlike
retinue, when neceffity called him to the field. At the firft in-
troduétion of feuds, which were gratuitous, they were pre-
carious, and held at the wi//of the lord ; who was thenthe fole
judge whether his vaffal performed his fervices faithfully.
Then they became certain, for one or more years. Among
the ancient Germans they continued only from year to year ;
as an annual diftribution of lands was made by their leaders
in their general councils or affemblies. (See Tacit. de
Mor. Germ. c. 26. and Czfar de Bell. Gall. 1. 6. c. 21.)
In procefs of time, feuds began to be granted for the Jife
of the feudatory. But they were not yet hereditary, though
‘occafionally granted by the favour of the lord to the chil-
dren of the former poffeffor, on payment of a fine or ac-
knowledgment to the lord, which was called a relief.
Afterwards feuds were by degrees univerfally extended be-
yond the life of the firft vaffal to his fons, or to fuchof them
as the lord fhould name; but as the fons died off, their
fhares reverted to the lord, without defcending to their
children, or to their furviving brothers.’ But when a feud
was given to a man and his /eirs, in general terms, a more
extended rule of fucceflion took place ; and when the feuda-
tory died, his male defcendants in infinitum were admitted
xto the fucceffion, and in defeét of them, fuch of his male
collateral kindred as were of the blood or lineage of the firlt
feudatory, and no others. The defcent being confined to
males, originally extended to all the males alike ; but this
being found inconvenient, and Aonorary feuds (or titles of
nobility) being introduced, which could only be inherited
by the eldeft fon; in imitation of thefe, military feuds (or
thofe now defcribed) began in moft countries to defeend ac-
‘cording to the fame rule of primogeniture, to the eldeft fon
‘in exclufion of all the reft. The feudatory could not
aliene or difpofe of his feud, nor could he exchange, nor
mortgage, nor devife it by will, without the confent
of the lord. When feuds .ceafed to be military, they
began to be bought and fold, and deviations were made
‘from the old fundamental rules of tenure and fucceflion. See
TENURE. i
It fhould be obferved, that our Englifh lawyers do very
rarely (of late years efpecially) ufe the word fee in this its
‘primary original fenfe, in contradiftinG@ion to a/lodium or
abfolute property, but generally ufe it to exprefs the con-
_tinuance or quantity of an eflate ; fo that a fee in general
fignifies an eftate of inheritance, being the higheit and
moft extenfive intereft that a man can have in a feud ;
tand in that fenfe of the term it is applicable to, and
»may be had in, any kind of hereditaments, either corporeal
or incorporeal; with this diltinction, that of a corporeal
‘inheritance a man fhall be faid to be feifed in is deme/ne, as
‘of ee of anincorporeal one, he fhall on'y be faid to be
~~ Vor. XIV.

* ,
rs

feifed as of fee, and not in his demefne. (Litt. § fo.)
Blackftone’s Comm. vol. ii. p. 106.

In the ftat. 37 Hen. VIII. cap. 16. fee is alfo ufed for
Jands vefted in the crown 3 but it is from ignorance,ot the
import of the word ; for fee cannot be without fealty {worn
toafuperior ; but the king owns fealty to no fuperior but
God alone.

Fee is divided in our laws into fee-ah/olute, called alfo
fee-sfimple 5 and fee-conditional, alfo called fee-tail. See
Feup.

Fee, Franf. See Frank.

Fer-/imple, feudum fimplex, is that whereof we are feized
tous and our heirs for ever. Or it denominates an abfolute
inheritance, clear of any condition, limitation, or reftriGion
to particular heirs, but defcendable to the heirs general,
whether male or female, lineal or collateral. It is a general
rule, that the word /eirs is neceflary in the grant or dona-
tion, in order to make a fee or inheritance ; but this rule
does not extend to devifes by will, nor to fines and reco-
veries confidéred asa {pecies of conveyance, nor to creation
of nobility by writ, though in creations by patent, the word
heirs mutt be inferted ; nor to grants of lands to fole corpo-
rations and their fucceffors; nor finally, to the cafe of the
king, in whom a fee-fimple will veit, without the words
heirs or fucceffors in the grant.

Fer-iail, feudum taliatum, is that whereof we are feifed
with limitation to us and the heirs ef our body. See
Tat. ;

Fee-tail is of two kinds, general and fpecial.

TFee-tail general, is where lands and tenements are given
to a man and the heirs of his body begotten. So thatif a
man feifed of: fuch land by fuch gift marry one or more
wives, and have no iflue by them, and at length marry
another, by whom he hath iffue, this iflue fhall inherit the
land.

Fee-tail {fpecial, is where a man and his eife are feifed of
lands to them and the heirs of their two bodies; where, in
cafe the wife die without iffue, and he marry another by
whom he have iffue, this iffue cannot inherit the land, and
therefcre it is called /pecial tail.

This fee-tail {pecial has its origin from the ftat. of Weftm.
2.13 Edw. I. cap. 1. Before that ftatute, all land given
toa man and his heirs, either general or {pecial, was reput-
ed inthe nature of a fee ; and therefore fo firmly held to
him, that, any limitation notwithftanding, he might alienate
it at pleafure: for redrefs of which inconvenience the
{tatute provides, that if a man gives lands in fee, limiting the
heirs to whom it fhould defcend, with a reverfion to himfelf
and his heirs for default of fuch former heirs, the form and
meaning of the: gift fhall be obferved. .

Eftates, in general and fpecial tail, are farther diverfified
by the diftinétion of fexes in fuch entails ; for both of them
may be in tail male or female; as if lands be givento a man
and his heirs male of his body begotten, this is an eftate in tail
male. general; but if to a man and the feirs female of bis
body on his prefent wife begotten, this is ar eftate in tail fe-
male /pecial ; and in cafe of an entail male, the heirs fe-
male fhall never inherit, nor any derived from them ; nore
converfo, the heirs male, in cafe of a gift in tail female.
(Litt. § 21,22.) As the word Aeirs is neceffary to create. a
fee, fothe word Jody, or fome other words of procreation,
are neceflary to make it a fee tail, and to afcertain to what
heirs in particular the fee is limited; though in wills and
teftaments greater indulgence is allowed. The incidents to
a tenancy in tail, under the ftatute Weltm. 2. are chiefly
thede (Co. Litt. 224.) :° r. That a tenantin tail may commit

Ee waite

FEE

awafte on the eftate-tail by felling timber, pulling downhoufes,
or the like, without being impeached or called to aecount for
the fame. 2. That the wife of the tenant in tail fhall have
her dower or thirds of the eltate-tail. 3. That the hufband
of a female tenant in tail may be tenant by the courtefy of
the eftate-tail. 4. That an eftate-tail may be barred or de-
ftroyed by a fine, by a common recovery, or by lineal
warranty defcending with affets to the heir. By fubfe-
quent ftatutes, eltates-tail may be aliened, are liable to for-
feiture for high treafon, and are chargeable with reafonable
leafes, and with fuch debts as are due to the crown on {pe-
cialties, or have been contracted with fellow fubjeCts ina
courfe of commerce.

Fre, Bafe, or qualified, 1s a conditional fee that has a
qualifieation fubjoined to it, and which mutt be determined
whenever this qualification is at an end; asinthe cafe of a
grant to A. and his heirs, tenants of the manor of Dale ;
whenever the heirs of A. ceafe to be tenants of that manor,
the grant is entirely defeated. Black{tone’s Comm. vol. ii.
chap. 7. See Enrait.

Fex-expedant, feudum expedativum.
ExPrecrantT.

Frr-farm, or ferm, feudi-firma, or feo-firma, is a tenure of
lands by which they are holden to a perionand his heirs for
ever, under a certain annual rent.

Fee farm takes place upon the creation of a tenancy, when
the lord referves to himfelf and his heirs either the rent
for which it was before let to farm, or at leaft a fourth part
ofthe rent, aud that without homage, fealty, or other fer-
vices, more than are efpecially comprifed in the feoffment.
Yet it would appear by Fitzherbert, that the third part of the
value may be appointed for the rent, or the finding of a
chaplain to fay divine fervice, &c. And the nature of it is
this; that if the rent be behind, and unpaid for the {pace of
two years, then the feoffer or his heirs have action to recover
the lands as their demefnes.

Fee-farm rents of the Crown, are {uch rents as iffue to the
kings of England from their ancient demefnes, many of
which were alienated from the crown in the reign of
Charles 11.

Fee is alfo ufed for the compafs or circuit of a manor or
lordhhip. Thus Braéton, ‘‘in eadem villa, & de eodem
feodo.”’

Fer is alfo ufed for a perpetual right incorporeal: as to

have the keeping of the perfons in fee, rent granted in fee,
sand office keld in fee, &c.

Fre, Knight’s. See Knicut’s Fee.

Fee alfo fignities a reward or ordinary due given a perfon
for the execution of his office, or the performance of his
part in his refpeétive art or fcience.

Thus, the lawyer, barrifter, and phyfician, are faid to
have their fees; i.e. confiderations for the pains taken with
the client or patient. If a perfon refufe to pay an officer
his due fees, the court will grant an attachment againft
him, to be committed till the fees are paid ; and an attorney
“may bring an a€tion of the cafe for his fees againft. the
‘client that retained him in his caufe. With us, fome have
faid that a counfel can maintain no aétion for his fees,
which are given uot as /ocutio vel conduédio, but as guiddam
honorarium ; not asa falary or hire, but as a mere gra-
tuity, which a counfellor cannot demand without injury to
his reputation. This, however, has been held otherwile.
F.N.B. 121. 1 Brownl. 73. 31 H. VI.c. 9.

Fees alfo denote feveral perquifites or allowances paid to
public officers by perfons who have bufinefs with them.
The fees due to the officers of the Cuftom-houfe are
vexprefsly mentioned in a {chedule or table, which is hung

See Estarr, and

Br FE

up to view in the faid office, and in all other places where

the fees are to be paid; and if any officer fhall offend, by

acting contrary to the regulations therein contained, he

fhall forfeit his office and place, and be for ever after inca-
able of any office in the Cuftom-houfe.

The fmallnefs of the falaries of divers of the king’s fers
vants is compenfated by the perquifites or fees of honour,
The fees paid to the feveral officers by every perfon upon
his being knighted amount to 78/. 13s. 4d. And if it be
done within the verge of the court, there is 3/. more to the
fix pages of the bed-chamber, which brings.it to 81/,
Every knight of the moft noble order of the garter pays,
upon his inftallment, if Prince of Wales, 66/. 135. 4d. 3 ifa
duke 20/.; if a marquis 16/. 18s. 4d.; if anearl 12/. 135. 4d.
The fees due for the entrance into the houfe of lords are as
follows :

LrepaiSepats
Prince of Wales - 30 0.0
An Archbifhop - 27 0, 0
A Duke - = e2Jal Oud
A Marquis es TohyG.) §
An Earl - © .d4w OO
A Vifcount - 12)10: 90
A Bithop - - 14.0.0
A Baron - - 0; 0. 40

Thefe fees are paid by every peer on his firft introduction
to the houfe, both on his original acceflion to a title, and
his advancement to a higher one, and by every bifhop upoa
his firft confecration, and upon any future promotion.

The homage-fees due on the acceflion of a peer are,

: opinkeeiate
Prince of Wales - 703 6 8
Ditto, as Earl of Chefter 203.0) Siuad.
A Duke - - B5O Bs oud
A Marquis . ienid 2I2 oe LOs 7
An Earl - 1s 203563 ct
A Vifcount - - T5Plo Teasd:

A Baron - =, 150,05 4A:

Befides the fum charged in the king’s books, every bifhop
pays, on his confecration or promotien, as homage-fees,
312/, 105. 4d. and an archbifhop double this fum.

FEED, in Rural Economy, the portion or quantity of
oats or other fort of grain or proverder, which is given to a
horfe or other animal at one time. The term allo implies
the fattening of different forts of live ftock, as neat cattle,
fheep, &c.

FEEDER, in £ngineery, is acut or channel, fometimes
called a carriage or catch-drain, by which a ftream or fupply
of water is brought into a canal; fometimes the ftream of
water itfelf, which is fo fupplied toa canal, is called a
feeder. See Cana.

Feepers, in Rural Economy, fignify by graziers thofe
neat cattle which are bought in exprefsly for the purpofe
of being fed off, }

Feepers of a Vein, in Mining, are the fhort crofs veins
which appear to branch from it in fome inftances, and are
fo called from the vulgar notion that thefe feed or fupply
the vein with ore: frings and /eadings are fometimes ufed
as terms for thefe {mall crofs veins.

FEEDING, in Rural Economy, the a& or procefs of
fattening any fort of live ftock on a farm.

Frepine of Caitle, the procefs of rendering them in a
{tate proper for the butcher. It likewife fignifies the fod-
dering of them.

Feepinc Hou/e, or Shed, is that fort of farm-building
which is conftruéted for the purpofe of fattening neat
cattle. It fhould have a dry warm fituation, be capable of

7 free

ECELE

free ventilation, and be well fupplicd with proper conve-
niences for the reception of food and water. See Carrie
Sheds.

Feepinc Grounds, fuch Jandsas are fet apart for the fat-
tening of different forts of live ftock. They are chiefly
thofe of the rich deep pafture kinds.

FeepinG-Piece, a field or portion of grafs land which is
employed for the purpofe of grazing animals. It is ad-
vantageous to have fuch a piece near to the houte.

Frerepinc-Down, the practice of eating down grafs lands
with different forts of live flock. In neq Jays fome prefer
mowing the few firflyears, from the fuppofition that
grazing is more injurious to them ; but the fuperiority of
thefe different praétices has not yet been fully afcertained.
See Lavine down to Grafs, and Pasture.

Feepinc-Ground, in Mining, is uled by fome miners to
denote certain kinds of foil or rock, which are fuppofed to
feed or to fupply ore to veins in their vicinity : itisa certain
fact, that forme beds of limeftone in Derbyfhire, called
bearing-meafures, have generally ore in the veins which in-
terfeét them, when often the fame veins contain little or
no ore between the meadures dbove or below thefe bearing
meafures. !

Frepine, Foul, inthe Manege. See Four.

FEEJEE, in Geography, an ifland in the Southern
Pacific ocean, about three days’ fail from Tongataboo, in
the direétion of N. W. by W. It is reprefented as a high
but very fruitful ifland ; abounding with hogs, dogs, and
fowls, and all the kinds of fruits and roots that are found
inany of the others, and as being much larger than Tonga-
taboo, to the dominion of which it feems to be fubje@, as
the other iflands of the Archipelago are ; although, on the
other hand, Feejee and Tongataboo frequently make war
upon each other; and the inhabitants of the latter appear
to be much afraid of thofe of the former, who were really
formidable on account of their peculiar dexterity in the ufe
of bows and flings, and alfo on account of the favage prac-
tice prevalent among them of eating the enemies whom they
killed in battle. The more northerly part of this numerous

roup was difcovered by Tafman in 16435 and it is the
fans clufter of iflands and reefs that was explored by the
Duff Miffionary fhip, and where fhe experienced the greateft
dangers that attended her voyage. Thefe iflands were
named by Tafman ‘ Prince William’s Ifland,’? and
s¢ Heemfkirk’s fhoals.’? They extend northward to the
latitude of 15° 33'. Captain Bligh fell in with the eaftern-
moft of them in W. long. 178°, and purfuing a north-
weftern courfe he found the group to extend 4° weitward
from the firft iflands. He faw feveral of them that had frem

© to 40 leagues of coalt, which appeared fertile and plea-
Patly variegated with hills and vallies. In 1792 he paffed
to the north of the firft iflands difcovered by him in 1789 ;
and having croffed his former tracks, he doubled the
fouthernmoit ifland of the groupin S. lat. 19° 15’. E. long.
178°. "The canoes of the iflanders attempted to overtake
him, feemingly with hottile defigns. The moit weftern part
of this group was difcovered by captain Barber in 1794, in
his paflage from Port Jackfon to the N.W. coaft of Ame-
rica. He faw fix of the iflands, the largeft of which he
placed in E. long. 175° 15’. The natives, who feemed un-
accuitomed to trade, exhibited hoftile appearances ; and
aGtually attempted to board his fhip. It is not certain
whether all thete iffands are conneéted with, or independent
of, each other; but they are thought to be fubject to
Tongataboo, The inhabitants, however, are of a diiting
race, {peak a different language, and, befides {pears and
slubs, make ufe of bows and arrows in battle. In this

FEG

refpe& they refemble moft of the iflanders who inhabit the
larger countries to the weftward, and differ from all that
have yet been difcovered to the eaftward of the group.
The natives of the Friendly iflands regard the people of
Feejee as fuperior to themfelves both in military prowefs and
mechanical ingenuity; their weapons and clothing being
wrought in a more matterly ftyle ; and fome manufaétures,
efpecially that of earthen veflels, being carried on at Feejee,
which are not attempted at Tongataboo. They had alfo
dogs at Feejee, when there were none in the Friendly
iflands.. The ftature of the Feejeeans is fuperior, their
complexions are darker, and their hair approaches to wool.
They moreover retain the practice of eating the bedies of
enemies whom they have killed, which is now abnorred by
all the lighter race, except the inhabitants of New Zea-
land.

FEEL, in the Manege, they fay to feel a horfe in the
hand ; that is, to obferve that the will of the horfe is in the
rider’s hand, that he taftes the bridle, and has a good appui
in obeying the bit.

To feel a horfe upon the haunches, is to obferve that he
plies or bends them, which is contrary to leaning or throw-
ing upon the fhoulders.

FEELERS, Antenna, in Natural Hiflory, are the
horns, as they are ufually called, upon the heads of infe@s,
See Entromococy.

FEELING, in Phyfology, the power in any organ of
receiving the impreffions of external objeéts, and of con-
veying thefe to the brain, fo as to caufe fenfation ; or of ex-
hibiting the fame phenomena from alterations in the ftate of
the organ itfelf. In this explanation the word is eqaivalent
to fenfibility, and denotes the capacity of being aéted upon,
and of acting again on the fentient principle : thus we fay
that any part has much or little feeling, &c. In a more
confined fenfe, this word fignifies the fenfe of touching,
which is the particular mode of fenfibility belonging to the
furface of the body. The fubje& is explained under the
articles Brain, SenstBitity, and SKin,

FEESURA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Kaarta; 28 miles W. of Kemmoo.

FEET, a town of Norway, in the government of Ag-
gerhuus ; 36 miles N.N. E. of Frederickttadt.

Freer Prefentation, in Midwifery, a {pecies of preter-
natural or crofs birth, in which, on the buriting of the mem-
branes, during labour, one or both the feet of the child
come down into the vagina, inftead of the head. In’ this
cafe, the pains ufually ceafe, and do not recur again, until
nearly the whole of the liquor amnii is drained away, which
frequently is not completed in lefs than three, four, or
more hours. This fufpenfion of the pains is apt to excite
uneafinefs in the patient, or her attendants, and the accou-
cheur is often preffed to give affiltance, which he muft how-
ever avoid doing, until, by the recurrence of the pains, he is
fatisfied that the uterus is contracted, fo as to come again
into contaét with the body of the child. He may thea
gradually, and moderately affitt, during the pains, in drawing
down the legs of the child; itill keeping in mind the rule
to be obferved in all cafes, where delivery is to be per-
formed by art, not to empty the uterus too haftily.

When the breech is delivered, the accoucheur will attend
to the pofition of the child, and if the belly be placed to-
wards the pubes of the mother, turn it towards the facrum,
and then complete the delivery in the manner dire&ed under
the article Lasour, preternatural.

FEG, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to fignify
the tough dead grafs which remains in paftures after they
have been eaten down by ftock.

Kez FEGALLE,

FEI

FEGALLE, or Facauo, Cape, in Geography, a cape
on the coaft off#kgiers, called by the Moors ** Ras Azin-
toure.”” N. lat. 35° go’. E. long. o° 54’.

FEGARI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon;
yo miles’S. S. E. of Meaco.

FEGESAK, or Vecrsax, a town of Germany, in the
duchy ‘of Bremen ; eight miles N. N. W. of Bremen.

« FEGLINA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; feven
miles S. E. of Cofenza.

FEHRABAD: See Farapar. ’ f

FEHRENBACH, a town of Germany; in the lordfhip
of Furftenberg ; 16 miles E. of Fribure.

FEHRNBELLEIN; a town of Germany, in the Middle
Mark of Brandenburg, on the Rhine; 28 miles N. W. of
Berlin.” N. lat.52° 53’. E. long. 12° 50’.

FEI, a town of China, of the third rank, in Chang-
tong.—Alfo, a river of Perfia, which runs into the Mes,
eight miles S. E. of Suc Sambil, in Chufiftan.

FEID. See’Farp.

FEIDERSDORF, in Geography, 2 town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach; eight miles S.W. of
Culmbaeh.

FEIGNED Action, in Law. ‘See Faint adion.

* Feionep (fue. See Feigned Issue.

FEILITSCH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Culmbach ; three miles N-E. of Hof.

FEINT, in Fencing, ‘a falfe attack, ora thew of making
a ftroke or thruft, in one part, with defign to induce the
adverfary to form a parade for guarding that part, and
leaving fome other part unguarded where the thrutt is really
intended. ,

Feints are either fingle or double, high or low, without
or within, &c. in prime, in tierce, in quart, in demi, and
in the whole circle; of one, two, or three meafures.

The fimple feint is a mere motion of the wrift, without
ftirring the foot, &c.

‘Fern, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby the {peaker touches
on fomething, in making a fhew of paffing it over in filence.
"Fhe Latins call this pretermiffio.

Feint-ditack, in the A%i/itary Art, is a manceuvre re-
forted to on a variety of occafions, but efpecially when the
defences of a town, &c. are to be carried by ftorm.
However eafy it may appear to diftraét the attention of
the defenders, or to attract it to a wrong direétion, {uch is
not actually the cafe in general. This rufe de guerre has
been fo very frequently praétifed, that none but the mott
nnguirded commanders are to be deceived by the mere dif-
play of an armed force in a quarter where the works are
not abfolutely infignificant, or reduced to a defencelets flate.
A feint-attack, it is to be recolleéted, mutt affume fuch a
form as fhould give a moift impofing air; it fhould carry
with it fuch evident power, as at the lea{t fhould refeue it
from deftruétion in the event of the garrifon feeing through

the device, and either allowing the affailants to advance, _

under the idea of complete fuccels, into a {nare, or making
a fally, Sach as fhould leave no room for boalting of the
effect of the entérprize ; in either cafe, ruin will generally
follow.

The immenfe variety of ‘cafes, an{ of fituations, that
could be adduced, would, if individually treated in this
work, trefpafs far beyond the ordinary importance of the
article among our readers in general; the fubjeG& might
fwell an ample oG@tavo. We mutt therefore confine ourfelves
to obferving, that feint-attacks generally fucceed belt in the
dark, and ought in eyery inftance, where cavalry is at hand,
to be fupported by fuch a force of that defcription as
fhould fuffice to cover a retreat. If it is known that the

ik. TE ESL

place is well-manned, the feint-attack fhould not be con-
fined to one part ; feveral fhews of ftorming parties fhould
be made, under the previous caution of having a body of
cavalry between two fuch indications, ready, to aid either
that may be purfued. When a garrifon is weak, there may
arife much benefit by changing the feint-attack into a
feint-retreat ; thereby inducing the defenders to quit their
works, and to advance within the reach of fome latent force,
‘Where it is accvrately afcertained that a feint, and not a
real attack is made, the belt policy is for the defenders
either fo remain perfeétly quiet behind their walls, if the
fituation be fecure; or to keep up a thin fire, from riffes
men, fo as to make each fhot take effeét, yet at the fame
time referving the difpofable force under cover, as much as
poflible concealed, fo as to fall fuddenly on the affailants 3
who may be expeéted to pufh forward, under the idea of
meeting but httle refiftance.

Where equal forces are oppofed, the feint-attack is ex-
tremely hazardous ; and, even under certaim advantages, in
point of numbers, cannot be too cautioufly adopted. If
the main aflanlt fhould not be fuccefsful, the worlt of con-
fequences may ordinarily be expected ; as not only -willmuch
lofs be fuftained in that quarter, but the means of refcuing:
the fmaller party be completely fuperfeded by that neceffity
which felf-prefervation ever impofes. We do not mean to
deny that the moft brilliant refults may attend the meafure
when favourably circumftanced, but to caution thofe who,
from adventitioufly reading of the few fuccefsful iffues,
entertain fuch fanguine expectations, as to caufe their banifh-
ing all ideas of defeat, from giving too — feope to ex-
pectation ; and, at all events, from indulging in the {pecu-
lation without the bett intelligence, the beft means of
approach, and the certainty of being able to effeét their
retreat. It is to be carried in mind, that in all probability, ’
information of the intended affaults will reach the befieged, '
fo as to give ample {cope for preparation accordingly ; or,
to fay the lealt, that they may be competent to form a
cerrect opinion, regarding the intentions of their opponents ;
in either cafe much may be apprehended. :

‘FEINTE, an old French mulical term, to exprefs the
alteration of any note or interval, bya fharp ora flat. Te
is properly the generical term for diefes and accidental flats.
Rouffeau fays, this word is no longer in ufe 3 but no»
other is fub{tituted in its room. ‘The Fear of ufing fuper-'
annuated words daily enervates and impoverifhes our lan-
guage; its greateft enemies are the puriits. The fhort, or
chromatic keys on a harplichord, now denominated fharps
and flats, ufed to be called feintes. "The keys which are white
ufed to be black, becaufe our coarfe and vulvar artifls never ©
thought of making the clavier black to fet off the ladies
hands. Short eighths in organs and old inftruments are
likewife called feintes coupé, or cut keys.” ;

FEIRA, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Beira ; 10 miles S. of Oporto. thot

FEISOUN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern-
ment of Diarbekir ; 40 miles N. of Diarbekir.

FEISTRITZ, atown of the duchy of Stiria, four miles
N. of Muchrau—Alfo, a river of the duchy of Stiria,
which runs into the Save, nine miles N. E. of Laybach.—
Alto, a town of the duchy of Carinthia; 10 miles N, E.
of Saxenburg.

FEI-TCHIN, a town’ of China, of the third rank,
in Chang-tong ; 25 miles $.S. W. of Tei-nan. oie

FEITKINGE, a town of Sweden, in the province of ©
Schonen ; fix miles E. of Chriftianftadt. :

FEIUM. See Fayoum. : easly

FEL

FEKETEBANJA, a town of Hungary; 28 miles

N. E. of Zatmar. ;
FEKETELO, a town of Tranfylvania ; 23 miles S. W

of Colofvar.

FEKETEPATAK, a town of Tranfylvania; 25 miles

S. W. of Colofvar. :
FEKETE-PATOR, a town of Hungary, 18 miles

S.S.E. of Grof-Wardein. 75 F
FEL, Map. in Biography, a finger in the French opera

at Paris, of high renown, and durable favour. She was the

daughter of an able organift at Bourdeaux, born 1716, and
received at the great opera in 1733. Her fweet, pure, and
filver-toned voice delighted the public 20 years, aud would
have continued in faydur twenty years more, if bad health,
and a feeble cheit, had not obliged her to quit the tage in

1759. Mad. Fel fung equally well in French and Latin,

and was one of the French who had beft fucceeded in

Ttalian. Her voice was always as young and aftonifhing as

ever, to the fmall number of friends to whom fhe devoted

the laft years of her life, and who cherifhed her perfonal
qualities as much as they did her vocal talents. La-
borde. ©

Fer, inthe Materia Medica of the Ancients, the name
of a fruit much ufed by them in ftomachic medicines, but
very badly defcribed to us. All that we know of the mat-
ter is, that there were three fruits brought from the Indies
at that time, and called bel, fel, and fel; they were all of the
fame virtues, and feemed nearly allied to each other in all
refpects. Serapio tells us, that the fruit fel was about the fize
of the piftachia nut, and fomewhat refembled it in fhape ;
and Avicenna obferves, that it was an [Indian medicine,
bitter, and hot, like ginger; and that it was ufed as a ftoma-
chic. Healfo fays the fame thing of the two other fruits ;
whence it appears they were nearly the fame thing.

* Fevyin Medicine. See Garr.

| Feu Terre, gall of the earth, a name by which fome au-

thors have called the {mall centaury, becaufe of its great

bitternefs.
FELAGUS, in our Lew Books, was ufed for a com-
panion or friend, who was bound in the decennary for the
ood behaviour of another. In the laws of king Ina, it is
faid, if a murderer could not be found, the parents of the
rfon flain fhould have fix marks, and the king forty; if
fe had no parents, then the lord fhould have it; “et fi do-

ainus non habet, felagus ejus.’? Leg. Ine, cap. 15.

. Felagus is faid to be “ quafi Gde cum eo ligatus.””
FELAPTON, in Logic, one of the moods of fyllogifms.
Tn a fyllogi{m in felapton, the firft propofition is an uni-

verfal negative; the feeond an univerfal affirmative ; and

the third a particular negative.

. FELDBACH, in Geography, a town in the duchy of

Stiria; 14 miles N. of Rakeliburg.

FELDER, a river of Germany, which rifes in Henne-
berg, and runs into the Werra, 2 miles N.E. of Vacha.

_ FELDES, 2 town of the duchy of Carniola; 14 miles

N.W, of Crainbure.
» Fetpes-See, a lake of the duchy of Carniola; 2 miles
S.W. of Feldes. .

FELDKIRCH, Covunry or, a {mall country of Ger-
many, formerly in the circle of Swabia, but now a part of
the Tyrolefe, bounded ou the north by the county of
Montford, on the ealt by Pludentz, on the fouth by the
Grifons, and on the weit by the Rhine.

» Fevpxircn, the capital of the above-mentioned county,
well built, ani fituated on the Ill, near the Rhine. The
inhabitants enjoy the privilege of choofing vheir own ma-
giftrates, and of refufing to furrender any who are under

FEL

the law of the empire, and of not being fummoned by any
provincial judges; 28 miles N/N.E. of:Coire. N. lat
47° 12’. E. long. 9° 48.

FELDKIRCHEN, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
13 miles N.W. of Clagenfurt. “

FELDSBACH, a river of Auftria, which runs into the
Danube, 3.miles below Grein.

FELDSBERG, a town of Germany, in Carinthia, be-
longing to the archbifhop of Salzburg; 4 miles N.E. of
Saxenburg. ©

FELDSBURG, a town of Auttria’; 28 miles N.N.E.
of Vienna. N. lat. 48° 42’, E.long. 16° 43’.

FELD-SEE, a lake in the duchy of Carinthia; 8 miles
N.W. of Velach.

FELDUAR, a town of Hungary, near the Danube,
fupported by fifhing in this river; 12 miles S.E. of Symen-
tornya.

FELE, Sr. a town of Naples, in Bafilicata; 7 miles
N.N.E. of Muro.

Feve Homagers, was anciently ufed for the faithful fub-
jes. But it feems the word fhould be written feal ho-
magers,

FELENBRUNN (Ober), in Geography, a town of
Auftria; 3 miles N.W. of Sonneberg.

FELenBrunn (Unter), a town of Auftria; 8 miles N.
of Korn-Neuburg.

FELENGA, a‘f{mall ifland in the gulf of Venice, near
the coait of Iftria. N. lat. 45° 52'. E. long. 14° 4’.

FELETINO, a town of: Italy, in-the Campagna di.
Roma; 8 miles N. of Aletri.

FELETZ, a town or diftrit of Ruffia, in the govera-
ment of Orel, on the left fide of the river Soffva.

FELIBIEN, Micwuaen, in Biography, was bon in
1665, and brought up to the church. He joined-at an
early age the congregation of Benedictine monks, and is
author ef many books on practical piety ; but is more par-
ticularly known for his “ Hiftory of the Abbey of Sr.
Denis,’ adorned with figures, and illuftrated with learned
differtations. Through the fame which he acquired by this
work, he was chofen by the magiftrates of Paris to write the
hiftory of that capital. In 1713 he publifhed his pro.
f{pectus of the intended work, and proceeded in the labour
till he was arrefted in his progrefs by the hand of death in
1719. It was afterwards completed in five volumes folio,
and publifhedin 1725. Moreri.

Feipien, James, was born, in 1636, at Chartres, and
by intenfe application became a proficient in biblical know-
ledge, -He obtained confiderable preferment in the church,
and in 1695 was promoted to the archdeaconry of Vendome,
in which city hé died, in 1716, at the age of 80. His prin-
cipal work as an author was entitled ‘* Pentateuchus Hitto-
ricus, five quinque libri hiftorici, Jofue, Judices, Ruth, pri-
mus et fecundus Regum, cum Commentariis ex fonte He-
braico, verfione 70 interpretum, et variis auctoribus col-
leGtis,” 4to. 1703. This was intended.as a continuation of
Janfenius’s commentary on the Old Teitamont. It was
written with fo much freedom and boldnefs, that it was
fuppreffed by a decree of council. The author obtained
leave to republifh-it, having firit pruned away its objection-
able paflages. The copies of the original publication are
now extremely {carce, and objects of great curiofity. Mo-
reri. :

FELICE, Sr. in Geography, a town.of Italy ; 17 miles
N.N.E. of Modena,—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Leon.

FELICIEN, Sr. a town of France, in the department
of the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton in the ditriad

8 er

Ey Es

ef Tournon ; 9 miles W. of 'Tournon. The place contains
3,589, and the canton 8,079 inhabitants, on a territory of
1474 kiliometres, and in g communes,

FELICITA, or Ferice, Sr. a town of Italy, in the
Campagna, near the coaft of the Mediterranean, at the foot
of mount Circelli, fuppofed to be built on or near the {cite
of the ancient Circei, but not well inhabited; 10 miles
S.W. of Terracina.

FELICITY, in Mythology, a deity hoth among the Ro-
mans and the Greeks. The Romans had multiplied their
divinities to a great number before they elevated Felicity to
this rank. It was above 600 years after the building of
Rome, that Lucullus, upon his return from the war with
Mithridates and Tigranes, built a temple to her. Pliny
adds (1. 35. c. 12.), that this general enjoined the ftatuary
Archefilaus to make the ftatue of that goddefs; but that
they both died before it was finifhed. Lepidus, general of
the cavalry, had alfo, according to Dion (1. 44.) dedicated a
temple to that goddefs. The Greeks, likewife, honoured
the fame goddefs under the name of Eudaimonia and Ma-
earia. Felicity is often reprefented upon the Roman me-
dals, either under the figure of a woman holding in her hand
the cornucopia, or under fome other fymbol, with the legend
s¢ Felicitas Publica,” or ‘ Felicitas Aug. Felicitas Tem-

orum.””

FELICUDA, in Geography, one of the Lipari iflands,
anciently called, Phenicufa. N. lat. 38° 34'. W.long. 14° 2!.
This ifland, as well as Alicuda, which are the two extreme
Liparian iflands towards the welt, difplay proofs of their
having anciently contained volcanoes. “In Felicuda there is
a {pacious cavern, called the Grotto of the Sea-ox, which,
from an aperture of 40 feet high, opens into a hall near 200
feet long, 120 broad, and 65 high. This cavern is formed
ef lava, and is only acceffible by fea. Spallanzani (vol. iii,
p- 99-) fuppofes, that it was occafioned by the action of the
gafes in the lava, when fluid ; as there are examples in Aitna
of caverns, much deeper, produced by a fimilar caufe.

FELIPE, Sr. a town of Mexico, in New Bifcay ; 36
miles N.W. of Parrel —Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Mechoacan; 100 miles N. of Mechoacan.—
Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia, fituated
on the declivity of a mountain, at the foot of two caftles ;
which form an amphitheatre. It was formerly called Xavi-
ya, and was once one of the molt beautiful towns in Spain ;
but as it took part with Charles III. in 1707, Philip V.
ordered it to be demolifhed, and caufed a new town to be
built, which he called St. Felipe ; 2g miles S.S.W. of Va-
lencia. N. lat. 39°. W. long. o° 46/.—Allo, a town of South
America, in the province of Venezuela; 7o miles 5. of Vene-
zuela.—A fo, a town of New Mexico, in New Navarre; 85
miles W. of Cafa Grande.—Alfo, a bay called St. Jago,
on the N. coaft of Terra Auftralis del Efpiritu Santo, dif-
covered by Quiros in 1626. S. lat. 14°55’. E. long.
167° 8'.—Alfo, a town of New Mexico, on the Bravo ; 40
miles S. of Santa Fe. —Alfo, a town of Brazil, formerly
called “ St. Luis de Marignon,” capital of the jurifdi€tion
of Maranhao. S. lat. 2°30’. W.long..45° 36.—Alfo, a
town of Brazil, in the jurifdiction of St.Paul.—Alfo, a
town of the ifland of Cuba; 55 miles S.E. of Havanna.

FELIS, in Zoology, a genus of quadrupeds in the order
Fer, the eflential character of which confilts in having fore
teeth, the intermediate ones equal; grinders three on each
fide ; tongue befet with briftles backwards; and the claws
retra¢tile.

This ferocious tribe, confifting altogether of about 23
fpecies, befides an amazing number of varieties, is diftin-
guifhed by their fharp and formidable claws, which are

FEL

lodged in a fheath, and are capable of being extended’ or
drawn in at pleafure. They lead a folitary and ravenous
life, and never unite for mutua! defence or {upport like thofe
of the herbivorous kinds of animals, but feek their food.
alone, and are frequently enemies to each other. ‘Though
differing greatly in fize and colour, they are allied co
each other in difpofition, being ferce, rapacious, and
artful, and are endued alfo with confiderable ftrength.
They run with fpeed, eafily climb trees, and when falling
from a height alight on the feet. They are carnivorous,
and refufe vegetables, unlefs extremely preffed by hunger.
When in fight of their prey, they wave their tails, and feize
it by a fudden {pring The females bring forth feveral
young at a birth, and have eight teats, four of which are
pectoral, and four abdominal.

Species.

Leo. Tail long; body pale tawny. Felis Jeo, Linn.
Felis cauda elongata, corpore helveolo, Schreb. Felis cauda
in floccum definente, Brifl. Leo, Gefner, &c. Lion.

The form of the lion is ftrikingly bold and majettic, cors
refponding with the generofity of his nature ; and from the
magnitude of his fize, his ftrength, agility, and courage, he
reigns the fuperior of all other quadrupeds. A lion of the
largeft dimenfions meafures about eight or nine feet in
length, from the nofe to the bafe of the tail, and the latter
itfelf nearly four feet. ‘Thofe of {maller fize, when full
grown, are about five feet long, independently of the tail.
The afpe& of the lion, when he prefents his front full to
the view of the obferver, is impreffively grand; his head
large and rounded, his forehead {quare, his fhaggy flowing
mane, which he can ereét at pleafure, furrounding his awful
front, his huge eye-brows, his round and fiery eye-balls, his
pendulous lips, and formidable armament of his teeth, cons
{pire altogether to render his appearance terrific. The ears
of the lion are fmall, and of-a rounded form; his face co-
vered with fhort and clofe hair, ofa pale tawny colour; the
mane, defcending from the upper part of the head, falls over
the fhoulders, and hangs down almoft to the knees; the
belly and breaft are covered likewife with long hair. The
reft of the body is covered with very fhort hair, excepting
the point of the tail, which is furnifhed with a bufhy tuft.
The hinder parts of the lion are rather difproportionate to
the front, his pofterior limbs being comparatively longer,
and the latter have befides a naked appearance when con-
trafted with the fhagginefs of its anterior afpe&. The legs
are flefhy and mufcular; the length of the claws is about
an inch and a quarter, very hooked, and of a whitifh colour;
the claws being retraétile, can be extended or withdrawn
into the membranaceous fheath at pleafure, and their points
are generally acute, as they are never extended, except when
the animal feizes on its prey.

The lionefs is fmaller than the lion, being fearcely three-
fourths the fize of the latter; fhe is alfo deftitute of the
mane, and her fur is of a whiter caft om the fides and
belly.

It has been obferved generally, by fome writers, that
in warm climates quadrupeds ufually attain to a far more
confiderable fize, and are naturally ftronger than in the cold
or temperate climates, and that they are likewife more fierce
and hardy, as their natural qualities feem to correfpond with
the ardour of the climate. This remark can apply only to
certain tribes, or at leaft admits of many exceptions ; but
with regard to the lion in particular is ftri@ly true. The
fions, naturally the inhabitants of ‘the hotter regions of the
earth, thrive beft in the burning waites of the torrid zone ;
in thofe defarts whence mankind are driven by the rigorous

i heat

a?

PEL 1S.

heat of the climate, the lion reigns fole mafter; its difpo-
fition feems to partake of the ardour of its native foil, and
under the influence of a fcorching fun it becomes larger,
more powerful, fierce, and terrible than in other parts of
the globe. It is thus that the lions of mount Atlas, whofe
fummits are oftentimes covered with fnows, are neitker fo
ftrong nor fo ferocious as thofe of Biledulgerid or Zaara, or
the defarts in the interior of the vait continent of Africa.
In thoie barren watftes the lion is the dread of travellers, anf
the fcourge of the neighbouring provinces. Happily the
fpecies is not numerous, and is faid to be diminifhing in
number ; for if we may credit the teftimony of thofe who
have traverfed thefe regions within the fpace of the laft
century, the number of lions is not near fo confiderable as
they were formerly, and their number indeed appears to de-
creafe daily. The Romans brought many more lions out of
Libya in one year for their public fpectacles than could be
found at this time inthe country. Scylla, the diGator, for
example, exhibited during his pretorfhip a hundred lions; but
in this refpect he was far excelled by Pompey the Great, who
brought together in the grand Circus no lefs than fix hun-
dred animals of this fpecies, three hundred and fifteen of
which were males: and it is recorded alfo of Czfar the difta-
‘tor, that he colleéted altogether no Jefs than four hundred for
the fame purpofe, that of public exhibition. Itis remarked
by modern writers, that the lions of Turkey, Perfia, and the
Indies are lefs numerous than formerly ; and indeed we are
affured by the beft of the late French travellers, that there
are at prefert no lions throughout Turkey.

As this formidable and courageous animal makes a prey
of moft other animals, and is himfelf the prey of none, this
diminution in the number of the fpecies can be attributed
only to the increafed population cf mankind: and it is alfo
‘well obferved, that the courage of this animal diminifhes,
and its caution and timidity become greater as it approaches
the habitations of the human race. The quality of his
‘courage, though natural, is exalted or deprefled according
‘to the fuccefs with which he is accuftomed to employ his
force. In thofe regions, the exclufive empire of which has
been refigned to him by man, the lion is alone formidable.
Accultomed to meafure his ftrength by that of all other
animals which he encounters, the habit of conqueft renders
‘him haughty and intrepid. Having never experienced the
ftrength of man, or the power of his arms, in{tead of be-
traying fear at his approach, the lion difdains and fets him
at defiance. Wounds irritate but do not terrify him; nei-
ther is he difmayed at the fight of numbers. A fingle lion
of the defart has been known to attack a whole caravan ;
and if, after a violent and obftinate engagement, he found
himfelf weakened, he retreats fighting, and always keeping
his face to the enemy. But acquainted with man, and the
power of his arms, or ingenuity, he lofes his natural forti-
tude, and feels fenfible of his inferiority; and hence the lion,
in the neighbourhood of the villages of the: Indians and
Africans, has been known to fly before women, and even
“children, and fuffer itfelf to be driven by them from its lurk-

ing-place.
aThis alteration in the difpofition of the lion fufficiently
demonftrates that it will admit of a certain degree of educa-
tion. The page of hiftory informs us of lions yoked in tri-
umphal chariots; that of Mark Antony, when hé appeared
‘in the ftreets of Rome, accompanied by his miftrefs Cytheris,
-was drawn by lions ; and other inftances of a fimilar nature
might alfo be adduced, Lions have been occafionally trained
to the arts of war, or the chafe, by the ancients, and it is
affirmed of thefe, that they never employed their ftrength
er courage but againit their enemics, The lion (ays

Buffon) when taken young, and brought up amongft do+
mettic animals, is eafily accuftomed to live, and even {port
innocently with them. He is gentle and careffing to his
mafter, and if he fometimes refumes his natural ferocity, he
feldom turns his rage againft his benefaGors. He has alfo
been known to difdain the infults, and pardon the offenfive
liberties of weaker animals. When led into captivity, he
difcovers fymptoms of uneafinefs, without anger or peevifh-
nefs ; on the contrary, he affumes the habits of gentlenefs,
obeys his mafter, careffes the hand that feeds him, and fome-
times {pares the animals that are thrown to him for prey.
By this aét of generofity he feems to confider himfelf as for
ever bound to proteét them ; he lives peaceably with them,
allows them a part of his food, and will rather fubmit to the
inconveniencies of hunger than deftroy the fruits of his own
beneficence.

Notwithftanding this generofity and placability of dif-
pofition, it fhould however be remembered, that the paflions
of the lion are impetuous and vehement, and it is not to be
expected, that on all occafions the impreffions of education
will be fufficient to counterpoife them. We are well affured,
from ocular obfervation, that the keepers of thefe animals
frequently play with them, and witha degree of familiarity,
little fhort of temerity, put their hands in their mouths,
pull out their tongue, or hold them by the teeth, or even
beat them, all which the animal feems to bear with fullen
compofure. But it is neverthelefs dangerous to let the lion
fuffer from hunger, or provoke him by ill-timed teazings ;
the mildaefs of his temper is liable to irritation, and has been
known to refent the imprudent chattifements of bis keeper.
Labat informs us of a gentleman who kept a lion in his
chamber, and employed a fervant to attend it, and who as
ufual mixed his careffes with blows. This was borne by the
lion for fome time. One morning, however, the gentleman
was awakened by an unufual noife in his room, and drawing
his curtains afide he perceived it to proceed from the lion,
which was growling over the body of the unhappy man,
whom it had juft killed, and had feparated his head from
his body. The terror and coniternation of the gentleman
may be eafily conceived ; he flew out of the room, and for-
tunately obtained fufficient affiftance to fecure the animal
from committing further mifchief.

The appearance of the lion is truly expreffive of the mag-
nanimous qualities of his nature, his gait is ftately, his looks
determined, his eyes glowing with peculiar luttre, infpire
terror, and: his voice is tremendous. The force of his muf&
cular ftrength is apparent from his prodigious leaps and
bounds, which often exceed twenty feet; by the lively
motion of his tail, a fingle {weep of which is fufficient to
throw a man to the ground; by the facility with which he
moves the fkin of his face, and the faculty of ereéting and
agitating the hair of his mane when irritated.

Lions are very ardent in their amours ; when ‘the female
is in feafon, fhe is often followed by eight orten males, whe
roar inceffantly, and enter into furious engagements till one
completely overcomes the reft, takes peaceable poffeffiou of
her, and carries her off to fome fecret recefs. All the
paffions of the lion, the foft paffion of love not excepted, are
exceffive. From the reports of the French naturaiilts, the
amours of thefe animals differ in no refpe& trom thofe of
the common cat, and frequent opportunities have occurred
of late years in the menagerie of the mufeum of natural
hiftory in Paris to verify the truth of this obfervation ;
they are not on thofe occafions more cordial than the cat,
and like that animal growl and wrangle as though offended
with each other, the female efpecially. The lionefs is
naturally weaker and more timid than the lion, but-fuch is

the

FF E.LIJS,

the flrength of her attachment for her young, that for their
fupport {he becomes more ferocious ad terrible than the
lion himfelf, makes her excurfions with more -boldnefs,
attacks and deftroys without diftin@ion all other animals,
and carries them reeking to her cubs, whom fhe thus inftracts
to fuck their blood, and tear their flefh. She brings forth
her .young in the moft fecret and inacceffible places, and
’ when afraid that her retreat will be difcovered, endeavours
to conceal the traces of her feet, by returning frequently
on her fteps, or effacing them by brufhing the ground with
her tail. When the danger is great, fhe will fometimes
tran{port her young from one place to another in her mouth,
or if obitruéted in this attempt to fave them fhe becomes
furious, and defends them to the laft extremity-

The length of time the lionefs goes with young is
vatioufly ftated by different writers; /Elian fays two months,
and Philoftratus fx months ; among the moderns the period
of geftation is {aid to be five months, and the beft authors
feem to agree in this conclufion. From very recent obferva-
tion, it neverthelefs appears that neither of the above ftate-
ments is correét; it has been clearly afcertained by
La Cépéde, that the lionefs goes with young one hundred
cand eight days, or rather more than three months anda half.
The number of young brought forth by the lionefs at a
time is alfo generally mifreprefented. Ariftotle believed
that at the firit birth-the lionefs conflantly produced either
five or fix young; moft.commonly only five; and at each
fucceeding litter progreffively one lefs, till fhe brought
forth but a fingle whelp, and after that fhe became barren.
This early naturalift was deceived, but his information is
neverthelefs more juft than that of other ancient writers
before his time, who fuppofed the lionefs never produced
but a fingle litter, the young, inftead of being brought
forth as in other animals, tearing an opening through the
dide of their mother, and thus effeGting their efcape, at the
expence of her life. Among the writers of later times it is
ufually admitted that the lionefs has feveral litters in her
life, and at each birth preduces about three or four whelps.
The lionefs occafionally breeds in a {tate of confinement in
Europe, inftances of which are known in Britain; but
whether the time of geftation in thefe animals has been well
determined by the obfervation of Englifh naturalifts feems
rather doubtful. A lionefs in the menagerie at Paris, about
two months gone with young, produced an abortive birth
of two foetufes, the fkin of which was perfectly {mooth,
the hair not haying at that period began to grow. ‘T'wenty-
one days after this the female was in heat, and was known
‘to receive the embraces of the lion five feveral times in the
fame day. From that time every fymptom of pregnancy
appeared; and on the ro$th day after, at feven ia the
morning, the pains of birth commenced; at five in the
evening, the ufual hour of repait, the lionefs in vain at-
‘tempted to eat the food prefented to her, the pains, almoit
every inftant repeated, compelling herto abandon it. The
keeper, obferving this, entered the den, and made the animal
{wallow fome olive oil, which feemed rather to relieve her ;
about ten o’clock fhe brought forth a living whelp ; in half
an hour after another, and a third at a quarter paft eleven.
The above were all males. ‘This occurred in November
i801. About the end of March following the male was
again admitted to the fame lionefs, and on the 15th of July
1802, fhe had a litter of two female whelps, fo that the
period of geftation in the latter inftance was much the fame
as in the former. |

The lions, when firft born, are rather larger than a half-
grown kitten ; at leaft three or four we have feen that were
brought forth in the Tower did not exceed that fize, or

about a foot in length from the back of the head. to. the
origin of the tail. Their colour is a mixture of reddifh and
grey, with a number of {mall brown bands, which are moft
diftinét on the dorfal fpine, and near the origin of the tail 5
and thefe ftripes fearcely difappear ia the whelps a twelve-
month old, and they continue at the teat about the fame
time. The mane of the male begins to make its appearance
when the animal is about three years, or three years and a
half old: the age ot maturity is faid to be about the fixth
or feventh year, in the female at the fixth year.

Naturalilts are not agreed as to the ordinary period of life
in this animal, which is varioufly ftated, at from about 20
to 50 years or more. Buffon, reafoning from the fize and
conttitution of the lion, and the time required for his arriv-
ing at his full growth, concludes that it ought to be about
25 years, or feven times the fpace of three or four years, as
it has been afferted of the lion that he acquired maturity in
three or four years after his birth. It is, however, afcer-
tained, that in fome inftances the lion lives much beyond
that time. The great lion called Pompey, which died in
the Tower, is recorded to have lived in captivity above 70
years ; and one brought from the river Gambia died there
a few years fince at the age of 63. A

The lion feldom quits his den, or goes abroad in the mid-
dle of the day, but commences his depredations at twilight,
and returns before the morning. The roaring of. the lion,
when in queft of prey, is faid by Buffon to refemble the
found of diftant thunder, and, being echoed by the rocks and
mountains, appals the whole race of animals, and puts them
to fudden flight ; but he frequently varies his voice into a
hideous fcream, or yell. The lion, when hungry, will at-
tack any animal that prefents itfelf ; but he is fo formidable
that all endeavour to avoid him, and this cireumftance
often obliges him to conceal himfelf, and lie in wait, that
he may take his prey by furprife. For this purpofe he
crouches on his belly in fome thicket till his prey approaches,
and then with a prodigious leap he feizes it at the firft bound.
Should he mifs the obje&t, we are told he defifts from farther
purfuit, and, turniag back towards the place of his ambuth,
meafures the ground ftep by ftep, and again lies in wait for
another opportunity. 5 ‘i

The lurking place of the lion is generally chofen near a
{pring, or by the fide of a river, where he has an oppor-
tunity of furprifing fuch animals as refort to the water to
quench their thir. In burning deferts, where rivers and
fountains are denied, they live in a perpetual fever,.a fort of
madnefs fatal to every animal they meet with. The lien is
fuppofed to be deftitute of fcent in that fuperior degree
which moft animals of prey poffefs, and to hunt by the eye
alone. Many hiftorians have even reprefented him as incapa-
ble of finding his prey except by accident, and that he is
obliged to the jackal, a quadruped of excellent fcent, for the
difcovery of it. This is an erroneous fuppofition ; the jackal
does not attend the lion to [provide for him, but, being a
{mall and feeble creature, follows his track to pick up the
refufe of fuch animals as the lion deftroys, and does not con-
defcend entirely to devour. The ftreegth of the lion is fo
prodigious, that it is even affirmed a fingle ftroke of his
paw is fufficient to break the back of a horfe, and that he
carries off a middle-fized ox, or buffalo, with eafe. The
lion is faid to devour as much food at once as will ferve him
for two or three days, and when fatiated to remain in a ftate
of reft or retirement in his den, tillimpelled again by hunger
to leave it, and prowl in fearch of prey. The reverfed
briftles with which his tongue is befet are fo large and
ftrong, that he readily lacerates the fkin of other animals 5
and his teeth fo powerful, that he breaks and crufhes the

~ bones”

FELE!ES.

bones with perfect facility, and often fwallows them with
the fleth. It is eftimated that about fifteen pounds of raw
fleth is fufficient for the ordinary fubfiftence of each lion
daily. He endures hunger better than thirft, and laps in
drinking like a dog.

The roaring of the lion is ftrong and leud, but when he
is irritated his cry is fhorter, repeated more fuddenly, and
is {till more terrible than the roaring ;_ befides which, at fuch
times he beats his fides with his tail, ftamps with his feet,
ereéts and agitates the hair of his head and mane, moves
the fikin of his face, thews his teeth, and lolls out his tongue.
According to Dr. Sparrman, “ the roaring of thelion con-
fifts in a hoarfe inarticulate found, which at the fame time
feems to have a hollownefs in it, fomething like that pro-
ceeding from a {peaking trumpet. The found is between
the German w and an 9, being drawn toa greater length, and
appearing as if it came from out of the earth; at the fame
time, that after liftening with the greateit attention, I could
not exaGtly hear from what quarter itcame. The found of
the lion’s voice does not bear the leaft refemblance to thun-
der, as M. de Buffon, tom. ix. p. 22. from the voyage of
Boullaye de Goux, affirms it does. In fa, it appeared to
me neither peculiarly piercing nor tremendous; yet, from
its flow prolonged note, joined with noGiurnal darknefs, and
the terrible idea one is apt to form to one’s felf of this ani-
mal, itmade me fhudder, even in fuch places as I had an
Opportunity of hearing it in with move fatisfaction, and
without having the leaft oceafion for fear. We could plainly
perceive by our cattle when the lions, whether they roared or
not, were reconnoitering us at a {mall diftance. For in that
cafe the hounds did not dare to bark in the leaft, but crept
quite clofe to the Hottentots; and our oxen and horfes
fighed deeply, frequeatly a back, and pulling flowly
with all their might at the ftrong {traps with which they
were tied up to the waggon. ‘They likewife laid themfelves
down on the ground and {tood up alternately, appearing as
if they did not know what to do with themfelves; or rather,
jut as if they were inthe agonies of death. It is indeed
a wonderful circumitance that the brute creation fhould
have been taught merely by nature to be in dread of the
lion; for our horfes and oxen were all from places where I
am certain they could have no knowledge of this dreadful
adverfary of theirs; fo that in this we muft admire the
bounty of providence, which, while it has fent fuch a tyrant
as the lion amongft the animal creation, has likewife
taught them to difcern and diftinguifh it with trembling aud
horror.”

We might naturally conclude that the roaring of the lion
would prove ferviceable to the other animals, by operating
as a warning for them to betake themfelves to flight; but
as he puts his mouth to the ground when he roars, the found
is diffufed equally to a contiderable furrounding diftance,
and it is hence impoffible to diftinguifh the precife {pot from
whence it iffues. This increafesthe alarm; the intimidated
animals fly backwards and forwards in all directions, and

yeing dark, very often run to the very place from whence
the found proceeds, and which they meant to avoid. When
the lion walks, his gait is flately, grave, and flow, though in
an oblique direction, His movements are not, however,
equal, but confift of leaps and bounds, which prevent him
from ftopping fuddenly, and make him often overleap his
mark. ould he chance to mifs his prey, the Hottertets
affirm that he turns flowly round towards the place where
he lay inambufh, proceeding thither ftep by ftep, and, as it
were, meafuring the exact length between the two points,
in order to find how much he exceeded or fell {hort of the
mark to which his leap bad been dire&ed.

te Vor, XIV.

The character of the lion for courage and generofity is te
be admitted, according to Dr. Sparrman, with confider-
ableabatement. < It is not in magnanimity, fays this wri-
ter, as many will have it to be, but in an infidious and cow-
ardly difpofition, blended with a certain degree of pride, that
the general character of the lion confifts ; though hunger
mutt naturally have the effect of now and then infpiring fo
ftrong and nimble an animal with uncommon intrepidity
and courage. Moreover, being accuitomed always itfelf to
killits own food, and that with the greateft eafe, as meeting
with no refiftance, and even frequently to devour it reeking
and weltering in its blood, it cannot but be ealily provoked,
and acquire a greater turn for cruelty than generofity ; but,
on the other hand, not being accuftomed to meet with any
refiftance, it is no wonder that, when it does, it’ fhould
fometimes be faint-hearted and crett-fallen, A yeoman, a
man of veracity (Jacob Kok, of Keehoe river), related to
me an adventure he had, in thefe words : ** One day walking
over his lands with his loaded gun, he unexpedicdly met
with a lion. Being an excellent thot, he thought himfelf
pretty certain, inthe pofition he was in, of kalling it, and
therefore fired his piece. Unfortunately he did not recolleé
that the charge had been in it for fome time, and confequent-
ly was damp, fo that his piece hung fire, and the ball, falling
fhort, entered the ground clofe to the lion. In confequence
of this he was feized with a panic, and took direéily to his
feet ; but being foon out of breath, and clofely purfued by
the lion, he jumped up on a little heap of ftones, and there
made a {tand, prefenting the butt end of his gun to his adver-
fary, fully refolved to defend-his life as well as he could te
the utmoit. My friend didnot take upon him to determine
whether this pofition and manner of his intimidated the
lion or not; it had, however, fuch an effe@ upon the crea-
ture, that it likewife made a itand, and, what was fill more
fingular, laid itfelf down at the diftance of a few paces from
the heap of ftones, feemingly quite unconcerned. The
{portfman in the mean while did not dare to ftir a ttep from
the fpot: befides, in his fight, he had the misfortune to
lofe his powder-horn. At length, after waiting a good
half hour, the lion rofe up, and at firft went very flowly ;
and ftep by ftep, as if he had a mind to fteal off, but as
foon as it got to a greater diltance it began to bound away
ata great rate.”’

The fame author relates alfo another occurrence to the fame
effect, but which, being attended with circumftances more re-
markable than the former, has been mere frequently re-
peated; the-itory is interelting, and onght not to be omit-
ted. ‘ Anelderly Hottentot, fays this writer, in the fer-
vice ofa Chriftian, near the upper part ef Sunday river, or
the Cambdebo fide, perceived a lion following him at a
great diftance for two hours together. Thence he naturally
concluded that the lion only waited for the approach of
darknefs in order to make him his prey, and in the mean
time could not expec any other'than to ferve for this fierce
animal’s fupper, inafmuch as he had no other weapon of
defence than a ftick, and knew that he could not get home
before it was dark, But as he was well acquainted with the
nature of the lion, and the manner of its feizing upon its
prey, and at the fame time had leifure between whiles to
ruminate on the ways and means in which it was moit likely
that his exiitence would be put an end to, he at length hit
upon a method of faving his life. For this purpofe, initead of
making the beft of his way home, he looked out for a hilp-
krans (fo they generally call arocky place, level and plain at
the top, and having a perpendicular precipice on one fide
of it), and fitting himfelf down on theedge of one of thefe
precipices, he feund, to his en joy» that the lion likewile

F . made

FEL 1S,

made a halt, and kept the fame diftance as before. Asfoon
as it grew dark, the Hottentot, fliding a little forwards,
let himfelf down below the upper edge of the precipice upon
fome projecting part or cleft of the rock, where he could
juit keep himfelf from falling. But in order to cheat the
lion ftill more, he fet his hat and cloak on the ftick, making
with it, at the fame time, a gentle motion juft over his
head, and alittle way from the edge of the mountain. This
crafty expedient had the defired fuccefs. He did not ftay
long in this fituation before the lion came creeping foftly
towards him likea cat, and mi'taking the ficin cloak for the
Hottentot himfelf, took his leap with fuch exa€tnefs and
precifion, as to fall headlong down the precipice dire@tly
clofe tothe {nare which had been fet up for him.’?

This is not the only inftance of the lion being enfnared by
a ftratagem of this kind. In the out-houfes and wafte
grounds about farms, where a lion has been upon the watch
for fome animal and miffed it, or where they have reafon to
expe one, they fet up the figure of a man, clofe by the
fide of feveral loaded guns; fo that thefe difcharge them-
{elves into the body of the beaft at the very inftant that he
{prings, or throws himlelf upon the dreffed figure. This is
done with fo much eafe and fuccefs, that they fcarcely ever
think it worth the trouble in Africa to take the lions alive,
nor are they often at the pains to conftruét pit-falls for their
capture.

Dr. Sparrman remarks, as a fingular trait in the hiftory of
the lion, that though, accerding to many, it always kills his
prey immediately if it belongs to the brute creation, it con-
tents itfelf, however provoked, with merely wounding the
human fpecies in the firft moment of feizure ; or at lea{t to
wait fome time before he gives the fatal blow to the un-
happy victim. In feveral places through which the travel-
ler paffed, the natives mentioned to him by name a father
and two fons, who were faid to be ftill living, and who,
being on foot neara river on their eftate in fearch of alion,
were unexpectedly furprifed by him; the foremoft was
thrown down by him, but the other two had juft time to
fhoot the lion dead on the fpot, after it had lain almolt acrofs
the youth fo nearly and dearly related to them, without
having done him any particular injury. He alfo faw, near
the upper part of Duyven-hoek river, an elderly Hottentot,
who at that time had under oue eye, and beneath the cheek-
bone, the ghaftly marks of the bite of a lion, which did not
condefeend to give him any other chaftifement for having, in
eompany with his matter, hunted him with intrepidity,
though without fuccefs. It was related likewife of a farmer
and captain in the militia named Bota, who had lain for
fome time under a lion, and had received feveral bruifes from
the beat, befides being bitten very much in one arm, but
who.ina manner had his life given him by this noble animal.
“TI -do not rightly,” fays Dr. Sparrman, * know how to ac-
count for this mereiful difpofition towards mankind. Does
it proceed from the lion’s creater re{peét and veneration for
man, as being an equal to, or even a mightier tyrant than,
himfelf. among the animal creation? Or is it merely from
the fame caprice which has fometimes induced him not only
to {pare’the lives of men or brute creatures, who have been
given up to him for prey, but even to carefs them and
treat them with the preateft kindnefs? Whims and freaks
of this kind have, perhaps, in a great meafuré, acquired the
lion the reputation it has for generofity ; but I cannot
allow the fpecious name, facred only to virtue, to be lavith-
ed ona wild beaft. Slaves, indeed, and wretches of fervile
minds, are wont with this attribute to flatter their greateft
tyrants ; but with what fhow of reafon can this attribute
be beftowed upon the moft powerful tyrant among quadru-

peds, becanfe it does not exercife an equal degree of cruelty
upon all occafions? That the lion does not, like the wolf,
tiger, or fome other beafts of prey, kill a great deal of game
or cattle at one time, perhaps proceeds from this, that while
he isemployed in attacking one or two of them, the remain-
der fly farther than it accords with the natural indolence of
this beaft to follow them. If this be calledgenerofity, a
cat may be ftyled generous with regard to rats; as [
have feen this creature in the fields, among a great num-
ber of the latter, where fhe could have made a great
havoe at once, feize on a fingle one, and run off with it.
The lion, and the cat likewife, very much refemble each
other, in partly fleeping out, and partly palling away, ina
quiet ina¢tive ftate, a great part of their time in which
hunger does not urge them to go in queft of their
rey.”

The ftrength of the lion, according to the fame intereft-
ing traveller, is very confiderable. He was informed that
this animal was once feen at the Cape to take an heifer in
his mouth, and though the legs of the latter dragged on
the ground, yet he feemed to carry her off with the fame
eafe that a cat does arat; and it had likewife in its courfe
to leap a broad dyke, which it accomplifhed without diffi-
culty. This happened near Bofhiefman river; the lion was
perceived by a hunting party of Hottentots dragging his
prey from the plain to a neighbouring woody hill they
however purfued, and forcing the lion to leave it, made a
prize of it themfelves. The lion is however faid to be not
fufficiently powerful to overcome an animal of fuch ftrength
and fize as the buffalo, without having recourfe both to
agility and ftratagem. With this view it fteals on the buf

-talo, and faftens with both its paws upon the mouth and

noltrils of the beaft, and keeps {queezing them clofe toge-
ther, till at length the creature is ftrangled, wearied out,
and dies. Attacks of this kind have been witnefled by the
colonifts, and the buffaloes have fometimes efcaped, bearing
at the fame time the marks of the lion’s claws about their
mouth and nofe. The lion on fuch oeccafions ventures, how-
ever, to affail the buffalo at great peril ; for if another buf-
falo fhould approach, he would not fail to attack the lion,
and the ftrength of the two buffaloes would be more than
{ufficient to overpower their affailant. The lion, it is faid,
unlefs prefled with hunger, will not always attack the buf-
falo ; a traveller had once an opportunity of feeing a female
buffalo with her calf, defended by a river at her back, keep
for along time at bay five lions which partly furrounded
her; but did not, at leaft as long as the traveller looked on,
dare to attack her. ‘There is an inftance alfo recorded of a
lion being trampled to death by a herd of cattle, which he
was urged to attack (probably by hunger) in the broad
day light. :
‘Az the Cape the lion is frequently hunted by the colonifts
both for the fake of the flefh, which, though poffeffing a
{trong and difagreeable flavour, is eaten by the negroes ;
and alfo for the fkin, which thofe people ufe as a mantle,
or abed. In the day time, and on the open plain, from
ten to fixteen dogs will eafily overcome a lion of the largeit
fize. Nor is there any necefiity that the dogs with which
the lion is hunted fhould be very large, and trained up to
the fport, as Buffon thinks they ought to be, the objet
being perfectly well accomplifhed with the common farm-
houfe dogs. As the lion is lefs fwift than the dogs, the
fatter eafily appreach him, when, from a greatnefs of foul;
and a fullen degree of magnanimity, the Hon turus round,
and waits for the attack, fhaking his mane, and+roaring
with a fhort and {harp tone, or fits down to face them.
The hounds then.furround him, and, rufhing upon him, all
7 ; at

Pek 1 1eSs

at once, are thus, by their united efforts, able to {ubdue, or

tear him in pieces: hé has feldom time to give more than

twoor three flizht ftrokes with his paws, each of which is
_ attended with the death of one of his affailants.

Buffon afferts that the lion may be hunted on horfeback,
but that the horfes mult be trained to it, which, however,
Dr. Sparrman affures us, is not the cafe, as the eolonifts
hunt the lion with common hunting horfes ; the latter he
deferibes to be as eager in purfuit of this formidable
animal as in that of the antelope. ‘ Our horfes,” fays
he, <* the very fame as had feveral times, in the manner
above-mentioned, fhewn their difquictude when the lion
happened to be in the vicinity of them, and which were
not in the leaft trained to the chafe, once exhibited a
pat in the purfuit of two large Jions equal to that which
they had fhewa at other times im chafing the timid gazels ;
though in fact hunting horfes feem to partake much more
of their mafler’s pleafure in the chafe. I remember in par-
ticular, at Agter Bruntjes Hoogtee, I rode a horfe, which,
by a tremulous found iffuing from its cheft, cocking up its
éars, and prancing and capering, difcovered, in an unequivo-
cal manner, its ardour in the chafe, whenever it came in
fight of the larger kind of game. There have eyen been
inftances of- hunting horfes, who, when the bunter has
jamped off their backs in order to difcharge his piece, but
has miffed his mark, have, in their eagerneis for the chafe,
not allowed him time fufficient to mount again, but fol-
lowed the game alone for hours together, clole at its yery
heels, in all its turnings and windings.” ‘This ardour for
the purfuit of the lion is only fhewn, however, we are to re-
member, according to Dr. Sparrman, by the horfes trained
to the purpofes of hunting; for he has told us on another
occafion, that their common horfes, as well as their oxen,
fighed deeply, and betrayed fuch fymptoms of fear, as even
to lie down panic-ftruck when the lions were reconnoitering
them; and thefe affurances feem ftrongly to confirm the
obfervation of Buffon; namely, that it is neceflary the
horfes with which the lious are hunted fhould be trained
to the purpofe, or be at leaft accuitomed to the purfuit of
beafts of prey, and the perils attendant on their chafe. It
furthermore appears from the fame author, that it is only on
the plains that the hunters ever venture to go out on horfe-
back in this chafe. If the lion remains in the coppice or
wood on a rifing ground, they endeavour to teaze hira with
the dogs till he comes into the plain. They allo go in par-
ties of two or three together, or even more, in order to af-
‘fift and refcue each other, in cafe the firft fhot fhould not
take place. When the lion fees the hunters at a great dif-
tance, it is allowed univerfally that he flies from their ap-
proach with all poffible fpeed, in order to efcape ; but if
ey chance to difeover him at a fmall diftance only from
them, he retires with fullen dignity, and at a-flow pace, as
‘though he were above betraying by his actions any fymptom
of apprehenfion. . This, therefore, alfo {hews, that when pur-
fued with vigour, he is foon provoked tu retiltance, or at leatt
difdains any longer to fly. He flackens his pace, and. at
length only flides flowly off, ftep by ftep, at the fame time
watching his purfuers obliquely, till he finally makes a full
paufe, and, turning round upon them, fhakes his mane, roars
with a fhort and fharp tone, expreflive of his indiznation.
and appears ready to Pate on them, and tear them in pieces.
This is the moment for the hunters te be on the fpot, or
within a convenient diftance, to commence the attack ; not
ina body, but at proper intervals from.each other. The
foremoft huntiman, or he that is moit advantageoufly potted,
and has the beft mark of that part of the lion’s body nearett
his heart or lungs, muft be the firit to jump off his horfe,

and, fecuring the bridle by putting it round his arm,
difcharge his piece; then, in an infant recovering his feat,
muft ride obliquely athwart his companions; and in fine,
giving his horfe the reins, muft truft entirely to the {peed
and fear of the latter to convey him beyond the reach of
the lion, fhould he have only wounded him, or abfolutely
mifled him. Under either of thefe circumftances a fair
opportunity prefents itfelf for fome one of the other hunters
te jump off his horfe immediately, as he may then difcharge
his piece with effet, and fave his companion. If this fhot
fhould mifs likewife, a third fportfman rides after the lion,
which at that time is in purfuit of the firft or fecond, and,
{pringiag off his horfe, fires his piece as foon as he arrives
within a proper diftance, aud the animal prefents itfelf in a
favourable pefition. Inthe event of the lion turning again
and attacking this purfuer, the other hunters return to his
refeue with their pieces ready charged, having loaded them
on horfeback while flying from the wild beaft. No isflance,
it is faid, has ever been known of any misfortune happening
tothe hunters in chafing the lion on horfeback. ‘The re-
mote parts of Africa are moft expofed to the ravages of
wild beafts, and the colonifts in thofe diftri@s, from the
habits of hunting them, become excellent markfmen. The
lion, which has the.boldnefs to feize on their cattle, the
motft valuable part of their property, and that fometimes
even at their doors, 1s as odious to them as he is dangerous
and injurious; and hence they confequently feck out his
lurking places, and purfue him with the greateft ardour ard
delight.

It is rather with the view of exterminating thefe formi-
dable beafts of prey that the Africans hunt them ; though,
as already obferved, the flefh is eaten by the negroes: the
greafe allo, which is of a penetrating nature, is ufed in medi-
cine, and their fkin ferves as a cloak or mantle, and was for-
merly wore as fuch only by perfons of diftin&ion. On
fome occafions alfo lions feem to conftitute a part of the
eftablifhed pomp of royalty in the eaftera world. The
monarch of Perfia, as appears from the travels of Mr. Bell,
has on the days of audience two large lions, fecured by mean
of golden chains, on each fide the entrance of the hall of
fiate.

The anatomy of the lion is deferibed by Bartholinus in
1671, and in the Tranfactions of the Royal Society of
Peterfburgh for 1771.

Trorts. Tail long; body varied with long dark
ftreaks. Tigris maculis virgatis, Ludolf. Felis flava, ma-
culis longis nigris variegata, Brill. Cauda elongata, corpore
maculis omnibus virgatis, Schreber. Tigris, Gefner,, &c.
Ligre, Buffon. Royal tiger.

It is difficult to form any jut conclufion either as to the
fize or beauty of this tremendous animal frontthe individuals
retained captive from early life in our menageries; and where,
from the {mallnefs of their dens, and confequent un-
cleanlinefs, their want of exercife, and of thefe habits of
life which render them robuit, their growth muft naturally
be fuppreffed, and their robe exhibit an infinitely lefs decree
of brilliancy than when they roam at large in their native
deferts.

The fize of this animal, according to fome authors, is
larger, and, according to others, rather {maller than the
lion ; and.in this refpe& the comparifons by different tra-
vellers vary materially, fome affi ‘ming that it is the fize of
the deer, others of the horfe, and fome acain even of the
buffalo. There indeed appear to be two or more diftin@
animals confounded under the general name of tiger, in the
fame manner as the panther has been cailed the leopard, and
the cougouar the panther ; and all, as well as the jaguar, are

es indifere

FE L127

indifcriminately termed tigers by varieus writers, a circum-
itance that has given rife to no {mall degree of confufion.
The true tiger is the largeft and moft powerful of thefe ani-
mals, and which has obtained the appellation of the royal
tiger in teftimony of this pre eminence, Buffon relates, on
the authority of M. de Lalande Magon, that the latter had
feena tigerin the Eaft Indies fifteen feet in length, including
the tail; but this even is inferior to others recorded by tra-
vellers. L’Abbé Richard fays they have tigers at Tonquin
eighteen feet in length. The height of the tiger, according
to Fouche d’Obfonville, is four feet ten inches, and the
length nine feet from the front to the bafe of the tail; and
Grandpré, in his voyage to India, defcribes tigers as large
as oxen.

Tigers are peculiar to Afia, and are not, as fome authors
fuppofe, inhabitants of the new continent ; and moreover
they are confined to the warmer parts of Afia, and princi-
pally to India and the Indian iflands, though the fpecies ex-
tends as far north as China and Chinefe Tartary. They
abound moft in Malabar, Bengal, and the kingdom of
Siam, and Tonquin,

A more beautiful animal than the tiger does not exift ;
he is as unrivalled for the brilliancy and elegance of his fury
as he is diftinguifhed for his ferocity, and the want of every
quality which, asa beaft of prey, could palliate the nature of
his difpofition. His whole figure is expreflive of the powers
of his ftrength and activity. The head is fhort and
roundifh, the ears fhort, and the armament of his teeth truly
formidable. Thé general:colour of his fur isa deep tawny,
or yellow orange, which is of a deeper hue on the back
than the fides; and the face, throat, and underfide of the
belly are nearly white : the whole body is traverfed by nume-
rous perpendicular ftripes of black, and the tail is alfo annu-
lated with the fame. In different individuals the colours
vary in the brightnefs of the yellow-orange, which contti-
tutes the ground-colour of the fur, and the intenfity of ihe
bands of black, with which it is relieved; thefe bands are
in fome parts double, in others fingle, and are fewer in num-
ber about the head and under parts of the body than on the
upper. The tiger is the moft rapacious of all carnivorous
animals ; fierce without provocation, and cruel without ne-
ceffity, his thirft for blood is infatiable; although glutted
with tarnage he is not appeafed; he feizes, and tears in
pieces every animal with equal fury and rapacity, nor ever
defifts fo long asa fingle objéét remains in fight that he can
vanquifh; he lays watte the country he inhabits ; flocks and
herds fall indifcriminately victims to his fury, his cruelty, and
cunning; he attacks the elephant, the rhinoceros, and
even braves the lion himfelf; he neither fears the fight nor
the oppofition of men, whom he frequently makes his prey,
and is even faid to prefer human flefh to any other. The
tiger feems to have no other inftin@ than a conftant thirft
after blood, and which often ftimulates him to devour his
young, or the cubs to tear the mother in pieces for defending
them. Sometimes he lies in wait on the banks of rivers,
where the heat of the climate obliges other animals to repair
for drink, but from the velocity of his flight he is equal to
the chace of the fleeteft animals, and oftentimes purfues
them to their inevitable deftru€tion.

The ftrength of the tiger is'fo great, that when it has
killed a deer, a horfe, or even a buffalo, it carries off the
prize with fuch eafe, that it feems no impediment to its
flight. ‘This it does to prevent interruption, as it can devour
the flaughtered animal in the woods more at its leifure. The
moment the animal he attacks is overcome, it plunges its
head into the body, asif to fatiate itfelf with the blood ; and

when large it commonly tears out the entrails to facilitate
its conveyance to the retreats of its lurking place.

Neither force, reftraint, nor violence can fubdue the fero~
city of the tiger; he is equally irritated with good as bad
treatment, and is fo infenfible ef its keeper, that he would
equally tear the hand that feeds him, as that by which it is
chaftifed, It is neverthelefs admitted that the tiger, when
very young, has much playfulnefs and fome docility. In
Bewick’s quadrupeds it is related, that a young male tiger,
lately brought from China in the Pitt Eaft Indiaman, at
the age of ten months, was fo far dometticated, as to allow
every kind of familiarity from the people on board. It
feemed to be quite harmlefs, and was as playful as a kitten.
It frequently flept with the failors in their hammocks, and
would fuffer two or three of them to repofe their heads upow
its back as upon a pillow, whilft it lay ftretched out upon
thedeck. In return for this it would, however, now and
then fteal their meat. Having one day taken a piece of
beef from the carpenter, he followed the animal, took the
meat out of its mouth, and beat it feverely for the theft,
which punifhment it fuffered with all the patience of a dog.
It would frequently run out on the bowiprit, climb about
the fhip like a cat, and perform a number of tricks, with an
agility that was truly aftonifhing. There was a dog on
board the fhip with which it would often play in the moft
diverting manner. From thefe circumftauces, one might
be led to fuppofe that the difpofition of the tiger, like that
of many other animals, was capable of fome degree of cul-
ture. But, as this author remarks, it ought to be remem-
bered, that at the time this one was taken on board the
fhip it was only a month or fix weeks old; and when arrived
in this country it had not quite completed a year. How
much longer its good humour might have continued it is
impoffible to fay ; but it is not to be doubted that its inno-
cent playfulnefs would not have formed a part of its cha-
raéter when arrived at maturity, at leaft there is every reafon
to conclude this, when we recolle& that moft of thofe tigers
kept in our menageries have been made captives when very
young, and muft neceffarily acquire that ferocity ef charac-
ter which fo invariably diftinguifh them from inftin& only,
not from their habits or manners of life.

As the tiger attacks all animals, without exception, it has
not unfrequently to fufiain the moft arduous confliés with
the rhinoceros, the elephant, and even the lion ; and its
combat with either occafionally proves fatalto one or both
of the combatants.

It is affirmed of the tiger, that if it happens to mils his
aim he does not purfue his prey, but, as if afhamed of his
difappointment, runs off with fpeed. In the beginning of
the lait century fome ladies ard gentlemen, being on a party
of pleafure under the fhade of fome trees near the banks ef
a river in Bengal, obferved a tiger preparing for its fatal
{pring, when a lady, with almoft unexampled prefence of
mind, furled a large umbrella in the face of the animal, which
inftantly retired, and thus gave an opportunity of efcaping
frem fo terrible a neighbour. Another party had not, how-
ever, the fame good fortune, but in the height of their ev-
tertainment loft, in an inftant, one of their companions, who,
being feized and carried off by a tiger, was never heard of
more. Another diftrefling accident, of a fimilar kind, took
place fo lately as the year 1792, the particulars of which, as
related by an eye-witnefs, muit be ftrong in the recolleétion
of many readers. The unfortunate victim of this event was
Mr. Munro, the fon of fir He&tor Munro. ‘* We went,’”
fays the writer of the narrative, “on fhore at Sangar ifland
to fhoot deer, of which we faw innumerable traéts, as well as
of tigers; notwith{tanding which, we continued our a

on

Pee eT 6.

fion till near three o’clock, when, fitting down by the fide of
ajungle to refrefh ourfélves, a roar like thunder was heard,
and an immenfe tiger feized on our unfortunate friend, and
rulhed again into the jungle, dragging him through the thick-
eft bufhes and trees, every thing giving way to his monftrous
ftrength ; a tigrefs accompanied his progrefs. The united
agonies of horror, regret, and fear rufhed at once upon us.

I fired on the tiger; he feemed agitated; my companion

fired alfo, and, in a few minutes after this, our unfortunate

friend came up to us bathed in blood. Every medical affiit-

ance was vain, and he expired in the {pace of twenty-four

hours, having received fuch deep wounds from the teeth and

claws of the animal as rendered his recovery hopelefs. A

large fire, confifting of ten or twelve whole trees, was blazing

by us at the time this accident took place, and ten or more

ef the natives with us. The human mind can fearce form

any idea of the fcene of horror. We had hardly pufhed our

boat from that accurfed fhore, when the tigrefs made her

appearance, almoft raging mad, and remained on the fand

all the while we continued in fight.’ A fimilar fate at-

tended ene of the fervants in’ the retinue of Grandpré, a

French traveller in India, a tiger, rufhing on the party,

feized him, and carried him.off.

Marfden fays, the number of people killed by the tigers
in fome parts of India is incredible. In Sumatra the
natives are fo infatuated that they feldom kill them, as they
have a notion that they are animated by the fouls of their
anceftors ; and from this weak and fuperltitious idea fuffer
themfelves to be devoured without attempting by their
united ftrength to deftroy thefe rapacious creatures. In
other parts of India, where the ufe of fire-arms is unknown,
the devaftations committed by the tigers exceed all calcu-
lation ; in the provinces of the mountainous and waody
traéts of the Tonquin, for example, whole villages are de-
populated by them. L’Abbe Richard {peaks of a fingle
tiger entering one of thofe villages and deftroying four or
five and twenty perfons, there being no fire-arms to retitt
him, and the inhabitants endeavouring to efcape death by
flying in all direétions, fuch as were purfued became an eafy

rey to the deftru€tive monfter. The woods of Sundry,
and others adjacent to the banks of the Ganges, and its tri-
butary rivers, are celebrated as the refort of tigers, and
it is dangerous to navigate thofe waters clofe along the fhore,
the tigers having fometimes even the audacity to plunge into
the water to attack the men in their boats.

Pliny has incurred the cenfure of fome modern writers
for defeeibing the tiger as an animal of tremendous fwiftnefs,
‘* animal tremendz velocitatis;”’ which they fay is applicable
to his {pring when darting on his prey, and not to the
f{wiftnefs of his pace when running. In thisremark they are
contradi€ted by two travellers of authority, namely, Pere
Gerbillon, and Mr. Bell, the firft of whom fpeaks of it as
an animal of vaft fwiftnefs, and the other faw a race between
‘a tiger and a fwift horfe, whofe rider efcaped merely by
rufhing into the midft of a circle of armed men. One point
does not, however, appear to have been confidered ; it is
not unlikely that the animal {poken of by Pliny under
this appellation may be the tiger of the moderns ; yet, from
the very flight account he has left us, this is not certain :
(vid. Jib. vii, c, 18.) and if it be really the animal
intended, there is {till no caufe to diltruft its accuracy, for
the tiger muft be a creature of amazing fpeed. The ac-
counts given by writers of the attachment fhewn by the
tigrefs to her young, the manner in which fhe defends them,
or if carried away endeavours to regain them, and the fury
of her condu& for their lefs, is a repetition only of the
obfervations made by Pliny, or with little variation, She

is at all times furious, but when robbed of her young her
rage rifes te the utmoft extremity. She then braves every.
danger, and purfues her plunderers, who are ufually mounted
on the fwifteit horfes, fo clofely, that they are often obliged
to releafe one in order to retard her: this fhe ftops to con-
vey to fome thicket or place of fafety, and then again
haitens after the hunters, who may be compelled to drop
another of her cubs in the fame manner in order to efcape
with thereft. ‘The hunters on,this arduous occatfion are gee
nerally provided with boats on the neareft river, or the fhore
of the fea, to which they retreat with all {peed, the tigrefs
purfuing them to the water’s edge, and when her hope of
recovering them is loft, fhe exprefles her agony by the moft
hideous howlings. ilies

The amours of thefe animals are ferocious in the extreme:
it has not hitherto been well afcertained how long the
tigrefs goes with young, but it is commonly believed to
be about the fame period as the lion: they have about four
or five young at each litter:

Among the Chinefe the fkin of the tiger is held in much
higher efteem than it is by Europeans, and forms an article
of drefs for perfons of particular diftinétions; and it befides
ferves as a covering for the feats and cufhions in the houles
of the great, and in their halls of public juitice. The Indians
pretend that the fat of the tiger ic an univerfal remedy for
all external ailments. The tongue, dried and reduced to
powder, is a fpecific for difeafes of the nerves ; their eyes
have alfo fome i aginary virtues, and probably many other
parts of the animal are alike confidered as fovereisn remedies
for different maladies of the human frame. i

Hunting the tiger is a favourite diverlion of the great in
the eaftern parts of the world, and is always conduéted with
much pomp and ceremony. When the monarch, priuces,
or nobles hunt the tiger, they are ufually mounted on ele-
phants; and their retinue, confifting of hunters and fol-
diers, attend, fome on horfeback and others on foot. Com-
bats between the tiger and the lion, orthe elephant, are alfo,
on fome grand occafions, the amufements of thofe eaftern
nations. They confider the tiger as a more powerful animal
thar the elephant, and therefore cover the head of the latter
with a kind of fhield previeufly to the engagement. Some-
times the tiger is matched azainft two elephants at once, in-
ftead of one, and even then the iffue may be doubtful from the
fuperior dexterity of the tiger. Tachard has given an account
of a battle of this kind at Siam, of which he was an eye-
witnefs. The heads, and part of the trunks of the two
elephants, were defended from the claws ef the tiger by a
covering made for the purpofe. They were placed in the
midit of a large inclofure. One of them was fuffered to ap-
proach the tiger, which was confnaed by means of cords,
and received two or three heavy blows from the trunk
of the elephant upon its back, which beat it to the
ground, where it lay for fome time as if it were dead ;
but though this attack had greatly abated its fury, it
was no fooner untied, than, with a horrible roar, it made
a {pring towards the trunk of the elephant, but which
that animal dexteroufly avoided by drawing it up, and,
receiving the tigér on his tufks, threw him up into the
air. The other elephant was then allowed to affit, and
after giving it feveral heavy blows, would undoubtedly have
killed it, if an end had not been put to the combat. Under
fuch reftraints we cannot be furprifed the refult was un-
favourable to the tiger. We can only be aftonifhed at its
pe and fiercenefs, that after being difabled by the firit
attack of the elephant, and whillt yet held by its cords, it
would venture to continue fuch an unequal confli&,

Tigers are deitroyed by various means, befides that of

bunting,

m

Fara Ls hs:

hunting, or combat; divers contrivances, machines, and toils
having been invented by the more ingenious tribes of Indians
for this purpofe. One, the moft {imple and effedtual, feems
to be that of faftening an animal toa tree inthe known track
of the tiger, whieh they eafily difcover by the foutiteps, and
placing near the {pot a veflel filled with water faturated with
arfenic ; the tiger, after devouring its victim, eagerly drinks
the water to quench his thirft, and thus inevitably becomes
oifoned and dies.

Parpus. Tail long; body marked above with orbicular
fpots, beneath with {tripes. Schreber. Panthera, Gefn.
Pantheré, Buff. - Panther. }

Leoparpus. Tail moderate ; body fufcous, with nearly
contiguous biack fpots. Erxleb. Schreb., &c. Leopard,
Buff.

The difference between the panther and the leopard is fo
very trivia] and ambiguous, that it has been long confidered
deubtful amos naturalifts whether they are in reality {pe-
cifically diftinét or not ; and indeed it feems to be fo nearly
decided of late years that they are the fame by the beit
writers, that we cannot entirely refufe our affent to this con-
clufion, The panther is the largelt of thefe two animals,
and in point of fize ranks next to the tiger, meafuring about
five or dix, and, in fome inftances, feven feet, from the nofe
to the origin of the tail, and the tail itfelf nearly three feet.
The hair is fhort and {mooth, and the general colour fine
tawny yellow, thickly marked over the upper parts of the
body, fhoulders, and thighs, with roundifh black {pots,
difpofed into circles, contifting of four or five {pots, with
fometimes a fingle dot in the middle. On the face and legs
the {pots are fincle. The breaft and belly are white, the
former with dufky tranfverfe flripes, the latter, and alfo the
tail, with large irregular {pots of black. The head is mo-
derate in length, the ears pointed, the eyes pale yellow,
and its whole afpeé fierce and cruel.—The leopard is about
four feet in length from the nofe to the origin of the tail,
and the latter about two feet long. ‘The predominant co-
Jour is yellowifh, of a paler hue than that of the panther,
and more inclining to lutcous ; the {pots with which it is
diverfified are alfo black, and difpofed in circles, but are
{maller, clofer, and lefs diftin& than in the panther, and
the {pace in the centre of the rings, formed by the difpo-
fition of the marginal feries of fpots, is ufually plain.
This is the general appearanee of the two above-mentioned
animals, but they vary in colour, and alfo in the fize and
form of the {pots, and ocellated marks in different indivi-
duals. The fuppofed varieties of the panther and leopard,
defcribed by fome travellers and other writers, cannot be
mentioned with implicit confidence; fuch are the black
leopard, and leffir leopard.

Both the panther and the leopard abound in the interior

of Africa, from Barbary to the remotelt parts of Guinea,
and are the fcourge of every country they inhabit. The
panther, from its fuperior fize and ftvength, attacks the
Jarger quadrupeds, and is extremely deltruétive among the
camels and horfes; the leopard commits dreadful havoc
among the herds and flocks of goats, fhetp, and other
animals, and the different kinds of game.
_ Thefe animals frequent the banks of rivers, and take
their prey by furprife, either lurking ia thickets, from
which they dart on them when they approach within a con-
venient diftance, or creeping on the belly till they reach their
viGim: they climb trees in purfuit ef monkies and fmaller
animals with perfect cafe; it is only when prefied with
hunger that they attack man.

Travellers relate that the flefh of thefe animals is of ex-
cellent favour, and white as veal. The Indians and Ne-

grocs eat it, but prefer that of thé dog: they however take
it in pitfalls for the fake of the flefh, as well as the
fkins, which latter fell for a high price. Collars, bracelets,
and other ornaments compofed of the teeth of thefe ani-
mals, alfo conititute an article of finery in the drefs of the
negro-women, and are efteemed the more valuable as
charms to repel the power of witchcraft. ‘

Uncia. Tail long; body whitifh, with irregular black
{pots. Erxleb. Once, Buff.

The once is about three feet and a half long from the
nofe to the tail, ftrong, the back long, and the legs fhort.
The hair islong, and of alight grey colour, tinged with yel-
low, and paler on the breaft and belly ; the head is marked
with {mall round fpots, with a larger {pot of black behind
each ear; the back is beautifully varied with a number of
oval blotches rather darker, and furrounded witha margin
of black dots ; the {pots on the fides are more irregular, and
thofe on the legs and thighs fmall, feattered, and few in
number; the tail is long, and full of hair, and is irregularly
marked with large black fpots.

This is f{uppofed to be the panther of Pliny, and the
{maller panther of Oppian. © It inhabits the northern parts
of Africa, Perfia, and China, and is faid to abound in the
Thyrcanean foreits. "The once, according to mott writers,
is trained to the chafe like the huntiag tiger ; but it is con-
je€tured that Tavernier, upon whofe relation this is fiated,
was deceived, and that the animal he means is no other than
the felis jubata.

Onca. Tail moderate; body yellowifh, with black,
rotundate, angulate {pots, yellow in the middle. Schreb
Pardus aut lynx Brafilienfis, jaguara didus, Lufitanis |
Ray. Jaguara, Marcgrat. American tiger, or jaguar. ,

The colour of this animal is bright tawny; the upper
part of the head ftriped with black ; the fides beautifully
variegated with irregular oblong ocellar fpots; the thigh
and legs are variegated with black fpots without centra
{paces ; breaft and belly whitifh ; tail not fo long as the
body, above marked with large black fpots in an irregular
manner, beneath with f{maller fpots. 1

This fpecies grows to the tize of the wolf, or larger,
and inhabits the hotter parts of America, from the ifthmus
of Darien to Buenos Ayres; at Brazil it bears the name of
janouara;.at Paraguay, and in other parts of South
America, it is called yagouarcté. >

The jaguar is neither fo timid, nor fo indolert as fome
writers have reprefented; it is fierce and deilru€live to
man and beaft: like the tiger it plunges its head into the
body of its prey, and fucks out the blood before it devours
the flefh. It runs fwiftly, and by means of its talons af,
cends the loftieft and fmootheft trees with a facility that is
inconceivable, when in purfuit of quadrupeds, that endea-
vour, by climbing up the trees, to effeét theirefcape. The
Indians, who are much afraid of this animal, entertain
filly perfuation that it prefers them to the white haat
who perhaps are better prepared to repel its attac s, and
are not therefore fo often annoyed by it. Int elling
through the deferts of Guiana they light large fires in the
night time, to prevent thefe animals from attacking them.
The howl of the jaguar is dreadful ; their cry plaintive,
grave, and ftrong, like that of the ox. The female is fup-
pofed to produce only two young at a birth. ,

Parpvatis. ‘Tail long; upper part of the body ftriped,
beneath fpotted. Felis pardalis, Schreber. Ocelot, Buff.
Mexican cat, or ocelot, ed

Greatly refembles the common cat, but is three or four
times its fize, meafuring in length about four feet, and its
height two feet and a half. :

In

FELIS-

In the variety of its markings, as well as colours, the
ocelot is extremely beautiful, the male efpecially. The
general colour is bright tawny above, with the brealt, belly,
and lower part of the fides, together with the limbs, white.
A black ftripe extends from the top of the head, along the
back, to the origin of the tail; the forehead is {potted with
black, as are alfo the legs; the fhoulders, back, and rump
are finely variegated with ovate blotches and interrupted
longitudinal bands of a deeper tinge than the ground colour,
the edges of which are black; the fpots are generally
marked in the middle with a fingle {pot of black, the ftripes
with a feries of black dots difpoled at nearly an equal dif-
tance from each other. The tailis diverfified with blotches
of an irregular form and black at the tip. In the female
the fur is neither fo vivid in colour, nor fo beautiful in
variety. y

The ocelot inhabits the hotter parts of South America,
where it inhabits mountainous fituations, and refides chiefly
among trees, like the lynx, or caracal; it lies in wait upon
the boughs concealed among the leaves, and feizes its prey
by darting on them from its lurking-place, when they ap-
proach within a convenient diftance. Sometimes it fur-
prifes them by ftratagem, extending itfelf along the boughs,
where it can be feen as if it were dead, and {pringing on
them when, from natural curiofity, they approach within its
reach; monkeys are often caught by the ocelot in this man-
ner. It is faid to prefer the blood of animals to their fiefh.
Though voracious and fierce, it is of a timid nature, and fo
afraid of dogs that, when purfued by them, it flies to the
woods for fafety. The inhabitants of South America call
it chibigouazou.

The ocelot is not uncommon in Paraguay, though, from
its manners of life, and the fecre¢y of its retreats, it is fel-
dom feen ; its vifits to the poultry-yards in the farms con-
tiguous to the woods are often afcertained by its foot-iteps
and the devaftation committed. The ocelot never leaves its
lurking-places in the day time, nor even in the night, when
‘the'moon fhines; it is under the obfcurity of the darkeit
nights, and when the weather is tempeftuous, that it ven-
tures fo far as the neighbouring farms in queit of prey.
Each of the retreats of the ocelot appears to be inhabited
by a male and female, with their family of young; and
though there may be many ocelots in the fame woods their
haunts are feparate. They are faid to have about two
young ones at a litter.

Some years ago a male and female ocelot that had been
taken very young were carried to France. At the age of
three months they became fo ftrong and fierce, as to killa
bitch that was given them to nurfe. When a live cat was
thrown to them they fucked its blood, but would not tafte
the flefh. The male feemed to have a great fuperiority
over the female, infomuch as never to allow her to partake
of the food till his own appetite was fatistied. Ina ftate
of captivity the ocelot has been known to eat about five
pounds of meat daily ; three or four poundsare the ordinary
allowance.

Ticrina. Tail long'; bedy fulvous, flriped and {potted
with black, beneath whitifh. Erxl. elis ex gri/eo fla»
vefcons, maculis nigris variegata, Brill. Felis fera tigrina,
Barr. Margay, Buff.

The margay is confidered by fome late continental writers
as the fame animal with the ocelot, in a lefs advanced {tate
of growth ; but it appears to be more generally admitted
asa variety of that ieaciees It is a native of Guiana,
Brazil, and various other parts of South America. In
point of fize it refembles the common+wild cat, The
ground colour is bright tawny ; the face ftriped downwards

with black; the body is marked with ftripes and {pots of
black ; the breaft and infide of the legs white, with black
{pots ; tail long, and marked with alternate {pots of black,
tawny and grey. Like the ocelot it lives in woody fitua-
tions, chiefly refiding in trees, and is faid to breed in the
hollows of them. It is of a fierce difpofition, preys on
birds, and produces two young at a birth. ‘

Jupara. ‘ail moderate; body fulvous, with black
{pots; neck maned. Schreber. Erxl. Zyger-wolf, Kolbe.
Guepard, Butt. Maned, or hunting leopard.

This animal is about the fize of a greyhound, the ufual
length being about three feet and a half; the head is fmall,
the body long, the ears fhort, and the tail about twenty
inches. The body is of alight tawny brown above, marked
with fmall round black fpots, which are fcatterei over the
back, fides, head, and legs; the belly is. white, and the
tail marked on the upper fide with three large black fpots.
In feveral of the above particulars this animal-agrees with
others of the cat or tiger kind, but that by which it may be
at once diftinonifhed from every other of the fame tribe is
the mane on the collarand between the fhoulder, a chara&ter
no other animal of this genus is known to poffefs ; the hairs
which conttitute the mane are about five inches long, and
fufficiently cSpious to be diltinguifhed.

The fpecies of tiger, or leopard, which the Indians train
forthe purpofe of hunting the antelope and other bea(ts of
chafe, has been deferibed fo vaguely, and under fuch dif
fimilar names, that we cannot {peak precifely, but it is pra-
fumed the animal intended mult be of this kind. The hurb-
ing tiger, according to the reports of travellers, is carried
in a {mall kind of waggon, chained and hoodwinked, till ir
approaches the herd, when the animal is unchained and fuf-
fered to purfue the game. At firft it creeps along with its
belly clofe to the ground, ftoppiug and concealing itfelf till
it gets an advantageous fituation ; it then darts towards its
prey with amazing agility, and, after five or fix bounds,
feizes it, and brings it to the ground. Should it not fue-
ceed in the firft effort, it fhews no inclination to renew the
attempt, but gives up the point and returns to its matter.

Concotor. ‘Taillong; body fulvous, without-{pots ;
beneath whitifh. Felis concolor, Schreb. Felis. ex: favo
rubefcens, mento et infimo ventre albicantibusy Brill. Puma
S- leo Americanus, Hernand. Cuguacuerana, Maregr: Cou-
gouar, Buff.

The puma, or cougouar, is fometimes called the Ameri-
canlion. It is the largeit of the beaits of prey known to
inhabit the uew continent, meafuring in length rather more
than five feet from the nofe to: the tail, and the tail itfelf
meafuring two feet eightinches. ~The form is flender, the
body being long; and the animal ftanding highon his legs.
The predominant colouris pale brownifh red, inclining in
fome parts to blackifh, efpecialiy on the back, which is
darkett.. Its chin is white; breaft and belly tinged with
afh-colour,, as are likewife the intides of the legs; the tail
inclines:to dufky ferruginous, with the tip black.

This is an animal of great itrength and fiercenefs, prey-
ing on cattle and deer, to attack which it will {wim rivers,
and burft through the bounds of inclofures.. Sometimes it
is faid to climb trees, and watch the opportunity of {pring-
ing on’ fuch animals as pafs beneath. The {pecies is coms
monin Guiana, Brazil, and Mexico, and is found in various
parts.of North America, from Canada to Florida.

Notwithftanding its ferocity, the couguar, when brought
into captivity, is allowed to become almoft as gentle as the
common cat, allowing itfelf to be carefled, and permitting
boys to mount on its back. When fatisfied with eating, it
conceals the reft of its food ;. purs like the.cat, and fome-

tumede

Ri EILASS:

times howls dreadfully. The flefh of this animal is white,
and is eaten by the American Indians, who efteem it excel-
lent food. The fur is foft, and forms an article of winter
-clothing amongfl thefe people.

Discotor. ‘Tail long; body above black, beneath
whitifh. Felis difeolor, Schreber. Felis nigra, Erxl. Le
cougouar noir, Buff. Jaguar, or black tiger, Penn.

This inhabits the fame parts of America as the former,
and refembles it pretty nearly, except in colour, which is
dufky, and in general plain. The throat, belly, and infide
of the legs are pale afh; the upper lip white, and furnifhed
with long whifkers, and the eye-brows befet with long hairs ;
at each corner of the mouth is a black fpot ; the ears are
fharp-pointed, and the paws white. ‘The tail is of the fame
colour with the ret of the body.

The black tiger isa cruel and ferocious creature, and
greatly dreaded by the Indians, but is fortunately not com-
mon; it grows to the fize of an heifer of a year old, and is
remarkable for its ftrength ; its form, like that of the puma,
is rather flender. M. De la Borde relates of the black
tigers that they frequent the fea fhore, and cat the eggs de-

ofited there by the turtles. They alfo devour alligators,
care, and fifhes, and fometimes the buds and tender leaves
ofthe Indian fig. They are excellent {wimmers. In order
to catch the alligator, according to this writer, they lie
down on their belly at the edge of the river, ftrike the wa-
ter to make anoife, and immediately that the alligator raifes
its head above the water, the tiger darts his claws into the
eyes, and drags it on fhore.

Carus. Tail long and annulated. Gmel. F. catus ;
cauda elongata, auribus equalibus, Linn. Fn. Suec. 3.

The wild cat (ferus) is diftinguifhed from the varieties of
the domeftic cat by the fuperiority of its fize, meafuring
four or even almoft five feet in length from the muzzle to
the end of the tail. It is comparatively more robuft, and
poffefled of far greater ftrength and {pirit. The head is
larger, andthe face flatter; the teeth and claws more for-
midable ; and the colours and {tripes in general nearly uni-
form. The fur is grey, mixed with yellowifh, and fome-
times flightly tinged withtawny. A dark lift extends along
the back, from the head to the origin of the tail, and the
back, fides, and flanks tvaverfed with a number of blackifh
lines, which originating in the longitudinal dorfal line, point
downwards, in nearly a perpendicular direétion towards the
belly, like the ftreaks in the fur of the tiger. The tail is
thick, and marked with alternate bars of black and whitifh
grey, and the middle of the throat and breaft, and the
lower part of the belly, are ufually of the fame colour.

Cats are found in a {tate of wildnefs in many of the forefts
of Germany, and, from the nature of its haunts, acquired
among the old writers the names of felis fylveilris, and
catus fylveftris. Some writers affirm that the wild cat,
which may be truly confidered as the parent ftock of our do-
meftic cats, is confined to the woods of Europe and Afia.
Others affert that wild cats are found with very little variety
in almoft every climate; they exifted, according to thofe
authors, in America before its difcovery by the Europeans,
and it is advanced in argument, that one was brought to Co-
lumbus, which was of the ordinary fize, and of a brownifh
grey colour, with along tail. It isalfo concluded to be a
native of Africa, as Sparrman defcribes one fhot at the cape,
which, he fays, was fimilar in every refpe& to théfe of Eu-
rope; this wasofa grey colour; and meafured from the
nofe to the tail almoft twenty-two inches; the tail was
thirteen inches long, and its height about a foot and a half.
Its inteitines were full of moles and rats.

In this country. the wild cat is the largeft and moft de-

fiructive beaft of prey extant, if we except the fox s the
bear and the wolf, which in early. times infelted our woods,
being wholly extirpated. . Formerly the wild cat was aban-
dant in our forefts ; and were confidered among the beails of
chafe, as appears by a charter of Richard II. to the
abbot of Peterborough, which grants him permiffion to hunt
the hare, fox, and wildcat. This animal. was hunted chief-
ly for the {port it afforded, the flefh being ufelefs, and the
fkin bearing an inferior price ; at leaft it was not efteemed
of the moft luxurious kind, for it was ordained that no ab-
befs or nun fhould ufe more coftly apparel than fuch as was
made of lamb’s or cat’s fkins. The wild cat is now become
rare in Britain, one was killed fome years ago in Cumber-
land, and another in Warwickfhire, which latter isin the
colleG@tion of Mr. Donovan. In the Hebrides, and the north
of Scotland, the wild cat is fuppofed to be more frequent
than in South Britain. They are taken in traps, or by
fhooting.

It prefers woods in mountainous fituations, and living on
trees, preys on birds and the fmaller quadrupeds, fuch as
rats, mice, bats, and f{quirrels; it alfo purfues rabbits and
hares, makes great havoc among poultry, and will even
kill young lambs, kids, and fawns. It is dangerous in the
chafe of thofe animals to wound them flightly, for they
defend themfelves with great fpirit, attack the dogs with
fury, and even faften on the {portfman, and, from the
ftrength of their talons and teeth, can prove themfelves no
defpicable enemies.

The common domeftic cat, catus domefticus of the
Linnzan fyftem, felis vel catus of Gefner, and felis do-
meftica of Briffon and Jontton, derives its origin from
the former, and is fo infinitely varied in its appearance
from culture and domeftication, as to baffle all defcrip-
tion. Schreber diftinguifhes the domeftic kind from that
exifting in a ftate of wildnefs, by its fmaller fize, and the
comparative fhortnefs as well as thicknefs of the hair.
Among: the principal varieties of the domeftic cat, we
may mention thofe entirely black, or black with white
{fpots. White without {pots or variation ; white with black
f{pots; white with brown fpots. Dun or grey, plain or
with little variation ; or greyifh, with darker ftripes, which
laft approaches neareft in appearance to the parent ftock.
There are alfo many varieties {potted with white, black,
and fulvous, occafioned by croffing the breed of the com-~
mon with the Spanifh or tortoife-fhell cat, which latter is
fuppofed by naturalifts to conftitute a diftinét breed, though
not {pecifically different from our domettic cat.

We can add nothing to the general hiftory of an animal
fo fully defcribed as the prefent fpecies, and whofe manners
of life are familiar to every reader. It is reprefented as an
ufeful but deceitful domeftic. Although hen young it is
playful and gay, it poflefles at the fame time an innate malice
and perverfe difpofition, which increafes as it advances to ma-
turity, and which education inftruéts it to conceal, but not
to fubdue. Conftantly bent upon theft and rapine, though
in a domeftic ftate, they are full of cunning and diffimula-
tion; they conceal all their defigns, feize every opportunity
of doing mifchief, and then, fentible of their mifconduG, fly
from punifhment. Thus they affume, it is faid, the habits
of fociety, but never its manners; for they have only the
appearance of friendfhip and attachment. _ Nothing can be
more illiberal, however, and oftentimes more unfounded,
than general obfervations. We are too apt to deduce un-
limited inferences from certain traits in particular individuals,
or which may be evinced under peculiar cireumftances, and
thus eftablifh the character of a whole race of animals from
the moit partial views. In fome degree the reproach at-

tached

Soe

FELIS.

tached to the character of the cat from its want of gratitude
and attachment to its benefactors may be true, but furely
not to the extent deferibed ; and we are to confider, alfo,
that the treatment or the inftruction this animal receives is
not always of fuch a nature as to excite attachment. We
beftow chaftifement, and expeCt fondnefs in return ; we be-
tray apathy, and require affection ; or we defire gratitude
for favours which are not worthy of that fentiment ; and
that without refleGting that the cat is of all others the moft
unreftrained of our domettics ; one of thofe inmates which,
even under our own roofs, leads a life of independence, and
is carefled and admired only in proportion as fhe exhibits
thofe proofs of ferocity towards the minor race of animals,
which in{pires her with the worlt paffions of her race, a love
of carnage, cruelty, and unrelenting vengeance; a propen-
fity to deftroy all creatures fhe has the flrength and addrefs
toovercome. Thus early inured to habits of rapine, fhe be-
comes the tyrant of her inferiors, while to larger animals,
and to man, fhe owns obedience, rather becaufe fhe is fenfi-
ble of her own weaknefs, and looks up to them for protec-
tion, than from any tie of friendfhip or regard. The hand
that minifters to her wants and fupplies her food fhe may re-
fpect ; few of the mott ferocious beaits of prey are deftitute
of this attachment, and none reduced by culture to dometti-
cation. Thus reared and tutored, we inftrué her to be ra-
pacious when fhe can conquer ; we teach her to be deceitful
towards thofe fhe cannot overcome ; and then accufe her of
diffimulation becaufe ‘he profits by our inftruction. The
iugeuious Sonnini, overlooking thofe propenfities of the cat
inherent in her nature, or imbibed from culture, is anxious
to place this animal in its moit amiable point of view ; his
reflections are juft, but we are to remember that it is
ferocity, at lealt to a certain extent, and not mildnefs,
that befits the cat for that ftation in fociety which it is
deftined to fulfil; and that thofe traits of character, which
‘alone conititute its value as a domeitic, at the fame time
that they cannot fail to render it rapacious and deceitful,
ought furely not to have been forgotten in defcribing the
difpofition of this valuable animal. «* The cats,”’ fays Son-
ninl, in {peaking of thofe found in Egypt, “ are gentle and
familiar ; they have no diftruft of man, the ferocious charac-
ter, which, in fome parts of France, render them a race of
animals rather wild than domeitic: but thefe differences are
“as much the work of man as the effect of climate, In
the department where I live, and in thofe adjacent, the
cat, efpecially in the country, is the moft miferable of beings,
next to the horfes fet apart for hufbandry. Mailers and
fervants agree in hunting the cat, in beating her, in pelting
her with ftones, in worrying her to death by dogs, after
having almoit flarved her to death. If hunger, which her
leannefs clearly witnefles, incites her to {py the moment for
flealing a little morfel, the pretended thief, becaufe nature
would not fuffer her to let herfelf die of abfolute want, pays
with her life the addrefs fhe has employed to fupport it.
How is it poffible that cats fhould not affume, under the
difcipline of fuch maiters, whofe cruelty to animals borders
on barbarity, a wildnefs of phyliognomy, an imprefs of fe-
rocioufnefs? And if you compare thofe wretched cats of
my country with fuch as are entertained at Paris, where,
more kindly treated and fheltered from perpetual alarm, they
are of an amiable familiarity, you will have a new proof of
the influence which the character of man exercifes over that
of the brute creation.””

The cat brings forth twice or fometimes thrice in the
courfe ofthe year. She goes with young about fifty-five or
fifty-fix days, and produces five or fix young at each litter.
The female exhibits every degree of maternal tendernefs

Vou. XIV,

for her young, and often conceals them, left the male,_as is
fometimes the cafe, fhould devour them; and, if apprehentive
of being difturbed, fhe will remove them, one by one, in her,
mouth, to fome other place of greater fecurity.

Cats are in particular attached to the place where they
were brought up, and if carried elfewhere feem loft and
bewildered, and frequently take the firlt opportunity of
efcaping to their former haunts. 'Thefe animals have been
known to return to the place from whence they were carried,
though at miles diftant, and though they could not poffibly
have any knowledge of the road or fituation that would
lead to it.

This animal is about eighteen months before it acquires its
full growth, and about ten years is the ufual period of its
life ; fome remarkable inftances of longevity are, however,
recorded, cats having lived to the age of twenty years, or
more. It is generally remarked, that cats can fee in the dark,
which is not abfolutely true, yet it is certain that they can
fee with much lefs light than moft other animals, owing to
the peculiar {truéture of the eye, the pupil of which is ca-
pable of being contraéted or dilated in proportion to the
degree of light by which they are affeGted. During the day
the pupil of the eye is perpetually contracted ; and it is
with difficulty that it can fee by a ftrong light, but, as in the
twilight, the pupil refumes its natural roundnefs, the animal
enjoys perfect vilion, and takes advantage of this fuperiority
to difcover and furprife its prey. The cry of the catis loud,
piercing, and clamorous; and, whether expreflive of anger
or of love, is equally violent and hideous. When pleafed the
cat purs and moves its tail: when angry {pits, hifles, growls,
and ftrikes with its feet, it is alfo faid to emit a fetid fmell
at fuch times, and climb with great agility. In hunting and
feizing its prey, the cat exhibits all the aGtions of the
tiger, lying in wait, crawling on the belly, wazging the tail
when preparing for its leap, and bounding on it when with-
in aconvenient diftance. The cat is averfé to water, cold,
and unpleafant {mells ; it delights in certain perfumes, and
is in particular partial to the aromatic emanations of the va-
lerian, marum, and cat-mint, and, if not prevented, would in-
fallibly deitroy the plants of this kind, growing in yvardens,
by rubbing itielf againft them, and trampling over them.
The cat drinks fparingly ; eats flefh and fifh, the latter of
which it prefers, and feldom eats vegetables, unlefs prefled
with hunger. It is proverbial, that the cat wathes behind
its ears before a florm; that when it falls from a height ir
alights on the feet, and that it is tenacious of life. The eyes
have a fomewhat phofphorefcent or fparkling appearance in
the dufk; andthe hair being dry emits an electric fire which
is vifible in the dark; the fur is indeed faid to yield the
electric {parks fo readily, that if, in frofty weather,a cat be
placed on a ftoo] with glafs feet, and rubbed for a certain
time, in conta& with the wire of a coated phial, the latter
will become effeGually charged by that means.

Tn the days of Howel Dda, or Howel the Good, whe
reigned a fhort time before the Norman conqueit, the
domeitic cat was valued at a confiderable price, both on
account of its fearcity and utility, and its life proteéted by
law. The price of the kitten, before it could fee, was to
be apenny ; till proof could be given of its having caught
a moufe, two-pence, after which it was rated at four-pence,
a great {um in thofe times: it was, however, required, that it
fhould be a good moufer, have its claws whole, and, if a
fernale, be a careful nutfe; but if it failed in any one of thefe
good qualities the feller was to forfeit a third part of its
value. If any one fhould tteal or kill the cat that guarded the
prince’s granary, he was either to forfeit a milch ewe, her
fleece it lamb, or as much wheat as, when poured on the

Gg cat

FELIS.

eat ffpended by the tail (its head touching the flocr),
would form a heap high enough to cover the tip of the for-
mer.

The cat was held in high veneration by the ancient
Egyptians. When a cat died ina houfe, the owner of the
houfe, Herodotus informs us, fhaved his eye-brows ; they
carried the cats when dead into confecrated houfes to be
embalmed, and. interred them at Bubaftis, a confiderable
city of Lower Egypt. If any: killed a cat, though by
accident, he could not efcape death. Thefe laws were
politically ufeful; it was neceflary to put under the immediate

roteétion of the laws a fpecies of animals whofe protection
was indifpenfable againft the prodigious multitudes of rats and
mice with which Egypt was infeited, aud the moft effeCtual
means of procuring refpect for them was to render them
objects of deification. Cats, no longer regarded facred in
Egypt, are neverthclefs to this day treated with the utmoft
care in that country, and are to be found in all the houfes.
The cats are trained in fome of the Grecian iflands to attack
and deflroy ferpents, with which thofe iflands abound.

The following are confidered as permanent varieties, or
aiftin@ breeds, of the common cat fpecies, felis catus.

Angora cat, the hair of which is filvery-white, filky, and
Jong, that furrounding the neck longeft. ‘This is the moft
beautiful of all the varieties ; its nofe and edges of the lips
are fine rofe colour; the eyes in general blue or yellow, and
of a fparkling brilliancy, and its whole afpe& mild and com-
pofed. The hair is of a dazzling whitenefs, remarkably
thick and long, and the tail, when elevated above the body,
forming a beautiful plume. Angora, the place celebrated
forthis race of cats, isin Afia Minor, not far from Smyrna ;
the camlets manufaétured with the hair of this animal is
celebrated for its beauty and finenefs throughout A fia.

Tortoife-/bell cat, Hifpanicus, Gmel. Chat d’ E/pagne, Buff.
is black. varied with white and orange.

Blue cat, ceruleus, Gmel. Chat des Charireux, Buff.
Blaue kaze, Kolbe. The hair of this is blue-grey. It was
eriginally a native of Ruffia, from whence it has been dif-
perfed, and cultivated in various parts of Siberia.

Red cat, ruber, Gmel. Rothe kaxs, Kolben. This is
diftinguifhed by having a ftreak of bright red running along
the ridge of the back to the tail, and Jofing itfelfin the grey
and white on the fides. It is found at the Cape, and the
fin is much valued from a fingular idea the colonifts entertain
that it affurdseafe in the gout.

Japan cat, Chat fauvage Indien, Vofmaer. This is de-
feribed as being about the fize of the common cat, and has a
tail ten inches and a half long; the ears are upright and
“ pointed ; colour of the face and lower part of the neck
whitith ; breaft and lower belly clear grey, mixed with black,
difpofed in tranfverfe ftreaks. Along the back is a broad
band of black, which extends over the upper part of the
tail; the lower part is femi-annulated with black and grey.
Its cry is faid to refemble the mewing of a great cat.

Guiana cat, Penn. Felis Guigna, Molin. According to
Molina this is a native of Chili, and is the fize of the com-
non cat. Its haunts are inacceffible foreits. The colour
is tawny, marked with round black fpots, rather lefs than
halfan inch in diameter, and extending the whole length of
the back clofe to the tail, The head in this and the fol-
lowing is rather larger in proportion than in the common cat.

Corololo-cat. Felis Corololo, Molin. Like the former this
inhabits forefts, and preys on mice and birds. The colour is
white, marked with irregular fpots of black and yellow,
and the tail encircled with black to the tip. Tail rather
larger in proportion than in the common cat.

We cannot conclude this. enumeration of the varieties of

the common eat without obferving, that it is extremely proe
bable, when the three laft mentioned animals become Lae
underftood, they may be found fpecifieally diltin@ ; whee
ther alfo the variety faid to oceur in China, which has pen-
dulous ears, and fur variegated with black and yellow ; and
the Madagafcar cat with twifted tail, be of the fame fpecies
with the common eat, feems rather undetermined. The
felis manul of Gmelin appears, on the contrary, to be uo
other than a variety of the common cat.

Manut. Tail elongated, and annulated with black;
head {potted with black, and marked with two lateral black
bands. Pallas.

Inhabits the waftes of Tartary and northern Afia. Its
fize is that of the fox, but its form is more robuft in pro-
portion. The colour is tawny ; the cheeks with two dufk
Imes running obliquely from the eyes; the fect are ob-
{curely ftriped with dark lines; the tail longer than that
of the domettic cat, thickly befet with hair, and encircled
with ten diftin& black rings, three of which neareft the tip
are placed fo contizuous as almoft to touch each other,
This is confidered as a variety of the common wild cat, felis
catus.

Capensts. Tail rather long, and annulated with black ;
body fulvous, with ftripes above, and fpots beneath black’;
ears naked with’a lunated white fpet.—Felis capenfir,
Gmel. Felis tigrina capenfis, Fort. A&. Angl. v. 71.
Cape tiger, Penn.

This animal appears to be of the fame as that deferibed
by Labat under the name of ’Nnufli, and which he ftates te be
the fize of a dog, witha coat as much ftriped and varied as
that of atiger. Its appearance he tells us befpeaks cruelty,
and its eyes fiercenefs ; but it is cowardly, and gets its prey
oaly by cunning and infidious arts. When Dr. Forfter
touched the fecond time at the Cape ef Good Hope, namely,
in 1775, an animal of this fpecies was offered to him for fale,
but this he declined, becaufe he was apprehenfive,as oneof the
legs was broken, it would not live till they reached Eng-
land. It was brought in a befket to his apartment,
where it remained about twenty four hours, and this allowed
him fufficient time to deferibe it with greater accuracy than
had been previoufly done, and in fome degree of obfervin
its manners and economy. Thefe he found to be perfe@lly
analogous to thofe of our domeftic cats. It ate frefh meat
raw, and was very much attached to its feeders and be-
nefaGtors: though it had broke the fore-leg by accident
it was very eafy. After it had been feveral times fed by
Dr, Forfter it followed him like the common cat. It was
pleafed when careffed, and, in token of its gratification
rubbed its head and back againft the clothes of the perfon
who fed it, and purred at the fame time like the domeftie
cat. This animal had been taken when quite young, and
was not above eight or nine months old when defcribed, yet
it had nearly, if not entirely, attained to its full fize
Dr. Forfter was told that the fpecies lives in the ‘moun-
tainous and woody tracts; and that in their wild ftate
they are highly deftrutive to the hares, rabbits jerboas.
young antelopes, lambkins, and the whele of the eatiieted
race. This animal is fully deferibed in the 71ft volume of
the Philofophical Tranfactions.

Cuavus. ‘Tail moderate; annulate near the tip, w
is black ; body brownifh yellow ; ears brown on Es ae
fide, and bearded with black at the tip. Gul
Cae lynx, Penn. : soho

efembles the wild cat in manners, voice, and food. Ite
general length is about two feet fix inches from the nofe to
the tail, though in fome inftances it has been known. to
meafure three feet. The prevailing colour is yellowith

- browng

FELIS.

brown, with the breaft and belly much brighter, or more
inclining to orange colour; the tail reaches. only to the
flexure of the legs, and, befides the black tip, has three
obfcure black bands at fome diftance from it ; and on the
infide of the legs near the bend of the knee are two dufky
bars ; the tufts at the extremity of the ears are black.

The fpecies was firft defcribed by Guldenftedt in the
TranfaGtions of the Royal Society of Peterfbergh; it is found
in the woods and marfhy traéts.on. the borders of tKe
weftern fide of the Cafpian fea, and in the Perfian provinces
of Ghilan and Mafenderan, and is frequent about the mouth
of the Kur, the ancient Cyrus.

Seravat. Tail rather fhort ; body marked above with
roundith dufky {pots ; orbits of the eyes and belly white.
Erxl. Le ferval, Buff. Chat-pard, Perrault.

An animal much refembling the lynx in form, but
{maller, the ears are alfo deftitute of that tuft of hair fo
confpicuous at the tip in the lynx, and the tails, compara-
tively tothe general fize of the animal, rather fmaller. The
fpecimen*defcribed by the French academicians meafured
two feet and a half from the nofe to the tail, and the latter
was eight inches long. The colour on the head, back, and
fkdes are fawn colour, the throat, belly, and infides of the
legs white, and the whole furface is covered with {mall, but
very diltinét {pots of black, which are not difpofed in rofes
like the fpots on the panther, but feparate. As in the
lynx the head is large, the feet alfo are ftrong and thick,
and the eyes brilliant.

' The ferval inhabits the mountainous parts of India and
Thibet, where it refides chiefly among trees, from which
it rarely defcends, but, feeding on birds, purfues them by
leaping among the branches, or from one tree to another.
in its difpofition it is extremely fierce, but avoids mankind
unlefs provoked, when it darts furioufly upon the offender,
‘and tears and bites in the fame manneras the panther. The

rovincial name of this animal among the natives of Malabar
¥s maraputa; the Portuguefe eitabliihed on that coaft call
it ferval.: ; ,

Caracat. Tail rather fhort, and with the body reddith
brown; ears outwards black, tip black and bearded.
Siyah-ghufh, Charleton. Lynx cauda vitulina, Klein,
Earacal, Buffon. Perfian cat, Peon. Perfian lynx.
~~ The caracal, or Periian lyus, refembles the common lynx
in figure and afpeét, and uearly correfponds in fize. It
‘differs from that animal in not being {potted ; its hair is
sougher, andits colour diffimilar ; the tail longer, and of an
faniform colour with the reft of the body; its face is of a
‘more lengthened form, and its difpofition more ferocious.
~The fpecies inhabits only the warmer climates, and is com-
‘moni Perfia, India, Barbary, and other parts of Afia and
“Africa. — In the Perfian language it is called fyah-gufh, and
‘in the Turkith karrah-kulak, both which fignify the cat
‘with black ears. The caracal is faid to follow the lion,
rand to feed on the remains which that animal leaves of its
“prey, and for this reafon it is called among the Arabs the
‘lion’s guide. Its height is alsout that of the common fox,
-but is ftronger and more robult; and Dr. Charleton men-
‘gions one which killed a hound, and tore it inftantly in
‘pieces,- notwithftanding the vigorous defence of the
‘latter. i
©» 'This animal, though tamed with extreme difficulty, when
taken young, and reared with great caution, may be trained
“for the knits It isemployed with fuccefs in the purfuit of
‘the {maller tribes of quadrupeds, but it is faid, whenever it

# meets with one that is fuperior to it in ftrength, that it lofes
“its courage and gives up the chale. Herons, cranes, peli-
‘eins, peacocks, and others of the larger kinds of birds, is

takes by furprife, and overcomes with ‘fingular addres.
When it has feized its prey, it holds it falt in its mouth,
and lies upon it fome time motienlefs,

There are feveral varieties of the caracal, according to
different authors. .The caracal of Barbary, deferibed by
Buffon on the authority of Mr. Bruce, has the ears red on
the outfide initead of black ; the tafts on the ears are black,
the tail white at the tip, annulated with four black rings,
and fome black marks behind the legs. It is the animal
which Mr. Bruce names the booted lynx, and is roit pro-
bably f{pecifically diftinét. Another fuppofed variety im
habits Bengal, and has the tail as long as the legs; and ‘a
third the tail white, with four black rings at the extremity 5
the firft of the two laft mentioned is perhaps a diftinct
{pecies.

Rura. Tail rather fhort, berieath and at the tip whites
above banded with black ; body tawny fpotted with brown;
ears bearded at the tip. Schreber. Buy cat, Penn.

Twice the Gze of the common cat; its colours a brizht
bay, obfcurely marked with {mall dufky {pots; the lips,
throat, and whole underfide of the body and limbs whiteé
From beneath each eye three curved blackifh flripes pafs
down the cheeks, and the upper part of the infide of the
fore legs is marked with two black bars. The hair is
fhorter and {moother than that of the common lynx, aad
the {pecies inhabits America.

Lynx... Tail obfcurely annulated, and black at the tip;
head and body whitifh-tawny {potted with black; ears
bearded at the tip. Schreber. Pinuum dafypus, Nierembs
Lynx, Aldr. Le lynx, Buff.

The lynx is about the fize of the fox, or of a middling
dog. The colour varies, but is generally of a pale-grey,
with a very flight reddifh tinge ; the back and whole of the
upper parts ob{curely fpotted with blackifh or duiky ; tail
white, with the tip and rings black. The throat, breait,
and belly are white ; and the fur remarkably thick and foft.
The eyes are of a pale yellow colour, aud its whole afpe@
milder than that of the panther or once.

Writers defcribe feveral {uppofed varieties of this animal,
one of which is white with dark fpots, another yellowith-
white above, and beneath white with dufky fpots, and a
third correfponding with the latter, but marked with {pots
ftill more diftin&. The fpecies is fo generally diffufed
throughout Europe and Afia, and inhabits fuch various
climates, that we are not to be aftonifhed that fuch varieties
fhould exift. The true lynx is found in the great forefts in
the north of Germany, in Lithuania, Mulcovy, Siberiay
and the northern parts of the old continent ; but it admits
of confiderable doubt whether it inhabits fouthern Afias
The lynx of the Levant, Barbary, Arabia, and other hot
countries, is certainly the caracal, apd the fur of this is
known by being deflitute of {pots.

In the mufeum of natural hiltory in Paris, is a preferved
fpecimen of an animal called ** Le lynx du Canada,” a fup-
pofed variety of the common lynx ; its length is two feet
three inches from the nofe to the extremity of the body,
and its height twelve or thirteen inches. The hsir is long,
ia mixed with white hairs, and is {potted like the
European lynx, but differs in the length of the tail, and the
tuft of hair on the ears being fmaller. There is another
2 of in Miffiffipi, which has the tuft at the extremity of
the ears fmaller than that Jait mentioned, the tail more
flocky, and the hair clearer ia colour. In thofe northern
climates however, where the vicifiitudes of the feafons are fo
feverely experienced, it is to be contidered that the fur of
animals vary in colour according to the feafon. ‘Thus the
winter fure are exceedingly digerent from thof of dumsnor

Gg2 “

FEL

jn all the animals that inhabit the north of America, er
Europe. The fur of the American lynxes is moft beautifui
in winter, and bears a higher price than thofe of fummer,
and it is not only on account of their beauty thefe are pre-
ferred, they are more valuable for their foftrefs and warmth.
The fame may be obferved of northern Europe and A fia.
The farther they are taken to the northward the whiter is
the fur, and the {pots more diftinc. The moft elegant of
thefe are called frbys, and is taken near the lake Balkath,
in Uf>ec Tartary. It is larger than the European lynx,
meafuring five feet from the nofe to the tip of the tail, of
which the tail meafures about fix inches. The {kin fells in
that cotntry for about twenty fhillings fterling. Vait
numbers of thefe fkins are exported annually to China and
Europe.

The lynx is a very deftru@tive animal. It feeds on
weafels, ermines, fquirrels, and other fmall quadrupeds,
which it purfues to the tops of the higheft trees. The
lynx alfo watches the approach of larger animals, as the
hare and even the deer, and darts upon them from the
branches of trees where it lies concealed, feizes them by the
throat, and fucks their blood; after which it abandons
them and goes in queft of other game. It often eats no
more of the fheep or the goat than the brain, the liver, and
the inteftines. The fight of this animal is remarkably quick,
which enables it to diicern its prey at a great diftance, and
it is fo artful, that it will fometimes dig under the doors to
gain admiffion into the fheep-fold. When attacked it
throws itfelf on its back, and {trikes defperately with its
claws. The howl of the lynx is not unlike that of the wolf,
and it frequently exprefles its malignity by a kind of fnarl-
ing fcream, From the ferocity of its nature the lynx
cannot be tamed.

The poetical fictions of the ancients refpeéting this
animal are not unknown ; they feigned that the chariot of
Bacchus was drawn by lynxes ; that its fight was fo pene-
trating that it could fee through the moft opaque bodies, and
that its urine was converted into precious ftone. Pliny
confounds the lynx with the once, and {peaks of it as a
native of Ethiopia: the fame writer, however, in another part,
feems to have known the true lynx of the moderns, and
informs us, the firft lynx that was feen at Rome was brought
from Gaul, which country might at that time produce this
animal, as the Alps and Pyrenées were known to have done
at a later period.

FELIX I. in Biography, pope, and a faint in the Ro-
>man calendar, was born at Rome, and fucceeded in the pon-
tificate in the year 269. Little more is known of this
pontiff than that he reigned, and in his time a perfecution
was commenced by Aurelian againft the Chriitians, to
which, it has been fuppofed, that Felix fell a facrifice, after
he had filled the papal chair between five and fix years.
In the third volume of the “ Colleétio Conciliorum’’ is a
fragment of a letter which this pope wrote to Maximus,
bifhop of Alexandria, againit the tenets of Sabellius and
Paul of Samofata, and which was read in the councils of
Chalcedon and Ephefus. Moreri.

Fexix IL. pope, though by fome writers denominated
anti-pope, was a native of Rome, and archdeacon of that
church when pope Liberius was banifhed by the emperor
Conttantius in the year 355. At this time the emperor and
the Arian party were determined to place in the Roman
fee a perfon more favourable to the meafures whigh they had
adopted againft Athanafius than Liberius, who had refufed
to fign his condemnation ; they fixed upon Felix for that
{tation. ‘This excited much difcontent, which kindled into
infurrection; and the emperor recalled Liberius on the

ET

condition that he fhould jointly, with Felix, prefide over
the fee. ‘lhe people were {till indignant, and joined in ge-
neralacclamation, “ ‘There is but one God, one Chriit, one
bifhop;”? and as foon as Liberius returned, they drove Felix
out of the city with every mark of deteitation. Upon
being expelled from the city, to which the emperor in the
fequel confented, he withdrew to a {mall eftate, which he
had on the road to Porto, and there {pent the remainder of
his life in retirement. He died in 365. Many centuries
after his death it was a fubje€&t of warm and even fierce con-
tention, whether he was to be confidered as a pope or not $
and, in 1582, it was determined by pope Gregory XIII.
that the caufe of this pope fhould be folemnly tried, when,
with the aid of a well concerted miracle, it was agreed
that his title was valid. Moreri.

Fecix III. pope, was fon of a prefbyter at Rome, and
is thought to be the great grandfather of pope Gregory,
furnamed the Great. He was elevated to the papal throne
in the year 483, when he was chofen fucceffor to Simplicius,
by the unanimous vote of the people, clergy, and fenate,
He had not been long called to this high office before he
found an opportunity, of which he was very defirous, of at-
tempting to extend the influence of the Roman feo over the
eaftern churches. Legates were accordingly difpatched for
this purpofe, who carried letters to Zeno the emperor, and
Acacius the patriarch of Conitantinople, conjuring them,
as they valued the falvation of their fouls, not to fuffer a
heretic to fitin the fee of St. Mark. They had orders alfa
to cite the patriarch to appear in perfon, or by proxy to
juitify his condué in an aflembly of bifhops before St. Peter.
With thefe ixftrutions they fet fail for Conttantinople ; but
when they had arrived at Abydus on the Hellefpont, they
were arrelted by order of the emperor, and thrown into pri-
fon, where they were harfhly treated and threatened with
death, as difturbers of the public peace. They were at
length fuffered to depart, bringing back letters from the
emperor and Acacius to the pope in juttification of their
own proceedings. Felix immediately aff2mbled a council
of Italian bifhops, by whom the legates were declared to
have behaved in a manner highly prejudicial to the Catholic
caufe in the Eaft, aud to be unworthy of the epifcopal dig-
nity. Felix next engaged the council to undertake the
trial and condemnation of Acacius. ‘The pope, on this oc-
cafion, affumed an authority, when promulgating the fen-
tence pronounced again{t him, for which, it is faid, there is
no precedent in church hiftory. That fentence the pope
tranfmitted to the emperor and clergy, enjoining them to
fubmit to the facred laws of the church, and adding, that
they muft renounce Peter Mongus, the heretic before re-
ferred to, who had been countenanced by Acacius in oppo-
fition to Talaia, the depofed patriarch of Alexandria, or
that of the apoftle Peter. The fame fentence was con-
veyed to Acacius, who treated the pope and his anathemas
with the utmoft contempt, and in turn anathematized him,
cutting him off from his communion, and ordering his name
to be ftruck out of the facred diptychs. This conduét of
Acacius was approved by the emperor, the church of Con-
ftantinople, and by almott all the eaftern bifhops, who united
ina feparation from the communion of the pope. Such
was the origin of the firft {chifm between the Greek and
Latin churches. In the year 487 Felix convened a fynod
at Rome, to difcufs the queftion refpeéting the reconciliation
of thofe to the Catholic church, who had been baptized or
re-baptized by the Arians during the Vandal perfecution in
Africa. About the year 488 Fravita fucceeded Acacius as
patriarch of Conitantinople, when meafures were immedi-
ately taken to bring about a reconciliation between the

4 eaftern

FE L

eaftern and weflern churches, which Felix rejected, unlefs
the name of Acacius was firll ftruck out of the facred dip-
tychs. The fame inexorable temper proved an obftacle to
the defired union during the patriarchate of Euphemius,
the fucceffor of Fravita. Ou the death of Zeno in 4gr,
_ Felix wrote to Anattafius his fucceflor, congratulating him
on his acceffion to the throne, intimating an expectation,
that under his authority the intere{ts of the true faith would
be refpeéted and promoted. The emperor paid no attef-
tion to this letter, and Felix died before he could have any
opportunity of witneffing his refentment at the negle& of
the exhortation. He was, as our account will fhew, an en-
terprifing, ambitious, and arrogant man, more devoted to
the extenfion of the papal power, than the true welfare of
the church. In the 4th volume of the Collectio Con-
ciliorum”’ are fifteen letters afcribed to him, and Dupin
has taken pains to diftinguifh between the genuine and {pu-
rious. Moreri. Mofheim.

Ferix IV. pope, a native of Beneventum, was raifed to
the papal fee on the death of John, in the year 526. He
was appointed to this high dignity by king Theodoric, who,
when the fenate and people were divided in their fupport
of rival candidates, thought proper to interpofe his au-
thority, and fix upon a perfon of a moft exemplary life, and
every way worthy of the pontifical dignity, but whom the
contending parties had overlooked. The people at firit
oppoled his authority, but fubmitted when the king agreed
that in future they fhould be allowed to choofe whom they
pleafed, fubje& to his coufirmation. After this Felix was
ordained to his office, and prefided over the Roman fee
about four years. He died in 530. Three letters in the
qth volume of the ‘ Collectio Conciliorum’”? have been at-
tributed to him, but the firft two are not regarded as ge-
nuine. Moreri.

Ferix V. See Amapveus VIII. and Evcenivus IV.

Fexrx, bifhop of Urgella, in Catalonia, in the eighth
@entury. See Evipanp.

Fexix, St. in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Pacific
ocean, N.N.W. of Juan Fernandez, not far from the coaft
of Chili. S.lat. 26? 10’. W. long. 80° 46’.—Alfo, atown
of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne, and
chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Villefranche ; 22
miles E.S.E. of Touloufe. The place contains 3>38, and
the canton 11,458 inhabitants, on a territory of 185 kilio-
metres, and in 13 communes.— Allo, a town of France, in
the department of the Aveiron; fix miles S.E. of St. Afrique.
—Allo, a town of Brazil, in the government of Goyes, on
the river Tocantin. S, lat. 15° 36’. W. long. 49° 36'.

Fexix, Cape, a cape on the welt coaft of the ifland of
Sumatra. N. lat. 4°. E.long 96°.

FELIZAN, a town of France, in the department of
Marengo ; 12 miles E. of Atti.

FELIZES pve Gatteco, S¢, a town of Spain, in the
province of Leon; eight miles N.N.W. of Ciudad Rodrigo.
» FELL, Jonn, in Biography, fon of Dr. Samuel Fell, dean
ef Chrift-Church, Oxford, was bornis the year 1625. He
received his grammar learning at Thame, in Oxfordfhire, and
from thence was admitted a {tudent at Chrilt-Church college
in 1636, when he was but eleven years of age. In 1640 and

1643 he took his degrees of B.A. and M.A., and about the
Jattter period he bore arms for king Charles I. within
the garrifon of Oxford, and obtained the rank of enfign.
In 1643 he was ejected from his {tudent’s place by the par-
liamentarian vilitors, from which time, till the reftoration
of Charles II., he lived in retirement at Oxford, joining
many royalifts in privately ufing the liturgy and rites of
the church of England at Merton college. After the

FEL

veftoration he was appointed prebendary of Chichefter ;
canon, and then dean of Chrift-Church in 1660, when he
was created doétor in divinity, and appointed one of his
majeity’s chaplains in ordinary. He was, in every refpeét,
a great benefactor to Chrift-Church college, of which he
was the head. He applied himfelf to the reftoration of its
difcipline, and to the promotion of learning and religion
among its members; and by his own benefactions, together
with what he procured from others, he made many import-
ant additions to the buildings of the college. From the year
1666 to 1659 he filled the office of vice-chancellor of the
univerlity with the highelt reputation. In 1675 he was
promoted to the bifhopric of Oxford, with leave to hold
his deanery, in order that his college and the univeifity
might {till enjoy the benefit of his fervices. To the former
he continued through life a liberal benefactor, and at his
death left an eftate for the fupport of ten exhibitioners. As
one powerful means of promoting literattire, he paid great
attention to the improvement of the univerfity prefs, and
became himfelf editor of numerous ancient and modern
writers. From the time of his becoming dean of Chrilt-
Church to his death, he annually publifhed a book, gene-
rally aclaflical author, with a preface, notes, and corrections,
which he prefented as a new-year’s gift to the ftudents of
his houfe. He was a liberal bencfaétor likewife to the
poor and diftrefled. When he had filled the fee of Oxford
ten years his health began to fink under his exertions, and
the anxiety which he felt on account of the changes at-
tempted to be brought about in religion by king James IT-
He died in 1686, leaving behind him the general character of
a learned and pious divine, of an excellent claffical fcholar,
ot a great afferter of the church of England, of another
founder of his own college, and of a patron of the whole
univerfity. When the Royal Society was inftituted, Dr.
Fell was among the alarmifts at the innovation pon the
Ariftotelian fyftem, and encouraged Stubbe to write feveral
pieces againft the members, charging them with intentions
to bring contempt upon ancient and folid learning, to under-
mine the univerfity, and even to deitroy the eltablifhed re-
ligion and introduce popery. Dr. Fell was author of the
life of Dr. Henry Hammond; he publifhed fome other
original pieces. He tranflated, with the affiftance of per-
fons employed by himfelf, «« Hiftoria et Antiquitates Uni-
verfitatis Oxonienfis,”? &c. in two volumes, folio. In his
tranflation he omitted fome things which Anthony Wood,
the author, requefted the public not to impute to him. He
publifhed an edition of the Greek Teitament, aod was
author and editor of a great many other works, for an ac-
count of which, fee Biog. Brit.

Feit, Jon, a Proteftant diffenting minifter, was born
at Cockermouth, in Cumberland, in the year 1732, and
rofe, by his talents and application, from a humble fta-
tion and mechanical employment, to confiderable repnta-
tion as a {cholar and adivine. He finifhed his education
for the minittry at the academy at Mile-end, in the vici-
nity of London; and was much aided and encouraged
by Dr. Walker, one of his tutors, who took pleafure in
promoting the literary attainments of thofe who were com-
mitted to his care. Mr, Fell was one of his favourite pu-
pils, and in the progrefs of his years appeared to have
availed himfelf in avery high degree of the advantages
which he had enjoyed under the initruGion of his tutor,
His firft fettlement, as a paitor, was at Thaxted in Effex,
where he formed a conneétion with a congregation of the
independent denomination in the year 1770, and where he
continued for féveral years ; uniting with his paftoral duties
the fuperintendance of a refpectable boarding-fchool. As

a {chool-

FEL

-a fchool-nafter and a preacher he was highly efteemed and re-

fpected. When a vacancy of refident and claffical tutor oc-
curred in the academy where he had received his education,
then removed from Mile-end to Homerton, he was earneftly
urgedto acceptthis office ; which, on account of feveralunplea-
fant circumf{tances that attended it, arifing partly from do-
mettic difcord, and partly from the unkindnefs and illiberality
of fome of the friends of the inftitution, proved in the event the
occafion of great uneafinels, and ferved, indeed, to embitter
and to accelerate the termination of his life. Although he
was difcharged from his office by a vote of the majority of
his conflituents, he was patronized after his difmiffion by a
very re{pectable minority, who deviled plans for his future
fubfiftence and comfort. With this view they engaged him
tto deliver twelve le ures on the evidences of Chriltanity,
for which the fum of 200/. was contributed; and an active
friend opened for him a fubfeription which was fufficient
for purchafing an annuity of 1o0/. His conftitution, how-
ever, was broken down by the treatment he had fuffered ;
.and the irritation of his mind was increafed by his anxiety
for duly dilcharging the fervice he had undertaken, and thus
requiting the generolity of his friends; fo that he did not
long live to enjoy the provifion which had been made for
him. Four of the propofed le&ures were delivered in the
four firft months of the year 1797 to crouded auditories ;
‘but a complicated diforder, under which he languifhed for
four months, prevented his profecution of them, and termi-
nated his life on the 6th of September in this year, in the
65th year of his age. The courfe of lectures was com-
pleted by Dr. Hunter, and the whole feries formed a volume,
which was publifhed after the death of Mr. Fell. ‘The theo-
logical fentiments of Mr. Fell were Such as are ufually de-
nominated Calviniflic ; but he combined with his fleady at-
tachment to thema great degree of charity and candour
towards thofe who differed from him. We knew him well;
and though his temper was fomewhat irritable, he was a
pleafing and inftruétive companion. His memory was re-
tentive ; his reading various; and his knowledge extenfive,
‘To the interefts of civil and religious liberty he, was ar-
dently devoted ; and of thefe interefts he was an able advo-
cate. . Under the article Farmer we have mentioned fome
of his moft elaborate publications. Befides thefe, he
was alfo the author of the following works: viz. ‘ An
Effay on the love of one’s Country,” 8vo. ‘ Genuine
Proteftantifm, or the unalienable rights of confcience de-
fended,”’ 1773, and 1774, Svo. ‘* The Juftice and Utility
of Penal Laws for the dire€tion of Confcience examined,’’
1774, 8vo. Remarks on the Appendix of the Editor of
Rowley’s Poems, &c.”? 1783, 8vo. “ An Effay towards
gn Englifhh Grammar, with a Differtation on the natural
and peculiar. Ufe of certain hypothetical Verbs in the
Englith Language,” 1784, 12mo. &c. Gen. Biog.

Fer, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes employed to

denote the {kin or hide of an animal. :
’ Fevr, a‘term applied to the knocking down of animals
which are to be killed. ‘he axe is moftly employed in this
‘bufinefs, but fhould be difcontinued, and that of pithing
‘be madevufe of in its place.

Fert, in Mining, fignifies fmall pieces of lead ore, and
{par, which have paffed through a riddle with openings
‘about an inch fquare. Fell-fleet fignifies large pieces of
fattage, or feagh, that is, refufe fpar.

* FELLA, in Geography, a river of Carinthia, which runs
into the Drave, near Machling.

Feria, Cape, a cape on the weft coaft of Calabria.
IN, fat. 39°38! Es long. 16° 24

FEL

FELLENBERG, a town of the Tyrolefe ; four miles
W.S.W. of Infpruck. ;

FELLETIN, a town of France, in the department of
the Creufe, and chief place of a canton in the diftrié of
Aubuffon; 21 miles $.S.E. of Gueret. N. lat. 45° 53.
E. long. 2°15'. ‘The place contains 2666, and the can-
ton 10,713 inhabitants, on a territory of 2074 kiliometres,
and in 10 communes. The chief article of trade is cattle,
and near it is a medicinal fpring. ,

FELLIN, a town of Naples, in the Lavora; 13 miles
E.N.E. of Naples. ‘ ty

FELLING, a town of Auftria; ro miles W.N.W. of
Crems.—Alfo, a town of Auidtria; 11 miles $. of Vienna.

Fruuinc of Limber, in Rural Economy, the operation of
cutting down trees for the purpofe of timber. In the per-
forming of this fort of bufinefs attention fhould in the firft
place be paid to the feafon of the year, efpecially where
the timber is of the oak kind. or {uch as is to be peeled for
the bark, as it will only peel, or, what the workmen term
run, at a particular pertod, which is generally in the {pring
months, juft before the leaves expand. With many other
forts of timber trees this is not, however, neceflary to be
regardeds but they fhould, in general, be cut down pre~
vioufly to the leaves appearing. ;

Tt is the praétice of fome, where any fort ef tree is te
be cut down in the above intention, firft to take off any
branches that may be likely to injure it in its fall, much harm
being frequently done to trees for want of care in this refpe&ts
Where the branches or limbs are of confiderable fize,
they fhould be cut on both fides, clofe to the bole, in order
to prevent their {plitting. In cafes where the trees are not
grubbed up, they fhould be cut.as clofe to the roots as pof-
fible, by which there will be a faving of the moft valuable
part of the timber. :

In the work of felling there is confiderable art to make
them fall in the beft way, which is only known by thofe
voodmen who have had much experience. Where a large
fall is therefore to be made, it is of much advantage to
have men of this kind to undertake the bufinefs. The
price of felling is regulated by a variety of different cir-
cumftances, as the kind of wood, the fize of the trees, the
nature of the fituation, &c.; but the work is often done
by the tree, or at a fixed price fora certain number of trees.
See Woops and Timber. ° .

FELLINGSBRO, in Geography, a town of Sweden,
in Weftmanland ; 24 miles W. of Stroemfholm. ‘

FELLIS, a mountain of Africa, in Adel; 50 miles W.
of cape Guardefui. :

FELLOWS, or Feruiss, in 4rtillery, ave fix-pieces of
wood, each of which forms an arch of acircle, and thefe,
joined all together by, duledges, make an entire circle,
which, with a nave, and twelve {pokes, form the wheel of
a gui-carriage.

Their thicknefs is ufually the diameter of the ball of the
gun they ferve for, and their breadth fomething mores
Their dimenfions are as follow: for a 24 pounder, five
inches thick, and 6: inches broad; for a 12 pounder,
44 inches thick, and fix inches broad; for a fix pounder,
four inches thick, and 53 broad, &c. made of dry elm.

FELLOWSHIP, Company, or Partnerfbip, in aca)
metic, is a rule ef great ufe in balancing accounts among
merchants and owners of {hips ; where a-number of perfons
putting together a general flock, it is required to give
every one his proportioual fhare of lois or gain. :

The golden rule, feveral times repeated, is the bafis of fel-
lowfhip, and fully anfwers all queftions of that kind: for, as
the whole itock is to the total thereby gained or loft, fo

2 : eacly

FEW

each man’s particular ftock is to his proper share of lofs or

ain. Wherefore, the feyeral {ums of money of eyery part-
her are to be gathered into one fum for the firlt term ; the
common gaia or lofs for the fecond ; and every man’s parti-
cular fhare for the third; and the golden rule is then to be
wrought fo many times as there are partners,

There are two cafes of this rule, the one without, the
other with time. Mi

TELLOWSHIP without time, is where the quantity of ftock
contributed by each perfon is alone contidered, without
any particular regard to the length of time that any of
their monies were employed. An example will make this
procefs eafy,

A. B. and C. freight a fhip with 212 tons of wine; A.
laying out 1342/. B. 1178/. and C. 630/. towards the fame;
the whole cargo is fold at 32/. per ton. Query, what fhail
each perfon receive ?

Find the whole produce of the wine by multiplying 212
by 32, which yields 6784. Then, adding together the
feveral flocks, 1342, 1178, and 630, which make 3150, the
work will itand thus: -

1342—Anfw.—2890, 1993, Kc.
3150: epae| 118 ——-———- 2537,0006, &c.
~& 630 ————+ 1356,8.
3150

Ferrowsuip with time, ufually called the Double rule

of Fellow/bip, is where the time during which the money,
&c. wereemployed, entersintothe account. An example
will make it clear.
_ A. B. C. commencea partierfhip the firft of January,
for a whole year. A. the fame diy difburfed 100/. of which-
Re received back again, on the firft of April, 20/. B.
pays, on the firft of March, 60/. and more, the frit of Au-
guit, rool. C. pays, the firft of July, 140/. and the firft of
O&ober, withdraws 40/. Atthe year’s end their clear gain
3s 1427. Query, what is each perfon’s due?

A.’s 100/. multiplied by three months, the time it was in,
makes 300/. and the remaining 80, by nine months = 720,
in all 1020/. of A.’s contribution. For B. 60 into 10,
gives 600; and 1o@ into 5, 500; inall rroo/. for B. For
C. 140 into 3,. gives 420; and Ico into 3, is 300 ; in all
4201. forC. Now, 1oz0 + 1100 + 720 = 2840 for the
common antecedent, and the gain 142, is for the general
eynfequent ; the rule will ftand thus:

1c20—An{w. 51
» 28402142 { L109O—— 55
‘ 72. —-— 36

Proof 6784

Proof 2840

142

N.B. All the particular times (if not fo given) muit be
seduced into one denomination, viz. into years, months,
weeks, or days.

FELLY, in Agriculture, is a term which is. fometimés

rovincially applied to the breaking up of a fallow. It is
fikewife the name of a part of a wheel.

FELNA, in Geography, a.diftri& of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Smoleniko, fituated on the Defna.

_ FELO, Care, the S. W. point of Sicily. N. lat. 37° 46'.
E. long. 12° 27'.

Ferro de /e, in Law, is he that commits felony, by willingly
and deliberately killing himfelf; or doing any unlawful malici-
ous act, the confequence of whichis his own death ; as if,
attempting to kill another, he runs upon his antagonilt’s
{word ;. or, fhooting at another, the gun burfts and kills

FEL

himfelf, (1 Hawk, P. C. 68.1 Hal. P, C. 413.) The
Saxons call him /e/f-bane. He mult be of the age of difcre-
tion, and compos mentis. But if areal lunatic kills himfelf
in a lucid interval, he is a felo de feas much as another mam
(1. Hal, P.C. 412.)

A felo de fe is to be interred without Chriftian burial,
with a ftake driven through his corpfe ; and is to forfeit his.
goods and chattels, real and perfonal ;. but he may makea
devife of his lands, becaufe they are not fubjeGted to any
forfeiture. (Plowd. 26:1.) However, thefe forfeitures are
generally faved by the verdi€t of the coroner’s jury, who find
lunacy. See Suicrpe.

If a perfon felo de fe is fecretly made away with, fo that
the coroner cannot view his body, prefentment is to be made
of it by juftices of peace,. &c. in order to entitle the king to
the forfeiture of goods.

FELON, in Surgery... See Wuitiow.

Fston wort. See Sovranum.

FELONIOUS Homicips. See Homicipe.

FELONY, Fexonsa, was anciently ufed for 4 violent
and injurious action of a vaffal, or tenant, againft his
lord.

Menage derives the word from félonia, formed of fe/o, or
fello, which occurs in the capitulars of Charles the Bald, and
is fuppofed to come from the German feblen, or Saxon
faelen, to fail, or be. delinquent. Others derive it from the
barbarous Latin ai/ania. Lord, Coke, Nicod,- &c. derive
it 2 fello, gall, as being {uppofed to be done maliciouily.
Others derive it from the Greek Gnacw, to deceive. But the
learned Spelman, with greater probability, deduces it from
two northern words, wiz. fee, which fignifies fef,, feud, or
beneficiary eflate, and Jon, which fignifies price.or value 3.
fo that felony is the fame as pretium feudi, the confideration:
for whicha man gives up his fief; agreeable to the com-
mon expreffion, {uch.an a¢t is as much as your life, or eftate,.
is worth.

In this fenfe felony was equivalent to petty-treafon, or
it was a crime next below high treafon.. The crime of felony
imported confifcation of the fee, to the profit of the lord.

All thofe aéts, whether of a criminal nature +r not,.
which at this day are generalty forfeitures of copy-hold:
eftates, are ftyled fe/onia in the feudal law.

FeEtony wasalfo applied to an injury of the lord to:his
vaffal, which imported a forfeiture of the homaze and fer-
vice thereof, and made it revert to the fovereign.

Fidelity and felony are reciprocal: between. the lord and
the vaffal.

Feuony, in the general acceptation of law,.comprifes
every fpecies of crime, which occafioned, at common law,
the forfeiture of lands or goods. This meft frequently
happens in thofe crimes for which.a capital punifhment ei-
th r was or isliable to be infli@ted ; for thofe felonies which
are called clergyable, or to which the-benefit of clergy ex-
tends, were anciently punifhed with death in lay or unlearn-
ed offenders, though now-by the flatute-law that punifhment
is, for the firft ewer univerfally remitted. (See Benerrr
of Clergy.) Treafon itfelf (fays Coke, 3 Init. 15,) was
anciently comprifed under the name of felony. And not
only all offences now capital are in fome degree or. other
felony ; but this is likewife the cafe with fome other of.
fences, which are not punifhed with death ;.as fuicide, where
the party is already pay homicide by chance medley, or
in felf-defence ; and petty larceny or pilfering ; all. which
are, ftriGly {peaking, felonies, as they fubje& thofe who
commit them to forfeitures. So that upon the whole, the
only adequate definition of felony feems to be this, vis. “ an
offence which occafionsa total forfeiture of either lands or

goods,

FEL

goods, or both, at the common law ; and to which capi-
tal or other punifhments may be fuperadded, accordiug to
the degree of guilt.” (Blackft. Com. vol. iv.) The idea of
felony is fo generally conneéted with that of capital punifh-
ment, that it feems hard to feparate them; and to this
ufage the interpretations of law now conform. For if a
flatute makes any new offence felony, the law implies that
it fhall be punithed with death (viz. by hanging), as well
as by forfeiture, unlets the offender prays the benefit of
clergy. (Hawk. P. C.i. c. 41. ii. c. 48.) So where a tla-
tute decrees an offender to undergo judgment of life and mem-
ber, the offence becomes a felony, though that precife word
be omitted ; but the words of the ftatute muft net in fuch
cafe be the leaft doubtful or ambiguous. (1 Hawk.
PCC a1.)

Tevony isalfo ufed, in Common Lac, for any capital of-
fence, perpetrated with any evil intention. :

Though capital punifhment does by no means enter into
the true idea and definition of felony, the true criterion of
which is forfeiture ; for in all felonies which are punifhable
with death the offender lofes all his lands in fee-fim-
ple, and alfo all his goods and chattels ; but in fuch as are
not fo punifhable, his goods and chattels only. 1 Inft.

gt.

In a ftri@er fenfe, felony denotes all capital crimes below
treafon. :

Felony includes feveral f{pecies of crimes, fuch as petit-
treafon, murder, theft, homicide, fodomy, rape, wilful
burning of houfes, receiving of {tolen goods, &c.; breach of
prifon, refcue and efcape, after one is arrefted or imprifoned
for felony, and divers others found in the ftatutes, which
are daily making crimes felony, that were not fo be-
fore.

Felony by the common law is againft the life of a man, as
murder, manflaughter, felo de fe, a defendendo, &c. againlt
a man’s goods, fuch as larceny and robbery ; againtt his
habitation, as arfon and burglary ; and againit public juttice,
as breach of prifon. 3 Intt. 31.

Piracy, robbery, and murder upon the feas, are felonies
punifhable by the civil law, and alfo by ftatute. 1 Intt.

re
Felony is eafily diftinguifhed from treafon.

From leffer crimes it is diftinguifhed by this, that its
punifhment is death, though not univerfally ; for petty
larceny, 7. ¢. ftealing of a thing under the value of twelve-
pence, is felony, according to Brook, though the crime be
not capital, but only a lois of goods. ‘Fhe reafon Brook
gives for its being felony is, that the indiétment runs, #/o-
nice cepit.

Till the reign of Henry TI. felonies were punifhed by pe-
cuniary fines ; that prince firft ordered felons to be hanged
about the year 1108.

Yelony is of two kinds; the one /ighter, which for the
firit time is entitled to the benefit of clergy ; as man-flaugh-
ter. The other, more heinous, is not allowed the privi-
lege.

ar dchy is alfo punifhable by lofs of all lands, not intailed ;
and all goods and chattels, both real and perforal; though
the {tatutes make a difference in fome cafes concerning lands,
as appears by ftat. 37 Hen. VIII.

Felony ordinarily works corruption of blood, unlefs the
ftatute, ordaining the offence to be felony, provide other-
wife; asthe ftat. 39 Eliz, cap..17,

The punifhment of a perfon for felony by our ancient
books is to lofe his life ; to lofe his blood, as to his ancef-
try, fo as to have neither heir nor polterity ; to lofe his

goods; andtolofe his lands. (4 Rep. 124.) A felony by

PEL
ftatute incidentally implies, that the offender fhall be fub-
jet to the like attainder and forfeiture, &c. as is incident to
a felon at common law. (3 Init. 47. 59. 90.)

Private perfons may arreit felons by their own authority,
or by warrant from a juftice of peace ; and every private
perfon is bound to affift an officer in taking felons. But owe
ought not to be arrelted upon fulpicion of felony, except
‘there be probable caufe fhewn for the ground of the fufpi-
cion, (1. Lil. Abr. 603.) A private man cannot juftify
breaking deorsto take the perfon fufpected ; but he doth
this at his peril, Whereas officers may break open a houfe
to take a felon, or any perfon juftly fufpeéted of felony ;
and if an officer hath a warrant to take a felon, who is killed.
in refitting, it is not felony in-the officer ; but if the offi-
cer is killed, it is otherwife. Dalt. 289.

Perfons indiéed of felony, &c. where there are ftrong
prefumptions and circumt{tances of guilt, are not repleviable ;
but for larceny, &c. when perfons are committed, who are
of good reputation, they may be bailed.

Ifa perfon be committed to prifon for one felony, the
juttices of gaol delivery may try him for another felony, for
which he was not committed, by virtue of their commiffion.
(1 Lil. 622.) -

It is not very eafy to re-capitulate the vaft variety of of-
fences that are made felony by innumerable ftatutes, which
the feenrity of fociety has required. We mutt refer for
particulars to the appropriate’articles as they occur. -

Trrony, Appeal of. See Avrra.

Freiony, Compounding of. See THrrr-norte.

Frerony, Difcovery of. See Discovery.

Frvony, Mit/prifion of. See Misrrision.

FELOOPS, in Geography, a people of Africa, who
inhabit a confiderable traét of country between the Gambia
and the Rio Grande.

FELORE, a river of Africa, which runs into the Se-
negal, 60 miles above Galem.

FELSBERG, atown of Heffe Caffel, with an
caftle on a rock ; 12 miles S. of Caffel. ;

FELSTIN, a town of Anttrian Poland, in Galicia; 40
miles S. W. of Lemberg.

FELSITE. See Ferspar.

FELSPAR, Feldspath, Germ. Of this mineral there
are the following {ub-fpecies: adularia, common fel{par,
compact felfpar, continuous felfpar, Labrador felfpar.

1. Adularia. Moonflone, Kivw. The colour of adularia
is yellowifh, greenifh, or milk-white, and in certain direc-
tions it exhibits a difplay of filvery and pearly colours, owing
to the different reflections of light from the laminz of which
it is compofed. It occurs either in mafs or cryttallized.
Its primitive figure is an irregular oblique-angled parallelopi-
ped, of which the faces are fmooth and well defined, and
form an angle with each other of go’; while the faces in the
third dire€tion are uneven, and form with the others angles
of 120° and 111° 28’. It alfo prefents the following modi-
fications: 1. An oblique four-fided prifm, bevilled on two
of its oppofite fides. 2. An oblique four-fided prifm with
dihedral fummits. 3. A fix-fided prifm with dihedral fum-
mits. 4. A double cryftal in the form of a reCtangular
four-fided prifm, compofed of two half cryftals united to-
gether in oppofite direGions, 5. A quadruple cryital, com-
pofed of four cryftals of var. 2. united together by their
fummits, and mutually penetrating each other, forming a
crofs confifting of four triangles united round a common
centre.

The furface of the cryftals is fmooth, and often ftriated
longitudinally. They are for the moft part middle-fized or
large. The external luitre is fhining and fomewhat pearly ;

the

ancient

FELSPAR.

the luftre of the principal frature is biight-fhining, that of
the crofs fraéture is fhining, between vitreous and pearly.
Tts longitudinal fraéture is perfectly foliated ; its crofs frac-
ture is fmall conchoidal, It breaks into rhomboidal frag-
ments. It is fometimes compofed of flraight lamellar diftinet
concretions, It is tranflucent, pafling to tranfparent. Its
hardnefs is inferior to that of quartz, but greater than that
of common felfpar. It is ealily frangible; fp. gr. = 2.5
fo 2.6. It has been aaalyfed by Vauquelin, with the fol-
lowing refult,

Silex iptherier, 404
Alumine . iy ZO
Lime . 6 2
Rotathwee route. nA!

100

Adularia was firft found by H. Pini in the mountains
furrounding St. Gothard, in Switzerland, efpecially in
the fummit called Mont Adula, (whence its name.) It
here occurs in cryttals, liming the cavities of micaceous
{chittus.

2. Common Felfpar.—The colour of this mineral is milk-
white, yellowith, greyifh, and reddifh-white, alfo wax-
yellow, and ochre-yellow, fleth-red, blood and brick-red,
leek-green, mountain-green, and, rarely, verdegris-green.
It occurs in mafs, diffeminated, in rounded fragments, and
cryftallized. Its primitive form, and the other varieties of
cryftallization, are the fame as thofe of adularia: it has
alfo been found in-ten-fided prifms, with dihedral, or other
varioufly modified fummits. The cryftals are for the moft
part {mall and middle-fized. Externally, this mineral is
more or lefs fhining ; internally, it is the fame, with a luftre
between vitreous and pearly. The longitudinal fraéture is
perfectly lamellar, the crofs-fraéture is fine-grained uneven,
palling into fplintery. Its fragments are rhomboidal, with
four fhining, and two dull faces. It varies from tranflucent
to opaque. It occurs often in large or {mall granular con-
cretions. It is not fo hard as quartz, yet will fcratch
glafs. It is brittle and eafily frangible; fp. gr. 2.27 to
Zane

Tt melts without addition, before the blow-pipe, into a
white, fomewhat tranflucent glafs.

Felfpar has often been analyfed, and with very different
refults: that perhaps the moft to be depended on is of the

reen Siberian felfpar by Vauquelin, of which the follow-
ing is the refult :

Silex “ 02.53
Alumine . 1nd eO2
IMCL ests i ae
Oxyd of iron . nies 3
Rotates: ing: 136
96.85

Felfpar, when expofed to the weather, acquires gradually
an earthy appearance, and at length pafles into porcelain clay.
Tt alfo occurs in a ftate of femi-decompolition in feveral va-
rieties of granite and porphyry, where it cannot have been
affected by the atmofphere. When in this {tate it is ufually
of a yellowifh or reddifh-white colour, a faintly glimmering
Juitre, and a fracture imperfectly foliated, pafling into
earthy ; it breaks into indeterminately angular fragments,
js opaque, and contiderably fofter than common fel{par,
A very light-coloured variety was analyfed by Vauquelia,
and found to confilt of

Vou, XIV.

Silex : ‘ Fs F "4:

eee P pie
ee Lofs
100.

Some of the coloured tranflucent varieties of felfpar
coatain particles of mica difperfed through their fubftance,
and thefe, when the {tone is expofed to the light, form fo
many luminous points which relieve the colour of the fel-
{par, and give the whale a fpangled appearance, that has a
pleafing effet. When felfpar exhibits this appearance it
is called aventurine (a term alfo applied to a fimilarly ¢lit-
tering variety of quartz). The green Siberian felfpar for
times contains {pangles of a remarkably brilliant filvery mica
forming a very elegant aventurine. Another fine variety
hag been procured from Fedlovatoi, an ifland in the White
fea, not far from Archangel, confifting of a tranfparent
hyacinth-brown bafe, with gold-coloured {pangles.

Common felfpar is the moft generally diffufed, both as
to its local and geological fituation, of any other mineral,
except perhaps quartz. It is an effential conftituent of
granite and gneifs, of fienite and greenftone : it abounds in
all porphyries, and in many rocks of trap-formation, and in
the greater part of the real lavas.

3. Compad Felfpar—Felfite, Kirw. Its colour is blueith-
white, paffing into fky-blue ; or greenifh-white, pafling into
brownifh-green. The blue variety occurs in mafs, the
green is either diffeminated or cryttallized. Its luftre is
gliftening ; its fracture is very imperfectly lamellar, ap-
proaching to fplintery ; its fragments are indeterminately
angular; it is feebly tranQucent, and, though hard, confi-
derably inferior to quartz.

It is fufible without addition, though difficultly, before
the blow-pipe, into a frit or imperfect glafs. It has not
been analyfed.

The blue compa& variety was difcovered by Widenmana
at Krieglach, in Stiria, forming a granitic mafs with white
quartz and filvery mica: the green varieties occur in greea
porphyry and greenttone.

4. Continuous Felfpar.—tts colour is reddifh-grey, or
flefh-coloured ; or pale reddith-yellow, or olive-green. It
occurs in mafs, and generally contains common cryftallized
felfpar difperfed through it in various proportions. It is
fometimes dull, but generally poffeffes a feeble glimmering
luitre ; it is tranflucent on the edges; its fracture is five
{plintery, paffisg into uneven earthy ; its fragments are inde.
terminately angular ; its hardnefs is fully equal to that of
common fel{par, and it is lefs britde. Ata high heat it
melts into a porous porcelain mafs.

5. Labrador Fel/par —The proper colour of this mineral is
fmoke-erey, or dark-afh colour, but, on account of the
fmall crevices between the lamelle of which it is com;
it prefents a moft beautiful play of vivid tints, va
cording to the pofition in which it is viewed. Of
exhibits all the varieties from violet to fmalt blue ; of sreen,
it difplays the 1 her tinges

pure emerald green, and various ot
paffing on one hand into blue, and on the other into yellow ;
of yellow, the ufual tints are gold and lemon-yellow,
ing into deep orange, and thence into rich copp 1, an
tombac-brow The parts exhibiting thefe |
lours are difpofed in irregular {pots and pate
: fi le ke cate As
fame {pot, if held in different politions, difplays vari
juts. § ay een found only in detached rc
I

v crg-

FEL

pieces Internally it is fhining with a luftre between pearly
and vitreous: its principal fraCture is perfe@ly lamellar in
two dire€tions, the lamelle croffing each other at right
angles ; its crofs fracture is fomewhat conchoidal ; it breaks
into rhomboidal fragments, with four fpecular faces ; it is
ftrongly tranflucent, pafling into femi-tranfparent. Sp. gr.
2.6 to 2.7.

It is fufible, without addition, before the blow-pipe, into
a white enamel. According to Bindhcim, who alone has
analyfed this mineral, it confifls of hee:

Silex ¢ = A005
Alumine . 13.6
Sulphat of lime Ta.

Oxyd of copper 0.7
Ditto of iron

Ico.

Tt was firft difcovered by the Moravian miffionaries on
“the ifland of St. Paul, on the Labrador coaft, and has fince
been found in Ingermannland, in Norway, and in the vici-
nity of lake Baikal, in Siberia.

Tt is in confiderable eftimation among lapidaries for or-
namental works.

FELT, a kind of ftuff, either of wool alone, or of
wool and hair; neither fpun, croffed, nor woven, but de-
‘viving all its confiftence from its being wrought, and fulled
with lees and fize, and afterwards fafhioned on a block or
mould, by help of fire and water.

Caftors, camels, and coneys hair, lambs, and fheeps wool,
&c. are the moft ufual ingrediente of felts; and hats
of all kinds are the works they are chiefly employed
in.
The felt intended fora hat, being fufficiently fulled, and
prepared, is reduced into one piece, fomewhat in the figure
of a large funnel ; in which ftate it remains ready to be put
into form, and becomes a hat. See Har.

FELTING, in the Manufadures, denotes the operation
by which the fur, hair, and wool of animals are wrought into
a {pecies of cloth, without either {pinning or weaving. A
hatter feparates the hairs from each other by ftriking the
wool with the ftring of his bow, thus caufing them to
{pring up in the air, and they then fall in every direction on
the table, fpread and diftributed in fmall flocks, which the
workman covers with a cloth, flightly moiftened ; preffing
it with his hands, and moving the hairs backwards and for-
wards in different directions. In this manner the different
fibres are brought againft each other, and their points of
conta&t confiderably multiplied ; and the agitation gives
each hair a progreffive motion towards the root, in con-
fequence of which the hairs become twitted together. As
the mals becomes compact, the preflure fhould be increafed,
jn order to keep up the progreffive motion and twifting of
the hairs, which is thus performed with greater difficulty.
The various fibres of the materials being thus by a gra-
dual preffure in different direCtions made to interweave and
crofs each other, form a piece of ftuff of a foft and {pongy
texture; upon this firft piece is placed another, formed in the
fame manner, and fometimes a third or fourth, according
to the nature of the materials, and the intended thicknefs
and confiftence of the work. Thefe different pieces are
fucceffively brought together, and difpofed in a form {uitable
to the article which is to be fabricated; and in order to
efieG& the cohefion, the operator ufes a number of preflures

FEL

and alternate motions in different direétions, during which
he preferves the fapplenefs and flexibility of the material by
flight afperfions of water. The next operation is fulling,
which fee. he hair intended for the manufaéturing of
hats is always cut off with a fharp inftrument, and not
pulled up by the roots; becaufe the bulb of the hair,
which would come out with it in the latter cafe, would ren-
der the end which was fixed in the {kin very obtufe, and
nearly deitroy its difpofition to unite with the adjacent
hairs. The hairs fhould not be iftraight like needles, for
then there would be no compaétnefs in the ftuff. The
fibres of wool having naturally a crooked form, that fub-
{tance is well adapted to the operation of felting. The
hair of beavers, rabbits, hares, &c. being ftraight, cannot
be ufed in felting, till it has been prepared for the purpofe.
See Har.

FELTON, the Rev. Witt1am, in Biography, pre-
bendary of Hereford, and a dilettanti mufician, above the
common clafs of gentlemen performers. . He wasa good
organ-player, and had a neat finger and powerful hand for
common divifions, and the rapid multiplication of notes.
As a compofer he imitated Handel’s organ concertos, and:
produced three fets, in which there were two concertos that
were theught worth playing in London by Stanley at the
Caftle Concert, and Butler at Ranelagh. Two of his airs,
with variations, were long the pride of every incipient
player on the harpfichord in town and country.

FELTRI, in Geography, a town of Italy, and capital
of the Feltrin, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of the patriarch
of Aquilea; fituated at the foot of mountains generally
eovered with {now, which renders the air cold. The prin-
cipal trade of the place is iron. The town has broad and
well paved ftreets, a {plendid town-houfe, a large and fine
market place with fountains, a cathedral church, which.
yields a good income to the bifhop, three monafteries and
three nunneries, a pawn-bank, and fpacious fuburbs, feated

‘ina plain. The number of inhabitants is eftimated at 5,200 5

53 miles N.W. of Verona.
8.

FELTRIN, a {mall diftri& of Italy, bounded on the
north by the Bellunefe, on the eaft and’ fouth by the Trevi-
fan, and on the weft by the Trentin and Vicentin. It is
28 miles in length, and ten in breadth, and produces a
fufficiency of grain, and an abundance of fruit, efpecially
fine nuts, wine, filk, black cattle, fheep, fire wood, and-
game. The air is falubrious. This: territory contains,
befides the capital, 120 villages, 20 parifhes, and 42,000
inhabitants. The only place of note is Feltri. ‘

FELTRINO, a river of Naples, which runs inte the
Adriatic, 4 miles S.E. of Ortona.

FELTRO, Morto pa, in Biography, a painter of
grotef{que or ornamental works. “He was born at Florence
in 1468, and there he firft ftudied the art of painting. His
peculiar genius direGting him to paint in the grotefque ftyle,
he went young to Rome, the grand emporium of works of
the ancients in that kind, which he eagerly fought for
among its antiquities and ruins, The veltiges of temples,
baths, grottos, tombs, &c. fupplied him with a great
variety of ftudies, whofe elegance of ftyle he effeCually
imitated, and became eminent in that manner. It is no
{mali praife of him that Giorgione employed him to intros
duce the ornamental parts of fome of his grandeit com-
potitions.

FELUCCA, or Fexucco, alittle veffel with from ten
to fixteen banks of oars, not covered over, much ufed in
the Mediterranean as a paflage boat. The natives of <Bar-
bary employ boats of this fort as eruifers,

The

N. lat. 46° 2'. E, Jong. 11°

FEM

"The word is formed from the Arabic felkon, a /bip.

It has this peculiarity, that the rudder may be applied
either in the head or ftern; there being difpofitions in both
to receive it. For fize, it may be compared to a floop or
Billop- It is rigged and navigated like galleys; which

ee.

FELUDSJE, Fereya, or Felicha, in Geography, a
{mall ifland in the N.W. part of the gulf of Perf, near
the coait of Arabia. N. lat. 29°45’. E. long. 48°.

FEMALE, the fex that conceives and bears fruit.

An animal that generates within itfelf, is called female ;
and that which generates in another, male.

The female,- in quadrupeds,. and even in birds, is ufually
fmaller and weaker than the male; though in birds of prey,
as the falcon, hawk, &c. it is otherwife ; the female being
bigger,. ftronger, bolder, hardier, and more courageous.

The like is obierved in moft infe&s, particularly {piders ;
to that degree, that M. Homberg affures us, he has
weighed five or fix male garden-fpiders againft one
female of the fame fpecies, which has been equal to
them all. ;

For the numeral proportion of males to females, fee Mar-
RIAGE. :

- Naturalifts alfo diflinguifh male and female plants; male
and female flowers, &c.

Femare Flowers, in Botany. See Ferrire Flow-

ers.
Femare Flute-Player, See Fuure, Lamia, and
AmBuBasz.

Femare Screw. See Screw.
_FEMBLE-Hemp, in Rural Economy, a name given in

fome diftrits to the female hemp.

FEME Covert, in Zaw, denotes a married woman;
who is alfo laid to be under covert-baron.

By the law of England, afeme-covert committing a bare
theft in company with, or by coercion of, her hufband, is
not deemed guilty of felony ; neither does fhe become accef-
fary to a felony, by receiving her hufband who has been
guilty of it, as he does by receiving her. But if fhe com-
mit a theft by the bare command of her hufband ; or trea-
fon, murder, or robbery, in his company, or by his coer-
cion, or keep a bawdy-houfe with him, fhe is punifhable
in the fame manner, as if fhe was fole; and generally if fhe
be guilty of any offence not capital, fhe may be indiéted,
&c. without making the hufband a party. But if the in-
cur the forfeiture of a penal ftatute, the hufband mutt be
made defendant in the action or information. (Hawk. P. C.
bime.1

Peo the Romans, a married woman was as capable
ef making a will as a feme-fole, but with us fhe is not
only utterly incapable of devifing lands, but of making a
teftament of chattels, witout the licence of her hufband.
For all her perfonal chattels are abfolutely his. Yet by her
hufband’s licence fhe may make a teftament, and the huf-
band, upon marriage, frequently covenants with her friends
to allow her that licence. The queen confort is an excep-
tion to this general rule, for fhe may difpofe of her chattels
by will, without the confent of her lord (Ce. Litt. 133.);
and any feme-covert may make her will of goods, which
are in her poffeffion in autre droit, as executrix or admi-
niftratrix, for thefe can never be the property of the huf-
band ; and if fhe has any pin-money, or feparate mainte-
nance, it is faid fhe may difpofe of her favings thereout by
teftament, without the controul of her hufband. (Prec.
Chan. 44.) A feme covert may purchafe an eftate without
the confent of her hufband, and the conveyance is good
during the coverture, till he avoids it by fome a& declaring

FE Xi

his diffent. (Co. Litt. 3.) See more on this fubje& under,
the article CoverTurRe.

Feme /ole, an unmarried woman, whofe debts contraGted
before marriage become thofe of her hufband after it. If a
feme fole makes her will, and afterwards marries, fuch fub-
fequent marriage is efteemed a revocation in law, and en-
tirely vacates the will. See Custom of London.

FEMERN, in Geography, an ifland of Denmark, in
the Baltic, feparated from Helftein by a narrow ftrait,
called «* Femern Sound,”? about 27 miles in circumference.
It contains the town of Burg, and a few villages. This
ifland, though fmall, has always been confidered as one of
the keys of Denmark towards Germany. There is a fort
at the landing-place from Holfteia. _N. lat. 54 230
E, long. 11°.

FEMININE, or Foeminine, in Grammar, one of the
genders of nouns.

The feminine gender,is that which denotes the noun or
name to belong toa female. In the Latin, the feminine
gender is formed of the mafculine, by altering its termina-
tion; particularly by changing us into a. Thus, of the
mafculine Jonus equus, a good horfe, isformed the feminine,
bona equa, a good mare; 10, of parvus homo, a little man, is
formed parva famina, a little woman, &c. In French, the
feminine gender is exprefled, not by a different termination,
buta different article: thus, /e is joined to a male, and /ato
a female.

In Englifh, we are generally more ftriG, and exprefs the
difference of fex, not by diflerent terminations, nor by dif-
ferent particles, but differeat words ; as doar and /ow, doy
and girl, brother and filer, &c. though fometimes the femi-
nine 1s formed by varying the termination of the male into
cfs, as in abbot, albefs, &c.

Feminine Rhymes. See Ruyme.

FEM-OWL, in Ornithology, an Englifh name ufed in
Shropfhire, and fome other counties, for the caprimulzus, or

oat-fucker, called alfo the churn-owl. It is a very beau-
tiful bird, and more refembles the cuckow than the owl-
kind. See Caraimurcus.

FEMSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, inthe
province of Smaland; 50 miles W. of Wexio.

FEMUR, or Os Femoris, in Anatomy, the bone of
the thigh. See Extremiries.

FEN, in Agriculture, a term commonly made ufe of to fig-
nify lands which are of the foft, boggy, or marfhy kind; and
which, from the great ftagnation aad retention of moifture,
are difpofed to the growth and production of different coarfe
vegetables, as well as to become unhealthy for thofe who
inhabit them. In different diftri&s of the kingdom, as in the
counties of Lincoln, Cambridge, and thofe which adjoin
thera, immenfe tracts of this defcription of jands are ftill to
be met with ; which, by proper rreans, fuch as thofe of
inclofing, effectual draining, paring and burning, and the
growth of fuitable kinds of crops, might be rendered of
vaft impertance to individuals as well as the nation, but
which in their prefent {tate afford f{earcely any thing, except
rufhes, feeds, fedge, and coarfe grafles.

The lands of this kind differ in their qualities according
to the progrefs they have made to the ftate of firmnefs from
the gradual depofitions of earthy matters; in fome cafes
being quite folid, while, in others, they are covered with
water, except fome {mall portions which rife above the
furface in particular places. The former are moitly without
any rivers paffing into or through them, but the latter have
commonly {prings rifing in them, and become the fources
of rivers.

The firft fort of fen lands is moitly injured by the &ag-

Hh2 nation

FEN. ‘

nation of fuch waters as come upon them from the higher
grounds during the time of floads or heavy falls of rain,
from their being generally of confiderable extent, and for
the moft part lying perfe€tly flat, without the leaft fall to
difcharge or take them off. They of courfe continue upon
them until they ave taken up by the procefs of evaporation.

The other is con{tantly in a great meafure covered with
water, only having fomewhat more dry ground during thofe
feafons which are long free from rain. ;

In the drainage of thefe forts of lands, which conftitutes
their chief fir improvement, the operator muft be prin-
cipally dire@téd by the circumftances of the particular cafes,
their fituations, and the nature of the caufes from which
the wetnefs proceeds. See Draintnec of Land.

In fome inftances they will not only require the proper
cutting of deep and furface drains, and ditches; but often
extenfive embanking, when ai the borders of large rivers

- or the fea, as well as flood-gates to prevent the influx of water
during the time of floods or high tides. And occafionally
likewife other machinery in the nature of fen or lifting mills,
in order to throw or difcharge the water over the banks.
See Mirus

In cafes which arife from fprings, as well as thofe which
are produced by the ftagnation of furface water, it will
frequently be neceflary, in order to effect their drainage, to
have one or more deep open cuts, brought up in a proper
dire€tion from the loweft point at which the water can be
difcharged. Into this various other, either furface or other
drains, muft ke formed, in fuitable directions, according
to the nature of the cafes, that the water may be effectually
carried off. In the execution of the bufinefs it will confe-
quently be firft neceffary to afcertain the moft depending
part of the iand by proper levelling with a fpirit or other
level, fuixable to the purpofe. Whete this is not carefully
done, the drainage can feldom be accomplifhed in a proper
manner.

Prefent Value, Dr.

By the weft fen

To prefent value of
By the eaft fen

all the common
rights in the eaft
and weft fens

nee) Sel Ae)

Dedu& the former value

Net improvement

By the Wild-

more fen

To prefent value
of the common
rights in the
Wildmore fen

Net improvement

PRIS 13) 7

more fens -

} 10,661 2 25 20

The main drain or drains, in eafes of this kind, fhould
conttantly have fufficient depth and width to readily dif-
charge the water from the whole extent of the level; and
the flood and tide waters be kept as much as poffible from
flowing upon the lands by proper embanking and the ufe of
flood-gates, as faggefted above. See Emaanxmenr and
FLoop-Gate.

In moft other points the drainage of thefe forts of lands
may be conduéted in the fame way as for common draining,
See Draininc.

When fen lands have been rendered fufficiently dry by -

proper draining, and are become in a ftate of proper
folidity for carrying on the operation of tillage, where
they contain much coarfe vegetable matter upon their fur-
faces, the moft advantageous method is to begin by paring
and burning, which will afford an excellent preparation for
acrop of rape, or even turnips where the lands are free from
too much ftagnant moiflure ; and either of thefe kinds of
crops will leave the grounds in excellent condition for
potatoes, beans, or cabbages, with which they fhould be
con{tantly cropped until they are brought into a fuitable
{tate for the growth of grain, when a few crops of this fort
may be taken in alternation with thofe of the green kind,
keeping it always in mind that the great object isto lay
them down as foon as poflible to grais, for which they are
in general the beft calculated.

In the introduétiga of grain crops, it is for the moft patt
the beft to begin ‘with: oats, as fuch forts of land are com-
monly well edapted to them, The other kinds may after=
wards be had recourfe to according to circumftances.

It has been ftated by the writer of the “* Survey of the
County of Lincoln,” that the probable improvement that®
might be made by the inclofing, draining, paring and burn-
ing, and judicious cropping of the ea{t and weit fens in that:
diftri&, would not be lefs than is ftated below.

Improved Value, Cr.

Val. per
Acre. | Rent.

Ang Rae Be
- 16,924 2 20
= 12,424 3 39 15

16,924 10 9
9.318 14 11

Total improved value, Cr.

4173 5 0

22,070 o 8

Val. per

A. R. P. A
Acre

10,661 13 13

Dedu& Dr. as oppofite —

nang)

a

; The whole improvement of the eaft and weft ad i sae ale

FEN

Tt is remarked, that the calculation is drawn from the
average of the common rights of two different parifhes, thefe
of Lufhby and Revefby, the one being detached a coniider-
able diftance from the common, and the other greatly nearer,
which furnifhes a tolerable data for the whole of the towns 5
and if thofe two parifhes common rights produce a given fum,
and their two flares of land-tax amount for Lufhby, 40/.,
Revefby, 237 /.; all the parifhes which have rights upon
the fens, amounting to 3975 /. 15s. produce the fum of
4173/. 55. per year, which gives the prefent value of the
common rights upon thefe fens, from 29,349 acres, at about
2s. 10d. the acre; when, by the improvement from an inclo-
fure, the fame 29,349 acres would produce 26,243 /. per
year, which averages about 175. 11 d. the acre, and which
8 the moderate average value; although there are certain
lands taken in to defray the expence of draining the weit
fen, let by auGtion for 34s. the acre ; in the average about
4,000 acres in farms.

It is fuggeited, that the chief reafon why thefe fens are
fo unprofitable in their prefent ftate, is from the diforder in
ftocking ; becaufe human nature being in its various capa-
cities anxious of property, fome perfons, from avarice, or a
wifh to get rich at once, itock fo largely as tosinjure them-
felves, and oppreis the common; others, in the line of
jobbing, put in great quantities of itock to fel! again, which
are altogether injurious to the fair commoner, who only
ftocks with what his farm producessf Becaule, {uppote
one man ftocked a paiture of 29,349 acres, he would con-
fider the different forts of cattle to be depaftured thereon,
for each to thrive and yield their proportionable fhare of
profit ; but if 3,000 men ftock, they have different views
of {uppofed intereft; fome increafe their breed of fheep,
beafts, horfes, geefe, &c. There are inflances of a cot-
tager renting five pounds fer year having fifteen hundred
or two thoufand breeding geefe, which mutt injure his
neighbour of five pounds fer year, who has got only a few
fheep, ora cow. ‘The chief proprietors of thefe fens have
long had their improvement in contemplation, efpecially
fince fo many infertor neighbouring commons have been
embanked and inclofed to fuch advantage, and particularly
as it is evident that if this was the ee, they would pro-
duce a yearly rent of 26,243/. 5s.8d. There are plough
farms being eftimated to produce three years rent, 78,729/.
175. which increafe of property would, it is fuppofed, employ
more poor, maintain more farmers, increale trade, and
produce great quantities of grain, which now cotts Englith
money to import from foreign nations. ‘The reafons why
the proceeding has been fo long delayed has been the
extent of the undertaking, and the intermixture of large
mortmain eftates, with fome differences in the rights be-
tween the foke of Bolingbrooke and Holland town. This
great work has however fince, we believe, been accomplifhed,
and a va{t extent of valuable land reclaimed and brought
into the {tate of cultivation.

It was formerly fuppofed that fens were of great ad-
vantage to thofe who refided in the vicinity of them, in
the large quantities of fowl and fifh which they afforded ;
but this does not appear to be really the cafe, when the
value of the land in other views is fully confidered. The
kinds of wild-fowl with which they principally abound are
thofe of the wild-duck and teal forts, which are often ex-
tremely numerous, being” taken in decoys, and conveyed to
‘the London markets.

The fith are chiefly: pike and eels, which ate in great
numbers of large fize, and taken without any very great diffi-
culty; but they are faid not to be fo delicate for eating as
thofe of fome other fituations,

FEN

But the principal benefit was probably derived from the
vaft number of geefe that were kept upon them, as, befides
their ufe as food, they afforded very confiderable profits in
the feathers and quills. It is fhewn by the books in the
cuftom-houfe at Bofton, in the county of Lincoln, that
formerly there were not unfrequently fent away from that
place, in one year, the quantity of three hundred bags of
feathers, each bag containing one hundred and a half weight.
They pluck the geefe feveral times in the year for the feathers,
and oxce for the quills. See Featuers’and Goose.

Fen, in Rural Economy, the name of a pernicious dif-
temper to which the hop is particularly expefed. It con-
fifts of a mould or mofs, which grows with great rapidity,
{preading itfelf greatly, and occafioning much injury in the
hop plantation. The fine fmell and condition of the hop are
in this Way very much impaired.

FENCE, in Agriculture, aterm fignifying any fort of
conftruétion raifed for the purpofe of inclofing land, fuch
asa bank of earth, a ditch, hedge, wall, railing, ‘paling,
or any fimilar kind of ereétion.

It-feems evident that fences only became known, and were
recurred to, as the paftoral flate of fociety difappeared ;
and that during that of the feudal fyitem they were but
little neceflury, except in the cafe of villages, for the pur-
pote of incloting the little portions of grafs lands, which
were {cattered about them; or in particular inftances for
protecting the more expofed parts of parifh fields, while
they were kept‘in the itate of corn.

In this country, however, fences are now generally pre-
valent, except where the remains of the feudal praétice is
ftill permitted to continue; or where the appropriated
mountains and high lands are managed under the fheep
fy{tem ; and where the extenfive ranges of chalk hills in
the ftate of appropriation, which are more favourably
fituated and conduéted under a mixed kind of cultivation,
are ftill wholly open. Thefe hills are, however, particularly
fuited to the fheep hufbandry, the more elevated, bleak,
and leaft fertile parts of them having conftantly been kept
in the ftate of fheep walks by their occupiers. Confequently
large flocks of fheep’are preferved on them under the care
of fhepherds, who attend them during the day, and fold
them in the night, by which praétice the crops are
effeGtually proteéted from injury.

But whether this fyftem of management be praper or the
contrary, it is clear that wherever horfes, neat ‘cattle, or
{mall numbers of fheep,. which have not the attendance of
fhepherds, are the patturing flock, fences become eflential
to the due cultivation of the land.

The materials which are the muft commonly employed in
the railing of fences are, earthy fubftances, living plants of
various kinds, ftones, bricks, and wood of different forts.
Iron, and even rope, or cord, are likewife occafionally made
ufe of for forming fences. ;

The firlt of thefe, thongh frequently made ufe of in the
forming of fences, are far from being good materials for
the purpofe, as they foon begin to decompofe by the action
of the air, and monlder away, leaving any fort of plants thar
may have been fet upon them in a naked and expofed con-
dition. In moft fituations they likewife become fo dry and
parched: by the heat of the fun in the fummer mo: ths, that
the plants never thrive properly upon them. They are alfo
very apt to be thrown down by neat cattle aud theep, rub-
bing againft them in hot feafons. Thefe mound fences are
much met with in different counties, as Devonfhire, Lanca-
fire, and in fome parts of Wales.

‘The fecond fort of fubitances for the purpofe of fences
affords great variety, there being many kinds of plavts that

anfwer

FENCE.

anfwer perfeAly well, but the beft are unqueftionably the
white thorn and the holly. The black thorn, hazel, and
crab-tree, may likewife be ufed in the fame way. Fences
made with fome of thefe forts of plants are by much the
beft and moft durable.

Several other kinds of plants may likewife be employed
int forming live fences, as the willow, the elder, the birch,
and the alder for moift fituations; the beech on thofe that
are high and expofed ; and the elm and hora-beam where
they are low and the foil inclined to be heavy.. Thefe two
laft are, however, but little had recourfe to in this intention.
Of the willow there are many forts, all of which may be
cut into truncheons of fuitable lengths, and planted out in
that way.

Stones and bricks make excellent fences, both ia refpec
to convenience and durability ; but they are moftly much
too expenfive, except where they are abundant, and labour
cheap. The latter can only be employed on particular oc-
cafions, and under particular circumitances, cbiefly where
ornament is required. On hilly, low, mountainous, and
other ftony-expofed fituations, where live fences cannot be
raifed without great difficulty, and fhe'ter is not required,
walls are capable of being had recourfe to with advantage,
and are commonly the motl proper fort of fence for the pur-
pofe. In lefs elevated diftri&s, where thefe forts of ma-
terials are readily procured, fences of the wall kind are
likewife not unfrequently met with, as conitituting the di-
vifion of lands merely in the flate of tillage, as well as for
the confining of the inferior forts of live ftock. Their
appearance is, however, extremely naked and difgufting.

Wood is a fort of material which is certainly the wort
and moft expenfive that can be had recourfe to in the con-
itruction of fences; as whether it be the {maller forts of
wood for the forming of dead hedges, the defending of the
banks of ditches, &c.; or the larger kind of timber-wood
employed in making paling, railing, and other fimilar
fences, it may be faid to be in a conftant progreflive ftate of
decay from the very period uf its being put up. It can of
courfe be very rarely made ufe of as a fence, except in the
cafe of dead hedges, where living ones cannot be raifed ;
and for inclofing about the farm-iteads and parks, or other
pleafure-grounds, where ornamert is required, or in the
form of paling, for proteéting new-planted quickfet
hedyes, &c.

The two laft materials can evidently never be had recourfe
to as farm-fences from their expenfive nature; it is only
in ornamented grounds, where a peculiar degree of neatnefs
is required, that they can be employed. The latter is a
very perifhable kind of material, and the former ftands in
need of frequent expenfive painting, to preferve it from
decay.

Fences may be capable of being divided, from the na-
ture of their conftruction, into two clafles or kinds, as

1. Simple Fences.
2. Compound Fences.

‘The firft clafs, or divifion, comprehends all thofe which
are fufficient of themfelves for the purpofes of inclofure,
without requiring the affiftance of any other fort ; as thofe
of fimple ditches, dikes, hedges, walls, palings, rail-
ings, &c.

The fecond fort comprifes all fuch kinds as ftand in
need of the affiftance of fome other kinds, im order to
guard and protect them in their young growth, or which
may render them more fafe and fecure when farther ad-
vanced; as hedge and ditch, or bank, hedge ditch and_pa-
ding, hedge ditch and railing, double hedges, hedge and

wall, hedge ditch and wall, hedge ditch and trees, hedge,
or hedge, wall, and belt of planting, and others of the
fame kinds.

After this arrangement and divifion of fences, it will be
proper to confider the different kinds in a feparate manner,
in order to explain more fully their particular nature and
advantages, as well as the moft proper methods of con-
ftruGting and preferving them fo as to render them the moft
durable.

Simple fences.—Thefe are moftly formed with much
lefs trouble, and kept in order with far lefs difficulty, than
thofe of the compound kind.

Oper ditch, or water fence.—This fort of fence confilts
fimply in a ditch of confiderable width and depth, which
is kept as full of water as poflible. It has been remarked
by a late writer on this fubjeét, that though ditches now
form a part of that clafs of fences which are termed com-
pound, they in their fimple and original {tate were confidered
rather in the light of open drains; and in place of being
looked upon as a fence, their greateft benefit was fuppofed
to arife from their receiving or carrying off the fuperfluous
moiiture from the inclofed field.. Ina variety of inflances,
ditches are made for this purpofe only, where there is no
intention whatever to inclefe the field. They are, however,
fometimes meant as. fences; but, in fuch cafes, they are
made very deep and wide, and the earth taken out of them
is fometimes formed into a bank, the height of which,
when added to. the depth of the ditch, forms a tolerable
barrier. In general, however, the greateft value of the
ditch is met with, when it is ufed in conjunétion with other
fences, as will ke feen under the fecond clafs, or compound
fences. ?

The forms of ditches are various; fome of them being
of an uniform width both at top and bottom ; others are wide
above, and have a gradual flope downwards ; thofe of a third
kind have one fide floping, and the other perpendicular.
For whatever purpofe the ditch is meant, however, the
floping form is by much the belt, as it not only colts lefs
money in the digging, but is at the fame time much more
durable, and has a neater appearance. Where open ditches
are indifpenfably neceflary for the drainage of the field, the
floping ditch is preferable to every other, as the fides are not
liable to tumble in or be undermined, or excavated by the
current of the water, when properly executed. The flope
fhould be confiderable, perhaps not lefs than three times the
width at top that it is at bottom. The advantages of this
conftruétion will, however, be more fully explained in fpeak-
ing of hedge and ditch fences.

It has been remarked that the open ditch, with a wall or
perpendicular fides, is liable to much objeGion both in its
fimple and compound ftate: that in its fimple flate the fides
are perpetually tumbling in, efpecially after frofts or heavy
rains ; and if the field round which thefe ditches are made
has any confiderable declivity, the bottom is undermined,
and large maffes tumble down, bringing the hedge along
with them. Thefe circumftances are of themfelves fufficient
to bring this kind of ditch into difcredit ; hut while they
are thus improper as open drains, owing to the circumftances
we have mentioned, their fhape is, it 1s conceived, the beft
poffible for a covered drain, as the broader thefe covered
drains are at bottom the more water will they carry off;
with this additional benefit, that, by being broad below,
they are lefs liable to choking, or obitruion, thanif they
were narrow ; in which cafe a fingle itone or two clapping
clofe together, will fo far interrupt the courfe of the water,
and fo much fand and mud will accumulate behind them, as
to render the deain ufelefs: whereas, when there is a fuffici-

ent

FENCE.

ent breadth at bottom, if the water is obftruéted by one
ftone, it readily finds a paflage in fome other place.

The open ditch, or water fence, is moft commonly employed
inlow, marfhy, and fen-land fituations ; and where it is made
of the width of not lefs than half a ftatute pole, and is ca-
pable of being preferved conftantly full of water, it may be
zn eligible fence, even in the fummer feafon. But in open
extenfive trafts, where the Jagd is much expofed, from its
affording little thelter, it is obvioufly an improper fence.
In fevere frofts it alfo lofes its qualities as a fence again{t
fheep ; and when they are more flight, and the ice covered
with fnow, but not fufliciently folid to fupport the weight
of fheep, often betrays them to their deitru€tion. In par-
ticular fituations it is, however, the only fort of fence that
can be had recourfe to. A reprefentation of this fort of
fence is guite unneceflary, as the following will, in fome
meafure, fhew it.

Simple ditch, and bank of earth.—This is a kind of
fence which confifts fimply of a gradually floping ditch, in
which the earth that is removed in forming itis laid up into
a back on one of the fidés, leaving a {earcement, or project-
ing {pace of fix or eight inches on thie fide where the bank is
formed, to prevent the earth from tumbling in and filling up
the ditch. The earth orclay, in fome places, is likewife ga-
thered into heaps, after being taken out of the ditches, and
ufedas manure. This fort of fence is reprefented in the for-
mer ftate in Plate XVIII. (Fence) Agriculture, at fig. 1, in
which ais the opening, and 4 the bank of earth on the fide.

Double ditch with intermediate bank of earth—This is a
kind of fence not often uled, unlefs in cafes where it is meant
either to plant hedges or trees on the bank between the
ditches. In fome cafes, however, double ditches are made,
where there is no intention whatever of planting either
hedges or trees, and in feveral inftances are highly valuable.
Confidered as a fence, it has an evident advantage over the
fingle ditch, asthe earth taken out of the two ditches, when
properly laid up in the middle, forms a pretty fteep bank of
a formidable appearance, which, without any other addition,
makes a very tolerable temporary fence. For the purpofes
of open drainage the double ditch is excellently adapted,
efpecially by the fides of highways, where the lands have a
confiderable declivity towards the road ; the ditch next the
field, by receiving the water on that fide, prevents it from
overflowing and wafhing the road, a cireumftance which very
frequently happens in fuch fituations: while the ditch on
the fide next the road, by receiving and carrying off the
moiiture that falls upon, and which would otherwife lodge
there and deftroy it, keeps it conftantly dry and in good re-

air. ‘The double ditch is alfo ufeful in dividing high from
ioe flat lands, particularly where the high grounds flope
very fuddenly down upon the low fields; that next the
high ground, by receiving the water from it during heavy
falls of rain, faves. the inferior grounds from inundation,
while the ditch on the other fide ferves.as an open drain for
the lower fields. It is trufted that it will not be thought
foreign to the prefent fubject to mention, that where double
ditches are made in the immediate vicinity of high grounds,
or on the fides of highways, care fhould be taken to prevent
the water from the furrows, or fide-drains, from running
into the main ditch at right angles. Where this is neglect-
ed, much trouble and inconvenience arife; as when the
water comes from a height, during heavy rains, in a
ftraight line into the ditch, it prefles with accumulated force
againft the fides of it; and if the foil is of a loofe inco-
herent vature, the bank will be undermined and wathed
away in many places. To prevent this, nothing more is
conceived requifite than to alter the direction ofthe furrows,

or {mall fide-ditches, a few yards from their opening into
the main ditch ; and, in place of permitting the water to
fall upon the bank in a {traight line, to give the furrows or
fide-ditches a gentle curve ; by that means, inftead of falling
into the ditch in a ftraight line, and acting againft the bank
in the manner defcribed, the furrows will empty themfelves
into it in an oblique dire€tion, and, by joining immediately
with the ftream in the ditch, will be prevented from having
any bad effe& upon the bank. It is obvious that the water,
by thus having its direétioa changed, can do no harm to the
fides of the main ditch : and what is of advantage, the earth
and fediment brought along with it from the high grouad,
inftead of being depofited in that place where the cuts enter
the maia ditch, which feldom fails to be the cafe where the
water falls into it ina ftraight dire@tion, are carried off alon

with it; and though this fediment ultimately falls to the
bottom ef the ditch, yet, as it falls down gradually in its
courle, it is equally divided over the whole, and occafions no
ebltration in any particular part of the ditch. This form
of fence is fhewn at fig. 2. in the fame plate, in which a, a,
are the two ditches, and 54 the intermediate bank of earth.

Where foils are moift and retentive, this is often a bene-
ficial method for raifing live fences, both with the thorn, and’
other forts of hedge-plants.

There are other methods of conftruGting fences of this
nature. They are in fome cafes formed by raifing up long.
piles of earth between two fod facings, in a battering man-
ner, or leaning fomewhat inwards towards each other, to the
neceflary heights and widths, as will be feen below.

Various other modes of planting on banks of this nature
raifed to different heights, have alfo been praGtifed in differ-
ent diftricts of the kingdom:

Bank of earth-with serpendicular fod-facing and Sipe be.
hind.—This, it may be obferved, is a very common fort of
fence, and in fome fituations extremely ufeful, as in making
folds, for inftance, for the confinement of fheep or cattle.
It is alfo valuable on the fides of highways, for defending.
the adjoining grounds, and for laying off clumps or belts of
planting in the middle or corners of arable fields, for inclofing
ftack-yards, cottages, gardens, and other fimilar purpofes.
The front of the bank is made with the fod pared off from
the furface of the floping ditch, and the mound at the back
with the earth taken out of it. In all cafes, it is remarked,
where this fence is ufed in the field, the perpendicular front
fhould be made on the outfide, and the bank on the infide of
the field. But when it is employed for folds, the front
fhould be on the infide of the fold, as in that way it will not
only prefent a much more formidable appearance to the
fheep or cattle, but the depth of the ditch will be an addi-
tion to-the height of the bank ; and’the earth taken out of
it being laid behind will ferve as a kind of buttrefs to fap--
port the facing of fod, and give it a degree of firmnefs and
durability, far fuperior to that of the common turf walls, or
fold-dikes, as they are generally termed in North Britain.
When this fence is properly conftruéted, a work at which
the labourers in that part of the kingdom are now pretty
expert, it lafts a confiderable time; but in its moit perfect
{tate it is only to be coniidered as a temporary expedient ; for
however neat it may appear, or however well it may aufwer
the purpofe at firft, it ultimately lofes its value. Where
wood for paling is fcarce, orcannot be had, and where other
materials for the fhelter or protection of young hedges are
equally {canty, this may be ufed with advantage for a time, .
and will both fhelter the young hedge aud inclofe the field ;
but where permanent lines of inclofing are intended it
fhould never be had recourfe to, as however cheap it may
be in the firft infkance, it is by no means durable. It is

5 reprelented

FENCE,

reprefented at fir. 3. in which a fhews the half-feétion of a
high road; 2 the floping bank of earth on the fide; and ¢
the perpendicular facing of turf or fod in the front.

Perpendicular earth-cvall.—T his is a {pecies of fence that
may be occafionally had recourfe to with advantage, as in in-
clofing rabbit-warrens, and other fimilar cafes, where better
forts of materials cannot be provided, except at too great
expence.
the fods foon decay, and begin to moulder down. And by
neat cattle, fheep, aud {wine fuch fences are foon thrown
down and deftroyed. When it is employed, it fhould have
tke ditch on the infide or piece of ground that is inclofed,
and be firmly built with turfs or fods cut out from the fur-
face of it, being well backed with the earth taken from
below. It is fhewn at rg. 4. in the fame plate. Under the
head wall-fences below, this fort of wall is more fully ex-
plained, in {peaking of turf-valls.

Ha-ha, or funk fence —It has been obferved by Mr. So-
merville, that this defeription of fence is calculated chiefly
for fields that require no fhelter, and where an uniform un-
broken profpeét is an object to be preferved, as is the cafe
in pleafure-grounds, gardens, and extenfive lawns; but
in all fituations where fhelter is wanted, the funk fence
ought to be avoided, unlefsa hedge is planted upon the top
ofit. The form of the funk fence very nearly refembles the
mound of earth with the perpendicular facing of turf juit
defcribed, with this difference, that the facing of the former
is turf or fod, and the height of the fence depends entirely,
or in a great meafure, upon the depth of the ditch. While
thefe funk fences are either faced with brick, dry-ftone, or
ftone and lime, and are of various heights, according to the
ideas of the proprietor, or the circumflances of the cafe.
In the Agricultural Report drawn up for the northern
-diftriéts, in the account of Cromarty the following defcrip-
tion of the funk fence is given: ‘ Upon the line where this
fence is intended, begin to fink your ditch, taking the earth
from as far as eight feet outward, and throwing it up on the
infide of the line. This ditch and bank is not made quite
perpendicular, but inclining inward towards the field as it
rifes; to this is built a facing of dry-ftone, four feet and a
half im height, one and three-quarters broad at bottom, and
ene foot at top, over which a coping of turf is laid: the
ditch or funk part forms an excellent drain. The wkole of
this is there performed when the ftone can be procured at
about a quarter of a mile diftance, for 6d. per yaid.?? But
in other cafes it will ttand greatly higher, according to the
diftance of thexmaterials, the price of labour, and various
ether circumftances. It isa fort of fence which is feen at
Jig. 5- in the annexed plate.

With regard to the advantages of ditches as fences, it has
already been obferved, that none of the different kinds of
ditches taken by themfelves are to be confidered as good
fences, with the fingle exception of the funk fence, which
is under the neceffity of being claffed along with them,
‘This la{t fort anfwers the double purpofe of an open drain
anda fence. But though ditches in their fimple ftate, are
thus defedtive as fences, their nfeis attended with many ad-
vantages ; not only in draining the field, but in affording a
fupply of earth, which, under proper management, may be
converted into excellent manure. Where the foil in which
ditches are made is deep, and of a good quality, the earth
taken out of them, if it is either made intoa compott with
lime or dung, or even {pread by itfelf upon the adjoining
fields, will greatly increafe their fertility, and prove a lafting
and valuable improvement. Even where the foil is mofs or
clay, it may be converted to the fame valuable purpofe by
urning : mofs being burnt, and the afhes ufed as a »manure

But it is only a temporary kind of inclofure, as.

in many parts of the kingdom ; and the fame is the cafe
with clay. It has been found in the marfhes of Somerfet~
fhire that the clay taken out of the ditches and burnt is,
upon trong tenacious foils, highly valuable ; as it breaks
their cohefion, andby that means renders them not only
lefs retentive of moifture, and of courfe eafier cultivated,
but alfo much more favourable to the growth of plants, by
affording room for the roots to extend and ftretch themfelves
out in fearch of food.
any of the compound fences, will be further feen below, and
under the article ditch and hedze.

Compound ditch f.nce.—This is that fort of fence in
which the ditch is only a couftituent part, being combined,
with fome other, in order to form a perfect fence.

Double ditch and hedge.—This isa kind of fence fome-
times employed in the inclofing of land. In confidering the
double ditch as a fimple fence, its ufe, and the various fitua-
tions in which it is applicable, whether as a fence or an open
drain, have been noticed. To what has been mentioned,
we may add that the cuftom of inclofing with double ditches,
and a hedge in front of each, is now praétifed in many parts
of the kingdom, efpecially upon what are termed cold lands ;
from an idea, that a fingle row of plants would not grow
fufliciently {trong or thick to form a proper fence, ‘The
advocates for this fort of fence farther allege, that in addi-
tion to the two rows of plants forming a more fufficient
fence, an opportunity is afforded of planting a row or rows
of trees in the middle of the bank, as reprefented at fig. 6,
in the plate.

It has been obferved that the double ditch and hedge is
liable to many objeétions; the expence of forming the
ditches, the hedge-plauts made ufe of, and the ground occu-
pied thereby, being double of what is requifite in a fingle
ditch and hedge. From twelve to eighteen or twenty feet
is the leait that is required for a double ditch and hedge ;
this fpace, inthe circumference of a large field, is fo confi-
derable, that upon a farm of 500 acres, divided into fifteen
inclofures, the fences alone would occupy above forty acres.
By throwing up a bank in the middle, the whole of the
nourifhment, not only of both hedges, but alfo of the row
of trees, is confined folely to that {pace, which, from its
being infulated by the ditches, and elevated fo much above
the common furface, not only curtails the nourifhment of
the hedges and row oftrecs, but expofes them to all the in-
juries arifing from drought, froft, &c, The idea of two
rows of plants making a better fence than one, is certainly ne
good reafon for fuch an unneceffary wafte of land and money,
as in almoft every inftance, where the plants are Ki. 3
adapted to the foil and climate, one row will be found quite
fufficient ; but, if it fhould be preferred to have two rows,
the purpofe will be anfwered equally well witha fingle ditch,
or even without any ditch at all; forin every fituation where
the foil is tolerably dry, and the fields much elevated above
the level of the fea, the ditch, except for the purpofe of
drainage, may be difpenfed with.

In addition tothe double ditch, and while the hedges are
ftill young, the fence is fometimes ftrengthened by a paling,
either of young firs or other wood placed upon the top of the
bank ; in other cafes, a dead hedge is put in the middle, be-
tween the two quick hedges ; and not unfrequently an open
wall, refembling a Galloway-dike, made with round ftones,
is placed in the fame fituation ; any of which, when pro-
perly executed, not only inclofe the field completely for the
time, but alfo very effectually fhelter the young plants that
conititute the fence. Under every circumftance this is a
very expenfive fort of fence.

Simple hedge fences.—Thefe are of two kinds; either

i fuch

Their value, as making a part of -

a

FENCE.

fuch as are made up of dead materials, or fuch as are formed
of living plants, ef fome fort or other. They are like-
wife made in different ways according to cuftom and cir-
cumftances.

Dead hedges—It may be obferved that thefe are made
either with the prunings of trees, or the tops of old thorn,
beech, or other hedges that have been cut down ; and are
principally intended for temporary purpofes, fuch as the
protection of young hedges till they have acquired a fuffi-
cient degree of ftrength to render them fencible without
any other aflittance. For this purpofe the dead hedge is
well adapted, and lafts fo long as to enable the live fence to
grow up and complete the inclofure.

In many cafes, however, dead hedges are had recourfe to
as the fole fence, and where there isno intention of planting
quicks, or any other hedge. J'rom their very perifhable
nature, however, they are found to be exceedingly expen-
five ; fo much fo, indeed, that, after the firft or fecond year,
they cannot be kept in repair at a lefs expence than froma
fifth to atenth part of the value of the land, and fome-
times more. When dead hedges are meant for the protec-
tion of young live fences, if the quick fence is planted upon
the common furface, the dead hedge is made ina trench or
furrow immediately behind it, in {uch a way as to prevent
the fheep or cattle grazing in the inclofed field from injuring
it. Where the quick fence, however, is planted upon the
fide of a ditch, the dead hedge is, for the moft part, made
onthe top of the mound formed by the earth taken out of
the ditch ; thefe are called plain dead hedges, being made
by cutting the thorns or brufh-wood, of which they confitt,
into certain lengths, and flicking or putting them into the
earth. They are called plain, in oppofition to other de-
{criptions of dead hedges, where more art is ufed ; fuch as
the dead hedge with upright ftakes wattled, and the com-
mon plaited hedge, bound together at the top with willows;
but of which the reader will be able to form a much better
idea than can well be conveyed by words, by confulting the
annexed plates ; in which fig. 7. reprefents a dead hedge in-
clining a little, placed upon the plain furface in the ordinary
manner; jig. 8. the common dead hedge ; which, it is ob-
ferved, is almoft the only fence met with in feveral of the
counties of England, with the thorns or deac wood let into
the earth about twelve or fourteen inches, and faftened at
the top with willows or hazels; fig.g. fhews the wattled
dead hedge, with ftrong upright pofts, or what is generally
termed {lack and rife, orin Scotland {take and rice, and in
fome places ftaff and band. This lait, and the one imme-
diately preceding it, form, it is remarked, very handfome
fences ; it is only to be regretted that they are not perma-
nent ones, feldom lafting above a year or two. ‘This defe&
is complained of in many of the reports publifhed under the
authority of the Board of Agriculture. The words of the
furveyor of one of which are; ** dead fencing fupplies the
place of live, which occafions an eternal expence to the oecu-
pier; ift, in purchafing the fencing fluff, and bringing it from
a confiderable diftance; and, zdly, in the delay of his interett,
by reafon that the land occupied by a dead fence might fuf-
tain alive one, which would not only anfwer the prefent
purpofe, but, in place of decaying, would be annually im-
proving.”? The truth of this obfervation cannot be difputed ;
as the foil and climate, in almoit every fituation where thefe
dead hedges are complained of, are fuch, that hedges of live
plants would not only grow, but could be made at equal,
perhaps lefs expence, than thefe temporary erections ; and
with this advantage, that, in place of decaying, and occa-
fioning an endlefs lofs and expence for repairs, they would
‘be every year growing itronger, would require little expence

Vou. XIV.

to fupport them, and, in place of the forlorn decayed ap-
pearance which dead hedges never fail to give a country,
they would at once fhelter and ornament it. It cannot, there-
fore, in the opinion of Mr. Sommerville, be too ftrongly re-
commended to proprietors and farmers, in thofe parts
where dead hedges are at prefent fo much ufed, and fo
juttly complained of, to fubftitute live hedges in their place ;
the expence of doing which will be trifling, and the benefit
arising therefrom immenfe.

In carrying a plan of this kind into execution, there is no
occafion to throw fuch fields as are at prefent inclofed with
thefe temporary fences open; quite the contrary: the dead
fences ought to be preferved till the young plants have at-
tained fuch a itrength and fize as to enable thei to form a
good fence without any auxiliary aid. In that way the
inclofure will not only be preferved, but the dead fence,
from the fhelter it will afford to the young plants, will ac-
celerate their growth, and render them much fooner ufeful
than they would otherwife be. This change of fyitem
would be at once pleafant and profitable to all concerned;
the expence of inclofing, which is at prefent feverely felt,
would be done away ; the appearance of the country con-
fiderably improved, and the public benefited in a great de-
gree; and, asno doubts can be {tated as to the praética-
bility of this {cheme, it is trufted that the bare mention of
it will be fufficient to diétate a better fyftem of inclofing
to thofe concerned. The idea entertained by fome land-
lords, that, provided a farm is once let, with the ufual bur-
den upon the tenant of fupporting the fences, the nature of
the fence is of no importance tu them, deferves the ftrongeft
and moft pointed reprobation: indeed, it could fearcely befup-
pofed that men, who haveapermanent intereft in the property,
would reafon in fuch a manner. There can be no doubt, if
lands are let to a good tenant for a term of years, that the
landlord is certain of drawing his rent during the currency of
the leafe, whatever the expence of fupporting the fences
may be; but if this tenant isa man of fenfe, the offer he
makes will proceed upon the value he has in his own mind
formed of the nature of the foil, and the expence which
muft unavoidably arife from cultivating and fheltering it,
and bringing the produce to market: the farmer who has
not made, or is not capable of making fuch a calculation,
can never be a defirable tenant to any proprietor; but if the
tenant poffeffes this neceflary knowledge, the yearly rent
he will offer for the farm will be lefs in proportion to the
fum which he expeéts annually to expend in conftruéting
or fupporting thefe fences. It is trufted, that but very
flender obfervation is neceffary to convince intelligent pro-
prietors or farmers, that the fubftitution of live for dead
fences will not only make the inclofures more perfeét, but
will make an addition to the annual yalue of the property,
equal to, if not greater, than the expence at prefent in-
curred in keeping thefe dead fencesin repair. Tt need hardly
be added, that as the greateft value of thefe fences confifts
in their completing inclofures, and fheltering the young
hedges till they arrive at a certain age, they fhould never
be thought of by either proprietors or farmers, except for
thefe or other temporary purpofes.

In the making of ali forts of dead hedge fences, confi-
derable art is required to perform it ina proper manner,
and fo as to become the moft durable and lating poffible.
Whatever the nature of the materials may be which are to
be employed in this way, they fhould be neatly depofited
and wrought into the fence, according to the manner in
which it is to be made.

Live hedges—Thefe may in general be confidered as
the ordiuary farm fences of this country. And, except in

Ii parucular

‘FENCE.

particular fituations and cireumftances, and for particular
purpofes, they are unqueftionably the moft proper and
ufeful,

It is found, that in diftriis which have been for a confider-
able length of time inclofed from the pattoral or forett itate,
without having previoufly undergone cultivation, the hedges
are feemingly of great age, having mottly crooked irregular
diretions, as if originally formed out of the brufhwood of
fuch foreits, or waltes. While, in other cafes, coppze-
woods of different forts are found growing on low wide
banks, which feem as if they had been formerly gathered
in the woods, and afterwards planted in fuch banks. The
practice of planting out full grown plants in this way has,
however, been long, in general, difcarded in this kingdom,
and young hedges chiefly raifed with plants of a few years’
growth, planted in different ways according to fituations
and circumitances, being firlt reared for the purpofe in fome
proper place.

In refpec: to live hedges, it may likewife be further ob-
ferved, that they are in general made either entirely with
ove kind of plants, or a mixture of different kinds; and
for this purpofe almoit every tree or fhrub known in Britain
are either wholly or in part employed.

Under the head Incrosinc of Land fome account will
be given of each; but there are certain circumftances com-
raon to all of them, and upon which the fuccefs of every
attempt made to rear good fences will be found ultimately
to depend. Thefe circumftances are, ift, the plants being
fuited to the foil and climate ; 2dly, the preparation of the
earth or foil; 3dly, the time and mode of planting ; 4thly,
the age of the plants; 5thly, the fizeof them; 6thly, the
drefling or pruning of the tops and roots before planting ;
ythly, weeding and hoeing them while growing; Sthly,
trimming and after-management ; gthly, filling up the gaps
in hedges; 1othly, difeafesto which hedge-plants are liable,
and their remedies.

With regard to the firlt, it has been obferved, that upon
the proper choice of plants fuited to the foil and climate
where the hedge is to be made, the fuccefs of every attempt
to inclofe with live fences will be found to depend. A mind
given to obfervation, and capable of applying it in practice,
may receive confiderable affiltance upon this point by attend-
ing carefully to the indigenous trees or fhrubs which thrive
beit, and attain the greateft fize and perfection, upon par-
ticular foils and in certain climates; by an attention of this
fort many plants, which are feemingly of {mall value at pre-
fent, might, it is remarked, be rendered highly ufeful by
planting hedges with them. But though an obfervation of
this kind will in fome initances ferve as a guide, and lead
the perfon who makes it vo eertain ufeful practices, it is
not always to be depended upon, as there are many fitua-
tions where neither trees nor fhrubs, fit for making hedges,
are to be met with in an indigenous fate ; and even when
they are met with, their nature will not admit of their being
tran{planted. Fortunately in thefe cafes, though nature
affords no guide to aflift us in the choice of the plants, we
fhall find fufficient direSion from the experience of the
country, by carefully noting the circumftances of foil and
ehmate under which certain plants that have been intro-
duced into them have profpered, and either rifen into trees,
or made good fences. In {peaking of the nature of in-
clofing land, notice will be taken of the great lofs which
attends the fence, and the plants of which it confilts, in not
bemg properly adapted to the natural circumitances of the
foil they are meant to inclofe. Many miftakes of this kind
might be enumerated ; efpecially in the more elevated fitua-
tions, where great labour and expence have been employed

to raife hedges of hawthorn, which, after many years’ care
and attention, were found totally unfit for fuch inclement
regions. In fuch fituations, experience has now fufficiently
proved that good fences can be reared in a fhort time with
beech, birch, larch, and the Huntingdon willow: hedges
of thefe kinds ought, therefore, to be the only ones ufed
in hilly countries, or upon cold wet foils, The three firlt
upon the dry foils, and the laft, with the addition of poplars,
upon fuch as are wet, or marfhy. In the low country, how-
ever, and in the lefs elevated part of the uplands, the white
thorn will be found the beft upon all the dry, or moderately
dry parts of the foil; efpecially the different kinds of loamy,
fandy, or gravelly lands: upon clays, or cold weét foils, hows
ever, beech, crab, birch, poplar, willow, and alder, may be
ufed with advantage. ‘Vhe birch, poplar, alder, and Hunt
ingdon willow, are peculiarly calculated for the coldett,
wetteit, and molt marfhy parts; while beech, crab, &c.
will be found to anfwer beft upon the tiff clays. Hazel,
{weet-briar, mountain-afh, or rowan-tree, and indeed all
the different kinds of foreft trees that are at prefent known
to delight in dry foils, may alfo be employed for making
hedges in the low lands with fuccefs; but which-ever of
thefe is ufed, they fhould, if poffible, be without mixture,
or have as little of it as poffible. See Incrosine of
Land,

It may be remarked, that it is feldom indeed that any
foil, however good, will be found equally favourable to the
growth of plants fo very oppofite in their nature; this cir-
cumftance alone. will render their growth unequal, and of
courfe make the fence faulty and defective. Thefe defects
in the fence, and inequalities in the growth of the plants,
will increafe with time, become every day more apparent,
and be every day more fenfibly felt ; as the plants which
have thus acquired the afcendency will continue to keep it,
and not only fhade the weaker ones, and prevent them from
enjoying the influence of the fur and air, but alfo deprive
them of nourifhment. Independent of thefe coufiderations,
there is another, it is obferved, of equal, perhaps greater
moment, that requires to be mentioned: allowing the foil
to be equally favourable to the growth of the whole plants,
of which the mixture confifts, there are certain plants which
are highly insmical to the growth of others, when planted
in their immediate vicinity ; ivy and honey-fuckle for in-
ftance, when mixed with thorns, or other plants ina hedge,
never fail to deftroy fuch of the hedge-plants as they falten
upon ; indeed mofs, which is known to be one of the worlt
ewemies to all hedges, is not more dangerous, or more cer
tainly ruinous; even the different kinds of f{weet-briar,
brambles, &c. have the fame effect; and in the end never
fail to produce a gap in that part of the hedge where they
grow, by rubbing, corroding, and {mothering the thorns
or other plants of which the Ecc confifts.

There is one plant that may, however, be employed in
mixture with the white thorn, without any inconvenience
of this nature, and with the advantage of rendering the
hedge more formidable, as well as much more ornamental.
This is the common holly. It thrives remarkably well in

fuch combination where the foil is fufliciently dry, and not.

too heavy.

In what regards the fecond point, or the preparation of
the foil for hedges, and even plantations, it is remarked
that, though at prefent fhamefully neglected, it is neverthe-
lefs one of thofe points intimately conneéted with, indeed
eflential to, their fuccefs. Except in a very few inftances,
however poor the foil may be, or however itrong the cohe-
fion of its parts, no attempt is made either to break that
cohefion by proper tillage, or improve its quality by en-

riching

FEN CE,

riching or alterative manures; the young plants being for
_the moft part laid upon the old furface, which has perhaps
never been opened by the labour of man, and their roots
covered with the earth taken out of the ditch, confifting
very often of the pooreft and coldett ri//, or of earths loaded
with iron, or other metallic impregnations. ‘To thofe who
have confidered the matter with the {malleft attention, the
fate of fuch a hedge will not appear doubtful ; the furface
upon which the plants are laid will be fo hard and imper-
vious to the roots, as to preclude the poflibility of their
penetrating it ; of courfe their only chance of either extend-
ing themfelves, or procuring nourifhment, is by fpreading
out between the furface and the mound made by the earth
taken out of the ditch, or by ftriking up into the mound,
where, though the foil will be fufficiently open to admit of
this, the roots, in place of finding an eftablifhment in a fitua-
tion friendly to their growth, will very often be either
ftarved or poifoned. In the culture of the grain, and the
whole of our moft ufeful and valuable vegetables, proper
preparation of the foil by tillage and manure is, it is re-
marked, deemed indifpenfably neceflary ; and experience
has fufficiently evinced, that ypon the perfection of the
tillage, and the quality and judicious application of the
manures, the fuccefs of the farmer or gardener, and the
value of their crops, entirely depend. Is it not ftrange
then, that the fame farmer whe 1s convinced of the utility
and neceffity of tillage and manures for his other crops, and
who would think himfelf for ever difgraced, were he to fow
or plant grain, or any other ufeful vegetable upon an un-
ploughed, dirty, unmanured field, fhould, without fhame
or compunétion, commit a hedge, which is to form the in-
clofure of the field, and upon which a confiderable part of
its future improvement is to depend, to the earth without
any one of thefe aids? Incredible as it may appear, this is
however certainly the faét ; unlefs, as has formerly been ob-
ferved, in a few inftances where better fenfe and ftronger
obfervation have diftated a different mamagement; it being
‘the uniform cuftom in moft plans of improvement, be the
quality of the foil what it may, to mark off the line of the
tence, dig the ditch, and commit the hedge-plants to the
éarth, without any previous preparatien, either by tillage
or manures.
~ In every inftance where a hedge is to be made, the ground
fhould, it is contended, be previoufly prepared by a complete
fummer fallow, in order to deftroy the weeds; when this is
accomplifhed a certain proportion of dung, lime, or compeft
fhould be laid on the traét upon which the hedge is meant
to be planted ; after this is done, and the manure properly
incorporated with the foil, a furrow fhould be drawn with
a common plough about the end of November ; in this
furrow the plants fhould be placed, and the earth, thus im-
pregnated with the dung or compoft, drawn up to and trod
firmly about their roots. When the foil has been previoufly
eleared of weeds in this manner, and a fufficient quantity of
manure beftowed, the hedge, if the plants are healthy, and
fuited to the foil and climate, may be committed to the
earth, with every profpeé and chance of fuccefsful growth.
With regard to the third circumftance, or the time and
mode of planting, it is contended, that of whatever plants
the hedge is to be made, they ought always to be put into
the ground, either before winter, or very early in the {pring,
before any vegetation takes place. In this way, if the
plants have been carefully taken out of the nurfery ground,
and no material injury done to their roots by laceration,
pruning, or otherwife, their growth receives {carcely any
check, and-they make more progre{s in one year, than they
would de.in three or four years under different management.

The beginning of November, or any time during the month
of January, feems the moft proper time for planting
thorns.

The holly, where it is made ufe of, muft however have a
different treatment, and be planted out at a very different
feafon of the year, as upon thefe its fuccefs and progrefs
feem wholly to depend. The proper time for .tranfplant-
ing or removing this fort of plants is about the middle of
the fummer feafon, as at this period they are found to
{carcely fuffer any check from the operation. From the
want of knowledge of this faét numerous hedges of this
fort have failed; as, when removed during the winter months,
plants of this kind are almoft certain to be deftroyed ; while,
under the contrary circumi{tances, they grow with certainty,
and in the moft rapid manner. In putting them into the
foil, their root fibres fhould likewife be as little trimmed off
as poffible, and the ground fhould not be in too moth a
ftate.

The mod? of planting thorn, and other forts of hedges of
that kind, differs in different places, and even in the fame
place according to the nature of the hedge: when hedges
are made in the face of a ditch, bank, mound, or wall, the
univerfal praétice is to lay the plants horizontally, either
upon the furface, or upon a paring of fod or earth taken
from it ; and afterwards cover them in fuch a manner as that
about feven or niae inches of their length fhall be covered
with the foil, and about three inches left projecting with-
out it. In this way, fufficient room is left for the roots
ftretching out and forming an eitablifhment for the plant,
while the part left projecting is fo fhort as not to be able to
produce above two, or at moft three good fhoots, which,
from the fmallnefs of their number, will be vigorous and
ufeful ; whereas, if a greater length had been left without
being covered, the fhoots would have been more numerous
and ot courfe weaker; the future value of the hedge
depending entirely on the number and ftrength of the firft
fhoots the plants make. We have already hinted at the
neceflity of preparing the foil properly by tillage and ma-
nures ; and in this mode of planting, namely, upon the plain
furface in the face of a ditch, bank, mound, or wall, it is
equally neceflary as in any other ;-dung, lime, or compoit,
ought to be laid upon the tra@, and pointed in with afpade,
and in place of laying the earth taken out of the ditch
indifcriminately upon the roots of the thorns, care ought to
be taken to cover them with the beit of the furface mould ;
by fuch treatment, having a well prepared, well manured,
bed below, and a covering of good earth above, the roots
of the plants have not only abundant room to fpread, but
have alfo plenty of nourifhment ; this gives them a decided
advantage at their firft ftarting, and enables them to make
more progrefs in two or three years than they would other-
wile do in twice that length of time. In the bank method
of planting hedges, there is much variety in the heights to
which the banks are raifed, but the proper height mutt pro-
bably be direéted by the nature of the foil and the fituation.
And befides the horizontal mode of laying in the plants inte
the banks, there are other methods prattifed ia particular
cafes.
In refpeé to the manner of planting a hedge upon the
common furface it is very fimple ; a furrow, about eight or
nine inches deep, is made with a common plough upon the
tra&t that has been previoufly limed and dunged : to render
the furrow as clean as poflible the plough fhould be drawn
twice along it; one labourer then goes along the furrow
with a bundle of plants under his arm, which he drops in
handfuls of fix or eight together at certain diftances: when
he has gone over perhaps a huadred yards ia this manner,
Ti\2 he

F-E Ni@1E:

he rétutns tothe fartherend, where he began to drop the
plants; and, taking up the firlt handful, begins to fet them
in the bottom of the furrow, not in a direétion perpendicular
to the horizon, but inclining a few degrees in the fame direc-
tion that the fence runs. ‘Thefe the labourer places, leaning
againft the perpendicular fide of the furrow, at the requifite
diftance from each other, as from four to. fix or eight inches:
having placed the whole of them in this manner, he covers
them with the earth from the other fide, or that which has
been turned up by the plough: when this: operation-is
finifhed, he fets a foot on each fide of the hedge, and, begin-
ning at one end of it, goes flowly along, treading the earth
elofe to the roots of the plants the whole way ; the foil is
then pointed with a fpade on each fide, which finithes the
operation. Where the neceflary pains have previoufly been
taken to pulverize the foil, a fingle labourer will, with great
eafe and exaétnefs, plant feveral hundred yards of thorns or
other hedge-plants in the courfe of one day.

Another method confifts in one labouring man receiving
the plants, by two or three at a time, from another, who
carries a bundle of them, fetting them in the middle of the
furrow, with the top reclining a little, and drawing a
quantity of earth from each fide with his foot to cover the
roots: when about fifty or a hundred yards are completed
in this way, each labourer takes a common garden rake ;
and draws up a fufficient quantity ef earth to each fide of
the plants; treading the furface with their feet, as they go
along, in fuch a manner as to bind the foil moderately,
and at the fame time fet the plants in a ftraight line.

And athird mode of practice confifts in harrowing the
tra& or line of the hedge, or raking it with a garden rake,
then ftretching a line along it, laying out a furrow with the
{pade, and afterwards planting the thorns or other plants,
and laying the earth to them in the manner defcribed in the
above methods. The laying out a furrow with the fpade in
this way admits of the work being done with great neatnefs
and accuracy; but it is attended with confiderably more
labour and expence, and, after all, appears to poflefs no
great {uperiority over planting with the plough. In fome
cafes the hedge is planted with the dibble, but it will be
feen below that this praGtice muft be an improper one; for
if the plants have the whole of their roots preferved, and are
planted witha dibble, inftead of the fibres being properly
{pread out, as they always ought to be, they will be crammed
together into a very narrow {pace, with their points flaring
upwards; or, in other words, looking out of the foil, in place
of dipping into it: or, if by much pruning they are cut fo
clofe as to be made fit for going into the dibble hole
in an eafy manner, their growth will fuftain a very fevere
check by fuch injudicious pruning. In confidering hedges
as forming the conftituent parts of compound fences, the
circumftanees connected with the planting of each will be
more fully defcribed and pointed out.

In regard to the ftate of growth or age at which hedge-
plants may be ufed with the greateft advantage and pro-
priety, it may be obferved that it is extremely common,
particularly where young hedges are made with quickfets,
to plant them out at one, two, or three years old, but fel-
dom exceeding this laft age. Plants of this fort, when-put
into the earth at a proper feafon of the year, upon a line of
fence which has been prepared in a proper manner, and which
are afterwards kept clean by a careful attention, and the earth
foft and loofe, by regular weeding and digging, feldom fail
to form good fences : fuch young plants are, however, it is
fuggetted by fome, long in a ftate of infancy, and require
great nurfing,and the moft complete protection to bring them

to perfe€tion, and are liable to be either much hurt, or toe
tally deftroyed by many accidents that would produce little or
no effeét upon older and ftronger plants. It is the opinion
of many fenfible and well-informed people, that much time
might be faved in the rearing of hedges, and the fences be
much more perfect and ufeful, if older plants were employed
for that purpofe. Three years old is certainly the youngeft
that fhould be planted, and if they are even fix or feven years
old, fo much the better: the prevailing idea that plants of this
age will not thrive if tranfplanted, is, it is faid, totally un-
founded ; as, with proper care, they not only grow readily,
but make excellent fences in one half of the time that younger
plants ufually do, with this additional advantage, that they
are much lefs liable to be killed or injured by froft,
drought, weeds; or the other caufes that affeét younger
plants. Thorns of fix or feven years old, in place of being
no thicker than a common {traw, will be at a medium more
than an inch in circumference; we leave thofe who are
judges to determine how far a plant of this lait defeription
will be fuperior to one of two years old, and how much
fooner it will anfwer the purpofe ofafence. It is, however,
very material to obferve that, where plants of this age and
fize are ufed, the moft complete care fhould be taken to
preferve the roots as entire as poffible. ‘The degree of
pruning which may be ueceffary before planting will be
mentioned afterwards. In refpeét to the fize of thorns, or
other hedge-plants, it may be neceflary to obferve, that,
when the plants are once obtained, they fhould be feparated
into forts, according to their fizes and apparent ftrength,
picking out the largeit firft, and fo on downwards. This
will be attended with feveral very material advantages,
which thofe who have made obfervations on the iubje& will
very readily underftand : plants of the fame fize and {trength,
when planted together, keep pace with each other; no one
of them takes from the earth more than its own fhare of
nourifhment, of courfe, the growth of the whole is regular
and uniform, and the hedge, when arrived at a certain age,
becomes a fubftantial efficient fence of an equal height
throughout, and free of any gaps: whereas, when no pains
have been taken in afforting the plants, and they are planted
promifcuoufly, great and {mall, itreng and weak, the con»
fequence is, that the ftrongeft plants very foon outgrew fuch
as are weaker, and not only overtop them, but alin deprive
them of that nourifhment which they fo much require: as
the hedge advances in age the evil becomes greater, {mall
ftunted plants, and innumerable gaps appearing throughout
the whole line of the fence; thefe are interf{perfed with others
remarkable for their ftrength and luxuriance, the whole
conveying to the mind not the moft diftant idea of utility.
And the worlt part of it is, that, when hedges have been
thus neglected in the beginaate no pains or induftry on the
part of the farmer will be fufficient to render them ufeful
afterwards: there being nothing more difficult thai that of
repairing the defects of a hedge, after the third or fourth year
ofits growth. ‘This afforting of hedge-plants has, it is con-
tended, a farther advantage ; namely, that of putting it in
the power of the perfon who plants the hedge to put down
the large, itrong, healthy plants upon the pooreft part of the
line of the fence, and to fet fuch as are {maller and weaker
upon the richer and more fertile parts. He has it alfoin his
power, by a more careful preparation of the foil, and be-
ttowing a greater portion of manure upon the {paces where
the {mall plants are fet, to give them that nourifhment and
afliftance which they require, and which would very foon
enable them to forma fence equal to that part occupied

by the ftrongeit plants that have been employed.
With regard to the dref§ing and pruning of nedgesaigate
before

FENCE.

before they are put into the earth, there is perhaps no part
of the fyitem of managing them, or foreft-trees, more hurt-
ful and defe&tive than that now purfued in the common
nurferies. It is a very common praétice with nurferymen
in the fpring, when they wifh to clear their ground for other
urpofes, to take up great quantities of therns and other
hed e-plants, and after pruning the tops, and cutting off
nearly the whole of the roots, to tie them up in bundles, and
lay thefe bundles in heaps till they are called for. In that
mutilated ftate they often remain for many weeks, with the
mangled roots naked and unprotected, expofed to every in-
clemency of the weather before they are fold. The confe-
quence is obvious ; the fevere pruning, by curtailing the
number of the roots, and depriving the plants of the means
of drawing their nourifhment from the earth, would of itfelf
prove an effectual check to their future growth, even if they
were planted immediately after this fevere trimming ; but by
being allowed to remain fo long expofed to the weather
afterwards, the tender fibrous extremities of the remaining
roots are moft of them deftroyed, and when the plants are
then put to ufe, they are not only half dead, by being fo
long expofed> above ground, but are, as it were, infulated,
and their conneétion with the earth cut off by the fevere
pruning and deftruGion of their roots. Under thefe un-
favourable circumftances they muft remain in the ground till
rew roots are produced, during which period they fuffer a
total want of nourifhment, and if the foil be dry, and much
warm dry weather follows the planting of the hedge, many
of the plants will perifh befere they are capable of pufhing
out and producing a number of new roots fufficient for their
fupport. Accordingly, many of them fail from thefe caufes,
and numbers of hedges which, under different management
and with {mall trouble, would foon have been complete
fences, are-full of gaps, and remain for ever after in an im-
perfect fate. When thorns or other hedge-plants are thus
feverely handled, and their roots and tops fo unmercifully
cut off, they refemble cuttings more than plants, and mutt
remain a very long time in the earth before they are capable
of fending out new roots, or drawing from it a quantity of
nourifhment adequate to their fupport. Were nurferymen
and others, who raife thefe plants, to beftow the {malleft at-
tention upon the fubjeét, common fenfe would digtate a very
oppofite treatment. Men of obfervation know, that in
every inflance where either trees or herbaceous plants are to
be tranfplanted, the more carefully they are taken out of the
und the more numerous and entire their roots, and the
Falden they are again put into the earth, the lefs check will
they receive, and the quicker and ftronger will they after-
wards grow. If thefe obfervations are juft, how faulty and
defe&tive mutt the fyftem we have juft now defcribed appear!
Indeed nothing can be more repugnant to nature and com-
mon fenfe than to fuppofe, that when plants of any defcrip-
tion are removed from the fituation in which they are grow-
ing, and fent to fuch a new eftablifhment in a different foil,
and perhaps a worfe climate, they will thrive better by
having their roots cut off, and being almoft entirely bereft
of the means of obtaining nourifhment. With equal pro-
bability might fuccefs be expected from planting a colony
with people, after having completely mutilated them by
cutting off their hands, pe out their eyes, &c. In
place of this treatment, the defeé&ts of which are fo obvious,
and the confequences refulting from it fo hurtful, no hedge-
plants fhould be lifted-out of the nurfery-ground till the day
on which they are to be re-planted ; and initead of digging
them with a f{pade, by which they are often much injured,
they fhould be taken up with dung-forks with flrong round
prongs, taking care to difengage the roots carefully from the

foil ; and, in place of the fevere pruning and dreffing already
mentioned, every root, even to the fmalleft fibre, fhould be
carefully preferved, and the ufe of the knife confined entirely
to the neceflary curtailing of the tops. Where this care is
taken, and the plants are put into the ground at a proper
feafon, they will fuffer no kind of check, and when the
{pring arrives grow luxuriantly and with a vigour much
greater than is commonly the cafe.

It may be farther obferved, that much of the benefit
arifing from an attention to the foregoing circumitances
will depend upon the after-management of the hedge.
Complete weediag, loofening, and laying new earth to the
roots for the firlt three or four years, dre indifpenfably requi-
fite ; for whatever pains may have been previoufly taken in
dunging and fummer-fallowing the foil, unlefs it is properly
attended to, and kept clean afterwards, this dunging and
fummer-fallowing, in place of being ufeful, will prove hurt-
ful to the fence ; as the manure and tillage, by enriching
and opening the foil, will encourage and promote the
growth of weeds, which, under circumf{tances fo peculiarly
fortunate, will become fo luxuriant as either to deftroy or
materially injure the growth of the hedge, unlefs they are
kept down by frequent and complete cleanings. Thefe
weedings are of two kinds, and ought to be conduéted in
two different ways. If the weeds are principally annuals,
a flight fcufle with a hoe will be perfectly fufficient, and
this to be repeated as often as a new crop of weeds appears;
but when the weeds in place of annuals are compofed of root-
weeds, or, in other words, of perennial or biennial plants,
the extirpation of thefe laft will be attended with more
trouble. With weeds of this defcription feuffing will not
an{wer, as though the tops may be cut off by that opera-
tion, the roots remain, and not only furnifh repeated crops
of the fame weeds, but alfo rob the hedge of its proper nou-
rifhment. In place, therefore, of {cuffing and cutting off
the tops of fuch weeds with a hoe, the ground ought to be
carefully dug with a dung-fork, of the kind already de-
{cribed for lifting thorns. An inftrument of this fort is
preferable to a {pade, as it euts none of the roets of the
hedge, loofens the ground fufficiently and at the fame time
admits of the weeds being readi\y aad eafily picked out.
The firft weeding of this kind that is given to a young
hedge fhould be early in the {pring, when, ifit is completely
done, there will be little occafion for any farther trouble
during the feafon. Cleaning at that period has a farther
advantage, namely, that of loofening the foil at the exaét
time when the roots are beginning to fpread and extend
themfelves ; wheréas, when it is delayed till the fummer,
the weeds have attained a confiderable fize, have di prived
the hedge of much nourifhiment, and the opening of the foil
then expofes the roots of the hedge to the parching heat of
the fummer fun. In the cleaning of young hedges, efpe-
cially fuch as are fituated in the face of « ditch or bank, it
is the univerfal cuftom for the laboure: fkim off the fur-
face with a fpade, and let it fall into the bottom of the
ditch. ‘This operation, though it gives the hedge an ap-
pearance of cleannefs, is attended with fome very confider-
able difadvantages ; repeated parings of this kind, in the
face of a ditch or bank, in a few years walte the front fo
much as in fome degree to undermine the hedge, which
after froft or wet weather is apt to flide and tumble down ;
the paring off and throwing into the bottom of the ditch
fo much earth, together with the roots and weeds it contains,
very foon choaks and fills it up.

Notice will afterwards be taken of the neceffity of con-
ftructing hedge-fences in fuch a way as that the hedge tha!l
not project immediately from the front, but fhall be placed

upon

BY Nee.

ypona fhelf, or what is termed a fcarcement, of not lefs than
twelve or fourteen inches broad. By fuch management the
hedge will run no rif whateyer of being undermined by the
earth falling into the ditch, and may be kept clean with as
much eafe asa. common garden-border. The proper method
of cleaning a hedge, planted in this manner, feems to be that
of digging the border with a fhort-pronged fork in the
fpring, picking out fuch of the weeds as can be readily
taken up by the hand, and afterwards raking it witha gar-
den-rake ; this laft operation, along with its making the fur-
face fmooth, and giving the work a finifhed look, will allo
bring out a great number of the fmalle{t roots that had
efcaped the labourer’s notice in digging it with the fork.
Some imagine that by a flight weeding once or twice a year
for the firlt two or three years after the hedge is planted,
they do all that is requifite; this, however, isa mi{take ;
for though a hedge may, by care and attention for the firft
five years of its growth, attain fuch a height as will prevent
it from being {mothered by the weeds, {till it will fuffer
much injury from them, not fimply by the nourifhment they
take from the hedge, though that mutt be confiderable, but
by the effet they have upon the lateral branches near the
root, many of which they kill, and by that means render
the fence open and naked at the bottom. Skilful hedgers
are well acquainted with this circum{tance, and very pro-
perly confider annual cleanings and loofening the foil about
the roots as equally neceffary to the welfare of the hedge as
the other operations of {witching, pruning, &c. &e. The
apparent trouble and expence of cleaning every defcription
of hedge yearly will no doubt prefent a formidable obfta-
cle to the practice; but, when properly confidered, this
labour and expence will be found more apparent thaa real ;
for if a proper weeding has been given when the hedge was
firft planted, and the earth well opened, the only trouble
required afterwards will confift in giving the ground on each
fide of the hedge a flight fenflle with a hoe, a work at
which a labourer will be able to doa very great deal in the
courle of aday.

To this practice of keeping hedges clean with a view to
promote their growth, is to be added another motive, of
-equal, indeed of fuperior, moment: round moft of the
inclofed fields in Britain, the {pace occupied by the fence
is confiderable ; and as no part of this {pace is under the
plough, it isleft to produce fuch plants as nature or acci-
dent may have brought into the foil; thefe, by being fuf-
fered to grow, and their feeds to ripen yearly, are wafted
by the wind into the adjoining fields, where they multiply
beyond conception, and create an endlefs trouble to the oc-
cupier, rendering abortive a great part of the labour and
expence incurred in fallowing. A perfon who is fenfible of
- the advantage arifing from the extirpation of weeds of every
defeription, either in the fields or their immediate vicinity,
muf feel a confiderable degree of painto obferve, about the
end of fummer clouds of the winged or bearded kind rifin
from the fide of every hedge or highway with the fightelt
breeze of wind, and {cattering themfelves over the adjoining
fields, which have been perhaps fallowed the year before at
a heavy expence; the evilis undoubtedly great, and affects
the innocent as well asthe guilty, it being no uncommon
thiag for the beft farmers to have their fields rendered foul
by the wind blowing the weeds of their flothful dirty neigh-
bours upon them. The remedy is eafy: let every farmer
be obliged to cut down the weeds round the whole line of his
fences, fo early in the feafon as to prevent them from running
to feed; and let the truftees of every county, in making
contracts for the repair of the public roads, bind the cone
traGors to cut down the weeds annually, The kabour of

thefe operations will be very trifling, and their benefit to the
public fearcely to be calculated. ;

It may be remarked, that in loofening the earth about
the roots of hedges, whether old or young, it will be of ad-
vantage, if there is foil enough to admit of it, tolayup a
few inches of it to the roots ; doing this frequently encou-
rages them to push out branches near the bottom, which

revent them from growing thin and open, a fault to which
almoil all hedgesare liable, if due pains are not taken ta pre-
vent it. When a hedge has been planted in the face of a
ditch, bank, or mound, with a proje¢ting {pace or {carcement
before it of fufficient breadth, a fupply of new earth may
be laid up to the roots every two or three years, from the
fediment let fall by the water in the bottom of the ditch;
this fediment is in general the richeft of all foils ; and as it
is neceflary to remove it from the bottom of the ditch, for
the purpofe of cleaning the water courfe, employing it in
this way not only faves the trouble of carrying it elfewhere,
but promotes the growth of the hedge, and gives the fence
a much more finifhed look. Upon the fides of highways
the fame thing may be done with advantage, not only to the
hedge, but the road alfo ; for though there may be no ditch
to require cleaning, yet as moft of the highways in Britain
have a greater or lefs declivity towards the fides, the de-
cayed materials of which the road is, made, together with
the horfe dung and other matters dropped upon it, are
wafhed down from the top to the fides, where they accumu-
late in confiderable quantities ; fhovelling this carefully up,
and laying it to the roots of the hedge, afford the plants at
once protection and nourifhment. Where hedges are
planted upon the plane furface, the earth can be laid up to
the roots with great eafe; and at each cleaning it certainly
fhould be done. The trouble of doing fo is trifling, the ad-
vantage very confiderable in many points of view.

In {peaking of the pruning and after-management of
hedges, it isobferved, that though a itriét attention to the
foregoing circumftances, during the infancy of the hedge,
is highly neceffary to produce healthy vigorous plants, a
very confiderable part of its beauty and future value will de-
pend upon thefe being properly performed.

It may be remarked, that there is, perhaps, no part of
the fubjeét upon which a greater contrariety of opinion at
prefent prevails, than the age at which the pruning of
hedges ought to commence, the manner of that pruning, or
the feafon of the year at which it may be given with the
greatett poffible advantage, and the leait rifk ; the practice
with fome is to prune from the firit year, not only the
lateral branches, but the tops alfo ; and they give as a rea-
fon, that cutting off the extremities of the fhoots contri-
butes to the thickening of the hedge, by making them
pufh out a great number of new ones. The fallacy of this
argument, and the mifchief with which the praétice is at-
tended, we fhall have occafion to notice afterwards. As to
the manner of pruning, or the form of the hedge, thefe
feem with many to be matters of indifference, no attention
being paid to drefling them in fuch a way as to have them
broad at bottom, and tapering gradually towards the top ;
many of them being sot only of one width from top to
bottom; and not a few much heavier and broader above
than below, it is obvious that fuch hedges can neither leok
well nor be ufeful.

The feafon at which they are trimmed is, in many in-
ftances, it may be obferved, an improper one; for in place
of choofing that time when the plants are leait in danger of
fuffering from an effufion of their juices, which is either at
a late period in the autumn, or very early in the fpring, the
pruning ts given in the fummer feafon, when vegetation is in

8 its

y

FE

its prime, and the plants are full of juices: the check and
injury they muft receive, from having the whole of their
extremities cut off at that period may eafily be con-
ceived,

When {peaking of the treatment of hedge-plants before
they are put into the ground, notice has been taken of the
neceffity of preferving the roots as much as poffible, and at
the fame time fhortening the tops: this lait operation has
two good effe&ts; for by curtailing the top and branches
the roots have lefs to nourifh ; and by leaving only two or
three inches of the top above ground, in place of growing
up with a fingle item, it fends out two or three; and as
thefe. {trike out from the plant fo near the earth, each of
them has the fame effeét, and flrengthens the hedge as
much as the original {tem would have done by itfelf; with

this addition, that in place of one prop or fupport, the
hedge will have three or four. After this firft pruning,
however, no hedge fhould be touched, or at leat very
gently, for fome years: from an inattention to this cir-
cumftance, and the injudicious application of the knife or
fhears at an early period, many young hedges are rendered
ufelefs, which, under different treatment, would have made
excellent fences, with one-half the trouble that was re-
quired to deftroy them. ‘The praétice of cutting over the
tops yearly, which is done with a view to render the hedge
thicker and more perfeét, is one of thofe mutakes which
one would naturally have fuppoled common fenfe and ob,
fervation would have fooner corrected 3 the effect produced
being, in almoft every inftance, the very reverfe of what
was intended = fhortening the main ftem of a thorn or any
other plant makes it brufh out a number of {mall {tems im-
mediately at the place where it has been cut; and if this
operation is repeated once or twice a-year, every one of
“thefe is again fub-divided, as it were, by fending out more
branches; thus, in a courfe of years, during which the
hedge makes very {mail progrefs upward, if it be ex-
anined, inftead of being found to confilt of {trong vigorous
plants, with a good main trunk, each reaching from top
to bottom of the hedge, and a feflicient number of lateral
branches throughout the whole length of it, it will be found
by duch repeated cuttings, in the fame ftuated fituation, as
certain young trees and fhrubs that are frequently cropped
by theev or cattle. From the repeated crops of young
fhoots which the tops fend out after every clipping, and the
great quantity of nourifhment neceflary to fupport fuch ad-
itional numbers, the lateral fhoots at the bottom, upon
the ftrength and numbers of which the value of the hedge

* ina great meafure depends, are flinted in their growth, and

foon die 3 the hedge, of courfe, becomes open and naked
at the bottom, and confequently ufelefs as a fenee. Where
a hedge has been thus ruined, there is no remedy but cutting
it over, clofe by the ground ; this will immediately produce
a number of healthy, vigorous, upright {tems, which,
under proper management, will foon forma good fence.
From the firft year of planting, till the hedge has rifen to
the height of five or fix feet, the main dtems ought to be
left untouched, and the pruning confined folely to the fide
branches, leaving thofe next the root pretty long, and
gradually tapering towards the top; this pruning of the
fide branches will make them fend out many new {hoots
from their extremities, which, by repeated trimmings, will
become fo thick as to fill up every interftice from top to
bottom of the hedge ; while the main items, by being left
untouched, continue their growth upward, till they arrive
at the neceflary height, when they may haye their extre-
mities cut off with perfect fafety. When a hedge has at-
tained the wifhed-for height, all that is requifite afterwards

INL CTE.

is regular {witching with a hedge-bill, preferving it pretty
broad at bottom, and drawing it gradually to a point at
top ; this form of a hedge is pleafant to the eye, is well
calculated to ftand the weather, and, by being thus above
the nourifhment that would have been waited in fup-
porting a thick, bufhy, over-grown top, Is retained by
the branches at the bottom, which are thereby ftrengthened,
and their numbers confiderably increafed ; while the trunk,
by having no more exertion to make in an upward direétion,
becomes every year ftronger and thicker. A hedge of this
fort, in full leaf, has the appearance of a folid wall, and,
when viewed after the leaves are fled, prefents to the eye a
fet of mafly growing piles, fo ftrong and formidable as ta
bid defiance to any attempts that may be made to break
through them. A hedge-fence trimmed in this way is re-
prefented at fg. 10. in the plate to which we have referred.

Cutting over old live hedges —With refpe&to the cutting
down of old hedges, the above dire¢tions and obfervations
apply, it may be obferved, with ftriét propriety, only to
fuch as have been regularly attended to from the time of
their being planted: as there are, however, innumerable
hedges in the kingdom, which, by being negleGted, have
grown up to a great height, have become open and naked
below, and bufhy and unmanageable at top ; it is of confe-
quence to point out the means of reducing fuch hedges to
a moderate fcale, and rendering them ufeful. This pur-
poie, it may be flated, can only be effe&ted by cutting them
down, and procuring from their itumps a growth of new
fhoots, which, with proper management, will foon make a
perfect fence, If the fields inclofed by fuch hedges are al-
teruately in pafture and tillage, the period moft proper for
cutting them down is when the field is to be ploughed.
Under a corn crop the confinement of the ftock is no longer
an objet ; and by the time the field is again brought under
the plough, the hedge, if properly treated, will have ac-
quired itrength enough to become a good fence.

This operation is performed in feveral different ways ;
in the firit the hedge is cut over, about a yard above the
furface, and is left in that ftate without any other pains
being taken with it; if it has originally been good, and
the plants thick enough at bottom, this kind of cutting
will aafwer the purpofe perfectly well, and in a few years
the hedge will, with proper drefling, become both a neat
and an ufeful fence. A hedge cut ever in this way, with
one year’s growth of new fhoots upon it, is reprefented at

Jig. 11. in the plate.

However, in this mode, when there has been a deficiency
of plants, and the hedge is cut over in the manner above-
mentioned, innumerable gaps will appear, which, without
fome art, it will be impoffible to fill up. It has alfo this
farther difadvantage, that if either hories or cattle attempt
to leap into, or out of, the inclofure, the fharp points of
the itakes are apt to run into their bellies; this, aecording=
ly, often happens, and many valuable horfes and cattle are
killed, or greatly injured by fuch means.

Another, and indeed 2 preferable mode of cutting down
old hedges, is, to cut afourth part of the plants over, to
the height which the fence is intended to be made, and
to bend down and warp the remaining three-fourths with
thefe upright items. This method very effectually cures the
gaps and opennefs below, and, with flight attention, foon
makes a good fence. At fg. 12. is a reprefentation of a
hedge done in this method of cutting.

And a third way of cutting over old hedges, is that of
taking them off clofe by the furface ; this practice, where
the plants are numerous, and there are no gaps in the hedges,
anfwers very well; but when there is a deficiency of plants

in

FENCE.

in any part of the hedge, the want will be very apparent.
This lait mode, though much inferior to the one im-
mediately preceding, is neverthelefs greatly preferable to
that firft deferibed, as the young fhoots fent out from the
ftumps, by being fo near the ground, will in fome mea-
fure remedy the defeéts occafioned by the want of original
plants, whereas, when the old plants are cut at the diftance
of about a yard, or four feet above the furface, the young
fhoots produced by the cutting will be fo high, as to leave
the hedge open at the bottom, and very thin.

There is another method of cutting down old hedges ;
but which is yet but very little pra¢tifed, which is firlt to
cut them down even with the. furface of the bank, &c. and
afterwards to cover the ftumps completely over with the
earth taken out of the ditch, or from the road fide.
When this is carefuily done, it 13 afferted that every fingle
root fends out a great number of young vigorous fhoots,
each of which, by branching out from the ftamp below the
furface, fends out roots, and acquires an eltablifhment for
itfelf: by this means, the bottom of the hedge becomes fo
thick, that neither fheep, cattle, nor indeed any animal,. can
break through it.

In which-ever of thefe ways the hedge is cut down, the
direGtions formerly given for the management of young
hedges fhould be ftriétly attended to, as loon as the young
fhoots have made fome progrefs ; the fide branches fhould
be trimmed, and the hedge put into a proper fhape, pre-
ferving it broad and fullat bottom, and tapering gradually
towards the top, as fhewn above. ‘The fame caution is alfo
te be obferved with regard to the upright fhoots, none of
which fhould be fhortened till the hedge has attained the
withed-for height. It is furprifing what clofe beautiful
fences.are raifed in this way, ina few years, from the ftumps
of fome over-grown ufelefs hedges ; which, at the fame time
with their being naked below, and of courfe faulty as fences,
occupied four times the fpace they ought to have done, to
the great lofs both of the proprietor and farmer.

The obfervations formerly made with regard to the pro-
per feafon for pruning and {witching young hedges apply
with equal, indeed greater propriety to the cutting down ef
old ones; as, if this operation is done at an improper feafon,
from the largenefs of the {tumps, the extent of wounded
furface expofed to the weather, and other circumitances,
the plants are in imminent danger of being deitroyed ; in-
deed this very often happens when, through ignorance or in-
attention, the proprietors of hedges have them plafhed or
cut over during fummer. It is unneceffary in this place to
enter into any digreffion as to the ufe of leaves and branches
to plants of every defcription ; it is fufficient for the prefent
purpofe to ftate what experience and common fenfe have
abundantly proved, viz. that the lofs of either, efpecially
when the plants are in a growing ftate, and the juice circu-
lating through them, is in moft cafes attended with the de-
ftruction of the plant ; indeed the thing {peaks for itfelf ;
the juice of the plant, inftead of being employed in nourifh-
ing the top and branches, flows in great abundance through
the feétion of the trunk, and by finding fo ready an exit,
draws from the root a quantity of nourifhment, far exceed-
ing the proportion required for its former fupport ; by fuch
an unufual drain, the plants are exhaufted, or, as is com-
monly faid, they bleed to death. It is to be obferved, how-
ever,that every defcription of plants is not equally affected by
a fummer cutting ; thofe that are moft juicy and fucculent,
and have the largeit circulating veflels, always fuffering more
than‘fuch as are of a harder texture, have {maller pores, and
lefs fap circulating through them. The birch, larch, pops
Jaz, willow, and, in general, all plants that contain a large

proportion, either of refinous or faccharine matter, are to be
ranked in the firft clafs; the different kinds of thorn, crabs,
&c. &e. belonging to the fecond; the former are almoft in-
fallibly killed by a fpring or fummer pruning ; while the
fame operation is often practifed upon the latter with lit-
tle apparent injury. But though we thus readily admit
that one defcription of plants will furvive an operation by
which others would be killed, it by no means follows that
they are not injured thereby ; there are, indeed, too many

proofs to the contrary, asin almoft every county there are’

thorn-hedges met with, that have been plafhed or cut over
infummer ; and which, though they have not died in con-
fequence of the operation, yet, by the lofs ofjuices, and the
expofure of their naked trunks and wounded extremities to
the parching rays of a fummer fun, have been fo much
weakened, as to prevent them from putting out new fhoots,
and have ever afterwards remained ina naked ftate, exhibit-
ing an appearance no way better than that of a dead-hedge.
This picture is the very reverfe of what, a st different
treatment, would have been the cafe; as when the old plants
are cutover at a proper feafon, ahealthy luxuriant crop of
young fhoots never fails to be produced.

The proper feafon for cutting over hedges is either ata
late period in the autumn, or very early in the fpring ; at
both of thefe periods the plants are equally fafe from injury ;
at the former, the juices are retiring towards the root, and
early in the {pring they have not begun te rife. In either
cafe, no danger whatever canarife from the bleeding of the
plants, as, long before the circulation takes place, the
wounds occafioned by the cutting will be completely healed ;
all cuttings or trimmings ought therefore to be done at one
or other of thefe periods. The fame remarks alfo apply to
os modes of cutting over and repairing fences mentioned

elow.

Plafbing hedges.—T here is a practice in many of the Eng-
lith counties, which iscommon in refpeét to fences; that of,
after the plants have attained the wifhed-for height, cutting
their ftems about half through, within a few inches ot the
bottom ; then bending thema little down, all in one dire@tion,
and binding them together at top with willows, as repreferted
atig. 3. in the fecond plate on fences. This, when properly exe-
cuted, forms a very pretty neat looking fence, but is Hable to
feveral objeGtions. By the cutting of the plants fo near the
root, unlefs great pains are taken, there is a chance of cut-
ting them too much ; indeed, in fome inftances, they are cnt
through altogether; the value of the hedge is by this means
leflened, and gaps appear in many parts of it. ‘The binding
at top being of dead wood foon decays ; and the plants
either rife up, if they have not Leen very much cut, or if
the cutting has been deep, they are apt to be blown to one
fide, and even broken over by the wind. Owing to thefe
caufes many hedges, where the plants are fufficiently nu-
merous and healthy, and which, with little trouble, would
have formed beautiful and ufeful fences in a fhort time, have
their value impaired, and are rendered faulty and defective.
Cutting the {tem too much fubje&ts them to another evil,
namely, the mifchief arifing frem heavy falls of fnow, by
which, when the quantity is confiderable, efpecially if there
is a high wind to accumulate it about the hedge, it is there-
by prefled down, and many of the plants break entirely
over.

The practice noticed above, of cutting one-third of the
ftems over, at the height of about four feet from the furs
face, leaving thofe as Tandtedi and warping them with the
others that have been left of the full length, makes a much
ftronger fence, and one that is lefs liable to injury, either
from the attempts of cattle, or from the wind, or hea

6 fall

FENCE.

falls of fnow. What adds to its value is, that the warping
and binding of the bufhes, being done with live wood in
place of decaying, as is the cafe when willows or hazels
are made ufe of, grow ftronger with time, and the plants
are in the end as completely interwoven, as to form a fence,
which nothing can exceed either for clofenefs or dura-
bility. The way in which this operation is commonly
done is liable to one objection, however, it being cultomary
to trim away the whole of the branches before the ftems
are bent down: this renders it, no doubt, a much eafier
bufinefs for the workman; but it materially injures the
hedge, leaves it thin and open in many places, and gives it
not only an unpleafant appearance to the eye, but makes it
lefs ufefulasa fence. This defeét is not in general repaired
for ayear or two; whereas, by leaving as many of the fide-
fhoote as poffible upon that part of the plants that is to be
Jaid horizontal; and, after the whole hedge is warped, trim-
ming it neatly with a hedge-bill, it will form at once a folid
and ufeful fort of fence. Hedges done in this way are re-
prefented at figs. 11. and 12. in the firit plate on fences.
Where, however, the bufinefs of plafhing hedges is exe-
cuted ina proper manner, the above objections will ina
great meafure lofe their force. This is the cafe in the
county of Hertford, and the method of performing the
work is this; the hedgers firft begin to clear the old hedge
of all the dead wood, brambles, and other irregular growing
rubbifh, leaving all along the top of the bank the ftraighte!t
and beft growing ftems of the thorn, hazel, elm, ath, oak,
fallow, and beech, as well as other kinds, to the number of
about five or fix in the yard. But where there are any
gaps, or places that are thin of live wood, more are left on
each fide of them. This being done, they have recourfe to
the repairing of the ditches, which fhould not be lefs than
three feet by two and a half, having the width of fix inches at
the bottoms in dry foils; but in fuch as are wet, not lefs
than four feet by three, and one at the bottom. The whole
_of the earthy materials which are raifed from the ditches is
laid up on the banks with great care, the overlooker being
attentive to the matter. When the ditches have been thus
finifhed, the men begin with the hedges. Such of the ftems
of the plants as are left in cutting the old hedges over,
that are found growing in the line where the new hedge is
to run, are cut off at the height of three feet from the top
of the bank, being referved for hedge-{takes to the hedge
which is to be raifed. ‘This is an excellent practice, as fuch
ftakes, from their being immoveable and incapable of rot-
ting, keep up the new hedge in fuch a manner that it never
falls, or leans in any direétion. The dead hedge-ftakes are
in the next place driven firmly inte the bank, where they
are wanted, fallows or willows being moftly chofen in order
that they may take root and grow. The remainder of the
live wood which had been left {tanding is then plafhed down
by the hedgers. In executing this part of the work they
make two cuts in each of the fticks, one ftroke being
given near the ground, and the other at the diftance of eight,
ten, or twelve inches above it, but only juit deep enough to
flit out a part of the wood between the two cuts, leaving the
ftem fupported by a little more than the bark, or about a
fourth part of its firft fize. It is then laid down along the
top of the bank, and interwoven with the hedge-itakes.
All the plants are ferved in the fame way, and where
they are not fufficient to fill up and complete the hedge,
dead wood is had recourfe to; but this fhould be avoided
as much as poflible, from its injuring the living plants in its
decay. The work is completed by running an eddering
along the top of the fence in the manner which is practifed
in making dead hedges.
Vor. XIV.

The making of this fort of hedge fence is a matter which
requires great exaétnefs and judgment in order to perform
Itina proper manner. It is, however, moftly done by thofe
who are ina great meafure ignorant of its nature, often
cutting the plants in a downward direGion inftead of an up-
ward one, by which they are expofed to fpeedy decay and
deftruGtion. Where the work of plathing is weil executed,
the cuts formed for the laying down of the plants fhould
not be made in the manner fhewn at fig. 13. in the firft plate
on fences ; but as is reprefented in fig. 14.

In the execution of this bufinefs, it is very material that
the operator be furnifhed with a hedge-bill which is per-
fectly fharp, as the neatnefs of the work depends greatly on
this cireumftance. The old ftubby parts of the hedge
fhould be cut fo low as that it may be covered with the
mould from the ditches in the after cleanings of them, and
the layers, or parts laid down, fhould not have more con-
nection with the old ftumps than is barely fufficient to con-
vey the fap juice in due proportion to the plafhes, or layers,
In this way the ftumps foon throw out plenty of young
fhoots for a new hedge, the layers being merely defigned
to ferve that purpofe until the young wood gets up again.
The moft healthy and beft plants fhould always be fele@ed
for the plafhes, and thofe defigned for ftakes fhould not be
too large; the fize of a ftrong walking flick is quite fuf-
ficient, as they increafe faft. It is the praétice of fome
diftriéts to lay the plathes high, while in others they are
laid down very low. Both thefe extremes are attended
with difadvantages, as by the firft too much fap juice rifes
into the plafhes for the due fupport of the bottom fhoots,
by which they become weak and trifling, the hedge being
of courfe left thin where the contrary fhould have been
the cafe; and by the latter the hedge is left too low, and
confequently more liable to injuries from cropping with cat-
tle, &c.: the middle courfe fhould of courfe be purfued.
After the layers, or plafhes, are interwoven with the ftakes,
and the fuperfluous twigs of the hedge dreffed off by the
bill, fome nick the layers in different places at the diftances
of about a foot, by which it is fuppofed more branches, or
fhoots, are thrown out from between the nicks, or cuts, as
the fap juice rifes more flowly.

It is of great advantage to the rifing of the hedges im
thefe cafes to have the inclofures under the plough for two
or three years after they have been plafhed.

This fyftem of making fences fhould be more generally
practifed in thofe diftriéts where it is yet but little known,
by having labourers from thofe where it has been long in
ute, as by it the farmer.muft derive confiderable adyautage
in having hedges.which are chiefly formed of living materials
inftead of fuch as are dead, and ‘coufequently on the con-
ftant decay.

In moit places the wood which is thinned out in forming
fuch fences, will amp] y repay the expences which are in-
curred in making them.

A hedge plafhed in the proper manner is fhewn at fi. «5.
ir the plate. :

It fhould be conitantly recollected that in every operatioa
of the above kind, in which old hedges are either cut over
or plafhed, and bent down fo as to conititute a fence, the
ground on each fide fhould, as foon as circumitances wi
admit of it, be completely dug over, cleaned of weeds, an
the earth laid up to the roots of the plants It is truly
furprifing what numerous and luxuriant fhoots the ftumps
fend out when managed in this way: while, on the con-
trary, when thefe neceffary operations are negleted, fewer
fhoots proceed from the old trunks; and of theie few a
a confiderable proportion is choaked and deltroyed by

Fork the

lly

I
d

FEN € tf.

the weeds and other rubbifh in the bottom of the hedge-
bank.

Filling up gaps in hedges.—In refpe& to fillmg up gaps
yn young hedges, it may be remarked, that when young
hedges are planted, if the plants made ufe of are of a
nature fuited to the foil, the hedge may be kept free of
gaps with very little trouble : for this purpofeit 1s, however,
neceflary, about the end of the firft autumn, after the hedge
has been planted, to examine it carefully throughout its whole
extent, and take out fuch plants as are either in a decaying
fickly ftate, er thofe that are actually dead, and fill up the
{paces they occupied with the ftrongeft and moit vigorous
ones that can be found: where this care is taken for the
firt two or three years, there will be no defeéts in the
hedge, which will be uniformly thick and {trong through-
eut. ~

But when old hedges are meant to be cut down, that
have many gaps or open fpaces in them, fo wide as to pre-
vent the poflibility of the young fhoots filling. them up,
fome expedient muft be had recourfe to, in order to render
the fence complete. This purpofe may, it is fuppofed, be
an{wered in different ways: the eafielt, and indeed the molt
eommon: method is, for the nedger, when he comes to a
place where any of the plants are wanting, to take one of
the ftrongelt plants next to it, and after giving it a gentle
ftroke with the hedge-bill, to bend it acrofs the opening,
and entwine its branches with the thorns on the oppofite
fide: indeed, as has been already ftated, fome have a cuf-
tom of cutting down only a fourth part of the ftems, and
warping the remainder with thefe, which appear like flakes
driven into the earth. Where the hedge is fhortened to
within three or four feet of the ground, both of thefe
plafhing methods anfwer pretty well, and the openings
which would otherwife have been left, are in fome degree
filled up; but when the old hedge is cut clofe to the earth,
other methods of fupplying the defects become neceflary.
One very fimple, and at the fame time very effectual mode,
confilts in firll digging the ground pretty deep with a
fpade, and taking one of the {trongeft plants on each fide
of the opening, that have been purpofely left uncut, re-
moving the earth from their roots fo much as to loofen
them, and admit of their being bent down, and laid clofe
to the earth in the opening, as reprefented at jig. 16. in the
plate. They fhould then be faftened down with wooden
hooks, or pins, and entirely -covered throughout the whole
of their length with earth. Where this plan is properly
executed, the plants fo laid down fend up a great number
of young fhoots, which very foon fill up the vacancy:
when it is practifed upon a hedge that is cut over clofe by
the furface, no other care is requilite ; but where it is done
with hedges that are cut at three or four feet above it,
there will be a neceffity for placing a temporary paling in
the gap, to proteét the young fhoots from injury, till they
acquire a fufficient degree of flrength, as reprefented at
Sig. Ve Plate XIX.

It may be remarked that there is fcarcely any thing
attempted by farmers in which.they are fo unfuccefs-
ful as in the mending of hedges: in fome cafes the de-
fe& is attempted to be fupplied with young. plants,
which, from want of attention, very feldom fucceed, as
they are not ouly (haded by the ftrong old plants on each
fide, but are alfo deprived of their nourifhment, by their
roots {preading inte the vacant fpace. To render. an at-
tempt to mend the defects of an old hedge with young
plants fuccefsful, two things are abfolutely neceflary : the
firft is, that the whole of the roots of the old plants, which
extend themfelves into the opening, be entirely cut off ;

the next, that the hedge fhall be cut down clofe to the
earth, for at leaft a yard or more on each fide of it. By
cutting away the roots which extend themfelves. into the
opening, the young plants are prevented from being robbed
of their nourifhment, and cutting down the old ones, for a
little diftance on each fide, keeps them from being fhaded,
and allows them to enjoy the full benefit of the light and
air: cutting down fo much of the old hedge, no doubt,
renders the opening larger, and of courfe requires more
railing or paling to fupply the defect; but this extra
expence will be more than compenfated by the fuccefs
with which it will be attended. In many inftances thefe
vacancies are filled up with dead wood ; indeed it is a com-
mon pra¢tice, aftera hedge is dreffed, to cram the greatelt
part of the prunings into thefe fpaces, and under the bot
tom of the hedge, where it is any way open or naked,
The moft perverle imagination, it is faid, could hardly fup-
pofe any thing more abfurd; for if it be the with of the
owner that the plants on each fide fhould fend out new
branches to fill up the openings, the purpofe is completely
defeated by cramming them full of dead bruth-wood, which
not only prevents the extenfion of the branches, but from
the violence and injury that is committed in thrufting in
dead thorns, the plants are often materially hurt ; and
when this brufh-wood decays, the opening, in place of be-
ing diminifhed, is confiderably enlarged: the mifchief is the
fame where they are thruft under the hedge, the praétice of
which, when continued, never fails to render it naked at
bottom. '

The ufe of ftones for mending hedges is equally abfurd
and pernicious: where dead wood is ufed in the way
above-mentioned, the hedge, inftead of being improved, is
made worfe. The utmoit that can be faid of ftones is,
that though they do no additional harm, the hedge is not
bettered by them ; and from the opening being filled up in
that way, the defect is perpetuated, and both the ufeful-
nefs and beauty of the fence are impaired.

In fome initances where the attempt has been made, the
defects of grown-up hedges have been very completely,
and indeed almoft immediately, repaired, by planting flrong
beeches in the openings; thefe fhould be at lealt fix or
feven feet in height, and fhould be fupported by a couple
of pieces of coarfe railing put acrofs the opening. If
planted early in the winter, they fuffer no check what-
ever, and grow fo vigoroufly in the {pring as to fill up the
Tees the firft feafon, as reprefented at fg. 2. in the fame

ate.

And the ground in this, as indeed in every other cafe
where young plants are ufed, fhould be well dug, and en-
riched either with dung or compoft; the plants fhould be
the healthieft and ftrongeft that can be procured, and the
whole of their roots as carefully preferved as poffible, as
very much depends upon proper attention in thefe refpedts.

Difeafes of hedge-plants.—With regard to the difeafes of
hedge-plants, it is f{uppofed that the principal one to which
they (efpecially thorns) are liable, is heing covered with mofs,
which, when it arrives at any confiderable height, gradually de=
ftroysthem. Upon certain foils, fuch as till or cold wet clay,
it may be remarked, woody plants of every defcription are
fubject to this malady ; and as it is evidently owing to the
nature of the foil, it becomes a matter of importance to be
able to apply a proper remedy. Lime is well known to be
unfriendly to the growth of every defcription of mofs, and.
in every inftance where it is applied the mofs difappears.
This circumftance, once known, furnifhes a cheap and ef.
fe€tual remedy, both for preventing the difeafe upon young.
hedges, and curing it upon fuch as are grown up. If the

hints

ama

FE NCE.

hints formerly thrown out with regard to the preparation
- of the foil before a young hedge is planted are properly at-
tended to, and a fufficient quantity of lime incorporated
with the earth, let the former quality of the foil be what it
may, its nature will be fo much altered as effectu:lly
“to fecure the hedge from every rifk of being hurt by
mofs. The fame remedy may be applied with equal fuc-
cefs toold hedges, that are over-run with this vegetable
vermin, and in which, though there may be plants enough
in the ground, yet they are of no value, from the want of
‘branches. To recover fuch hedges, and render them after-
“wards good fences, they fhould be cut down clofe by the
‘furface, cleared completely cf weeds, and the earth well
dug for at leaft half a yard on each fideof the roots. After
this operation, which fhould be done about the end cf au-
tumn, the {paces fo dug fhould be well limed upon the fur-
face 2 it fhould be fuffered to remain in that flate during the
winter, and early in the {pring dug again, and the lime
‘pointed in and incorporated with the foil. In the cafes
where this has been done, the plants have fent out a num-
ber of ufeful vigorous thoots, which foon made good hedges,
and no mofs has afterwards appeared. It is from thefe ex-
periments to be pre{umed, and it is hoped experience will
‘confirm the idea, that im every cafe where either trees or
hedge-plants are infelted with mofs, the ufe of lime, in the
ee here pointed out, will prove a fufficient remedy for the
evil.

Compound hedge-fences.—Thefe are fuch hedges as do
not wholly of themfelves conftitute or form perfect fences,
‘but which have the addition of fome other fort to render
them complete.

Single hedge and ditch. —Thie is a fort of fence that may
either havea railing, paling, or fome other defence: added
‘to it, or be wholly without them, according to the parti-
‘cular circumftances of the cafe. And it is a defcription of
fence in which the ditch is of very different dimentions ac-
cording to the nature and circumftances of it; the thorns
being, for the moft part, as Mr. Sommerville has obferved,
aad upon the common furface, upon what Is termed a
4carcement, or projection of fix or feven inches, on which
they lean, and which ferves asa kind of bed, when they
are cleaned. By placing the plants thus far back from the
edge of the ditch, they are in a great meafure fecured
againft the accidents to which they would otherwife be
liable, if they were placed immediately in the front of the
bank ; as there are few ditches, however carefully they may
have been made, into which the earth does not afterwards flide
and fallin. In cafes, therefore, where the thorns are planted
immediately in the face, or what is termed the brow of the
ditch, if any portion of the earth falls in, it either carries
the plants along with it, or deprives them of their nourifh-
ment; whereas, by placing them at the diftance of fix or
eight inches back from the front, there is no rifk whatever
ot their being injured by the carth falling down. It ap-
pears alfo, that the {pace commonly allowed for a fearce-
ment is by far too little, being feldom more than four inches.
In place of which it ought never to be lefs than twelve or
fourteen inches. ‘his would have feveral advantages, as it
would not only prevent all rif of the earth tumbling in,
and bringing the plants along with it, but would at the
fame time atford ample room for weeding the hedge com-

letely, and drawing up the earth to the roots of the plants.
hefe are matters of confiderable importance, and which,
along with their dettroying weeds, promote the growth of
the hedye, by affording fufficient pafture for the plants, and
enabling them to refilt the effects of drought, frott, &c.
much more completely than they would have been able to

do if planted dire@ily in the face of the ditch. It is com-
mon to lay the hedge-plants upon the plane furface, without
any preparation whatever. But in other cafes, the iirit
{p.deful that is taken out of the ditch is laid on the front,
and the plants placed above it: whatever the foil or fituation
may be, it is of importance to place the plants upon a bed
of good, rich, well prepared earth, capable of affording
them not only a due degree of nourifhmeut, but into which
their roots may ftrike with the utmoft eafe. Upon avery
dry foil, and in elevated fituations, it is fometimes neceffarv
to place the hedge-plants confiderably below the common
furface, to prevent them from iuffering by drought: where
this is praétifed, the ditch is firft dug of the ordinary
dimenfiens, and the earth that is taken out of it laid about
twenty inches back from the hedge; the labourer then,
witha fpade, cuts down a {pace about fifteen inches broad,
and ten or twelve inches deep, along the whole front of the
ditch ; this fpace, when cut, refembles a fhelf: an inch or
two of the beft mould, well broke down, and pulverized
with the fpade, is laid upon this thelf, orfcarcement, upon
which the plants are then Jaid, not exa&ly in a horizontal
direQion, but with the tops a few degrees higher than the
roots. The earth taken out in forming the fhelf is then
replaced akove the roots in fuch a manner as to form a good
flope from the front of the ditch backwards: and where
the foil is deep enough to admit of tiis being properly done,
there are few fituations, however dry, where the hedge will
run any rifk o€ fuffering from too much dry weather at any
feafon of the year.

It may be farther remarked, that in very cold wet fitua-
tions this practice is reverfed ; and in place of planting the
hedge upon or below the common furface, it is found ne-
ceilary to raife it confiderably higher ; for that purpofe the
firlt two {padings, or {pits, taken out of the ditch, and which
always confift ot the beit earth, are laid about ten inches
back from the front; this, when properly doe, forms a
bed of from twelve to fifteen inches in thickuefs, upon
which the plants are laid; the roots are then covered with
the remainder of the beft earth, and the baak formed in the
ordinary way.

Where the hedge is either white thorn, crab, or beech,
the precaution of raifing it above the common furface is ef-
fential to its welfare upon cold or wet foils; and inmany of
thefe fituations good hedges are made ia this way, that could
not poffibly have been done by any other means. It muft ke
admitted, however, that by railing it fo much above the com-
mon furface, the pafture of the plants is ina great meafure con-
fined to the bank formed by the earth taken out of the ditch;
and, in many inftances, when the winters are fevere, and
much black froft happens, it penetrates the bank fo com-
pletely, as entirely to deftroy the hedge.

In all cafes where hedges are to be made either in this or
any other way, the foil, fo far as circumftances will admit,
ought, as has been already noticed, to be cleared, pul-
verized, and enriched with lime, compoft, or othe$ manures,
which will not onlysenable them to puth away vigorouily,
but at the fame time prevent, ina great meafure, the dif-
tempers of mofs, or cankering, which hedges upon #tiff
clays, or other cold wet foils, are very liable to be affected
with, and of courfe much injured by them.

In {peaking of the fimple ditch fence, notice was taken of
the neceflity of giving it a proper flope, to prevent its
tumbling in after froft, or being excavated by the rua of the
water. Where a hedge is added to the ditch this pres
caution is equally effential, indeed more fo, as the injury
done to a fimple ditch can be repaired with the f{pade at
little or-no expence ; whereas, when a hedge is planted in

Kka

FUE N (G.E.

the front, any confiderable portion of the earth falling down
brings the plants along with it, and makes a breach in the
hedge, which no induftry will afterwards be able to remedy.
To keep them pretty broad at top, and gradually tapering
towards a point at bottom, ought to be a conftant and in-
yariable rule ; ditches fo conftruéted are feldom, if ever,
undermined, and retain their fhape for many years. Upon
ditches fo formed, from their containing little water at bot-
tom, the greateft preflure and action of the fluid are upon
the upper part, and upon that, from the nature of the flope,
its effects are loit. Thofe who have made fufficient
obfervation know, that in every inftance where water acts
upon a perpendicular furface (efpecially if the foil is of a
foft incoherent nature) its force is greateft ; whereas, when
it operates upon a floping bank its face is fhort, and it
confequently does no injury. A knowledge of the laws of
hydrottatics explains this. The preffure and operation of
Auids is always in proportion to their altitude or perpendi-
cular height. Upon a floping bank this preflure is loft ;
and the more gradual the flope, the lefs effect the water has.
It is owing to this circumftance that the low floping parts,
both upon the banks of rivers, and on the fea-coa{t, con-
tinue unaltered for many ages, while the high bold parts of
the fhore, unlefs they are entirely of rock, are continually
tumbling down. The fame thing holds good in regard to
ditches ; whatever the height of the column of water may
be in the middle, or however rapid the current, the narrow-
nefs of the ditch at bottom, and its floping gradually up-
wards, divides and diminifhes the force fo completely, that
it is {carcely felt upon any part of it; whereas, when the
ditch is wall-fided, and of one uniform width from top to
bottom, the water, by being confined almott entirely to the
under-part, runs away the foil, and excavates and under-
mines the fides of the ditch, which occafions their breaking
down and being carried away.

In cafes where the purpofes of the proprietor or occupier
require that the fields recently inclofed with ditch and
hedge fhould be made fencible at once, it is very common
either to furround them with a railing or paling placed upon
the top of the bank, formed by the earth taken out of the
ditch, or with a wall of coarfe loofe ftones, in the form of
a Galloway-dike, placed alfo upon the top of the bank.
Where {tones are in plenty, this laft forms an excellent fence
for the purpofe of confining the cattle, and is at the fame
time a good fhelter for the hedge. Fig. 4.1n the plate, repre-
{ents a young hedge proteGted by an open wall of this kind,
which anfwers well, and has a neat appearance.

For cafes in which a railing or paling is placed upon the
top of the bank, they are made of different materials, accord-
ing to the circumfauces of the particular cafe ; in fome fitua-
tions they are made of flabs, in others of laths, the prunings
of fir plantations, &c. in all of whichg when properly exe-
cuted, they not only anfwer the purpofe of a temporary
fence, but at the fame time ferve as a complete protection
to the young hedge, from the depredations of iheep and
other forts of live ttock.

Hedge and bank.—This is a kind of fence that confilts
of a hedge planted upon the plain furface, with a bank or
mound of earth raifed behind it by way of protection. A,
very good idea of this fence may be formed from the figure,
This bank, in fome inflances, is faced with fod on both fides,
floping gradually towards the tep 5 while in others, and
indeed by far the greateit number, it is only faced on one
fide, which is nearly perpendicular, and has a gradual flope
on the other, fimilar tothe bank made with the earth taken
out of an ordinary ditch. The hedge is frequently planted
at the bottom of the perpendicular fide that is faced with

fod ; but in many cafes it is planted on the other fide, near
the bottom of the floping bank of earth. The laft is cer-
tainly the beft fituation for the hedge ; for if the earth with
which the bank is made has been taken, as it generally is,
from the fide that is faced with fod, this fencing will form
a kind of funk fence, the bottom of which will be con-
fiderably below the common furface : of courfe, any hedge

planted in fucha fituation will not only be put into the worft -

of the foil, but will at the fame time be in danger of perifh-
ing from the moifture lodging there, and chilling the roots;
whereas, when it is planted on the other fide, near the bot-
tom of the flope, the plants have the beit of the foil to ftrike
into, and are in a great meafure fecured againft the bad
effects of ftagnant moifture and wetnefs.

It may be remarked, that in bleak expofed fituations,
where hedges cannot be fuccefsfully reared without fhelter
of fome kind or other, the bank of earth is a good contriv-
ance, as it fcreens the young plants from the inclemency of
the weather, tillthey acquire a degree of ftrength fufficient
to enable them to refift the rigour of the climate, which it
is now well known many plants are able to do when they
reach a certain age and ftrength, that would have been com-
pletely killed, had they been expofed in the fame fituation,
without fhelter, at an earlier period. In fuch cafes of courfe
earthen mounds, fimilar to what has been defcribed, or ftone
walls, are eflential to the rearing of good hedges, efpeciall
of white-thorn, But as this fence, like the common wed
wall, cannot be erected without a confiderable deftruétion
of the adjoining furface, it fhould never be ufed but in cafes
of the ftrongett neceflity. The only inftance in which it
can be made without any lofs is upon the fides of high-
ways, where the road is not bounded by a ditch, but flopes
gently to each fide; in that cafe a fufficiency of turf and
earth for facing and forming the bank may be had from the
fide of the road. This will have a double advantage; the
earth, if taken from the road with judgment, and in fucha
way as to form a gradual flope from the middle towards the
fides, will produce two very confiderable advantages ; the
flope will keep the road perfeétly dry, and the earth taken
from it will, with the affiftance of a flight paling, com-
pletely inclofe the field, and ferve as a protection to the
young hedge. It is worthy of remark, that when the
hedge is planted behind the bank, the paling fhould not be
upon the top, as is commonly the cafe; but on the fide
next the field, to ferve as a protection againft the cattle
grazing in it; when it is next the road, however, the
paling may be placed upon the top, in which cafe it will
render the fence more inacceflible and fecure from all forts
of depredations. /7y. 3. in the firlt plate on fences, explains
the manner of forming it. §

Hedge in face of bank.—This is a kind of fence that
differs from the former principally, in having the hedge in
the front of the bank confiderably above the common fur-
face, in place of having it at the bottom, as already de-
feribed. The work is executed in the following manner :
the bank, faced with fod on one fide, and having a gradual
flope on the other, is raifed to the height of eighteen
iaches or two feet; the top is then levelled, and covered
with two inches of good earth, above which the plants
are laid horizontally, with their tops projecting about a
couple of inches over the edge of the bank ; the roots are
afterwards covered with the fame mould, and the bank
raifed to the defired height. This fence is greatly inferior
to that already defcribed, as the hedge-plants, by being
raifed fo much above the common furface, are liable to great
injury, not only from the bank decaying and mouldering
down, and by that means depriving them of their nourifh-

ment

——

MENG E.

ment and fupport, but alfo from the effeéts of froft, drought,
&c. In many inflances, however, it may be ufeful, efpe-
cially in the inclofing of wet lands, where hedges would not
thrive, if placed upon the common furface; but in fuch
cafes it is worth while to notice, that great advantage will
arife from placing the hedge-plants about eight or ten
inches back from the front, upon a fort of fcarcement,
fimilar to what is done in the common ditches. When
planted in this way, there is little or no rifk of the bank
mouldering down; and the fhelf or fcarcement left admits
of the hedge being completely cleaned, and the earth drawn
up to the roots of the plants; circumitances of importance
in the growth of the hedge. Thiy method of forming a
hedge is fhewn at fig. 5. in the plate.

There is another defcription of hedge and bank fence
which is met with principally by the fides of highways, in
fituations where the ground has a fudden declivity towards
the road; in thefe cafes it is common to cut down the face
of the bank, in a floping direction, to within eighteen or
twenty inches of the bottom, where a bed is made of about
two feet in breadth, covered with good earth broken very
{mall ; upon this the plants are laid, with their extremities
about nine inches from the front ; the roots are then covered
with eight or nine inches of good mould; the bed below
with the projection, in this cafe, ferves the fame purpofe
as the fearcement of the common ditch, and affords com-
pleteroom for cleaning and drawing up the earth to the
roots of the hedge-plants. In the conftruétion of this fence
it is effential to give the face of the bank fuch a flope, as to
-prevent the earth from tumbling down ; if this is neglefted,
it will be continually falling in large maffes after every frotft,
or fall of {now or rain. It is fometimes the practice, how-
ever, initead of planting the hedge within eighteen inches
ofthe bottom, as here defcribed, to flope the bank firft in
fuch a way, as to infure it againft tumbling down, and plant
the hedge upon the top, at the diftance of about a foot
and a half from the verge of the bank. A hedge planted in

- this way, when it thrives, will certainly look much more
formidable than one planted at the bottom; but it will be
liable to more accidents than the other, from drought, froft,
and the falling in of the bank. It is fhewn at fg. 6. in the

late.

F Hedge on top of bank.—This is a fort of fence common in
many parts of England, and alfo in fome parts of Scotland,
and coniiits of a high bank of earth taken from the adjoin-
ing ground, pretty broad at bottom, and tapering gradually
towards the top, upon which the hedge is planted. It is,
however, to be objected to on account of the great wafte of
foil, the want of moifture, and its predifpofition to the pro-
duction of mols. It is feen at fig. 7. This fort of fence is
not unfrequently planted on the top with coppice-wood
plants cut off fhort.

Mound, or Devonfbire fence. —This is a fort of hedze and
bank, as it coniifts of an earthen mound fix or feven feet
wide at bottom, five feet in height, and four feet broad at
top, being moftly carried up between two fod banks, and
upon the middle of which a row of quicks is planted, and
on each fide, at two feet diftance, a row of willow ttakes,
-of about an inch in diameter each, and from eighteen inches
to two feet long, are {tuck in, floping a little outwards :
thefe ftakes foon take root, and forma kind of live fence
for the prefervation of the quicks in the ‘middle.. This
fence nearly refembles the hedge on the top ofa bank, and
is equally expenfive in the erection ; the formation of the
bank deprives the adjoining furface of its bett foil, and the
plants made ufe of are liable to every injury that can pofli-
bly arife from drought, froit, and the gradual degay or

‘prefent a clofe firm face above the top of the bank.

crumbling down of the mound, The addition of the willows
to this fence is certainly a difadvantage ; if the quicks re-
quire protection, dead-wood is equal to every purpofe that
could be wifhed or expected ; and at the fame time poffeffes
the additional advantage of requiring no nourifhment, and
having no foliage to fhade the quicks or other plants. It is
feen at fig. 8.

Different forts of hedge-woods may be proper in forming
fences of this nature in different foils and fituations. In
poor thin foils, in bleak expofed diftriéts, furze is often
found to afford a good fence, as well as confiderable fhelter.
But in this cafe the fides fhould be kept pruned, fo as to
In fi-
milar expofed high traéts of land, the beech avd fycamore
are likewife found beneficial la railing fences. But in lower,
more favourable expofures for the growth of hedge wood,
the hazel, oak, and afh may be had recourfe to for this
purpofe. The fallow is alfo a fart of wood that often
grows well on the more high and dry afpeéts, and may be
ufefulas a fence-wood in fuch places.

Hedge with poft and rails.—This is alfo a fort of fence
fometimes employed; the railings being frequently employ-
ed for the protection of hedges, a: well thofe that are plant-
ed upon the plain furface, as for the hedge and ditch united.
The addition of a paling is, however, more immediately
neceflary, in cafes where the hedge is planted upon the plain
{urface, efpecially when the fields fo inclofed are in paiture.
If only one field is inclofed in this way, and the adjacent
lands are under a corn crop, a fingle railing on the intfide of
the inclofed field will be quite fufficient for its proteétion ;
but when the adjacent fields are alfo under pafture, a dou-
ble railing becomes necefiary ; or, in other words, a railing
placed on each fide of the young hedge, at a fufficient dit-
tance to prevent the fheep or cattle from cropping it ; with-
out fuch protection the hedge plants are not only liable to
cropping, but alfo to being trodden and deitroyed by their
feet ; an injury which, when it happens at an early period
of their growth caufes the plants to continue low and {tunted
ever afterwards. Itis fhewn at fig. 9. Any fort of coarfe
wood, as the thinnings of timber plantations, anfwer well
for this purpofe.

Hedge and dead hedge. —This isa fence that confifts of a
row ot quicks, or other hedge-plants, fet either upon the
plain furface, or in the face of a ditch or bank, having a
dead hedge to protect them. his dead hedge anfwers a
double purpole, namely, that of protecting the young plants
from the injuries they may receive from cattle, or the incle.
mency of the weather; and ac the fame time forming a tem-
porary inclofure,» which la ll the hedge is grown up.
Where dead hedges are made of proper materials, fuch as
the cuttings of thorn hedges, &c. and are welllet into the
ground, they anfwer thele purpofes very completely, and
hould always be nfed for the protection of young hedges,
where the materials can be obtained at aa eal e. Itis

worthy of notice, however, that in every initance where
dead hedges are ufed for the protection of live ones, in place
of cramming them clofe together, as is commonly dofte,

there fhould be a diftance of at leait three feet between them.
In that way the hedge plants will have room to grow and
{pread out their lateral branches at bottom; a thing effen-
tially requfite to the formation ofa good hedge, while an
opportunity will at the fame time be afforded of weeding the
hedge, and loofening the earth completely on both fides of
the plants. ‘This fort of fence is {hewn at Jig. 10. in the
plate.

Hedge and wall fence. —This is of two kinds, one of which
will be afterwards deicribed, namely, a coarfe open wall,

m

BY BAN:

Made of loofe flones, refembling a Galloway dike, made
upon the top of the bank formed by the earth taken out of
the ditch. The fecond is chiefly ufed when hedges are
planted upon the plain furface ; in which cafe the wall,
though thin and low, is regularly built, and anfwers the
double purpofe' of fheltering and encouraging the growth
of the plants, while they are in a weak tender fLate, and
afterwards prevents the poffibility of the hedge becoming
open below ; where gardens are entirely, or in part, fur-
rounded’ by hedges; and in the ineclofing of. fields by the
fides of highways, efpecially"in the vicinity of great towns,
where dogs and other deftructive vermin are apt to creep
into the inclofures, and annoy the {tock ; the low wall forms
a valuable addition to the fence. It is cuftomary in fome
cafes, after the hedge has attained a certain height, and is
thought to be out of danger, either to remove the wall en-
tirely, or allow it to decay. This, according to Mr. Som-
merville, is certainly a bad practice, as it not only leaves the
bottom of the hedge naked and open, but at the fame time
deprives the roots of the plants of a protection to which
they have been accuftomed, and the removal of which ope-
rates asa fevere check to their growth. In every inftance
where the wall is intended to be removed, care fhould be
taken to cover the roots of the plants that are left expofed
with good earth ; by that means they will be prevented from
being hurt by expofure to the weather, and they will fuffer
little, if any, check. It frequently happens, however, to
the utter difgrace of the proprietor, that the wall is re-
moved, and the roots of the plants left naked, and expofed
to every injury. In fuch cafes, if the hedge has been plant-
ed a little above the common furface, as foon as the wall is
removed, the earth begins to moulder, and fall down, and
continues to do fo till the plants, deprived of their fupport,
tumble down alfo, and the hedge is by that means entirely
ruined. A reprefentation of this fort of fence is given at
Jig. 11. in the plate. :

It may be remarked, that there is another defcription of
he@e and wall which properly comes under confideration
inthis place; that is, where the hedge is planted upon the
top of the wall: this differs from a hedge on the top of a
bank already defcribed, only in one particular, which is
that of the bank being faced with ftones, inftead of fod or
earth. When fuch a fence is attempted in a level country,
the wall muft be very broad, not lefs than four or five feet,
and the middle of ir filled with earth ; in fhort, the conftruc-
tion fhould be nearly the fame as the Devonfhire fence, al-
ready defcribed, only the facing on each fide to confilt of
ftones in place of turf. The objeGtions made to the Devon-
fhire fence apply with equal propriety to this, being expen-
five in the ereétion, troublefome io keep in repair, and in
its nature by no means durable.

And there is {till another kind of this fence, which, it is
obferved, in particular fituations, is extremely ufeful ; that
is, where the land has a confiderable declivity, which ter-
minates abruptly on the fide of a highway, or an inclofure
running along the fide of high grounds that leans very much
to that fide where the fence is intended to be made. This
is commonly executed with a perpendicular front, and with-
out any contrivance for carrying off the moifture ; in confe-

uence of which, after bad winters, or long continued rains,
the earth fwells, the wall burfts, and is thrown down ; when
the wall is of dry ftone, there is, however, little rifk of this
accident happening; as its open texture readily admits of
the moifture paffing through it; but when the wall confifts
of ftone and lime, ftone and clay, or any other fubitance
that prevents the difcharge of the moifture, the earth, as
alseady mentioned, fwells, and the wall burfts, and is thereby

4

C £.

deftroyed.. In order to render a facing of this fort durable,
it is requifite, if the wall is built with {tone and lime, or a
mixture of clay, turf, or any other materials that refft the
paflage of water through them, inflead of building it per-
pendicular, as is commonly done, to give it an inclination of
fome degrees backward, and to have openings at the bot-
tom, at recular diftances from each other, for difcharging
the moifture that may iffue from the bank. And jn order
to render thefe openings as completely ufeful as poffible, it
fhould havea {pace at the back of the wall, and immediately
at the bottom of about twelve inches broad and the fame
depth, filled with fmall round ftones; thefe, by ferving as a
kind of drain, will receive the moifture that foaks down, and
afford it a ready paflage by the openings that have been
mentioned. This defcription of fence is fhewn at fg. 12.
in the plate.

Hedge in middle, or face of wall.—This is a fort of
fence fomewhat like that laft defcribed, but which can only
be made in the face of a bank where the land rifes imme-
diately behind it; the pra@tice Mr, Sommerville confiders
as new, ingenious, and deferving of attention. It is exe-
cuted in the following manner: the faceof the bank is firit
cut down with adpade, not quite perpendicular, but nearly
fo; a facing of ftone is then begun at the bottom, and car-
ried‘up regularly, in the manner that. flone walls are gene-
rally built; when it is raifed about eighteen inches or two
feet high, according to circumitances, the {pace between
the wall and the bank is filled up with good earth, well
broken and mixed with lime or compoft: the thorns are
laid upon this earth in fuch a manner cs that at leait four
inches of the root and {tem fhall reft upon the earth, and
the extremity of the top fhall projeét beyond the wall.
When the plants are thus cdtlanty laid, the roots are
covered with earth, and the building of the wall continued
upwards ; when completed, the wall is finifhed with a coping
of fod, or ftone and lime. When the plants begin to vege-
tate, the young fhoots appear in the face of the wall rifing
ina perpendicular manner. This kind of fence is fhewn at
jg. 1. Plate XX.

It may be remarked, that fr James Hall, of Dunglafs,
has adopted this mode of inclojing pretty extenfively upon
his eftates in Eaft Lothian, and is the firft who introduced
that plan on the eaft coaft of Scotland from Gallom, The
appearance is at once new and handfome; the whole feems
to be in a very thriving condition, and in feveral parts the
hedges have made creat progrefs. . Moft of them, however,
being young, no decifive opinion can be formed as to the
real advantaces or defe€ts with which this mode of inclo-
fing may be attended. Apparently, it is.liable to feveral
ebjections. In the firft place, if from weaknefs, or other
accidents, any of the plants fhould ficken or die, a circum-
ftance by no means uncommon, even where every poffible
care has been taken to feleét the ftouteft and beft; the de-
fect thereby occafioned cannot be repaired without taking
down the wall, at leaft as far as the place ere the hedge
was laid; this will be found highly expenfive and incon-
venient ; the inconvenience would, however, be lefs fenfibly
felt, if the failure of the plants happened only in one part
of the wall; but when, as will always be the caie, the
plants mifgive in many different places, it will be found a
very expentive and arduous bufinefs to take down and rebuild
the wall in every place where two, three, or more thorns
have failed, Were this labour and expence repaid by any ex-
traordinary advantages, the practice might derive additional
ftrength therefrom; that, however, is far from being the
cafe; for though the plants m a hedge of this fort are,
from the great quantity of earth laid upon their roots, lefs

liable

FENCE

Tiable to injury from drought, froft, &c., they are at _the-
fame time further removed from the genial influence of the
fun and the air.

Walls formed with or without lime nave been raifed on
the banks behind the new-planted quickfet hedges, inftead of
a paling or railing, to the height of about two feet anda
half, with great fuccefs by fir George Suttie in Scotland.
The bafe of the wall is placed about nine orten inches, or a
foot, from the plants of the hedge, being made two tect
thick at the bottom, battering to one at the top, and coped
with flat ftones and turfs. Where ftones are plentiful thefe
are found cheap and ufeful in rearing the young hedges.

Hedge and ditch, with row of trees —This kind of fence
differs from thofe which have been defcribed only in having
a row of trees planted in the line of the feuce along with
the hedge. -

The advocates for this pra€lice fay, that by planting
hedge-rows of trees in the direCtion of the fence, the coun-
try isat once fheltered, beautified, and improved; and that
the intereft of the proprietor is ultimately promoted by the
increafing value of the timber raifed in thefe hedge rows.
It. is alio faid that fuch trees produce more branches for
ftack-wood, knees for fhip-builcers, and bark for the tanners,
and they fel! at a higher price per load than trees grown in
woods and groves. Befides, clofe-pruning hedge-row trees
to the height of twelve or fifteen feet prevents their da-
maging the hedge; the fhelter which they afford is favour-
able to the vegetation both of grafs and corn; it alfo tends
to produce an equable temperature in the climate, which is
favourable both to the production of, and greater perfection
and beauty in animals, and of longevity to man. Though
the practice of planting hedge-rows of trees is very common
(efpecially in England), though its advocates are numerous,
and though thefe arguments are urged in its favour, yet the
objeGions are alfo entitled to very ferious confideration.
When trees are planted in the line of a fence, if that fence
is a hedge, the plants of which it coniifts will, Mr. Sommer-
ville fays, not only be deprived of a great part of their nou-
rifhment by thetrees, but willalfo be greatly injured by the
fhade they occafion and the weight of the drop that fails
from them during wet weather; upon this point little rea-
foning is neceflary, for, if we appeal to faéts we hall find
that no good hedge is to be met with where there is a hedge-
row of trees planted along with it. The mifchief is not,
however, confined folely to hedges; the effects are equally
‘bad, perhaps worle, where the tence is a ftone wall; for
though ia this cafe the fhade or drop of the trees is hardly,
if at all felt, yet when they have attained a certain height,
the working andftraining of the roots during high winds are
fuch, that the foundations of the walls are fhaken and
deftroyed; accordingly, whenever large trees are found
growing near itone walls, the fence is cracked and fhaken
by every gale of wind, is perpetually falling into large gaps,
and coits ten times the expence to keep it in repair, that
would otherwife be required if no trees were near it. Ad-
mitting, however, that the trees in hedge-rows were no way
prejudicial tothe fence, which we have already fhewn is by
no means the cafe, another argument may be fuccefsfully
ufed againit the practice. It is feldom, indeed, that trees
planted on hedge-raws arrive at any great fize ; qn the con-
trary,-they are generally low and ftunted, and while they
Oceafion a vilible lofs by the mifchief they do the fence,
their utmoft worth, when they come to be fold, will feldom
be fotnd adequate’ to the lofs and inconvenience they have
occafioned. ‘his is very fatisfactorily accounted for from
the wantiof fhelter; trees planted in hedge-rows being ex-
pofed to every inclement blaft, by that means they are de-

prived of what is very effential to promote their growth,
and which is in faét the caufe why treesin large plantations
thrive better than when they are planted fingly ; namely, the
mutual fhelter which they afford to each other ; it being ob-
ferved that all trees on the fkirts of plantations are much
lower than thofe more removed from the extremity ; this
is owing to their bearing the firft guft of the wiud which
after being once broken its violence is gradually abated,
and in proportion as the trees recede from the verge of the
plantations they feel it lefs, and rifeto a larger fize and di-
meniions.

It may be further obferved, that hedge-rows of trees are
in a fti/l more unprodutive fituation than thofe which form
the fkirts of a plantation ; the latter being expofed to the
violence of the wind only when it blows in one direction:
this is what is generally termed the prevailing wind; when
the gale is from any other quarter they can hardiy be faid
to feel it; whereas, hedge-rows are expofed to the ravages
of every blaft, in whatever direGtion it may blow. There
are, no doubt, fome favoured fpots where not only hedge-
rows, but even fingle trees, may thrive and attain a great
fize, without any protection whatever; the cafes in which
this happen are, however, but few, and can in no fenfe be
quoted in fupport cf the general practice of planting trees
in this manner. Where the practice is adopted, the mew
thod fhewn at figs. 2. and 3. in the plate may be followed.

It has been fuggefted by fome, that various forts of
fruit-trees and fhrubs might be planted in hedge-rows, with
great profit to the proprietor and farmer, fuch as thofe of

the plum, bullace, cherry, apple, goofeberry, and filbert
Kinds. How far any material benefit could be procured in
this way to the farmer or the nation is uncertain, as few
trials have yet been made ; but it is well known that where
trees of any defcription are fet out in hedge-rows, they
quickly deflroy the hedge-plants which are near them, and,
of courfe, ruin the fence. And this would certainly be the
cafe if they were planted in the clofe manner that has
been-advifed. Befide, hedge-rows formed of fuch forts of
plants alone would never become fences of any great utility
in the view of inclofing the lands, except in the
goofeberry, which has long been known to co
excellent fence. This plan of raifing fruit is likew
to various other objections, grounded on the impoflibility
of protecting the produce.

Hedge and ditch, or wall, with belt of plant
fort of fence in expofed fituations is ftrikingly ulefi
ornamental, while, upon the low grounds, it is not o:
unneceffary, but in fome inftances abiolutely hurtful.

ly

Por

inftance, in deep and broad valleys furrounded by hills, and

fheltered from’ fevere blafts, belts of planting are not only
unneceflary, but even hurtful avd ruinous to the ground
they occupy, which could certainly be employed to
greater advantage, and the original expence of inclof-
ing and planting faved. There are many initances, botis
in Scotland and England, of low, flat, rich lands being in-
clofed, and completely prote€ted from the inclemency of
the weather, without any aid whatever from this fence,
There are other fituations, however, where, though the lauds
are very flat, and the foil good, yet, from the want of hills
and high grounds in the neighbourhood, they are fo much
expofed to the fea blafts, and a current of air, pafling orer
a great extent of country without any interruption, that
the value of the foilis thereby very much diminifhed. The
eninfula which forms the county of Caithnefs in Scotland
is a ftriking proof of this: with a foil of a very good qua-
lity and highly improveable, its value is greatly impaired
by the cixcumftance of its being fo much expoied to fea
WiDGS,

FiEN CE,

winds, which, coming from a very inaufpicious quarter, and
blowing over a confiderable extent of country, without
meeting with any obftacle to break the force or change
their direction, blow with uncommon feverity ‘and fierce-
nefs, and in that way are an effeGual check to vegetation.
There are very extenfive tras in England, in nearly the
fame fituation, the whole of which might at a fmall expence
be fheltered and rendered completely produ¢tive, by inter-
feiing the country in a judicious manner with plantations
and hedges, either feparately or conjoined, as ih the hedge
and belt of planting. They-fhould be properly difpofed in
directions fo as to oppofe the moft injurious and offenfive
winds, and where their force can be the moft effeQually
broken and warded off. Acrofs valleys, dips, and expofed
plains, as well as on the ridges, points, and hangs of hills,
they may frequently be found particularly beneficial. In
the formation of them confiderable pains and attention will
be found neceflary. It is effential that the plants made
ufe of fhould be well fuited to the nature of the foil and
expofure. Where the fituations are of the bleak and bar-
ren defcription, the larch may be mott beneficial as timber,
but much inferior to the common fir in the view of fhelter
in the winter feafon, when moft flood in need of. Where
live ftock are to derive advantage in this way, the plants em-
ployed fhould be fuch as are clofe at the bottom, otherwife
mifchief may arife, efpecially to fheep, from fnow driving
through and drifting on the contrary fide. Where larch is
uled, therefore, the common fir fhould be had recourfle to
for the outward margin, which, by being cut or headed
down to about twelve or fourteen feet, will afford the ne-
ceffary fhelter for a great length of time, as they would, in
that cafe, throw out lateral branches, and become feathered
to nearly the bottom, while the larch, by rifing to confider-
able height, would leffen the force of the winds above, and
render the air more mild.

In lefs expofed fituations the beech, by retaining its
leaves through the winter feafon while young, conttitutes a
good plant for this purpofe. Where the foils are deep,
the oak may alfo be ufed in the fame intention: and the
holly is a fort of plant that, in particular cafes, is capable of
application in the fame view.

In every cafe where it is meant that the hedge and belt
of planting fhall conititute a durable and efficient fence, it
muift be made of a certain breadth; from forty to fifty feet
is the very leaft breadth that fhould be allowed: and in
cafes where the fituation is very elevated, and the intrinfic
value of the foil fmall, the belts fhould be three times this
breadth ; fuch a {pace will allow abundant room for plant-
ing {uch a number of trees as will, by the mutual fhelter
which they afford to each other, promote their growth,
and protect them agaiuft the blafts which are fo feverely
felt in thofe elevated regions. The more effeCtually
to promote the defirable purpofe of fheltering the young
trees, they fhould be planted very thick; perhaps four or
five times the number that is meant to be allowed to grow
to the full fize fhould be planted. The expence of the plants
in the firft inflance will be very trifling, and mueh more than
repaid by the value of the weedings after they have attained
a certain age ; with this additional benefit, that the whole
plantation will grow fafter, and in that way fooner anfwer
the purpofe of fheltering the lands. Planting an extra
number of trees is alfo beneficial in another point of view,
namely, that of affording a choice of the moft healthy plants
to be left, when the plantation is thinned out at firft.
This fort of fcreen fence is reprefented at fg. 4. in the
plate.

Jt may be remarked that the manner of protecting thefe

belts is different in different fituations; where wood is plen-

tifull, a fimple paling, or ditch and paling, forms the fence ;
where ftone abounds, a wall is frequently made ufe of; but
in by far the greateft nurhber of cafes the ditch and hedge
already defcribed, or funk fence with a hedge upon the top,
are adopted; or any of thefe, when properly executed,
will anfwer this purpofe extremely well; but as there are
fome of them better and more durable than others, and a
permanence ought never to be loft fight of, either in this,
or any other mode of inclofing, it 1s of confequence to
fix upon that which unites immediate ufe with durability.
The ftone wall, funk fence, and ditch and hedge, are cer-
tainly the moit durable; the two firft are indeed com-=
plete at once, and every benefit that can be derived from their
ufe is immediately obtained; the hedge and ditch, on the
other hand, rifes by very flow degrees, during which the
belts are expofed both to the weather aud the injuries arifing
from fheep and cattle breaking into and trampling upon the
young trees: after all, it is very feldom that ‘a hedge
which furrounds a belt of planting forms a good or ufeful
fence, as being very liable to fall into gaps and open places.
Yences of this nature are obvioufly beneficial in feveral
different points of view, as, by defending the foil and live
{tock upon it, from too much cold and expofure; by
warding and breaking off the more fevere winds and ftorms ;
and by promoting a general warmth and mildnefs of the
atmofphere in fuch fituations. :
Hedge and ditch, or wall with corners planted.—This
is a mode which is employed upon fome eftates inftead of the
belt of planting. -Upon an extenfive property, and where
the‘fields are not very large, it is a mode of inclofing that
has a good effet upon the feenery of the country, and
anfwers the purpofe of general fhelter extremely well. It
certainly has a more pleafing and natural appearance to
the eye than the {tiff formal look of a number of ftraight
belts running in parallel lines; it is, however, greatly
inferior to the belt of planting, for the purpofe of fheltering
particular fields. But as in every field there is a {pace in.each
angle that cannot be ploughed, by planting thefe fpaces,
which would otherwife be left wafte, the country is there-
by ornamented, and many valuable trees raifed with little
expence, and with fcarce any wafte of land. This is a
plan which is particularly recommended in the Stafford fhire
Report. In every act for an inclofure, let there be,”” fays
the writer, **a claufe obliging the proprietor of the new
inclofed land to plant a certain number of oaks in propor
tion to his fhare of the inclofure, and direéting the planta-
tions to be made in the angles of the fields; by adopting
which plan a lefs quantity of pofts and rails would be
required, and the angles of each field would be converted
to a profitable ufe, and corn would grow clefe up to the
rails; whereas uo corn will now grow in fuch angles.
This is not the only advantage that would arife from this
plan ; the trees, full grown, would afford good fhade for
cattle, and an eafy communication through thefe plantations
would be from field to field. It would alfo be very orna-
mental to the country.’? Others, however, doubt the
utility of this practice, as, in point of fa&, the greater
number of fuch corners are neceflarily occupied by gate-
ways that could not, without confiderable inconvenience,
and increafing the farmer’s labour, be made ufe of in any
other way. ‘The method in which plantations are formed
is fhewn at jig. 5. in the plate. ..
Furze, or whin fence.—It is evident that hedges of this
kind may be had recourfe to with advantage, whenever
fuch plants are found to grow vigoroufly in a foil; and
ethers of a better kind cannot be had. Fences of this
nature

FEN CE

attire are mofily made upon mounds or banks of earth by
- fowing the feed of the plant, Sometimes the bank is only
floped on one fide, but at others on both; in the former
cae the front is perpendicular, and faced with turf or
fone. From thefe fences being raifed fo confiderably
above the common furface, they are very liable to injury
from froft and other caufes in fevere winters. Different
fences of this fort are reprefested at figs. 6. and 7. in the
late.

Railing and paling fences.—Thefe are fuch as are con-
firnéied cf fome fort.of woody material, either ina rough
or more finifhed manner. In {peaking of paling or timber-
fences in general, it has been obferved by Mr. Sommerville,
in hisexcellent eflay on this, fubject, that in all permanent
plans of inclofure, palings are only to be confidered in a fe-
’ condary light; for of whatever wood they are made, how-

ever fubitantially they may be executed, orin whatever fitua-

tion they are wiaced, their decay commences the initant they
are erected. The flighteft attention will be fufficient to
convince every perfon of obfervation of this truth. Where
jermanent ufe therefore is required, palings ought never to
be adopted ; but for ornament in pleafure-grounds, or for
the proteétion of young thorns, they are highly valuable,

When the different kinds of palings come to be {poken of,
_ notice will be taken of the mode 4 conftruGing each ; but

ns there are certain circumftances which may be confidered

as commor to al! palings, this is judged the moit proper
place to mention them.

In all cafes where either dead hedges or palings are ufed,
the decay and ultimate lofs of the fence is owing to that
part of it which is let into the ground being retted by the
moifture. Where dead hedges are planted, it is no eafly
matter to provide a remedy againit this evil; as the ftems
are fo numerous, that to give each of them a preparation
that would completely defend it from the effeéts of moif-
ture, would be attended with an expence equal :o, if not
greater than, the value of the fence. Where palings, how-
ever, are ufed, efpecially the moft expenfive and fubftantial
kind of them, and fuch as are meant both for duration and
ornament, it is defirable to prepare the ftandards, or up-
right parts that are placed in the earth, in fuch a manner
as call table them to relift the moifture for many years.
In the fouth of England, the poft is always more bulky at
the lower end than the upper, and is fixed in the ground by
digging a hole, placing it therein, ovene the foil in
gradually, aud ramming it round the poft till it be firmly
fixed. It has been a practice, time immemorial, to durn or
char that part of the ftandards or palings intended to be
fet or driven into the earth: the reafon afligned for this
practice was, that the fire hardened the parts thus fubje¢ted
to it, and by rendering them impervious to moifture, made
them more durable than they would have been without fuch
operation: but it probably depends upon their being thus
rendered leis capable of decompofition. The beft defence
at prefent known againft the effects of the weather is, the
above writer afferts, the bark of the tree. This covering
it has from nature, and it is pofleffed of every 1equifite that
is neceffary, being impregnated with oil, refin, and other
matters, which fecure it completely, not only again{t moif-
ture, but other injuries aniting from the operation of air,
light, heat, &c. ; of this we have ftrong proofs by oblery-
ing what happens where the bark of any tree is deftroyed,
by cutting off a branch, or otherwife. If the furface laid
bare by the wound is confiderable, the body of the tree op-
pofite to it begins immediately to decay, and continues to
avatte, unlefs fome covering is made ufe o to fupply the place
of the bark for that purpofe ; nething has yet been found

“Vor. XIV.

fo effectual as a coat either of boiled oil, er of oil-paint,
which, by completely excluding both air and moifture, not
only prelerves the tree from rotting, but alfo prevents it
from bleeding and watting itfelf by an effufion of juices from
the wound. When trees are cut down and fawn. into
planks, whether for palings or any other purpofe, where
they are afterwards to be expofed to the weather, the fame
thiug happens that we have mentioned as taking place with.
the growing tree when deprived of its bark, but in a much
greater degree, as the, whole furface is then without a co-
vering. ‘l’o preyent this decay the fame remedy fhould be
applied, viz. paluting the whole of the wood, er otherwife
filling the pores with oil in fuch 4 manner, as to prevert the
entrance of moiiture. There are now coarfe oil-paints fold
of all colours fo cheap, as to enable perfons ereétirg paling=,
or other works of wood, to paint them at a {mall expence.
Another very good remedy is to be had at a moderate price,
(lord Dundonald’s coal-varnihh,) into which, if the poists
of the ftandards that are to be drove or fet into the earth
are dipped while the varnifh is boiling hot, it will preferve
them from the bad effe&ts of moifture for a very long time ;
previouily to the dipping, they fhou'd be properly fharpened,
and upon no account whatever charred or burnt, as every
attempt of that kind will, upon inquiry, be found to in-
jure the texture of the wood, and haften its decay. This
application, which has been found highly valuable for mary
perpofes, and for whieh the noble difeoverer is entitled to
the gratitude of his country, has ouly one fault ; namely,
that it does not penetrate deep into the wood, and after be-
ing laid ona few months, is very apt to fcale and throw off
with freft, or the aétion of the fun: it has the farther dif-
advantage of hurting the appearance of the wood, and giv-
ing it anold, black, decayed look. Common tar, or melted
pitch, may alfo be fuccefsfully employed for the purpofe of
defending the extremities of the upright parts of palings
from moilture : linfeed and train oils may alfo be ufed with
fuccefs ; the great objeét being to fill the pores completely
with fome un€tuous or greafy matter, fo as to prevent the
admiffion of moifture. ‘The poits fhould be completely dry
before they are dipped in any of thefe preparations ; for if
they are either made of green wood, or have imbibed much
moifture, if after being dipped they are expofed to the fun,
or a fevere froft, the moifture will become fo much expanded
thereby, as to burft through, and bring off the coat of
paint and varnifh, &c. ; whereas, when they are made of
well-feafoned wood, and are at the fame time perfectly dry,
and the pitch, oil, varnifh, &c. boiling hot, it readily enters
the pores, and by filling them completely, prevents the ac-
cefs of moifture, and confequently the injurious effe&ts pro-
duced by it.

It is further remarked, that in a few inftances, a
methed different from many of thefe has been tried, and
found in fome degree to anfwer. Inftead of fharpening the
points of the ftandards, they are left of the fame thick-
nefs at both ends; and the extremities, inftead of being
drove into the earth in the ordinary way, are let into large
ftones funk into the earth, with round or fquare holes cut
in them, of fuch a fize as to admit the round or fquare
ends of the potts. In this way the upright poits- of
palings cactus laft longer than when they are drove into
the earth without any preparation; bnt the difference
of durability in the twe cafes bears no kind of proportion
to the difference of expence ; and asthe ftones are funk ints
the earth, and of courfe within the reach of the moiikure,
the decay of the paling, though fomewhat protected thereby,
is in the end equally certain. Upon the whole, when the
expence and durability of thefe different methads are com-

paced

FENCE.

pared, it will be found by much the beft way to drive the
ftandards into the earth, after having previoufly prepared
‘them by dipping the extremities into any of the articles we
have mentioned, and of which any of the coarfe oils are
fuppofed by far the beft. In addition to which he has to
add, that this dipping and preparation fhould be fo applied
as to rife feveral inches above the furface of the earth after
the ftandard is drove into the ground; for if no more is
dipped than what is driven in, the wood will imbibe the
moifture at the furface, and very foon rot and decay at that
place. Thus much is neceflary to be faid of the preparation
of that part of the wood which is drove or fet in the earth.
To render the whole paling as durable as poflible, it fhould
receive a covering of lord Dundonald’s varnith, or one of
the coarfer kinds of oil-paint, or oil. Where ufe only is
wanted, and the appearance of the paling is not an object,
a coat of varnifh or oil will anfwer very well, but when a
paling is made of drefled wood, fubftantially executed, and
in fight of the road, or of a gentleman’s houfe, it becomes
neceffary to unite ufe with ornament. In fuch cafes a coat
ef white or green oil-paint. will defend the wood equally
well, and look much better ; where it is intended that the
paling fhould appear vifible at any great diftance, and con-
vey an idea of inclofure, the white paint fheuld be ufed ;
but when it is meant to conceal the fence, and give an un-
broken view of extenfive lawns or pleafure grounds, the
green paling is preferable; next to the ha-ha, or funk
fence, it is the beft contrivance for that purpofe, being of
the fame colour with the grafs, it is not vilible to the eye at
any great diftance. After having thus mentioned what ap-
pears moft effential refpecting palings in general, we may
proceed to notice the different kinds that are made ufe of
for the purpofe of inclofing land in different circumftances
and fituations.

Simple nailed paling.—This is a fort of paling, or rail-
ing feuce, that conlitts of upright polts drove or fet into
the earth at certain diftances, and crofled in three, four, or
more places, with pieces of wood in a horizontal direCtion.
This defcription of railing, or paling, is for the moft part

ade of coarfe fawn wood, without any drefling whatever ;
in Scotland it is, Mr. Sommerville fays, termed a flab-paling,
and is the one commonly employed for the proteétion of
hedges, and for ftrengthening ditches, &c. For temporary
purpoies he thinks it. anfwers extremely well; but that,
where durability is required, and no other fence is ufed, it
will be found avery infufficient fort of fence. A method
es conftrudiing it is fhewn at jig. 8. in the plate.

This railing is often made with only two horizontal pieces,
and anfwers well where no great height of fence is required,
as in defending young thorn hedges, and many other fimilar
purpofes. It has likewife, in fome cafes, only one longi-
tudinal piece, fawn in a triangular form, nailed firmly down
upon the tops of the upright potts.

Jointed horizontal paling.—This fence confifts of mafly
f{quare piles, droye or fet into the earth at regular diitances,
through which mortifes, or openings, are cut, for the ex-
tremities of the horizontal pieces which traverfe them.
When properly executed, this fence, it may be obferved,
has a neat and durable appearance. It is, however, much
Jefs fo than it appears to be, as the points of the piles drove
into the earth foon rot, and the mortifes, or openings, cut
in the body of the piles for the reception ef the horizontal
pieces, weaken them very confiderably ; fo much fo, that, in
many inftances, the railings, or palings, decay faft at thofe
places where the joinings, or mortifes, are made, It may be
further remarked, that where valuable palings of this kind
are made, there is an eafy method of faftening the hori

zontal to the upsight parts of the paling, without cutting
or weakening any part of the upright poits. This confifts
in fixing the ¢rofs, or horizontal bars, to the upright pofts
with iren ttaples. [hefe, while they anfwer every purpofe
that can be expected, from binding and conneCting the dif-
ferent parts of the fence; have, it is conceived, not the
{malleft tendency to diminifh the ftrength, or accelerate the
decay of any part of the fence. This fort of paling is re-
prefented at fig. g. in the plate. 4

Upright lath-paling—This is made by driving or fetting
anumber of ftrong piles into the earth at regular diftances,
and crofling thefe at top and bottem, and fometimes in the
middle, with horizontal pieces of equal {trength; upon thefe
lait are nailed, at from fix to twelve inches diftance, a num-=
ber of flat, or {quare pieces of fawn wood, of the fhape and
fize of the laths that are ufed for the roofs of tiled houfes.
This fort of paling, when properly executed, looks very
well; and, notwith{tanding its apparent flightnefs, if well
fupported by props, or refts, at regular intervals, laftsa long
while ; and, where there are plantations of young firs in the
neighbourhood, laths may be made at a trifling expence.
Yor the protection of young hedges, &c. it will, the writer
juit mentioned thinks, be found fuperior to almoft every
other, as the clofenefs of the upright pieces prevents the
fheep or cattle from putting their heads through between
them, and cropping the young hedge; an advantage which
horizontal palings do not poffefs. For gardens it will like-
wife, it is conceived, be found both ufeful and ornamental,
and infinitely better adapted to the training of fruit-trees
and currants than the efpalier-railings commonly ufed, It
is feen in the plate at fig. 10.

Horizontal young wood-paling.—Y oung firs, or the thin-
nings, or weedings, of any other forts of young trees, may
be beneficially employed in this way. They may be had
recourfe to with great advantage upon eftates where there
are extenfive woods, or where they are furrounded by belts ot
thriving plants; the thinnings of fuch woods, or belts, being
highly valuable for making fuch palings, efpecially when
the plantation confilts chiefly of firs; the palings of young
firs are ef two kinds, either horizontal or upright. The
horizontal refembles the jointed, dreffed paling, defcribed
at fig. 9; but the upright is fimilar to the lath-paling, and
is feen at fig.11. In the reprefentations that are here
given, the young fir boughs, of which figs. 11. and 12. in
the plate are formed, have their lateral branches cut off at
the diftance of about-three inches from the trunks. This
method. has feveral advantages, as that of rendering them
ftronger than they can poffibly be when the lateral branches
are cut clofe by the trank; the labour required to prune
them is alfo lefs, and they make a better fence than fach as
are clofe trimmed, as the fharp projecting points prevent
the fheep or cattle from leaning or rubbing upon them fo
much as in other cafes, For rough purpofes they anfwer
perfectly well.

The upright paling of young firs, reprefented at fig. 12.
however, in place of being mace in the manner above de-
{cribed, is fometimes formed by driving the upright parts
into the eaith, and covering them at the top witha piece of
flat fawn wood, through which holes have been previoufly
bored with a large auger, to admit the fharpened points of
the upright piles: this forms a very neat alia and, when
well fecured with fpurs, or refts, at the back, lafts a con-
fiderable length of time withovt the neceflity of being’ |
much repaired. : .

Horizontal chain-fence—This is a {pecies of fence which
is made by fixing a number of {trong fquare pofts, or piles,
into the earth at regular diftances, in the direétion in which

5 ;

Te WG E.

the fence is to ttn; each of thefe piles has three ftrong
ftaples, or iron hooks, drove into it on each fide; one near
the top, one within eighteen inches of the bottom, and
one in the middle; to thefe ftaples, or hooks, chains are
fattened and ftretched horizontally, in the fame manner as
the pieces of wood are in a commén horizontal wooden
fence. When it is meant that the fence fhould be laid
open for any temporary purpofe, hooks are drove into the
ofits in place of ftaples, and the chains hung upon them;
ee where this is not wanted, the ftaples will be found the
moft fecure method. In fome cafes the upright parts of
this fence, in place of wooden-piles, fuch as have been de-
fcribed, confilts of neat pillars of mafon-work, with hooks
or ftaples batted into them for faftening the chains to;
thefe, when properly executed, look extremely well, and
Taft much longer than the wvoden pofts. In a few inftances
the purpofe of pofts is anfwered very completely by large
rowing trees, into which hooks or ftaples are drove, for
faltening the chains, as in gentlemen’s avenues, public walks,
&c. For the confinement of horfes or cattle, a chain-fence
will anfwer very well; and if the pillars are of itone, will
be very durable, but will be found totally unfit for in-
clofures, where fheep, hogs, &c. are meant to be paitured ;
it is befides fo very expenfive, that it can never come into
eneral ufe. In avenues, however, and public walks, and
a ftretching acrofs rivers, and pieces of water where there
are no flood-gates, and where no other fenge can be made
to complete the inclofure, they will be found preferable to
every other contrivance that can be had recourfe to. There
is a fence of this fort reprefented at fg. 1. Plate XXI.
There are a great many varieties of fences of this defcription,
fome being made very light, while others have great {trength
and weight. The chain is ufually procured from the iron-
monger, being fold at different prices by the pound.

Net-fertce.—This is a method of fencing chiefly ufed in
fhrubberies and pleafure-grounds, and contiits, like the lait,
of a number of fquare piles of wood drove or fet into the
earth, at regular diltances, each of which has a couple of
holes bored through it, one at top, and another at botto.n,
large enough to admit a rope of about twice the fize of a
man’s finger; thefe ropes, after being drawn through the
holes, are ftretched the whole length of the fence, and
well fecured, and upon them a {trong net is faltened, of a
length and breadth fuited to the fence, either by fewing or
tying it at regular diltanees with flrong cord or rope-yarn
at top and bottom; it is farther fecured below by one or
mere wooden hooks drove into the earth betweea each of
the piles; this completes the fence; but to render it durable
not only the piles, but alfo the ret and ropes, fhould be co-
vered with a ceat or two of good oil-paint. When well
finifhed this fence has a very pretty appearance, but is neither
a durable nor ufeful one, as theep and cattle readily entangle
themfelves in it, and tear and deftroy it with their horns ;
indeed, in many inftances the fheep get themfelves fo much
entangled, that in flruggling to difengage themlelves they
are either much hurt, or entirely ftrangled. In point of
utility, the net fence has nothing to reeommend it; but asit
will in many inftances give a neat finifhed Jook to pleafure-

rounds, it may be worthy of a place among fences of thele
at A net-fence is fhewn at jig. 2. in the plate.
The netting employed ix this way is of different fizes and
weights, being foldin the rope {hops by the pound.

Rope fence—Vhis is a fence of nearly the fame kind as
the former, that is, it confilts of upright poits, drove into
the earth at regular diftances, with holes bored through
them for the ropes to pafs; in general they conliit of three,
and in fome.cafes of four, courles of ropes, like the chin

fence. This can only be ufed for confining cattle or horfes;
for fheep they will be found quite incompetent : for itretch-
ing acrofs rivers or pieces of water, as has been noticed
when {peaking of the chain fence, the ropes will be ufeful.;
or even for adding to the height of a itone, or turf-wall,
efpecially the latter, into which if pofts are drove at certain
diftances, and one courfe ef ropes put through them, fuch
an addition will render a very infufficient fence fecure aud
valuable. -One obfervation feems, Mr. Sommerville thinks,
neceffary upon the fubjeét of this fence, namely, that the
perforating of the polts for paffing the ropes through
weakens them confiderably ; notice has already been taken
of a fimilar mifchief in the jointed horizontal paling, or pofts
and rails framed, and a remedy pointed oat, wiz. that of
fixing the crofs bars or horizontal pieces to the upright
parts by ftaples. In the rope fence this may be reforted to
with equal advantage, as ftaples or ring-bolts drove into the
wood anfwer every purpofe, without impairing, in the
fmalleit degree, the {trength of the poits that are ufed.
The appearance is not however fo neat in this way, as where
holes are made in the pofts for the ropes. A fence of this
defeription is fhewn at fig. 3. in the plate.

Flake, hurdle, or moveable fence. —This is a fort of fence
which is feen at fig. 4. in the plate, and 11. and 12.
in Plate XXII. It has hitherto been principally em-
ployed in cafes where fheep or cattle are fed with turnips
in the field, to divide a certain portion off with their foed
at a time, and in this way they are extremely ufeful, as the
fheep or cattle, by having a given quantity of food allotted
them at once, eat it clean up without any lofs, which they
would not do if allowed to range at large over the whole
field. There are, however, many other purpofes to which
flakes may be applied with equal advantage. They forms
ready method of divifion in all cafes where fmall portions of
grafs land are to be fed down clofe with fheep, in order te
render the herbage more fine ; and likewife m arable lands
under the folding fy{tem, where the improvement of them
by the manure is chiefly the obje&. See Hurpte.

Offer, willow, or wattled fence.—This fort of fence is made
by driving a number of piles of any of the different kinds
of willow or poplar, about half the thicknefs of a man’s
wrilt, into the earth, in the direGion of the fence, and at
the diftance of about eighteen inches from each other.
They are then twifted, or bound together at different
places, with {mall twigs of the willows dr poplars, as repre-
fented in the fketch. This kind of fence has fome advat-
tages peculiar to itfelf; it not only forms a cheap and neat
paling, but if it is done either abont the end of autumn,
er early in the fpring, with willows or poplars that have
been recently cut down, the upright parts or ftakes will
take root, grow, and fend out a number of lateral branches ;
and if pains are taken the following autumn to twift and
interweave thefe branches properly, a permanent fence, fo
clofe as to de almoft impenetrable, may be formed in two
or three years. For the inclofing of marfhy lands, or for
completing any inclofure, where a part of the line in which
the tence ought to run is fo wet as to be unfit for the
growth of thorns, or the building of a wall, the willow-
paling will be found an exceilent contrivance, and the ufe
of it will render many inclofures complete, that could not
otherwife have been formed. This mode of fence is feen at

Ts: 5. in the plate.

Growing *tree-fence.—This is a kind of fence which is
made by planting beech, larch, or other forts of trees in
the direGtion of the fence, at about a yard diftant from each
other, more or lefs, as may be thought neceflary ; thefe
trees fhould be protected by a commos dead paling till the

Liz are

(lel a pt COE OR

are ten or twelve feet high, when they ffould be cut down
to fix feet, and warped or bound together with willows at
top, and in the middle; the cutting off the tops will have
the effe& of making them pufh out a great number of late-
tal branches, which, if properly warped and interwoven
with the upright part of the trees, in the manner cefcribed
for the willow fence, will both have a beautiful effe&t, and
will at the fame time form a fine fence, which, in place of
decaying, will grow ftronger with time, and may with very
little trouble be kept in perfe@ repair for a great length of
time. In thefe cafes fometimes the fences are formed by
railings being nailed to the growing trees as pofts, and then
the living parts warped with them, A fence of this kind
is hewn at jig. 6. in the plate. .

* Horsontal and upright foingle fences —Thefe are chiefly
made of firs, coarfely fawn into deals, of from half an
inch to an inch thick, and of different breadths, according
to the diameter of the tree, pretty ftrong fquare poits or
piles are drove or fet into the earth, and the deals nailed
horizontally upon them, in fych manner that the under edge
of the uppermoft deal fhall proje&t or lap over the upper
edge of the one immediately below it; the fence, when
finifhed in this manner, will have rearly the fame appearance
as the bottom of aboat orcutter. ‘Vhis defcription will be
well underflood by thofe who have been in North America,
where not only the roofs, but the walls of many of their
houfes, are made with fhingles. When completed, this
fence is nearly ag. formidable as a ftone wall, though, as may
naturally be fuppofed, it is much lefs durable. An upright
fence is fometimes made with fhingles, which, when pro-
perly executed, looks extremely well, and is indeed Inghly
ornamental ; this fence is made by fixing perpendicular potts
in theearth, nailing three pieces of wood horizontally, and
covering thefe with fhingles placed perpendicularly ; in this
eafe the fhingles are not above three inches broad, and the
extremities of each are pointed at the top. Several fences
of this kind are to be feen upon the road from Edinburgh
to Glafgow, efpecially upon the property of fir W. Cun-
ningham of Livingftone, Walter Campbell, efq. of Shaw-
field, and fome others. Thefe upright fhingle fences are
painted white, and have a very handfome appearance. It is
feldom that inclofures of any confiderable extent have been
made with thefe fhingle fences: for folds they anfwer ex-
tremely well, and can be fhifted with as much eafe as flakes
from one field to another ; they are alfo ufeful for temporary
purpofes in gardens, &c. and where turnips are eaten with
fheep upon the field, thefe fhingle fences will be found pre-
ferable to the common open flakes, from the fhelter they
afford to the fheep. Thefe fences may be made in many
fituations with advantage, and are fhewn at figs. 7. and 8. in
the plate.

Warped paling fence—This fence confifts of flender .

pieces of wood drove into the earth, bent down in different
direGtions, interwoven with each other, and their tops
faftened together with a flender fort of eddering ; this fence
refembles the chevaux-de-frife, with this only difference,
that in place of leaving the points ftanding up, as is the
eafe with that part of fortification, they are bent down and
tied together. When made of dead wood this fence is
equally perifhable with others of the fame defcription ; but
when made of growing plants it will be found very latting.
It is feen at_fig. 9. in the plate.

Thorn hedges are fometimes made in the chequered me-
thod, and have a curjous, though not melegant appearance,
while they are perfectly fecure againft mott forts of live
ftock when perfeétly grown up. They are, hdwever, liable
to the objections of being more troublefome and expenfive

in making, andat the fame time apt to be much injured by
the conftant rubbing of the different parts of the plants
againft each other. They in this way much fooner fall
into decay than by the other methods of forming and mae
naging them,

Light open paling fence interwoven with thorns, or branches
of trees. —'This fence differs from the common nailed fence
already defcribed, only in beiug warped either with thorns
or the brauches of trees. When properly done it forms at
once a very complete fence; but, like all fences made with
dead wood, it will be found very perifhable, and require
many repairs. It has, however, an advantage, viz. that
when properly executed, it is proof againft the entrance of
animals of any kind. It is fhewn at fig. 10 in the plate.

Wall fences —Thefe are conftru&ed of different forts of
materials, but ufually of earth, earth and ftone, ftone alone,
or brick, and are of various kinds ; efpecially“in the ftone walt
forts, as open, dry, fingle, double, &c. according to the nas
ture and {ize of the ftones, and the intended ule of the
fence. In England they are all commonly known by the
name of qwall/s, but in Scotland, the firft forts more fre-
quently by the title of dikes. They are for the moft part
good fences, though fome of them, as thofe of the earthy
kinds, are not by any means durable, therefore fhould not
be formed where other better forts can be had recourfe to.
The {tene wall fences are the moft ufual fort in mountainous
{tony fituations, where fhelter‘is not particularly requifite,
and are commonly the moit adapted to fuch expofed regions.
They are likewife often met with in lower expofures, where
the diftri€ts abound with fuch materials, as on the borders
of rifing grounds ; but in fuch places their appearance is by
no meaus pleafing.

By running dry, or fingle fone walls up in as iat a manner
asthe nature of the ttones will admit, the advantages of
their being lefs apt to be thrown down by winds, andat the
fame time to their being fealed by fheep, are gained in
fome fituations. In thefe cafes they fhould only, however,
be coped with loofe ftones.

Dry fene walls.—In the conftru&tion of dry fone walle
it is in general eflential that the ftones be either taken from
a quarry, or confift of the largeft land-ttones broken in fuck
a manner as that they may havea good flat furfaee, in order
that they may bind well ; thatthey be built by mafons; aad
well pinned ; that they have as dry and deep a foundation
as poflible, in order to guard againtt frofts, &e.; that they
be made wide at the bottom, and tapering upwards to about
the breadth of ten inches, when the coping is to be applied ;
that the eoping confift of materials that cannot be readily
overturned or removed ; as upon the manner in which it is
finifhed much of the future value and durability of the wall
will be found to depend.

It is obferved that dry ftone walls are fometimes ere&ed
by common labourers, with the round itones gathered from
the fields, and coped with fod; in other cafes they are
made with quarried ftones, upon which fome pains have
been beftowed to put them into proper fhape; a third kind;
known by the name of Galloway dike, and fo denominated
from the circum(tance of its being originally ufed in that
county, The firft of thefe, viz. the wall er dike made
with round or land {tones by labourers, and covered with a
coping of fod, is, it is faid, a very indifferent fence. In
moftinitances itis not only very ill conitruéted as to fhape,
being of one uniform thicknefs from top to bottom, but the
ftones, from their round figure, do not prefent a fufficient
furface to each other, to bind and give ftability to the buildé
ing. ‘This fence has long been known, and is {till very coms

mop,in the remote parts of the country, upon eftates where.

2

”

=,

FEN CE.

the: firft rude: effay is made in the way of improvement, and
where mafoas cannot readily be had. In fuch fituations it
has atwo-fold benefit ; the furface is cleared of many {tones
that would otherwife have prefented a confiderable obltacle
to its cultivation, and the field is at the fame time inclofed ;
ut though thefe objets are accomplifhed for a time, their
benefit isnot permanent, asthe wall is perpetually tumbling
down ; even the cattle rubbing againit it make confiderable
gaps in many places; in that way great troubie and ex-
de are annually required to keep it in repair. A dry

one wall, coped with brick, is fhewn at fig. 11; and at
fg. 12 the fame fort of wall covered with a coping of
turt.

It is afferted, that when the ffenes with which dry walls
are built are quarried, and done by fiilful mafons, broad
at bottom, tapering gradually upwards, and finished at the
‘top with fubftantial coping, the fence has a very neat ap-
pearance, and has been known to laft thirty and even forty
years without repairs. A good foundation is highly eflen-
tial in the conftruction of this fence ; from nine to twelve
inches is the fmalleft depth that it fhould be below the com-
mon furface, efpecially if the foil is open and porous, and the
Jargeft and heavieft {tones fhould always be laid undermoft.
Incafes where the materials do not require to be brought
from any great diftance, a hundred yards in length, by fix
feet in height of fuch a wall, may be built for 18/. or 20/.
‘There is one other material point in the building of thefe
forts of walls, whichis, that they be well kept together by
the judicious placing of the longeit {tones.

It is cuftomary in fome parts of England to plant ivy
both upon their dry-ftone walls, and upon fuch as are con-
ftruéted of flone and clay ; this has a good,effeét, not only
in point of appearance, but, after a while, it binds and
‘ftrengthens them very confiderably, There are feveral kinds
of ivy, viz. the large and the {mall-leaved, the dark green and
the variegated, all of which look well; thofe kinds, how-
ever, fhould have a preference that grow fatteft, and
have the greateft tendency to afcend. Particular care
fhould be taken, we are however told, not to plant ivy ia the
immediate neighbourhood of young trees or hedges, as, next
to mofs, nothing can be more de{tructive to trees or hedge-
plants than this.

It is noticed that where dry-ftone walls are built, that
which we have jult defcribed deferves a preference on account
of its neatnefs and durability. It is not only much cheaper
than one made with ftone and lime, but is equally ufetul,
Yooks as well, and admits of being pra@tifed in many fitua-
tions, where lime is either exceedingly {carce, or not attain-
able but at an enormous price. In many cafes it is common,
after raifine this wall to the wifhed-for height, to level the
top of it withloofe ftones, andleave it in that fituation without
any coping or other fecurity. The confequence is what
might naturally be expected, the firft perfon who attempts
to climb over it, or the fir horfe or bullock that puts its
head over the top, or attempts to rub itfelfagaintt it, infal-
libly throws down a part of the ftones, and in that way the
fence is gradually deftroyed ; whereas, when a fubltantial
coping of ftone and lime ts given, the wall is fo completely
bound together and confolidated at top, as to bid defiance
to any common injury. The copings of turf and mud, io
common in many places, are by no meauis entitled to appro-
bation ; for though they may for a fhort time fecure the top
of the building they foon decay, and cannot be procured
but. by paring and cutting off the adjoining furtace ; for thefe
reafons, turf or mud copings are improper, even upon dry
ftone walls ; upon thofe made with jtone and lime, or ftoue

and clay, as we fhall afterwards have occafion to notice,-
they are wholly to be rejected 2s ufelefs.

Such perfons as are incliuedto raife fences of the fone
wall def{cription, fhould carefully examiné thofe that have
been built-in their immediate vicinities; and afterwards de-
termine upon the modes of conftruétion and dimenfions which
may feem the moft luitable and proper, under the different
circumttances, confulting thereafter with proper workmen
in re{peét to their building, having previoufly their eftimates,
as is the cafe in other forts of ereétions of this nature.

Stone and lime walls.—With regard to ftone and lime
walls, in order to render them durable, they fhould be
conftructed in the manner above defcribed for dry-ftone
walls; that is, have a good foundation, deep enough to
prevent them from being hurt by froit, with a broad bafe,
tapering gradually upwards. This fence, when propzrly
executed, is, next to hedges, the moit durable of any; it
is, however, very expenfive ; and its fuperiority over the
dry-ftone wall is fo trifling in point of durability, as to ren-
der the latter the moft eligible, it being greatly cheaper, and
anfwering every purpofe of a fence equally well. For the
building of this wall, {tones taken from the quarry are to
be preferred to the common land-ftones ; for though a
mafon may be able to remedy, in fome meafure, the inequali-
ty of furface in land-ftones, by mixing plenty of lime with
them, yet experience proves, that walls made with fuch
itones, notwith{tanding every care on the partof the builder,
are much lef{s perfect, and laft a much fhorter time than where
quarried {tones are employed. This, like every other {tone
fence, fhould be fecured at the top with a fubftantial coping
of ftone and lime; the beft and molt durable is, it is faids.
that which is made with ftones of the flag kind, laid toge-
ther in the form here reprefented .“\; the {pace between
them being filled witha mixture of {mall. ftones and mortar.
This coping, from its wedge-like fhape, and the folid impe-
netrable furface which it prefents to the weather, feems
the beft calculated of any for the prefervation of the build~
ing. When a ftone and lime wall is left without a coping,
which is too often the cafe, the moifture finds its way readi-
ly into the heart of it; it is, befides, liable to all thofe ac~
cidents already mentioned in {peaking of dry-ftone walls,
when they are left without a coping. When itone and lime
walls are built, the feafon of the year at which the work is
done is none of the leaft important confiderations ; for if
they are erected either at a late period of the autumn, during
the winter, or very early in the f{pring, the froft aGting
upon the moilture contained in the lime will feparate and
difunite its parts, and by that means deftroy the cohefion of
the building ; the binding power of the lime, in fuch cafes,
is entirely loft, and when fummer arrives it refembles dry
fand mixed with the ftones. Late inthe {pring, during the
fummer, orearly in the autumn, feems to be the moft pro-
per time for building {tone and lime walls; at any, or all of.
thefe periods, there is every profpe& of the lume drying pros
perly, and not the {mallett rifk of its binding quality being
hurt by the effe&s of froit, or other caufes. of that. nae
ture. -

Galloway dike, or wall.—The Galloway dike, as has been
already noticed, owes its name to the circumftance of its
being firft ufed as a fence in that,part of the country, It
is now, however, very common in moft parts of Scotland,
and in fome of the Englith counties. It is principally em-
ployed for inclofing high grounds that are depaftured with
fheep, tor the confining. of which it feems well calculated.
From two feet to two and a half at the bottom, it is built
in a regular, compact manner, with dry tones, in rte
refpe

et

FEN <'£.

rofpect the fame asa dry-flone wall, with a broad bafe, ta-
pering gradually upwards; the building is then levelled
with a courfe of flat flores, refembling a coping in fuch a
manner as that thefe flags, or flat ftones, will project two or
three inches over the wall on each fide. Above thefe flat
itones is laid a courfe of rugged round ones, placed upon
each other in a way fecure enough to give ftabitity to the
building, but at the fame time fo open as to leave a con-
fideralle vacuity between cach; by which means a free paf-
fage is aforded to the light and wind, which blows through
them witha violent whiltling noife. ‘Vhis rough open part
of the building is generally raifed three feet above the re-
gular part of it, gradually tapering upwards, till it termi-
nates in atop of about nine inches broad, every courfe of
the rough {ttones being {maller than that immediately be-
neath it. ‘lhe tottering appearance is fo well calculated to
prevent theep, cattle, or other animals from approaching it,
that it is feldom indeed that any attempt is made to leap
over it. This cireumftaace, together with the eafe with
which the ftones are procured, in moit fituations where the
Galloway dike is uied, render it a valuable fence. The
expence of erecting it will be very different in different
tuations, according to the eafe or difficulty of procuring
itones, the price of labour in the country, and other cir-
cumitanees. In maay cefes where the fields to be inclofed
are infeited with large itones, the removal of which ought
always to be a previous ftep in every plan of improvement,
the inclofure may be made for a trifle, merely for the ex-
pence of mafon-work, In no inttance ean it be dear, and
in moit fituations, where the confinement of the {tock, or
the partition of a crop, are the fole objects, this will be
tound te anfwer the purpofe equally well, if not better, than
more expenfive fences. It has, however, one defect, it is
obferved, in common with all other ftone fences, viz. that
jt neither fhelters nor ornaments the country; indeed, in
point of fhelter, it is the moft defeAive of any 4 for com-
pact {tone walls, of a proper height, are capable of afford-
ing Gontiderable fhelter to the grazing ftock in flormy, in-
clement weather, an advantage which cannot poffibly be
expected from the Galloway dike, on account of its open-
nefs. On that account it appears much more eligible for
the lower parts of the country, where the land is valuable,
where little fhelter is required, and where the confinement
of the ftock, or the protection of the crop, are the fole ob-
jeGts to be confidered in the bufinefs.

The advantages of {tone fences of every defcription are,
it may be remarked, very confiderable ; they not only form
complete inclofures at once, and by that means allow the
proprietor to enter into immediate poffeffion of every ad-
vantage that can arife from the incloling of his fields, but
by the little room they occupy, a coniiderable proportion
ef land is faved that would have been occupied by fome
other fences; and even that proportion of foil near the fides
of ftone walls, which is at prefent, for the mott part, walte,
admits of being profitably employed, either in raifing grain,
potatoes, or other vegetables; and the walls, as we have
already obferved, may be ufefully employed im rearing of
fruit-trees, or the different kinds of currants, goofeberries,
&c. To thefe benefits we have, however, to oppofe fome
defe&s. The beft and moft fubftantial fences of this de-
Scription are perifhable in a greater or lefs degree, according
to the materials of which they are made, and the judgment
fhewn in their conftru@ion, and, after a certain time, re-
quire confiderable attention and expence to keep them in
repair; the fhelter they afford to the ftock, crop, or pal-
ture, is alfo fmall, and in place of improving the feenery

‘they are injurious toit. This defcription of fence is fhewn

at Plate XXII. fig. 1.

Stone and clay walls.—In the conftru€tion of walls of
ftone and clay, the clay is ufed like lime, and is meant to
anfwer the fame purpofe. It requires flender obfervation
to convince intelligent perfons, that a wall made with fuch
materials, in the ufual way, cannot but be an ordinary one ;
for if the clay made ufe of in building the fence has been
very moift, the fummer’s heat will dry it fo much, as to leave
confiderable chafms in the budding ; thefe chafms muft ne-
ceflarily deprive many of the ftones of that fupport which
they require, and in that way endanger the building. This;
however, is not the only inconvenience with which this kind
of wall is attended; the effect of the fummer’s fun upon
the clay parches it fo completely, that when the wet weather
commences about the end of autumn, it abforbs the moif-
ture like afponge, and if it is overtaken by froft while in
that f{tate, the fabric fwells, burfts, and tumbles down.
Even with the very beft coping that can be given it, a ftone
and clay wall mutt, it is remarked, always be confidered as
a very exceptionable fence, as, however well it may be de-
fended at top, the moilture will penetrate at the fides ; if
it is left without a cope, however, or is only coped with
mud or fod, the evil will be greater, as the moifture will, in
that cafe, find a veady paffage downwards, and in that way
aecelerate the deftruétion of the wall or fence.

And walis of {tone and clay dafhed with lime differ in no
refpe& from that juft now deferibed, except in the harling or
dafhing that ts given them. Where that operation is well
performed, and at a proper feafon of the year, the coating
of lime, by preventing the entrance of moifture, will add
greatly to the durability, as well as beauty of the wall; fo
much fo indeed, that fome fences made in this way, when
the clay was properly tempered, and did not contain too
much moiiture, and where a harling or dafhing of lime was
afterwards given, have been known to laft nearly as long as
walls made entirely from {tone and lime. The durability of
this, as well as the foregoing fence, however, depends upon
its being properly coped or covered at the top with fome
proper material.

Dry frone walls lipped with lime.—Thiele differ from the
ordinary dry-{tone walls in having about two or three
inches of them on each fide lipped with lime, which gives
them the appearance of being built entirely with flone and
lime. Where the external appearance of a fence is an ob-
je@, fomething is gained Ly this practice ; in point of real
duration, however, they feem to poffefs very little advan-
tage over the common dry-ftone walls, which, when properly
executed, laft equally long with them.

Dry fone walls lipped and harled.—Thefe are much the
fame, nothing more being added than a harling or dafhing
of lime after the other work is finifhed: this addition is to
be confidered merely as an improyement upon their appear-
ance, and not as contributing to increafe their utility, or
render them more durable as fences.

Dry fone walls pinned azd harled—Thele are much the
fame ; the mafon only carefully pins or fills up all the inter-
{tices of the building with fmall ones, after they have been
built in the ordinary way, amd afterwards dafhes or harleg
them over with lime. The pinning, by filling up every
vacant {pace, and affordisg complete fupport to the ftones
in every part of the furface, adds coafiderably to the dura-
bility of the building, and the harling afterwards gives the
whole a finifhed, fubftantial appearance, which renders
them at once agreeable to the eye, aud lafling as fences.

Dry flone walls, with light paliags upon the top.—Thefe

are

FEN Cf.

are fometimes made, and for particular purpofes anfwer well,
and have a handfome appearance when well executed, but
they are expenfive, This fort of fence is fhewn at fig. 2.
in the plate.

Brick walls.—Vhefe forts of fences aye feldom had re-
@ourfe to for ordinary inclofures, except in fituations where
{tones are extremely fearce ; as is the cafe in many of the
Englith counties, for pleafure grounds, or for garden walls.
Where brick walls confift of bricks only, they are built
either with the brick on edge, in bed, or acrofs. When
the wall is built with bricks on edge, they are Jaid up with
the edge or narrowett part of each applied to the other;
the thickneds of the brick in fuch a cafe conftitutes the
thicknefs of the wall. When brick in bed is ufed, the
bricks are laid flat, and the thicknefs of the wall is pro-
portioned to the greateft breadth of the brick. When they
are laid acrofs, the thicknefs of the wall is then equal
oa length of the brick thaf is employed for the pur-

ofe.
: It may be obferved, that the moft valuable ufe to which
bricks are applied, is either for facing walls built with coarfe
ftones, for gardens, or for heightening old itone walls; for
the firft purpofe they are an excellent article ; and any wall
fronted with brick is, for the purpofe of rearing fruit trees,
of equal value with one of the mot expenfive hewn ftone.
Where it is intended to heighten a ftone wall that is too
fiender to bear aheightening of ftone, bricks either in bed,
or en edge, will anfwer the purpofe very effectually, without
rendering the wall top-heavy. It is to be noticed, however,
that in every cafe, either where a wall is made entirely of
brick, or heightened with it, there will be a neceffity for
flrengthening it at the back with pillars at certain diftances
from each other, as reprefented at figs. 3. and q. in the
plate. Thefe will add to the ftability of the building, and,
if properly executed, will render it equally durable with a
ftone wall. For hot walls they are very valuable, as they
not only, by their numerous feams, allow the trees to be,re-
gularly and neatly trained, but are at the fame time ex-
tremely convenient for fhaping the flues that condu@ the
heat. Where the price of labour is low, and clay of a pro-
per quality, together with fuel, can be ealily obtained,
bricks may be ufed with advantage for almoft any purpofe
where {tone is at prefent employed: we believe, however,
that their ufe wili be chiefly confined to the facing of gar-
den walls, to the walls of hot-houfes, to hot-walls, or the
heightening of old flone walls; in all of which they will
be very valuable, and will, at a {mall expence, anfwer the
fame purpofe as ftone that has been prepared by hew-
ing. From the increefed duties upon them they are now
become, however, by no means a cheap material, A
wall conitruéted with bricks is thewn at fy. 5. in the

late.
7 The copings of walls of this defcription are formed in va-
rious ways. In fome inftances they are made with common
brick fet up in fuch a manner as to form an angle upon the
top; in others, with a fort of tiles refembling the letter A,
flat below and angular above, with a border projecting a
little over the wall on each fide. In many parts of the
kingdom this fort of coping is found to anfwer the pur-
pofe very effeftually ; in fome cafes it is, however, made
quite flat, but which is difapproved of, on account of its
not affording fo ready a defcent to the moijture, which is
apt to hang upon it for that reafon.

~ Brame wall—tt is a kind of wall which is conflruced itr
the following method : a frame of deal boards, of a width
and height fuited to that of the intended fence; is formed
aud placed upon the line in which it is deligned to be thade,

a)

the foundation having been previoufly dug in a proper man»
ner, ‘This frame is then filled with ftones of all forts, ga-
thered moftly from the neighbouring lands; and, when
filled in this way to the top, a quantity of liquid mortar is
poured in amongit them, fufficient to fill up every interftice,
the whole being fuffered to continue in that. ftate until it is
fuppofed that the mortar has acquired a proper degree of
firmnefs to give {tability to the building, which, in the dry
funimer feafon, will not be longer than a dayortwo. The
frame is then removed and placed a little farther on the fame
line, in fuch a way, as that ene end of it may join immedi-
ately with that part of the work from which it has been re-
moved. In this way the line of fence is gradually com-
pleted, which, when the lime has been well tempered, and
the proper pains taken to incorporate it with the ftones,
prefents a fmooth uniform furface, and has the ap pearance
of being a firm fubftantial fence.

Turf walls.—Fences of thefe kinds are common in moft
of the hills and upland fituations of the kingdom, being
found convenient for temporary purpofes. They are fre-
quently ufed for inclofing fields in particular diftriéts, being
had recourfe to in an extenfive manner: while, in others,
they are employed for the forming of pens, folds, and other
places for confining different forts of live ftock during the
night feafon. In commen they are made fimply of turf,
which is pared off from the adjoining furface, and ufed with-
out any mixture of earth ; but in other cafes the wall cone
fifts of a facing of turf on each fide, while the {pace between
is filled up with loofe earth.

For inclofing, when durability is required, this is a fort
of fence that can never, however, be had recourfe to with
propriety, as, from the very moment it is finifhed, its decay
commences, and no pains or attention will be able to keep
it in repair, after it has ftood two or three years : in very
expofed fituations, however, it may be ufeful as a proteGtion
for young hedges during the firit three or four years of
their growth ; but, as a wall of this kind can in no inftance
be made without a great deftruGtion of the adjoining furface,
which, upon good land, is a ferious lofs, the proteétion of
young hedges will be anfwered egually well by low ftone
dikes, which, while they perfc& the inclofure, will, at the
fame time, fhelter the young plants, and clear the field of the
{tones it may be incumbered with. This fort of turf fence
is fhewn at fig. 6. in the plate.

Stone and turf walls.—Thefe are alfo very common forts
of fenees in many fituations, where better and more durable
ones could be made at equal, perhaps lefs, expence. In many
inftances, however, they are had recourfe to from necellity,
where lime is either very dear, or not attainable at anv price.
The {tones ufed in the conttru€tion of fences of this kind
are in general the ordinary land-ftones; with thefe, and
the turf taken from the adjoining furface, the walls are made,
ufing alternate layers of each. For temporary purpofes thia
fort of fence may be adopted in almott every fituation, zs
it is reared at {mall expence, and the materials are every
where to be met with almoft without trouble; but in. alk
cafes where permanent fences are wanted this will be found
very deficient and inferior even to the common turf-wall ;
for, by the intervention of ftones between every layer of
turf, the fod is dried, the plants die, the turf, as might nas
turally be expected, foon decays,and the wall crumbles downg
whereas, when it is built entirely of turf, with a floping
bank of earth behind, the herbage continues growing, aad
the whole turf, of which the wall is made, foon confolidates
into an uniform green fod, which, with proper care, will lait
a confiderable length of time. A fence of the ftone and
turt kind is thewn at fy. 7, ie the plate.

Mud-walley

FEN

Mud-walls, with a mixture of fraw.—Thefe kinds of
walls are very frequent in many parts of England, not only
for furroendiieheee fmall inclofures and ftack-yards, but
alfo for conftruéting the walls of many~-of their farm-
houfes, cottages, and offices. In North Britain they are
ufed alfo for fimilar purpofes, and for fub-dividing houfes
into different apartments, for which purpofe they anfwer
equatly well as lath and plafter, and are nearly as durable.
They are a fort of cab-dad fences.

It may be remarked that, when either the outfide walls,
er the infide divifions of a houfe, are made of thefe
materials, the enftom is to take a fmall quantity of itraw,
snd incorporate it with a fufficient proportion of clay; the
4ftraw in this cafe anfwers the fame purpofe as hair in plafter-
lime. When a fufficient number of thefe are made, the
work is begun, by laying a ftratum at the bottom of the
intended wall; when this is done, aud the different pieces
firmly kneaded or wrought together with the hand, a flat
deal board is applied on each fide, which being properly
preffed and rubbed againft the buildings in a horizontal
direétion, not only ferves to confolidate the work, but gives
it a degree of {moothnefs and uniformity : fueceflive ftrata
are added till the wall is raifed to the intended height, taking
care to taper it gradually upwards. Walls made in this
way, if properly conftiucted, will laft for many years, and if
dafhed or harled with lime, at a proper feafon of the year, will
have an appearance no way inferior to fuch as are made with
ftone and lime, along with this addition to their appearance:
the harling or dafhing with lime if properly done, will, by
preventing the accefs of moifture, render them much more
durable. When walls of mud and ftraw are to be made, pieces
of wood, properly joined and fecured, fhould be fet up im the
direction in which the fence is to ran. hefe fhould be in
the form of a double paling, and calculated to anf{wer the
fame purpofe as the ttandard employed in making brick divi-
fionsin a dwelling-houfe ; the upright parts fhould be placed
in {uch a manner as to be immediately oppofite to each other,
and ata diftance equal to the thicknefs of the intended
wall, Thefe ftandards will not only render the fence firm
and more durable, but, at the fame time, ferve as a direétion
to the workmen in keeping it of a regular thicknefs and
fhape. In England, where {tones are {carce, and in many
of the counties not to be had, walls of this defcription are
the fine qua non for many purpofes, and when, properly con-
ftruéted, lait a confiderable time ; but in every inftance where
ftoues are procurable at a reafonable price a fence made with
them is greatly to be preferred, as it is in general built
with lefs trouble and expence, and is at the fame time more
firm and durable. At beft it is, however, of a very
perifhable nature, and the great expence required to keep
up fuch fences has long fince taught both proprictors and
occupiers that they are by much the moft expenfive of any.
Fig. 8. difplays a fence of this nature.

Th the conftru€ting of all forts of ftone walls, it is of
effential confequence that they be carried up in a regular
manner, which is beft performed by having recourfe to a
proper plumbing frame. One which has been found to
anfwer this purpofe perfeCly is reprefented at fig. 9. in the

late.

F Inthe raifing of both fingle and double ftone walls, it isa
matter of great importance to give them a proper tapering
form upwards, or what the workmen call «* batter,” which
is gradually narrowing them as they rife in height. This is
safually done in the proportion of about one inch to every
foot in height on eaeh fide, which is diftinétly fhewn
in the feGtion of a dry ftone wall given at fig. 10. inthe

plate,

FEN

Tt is a matter of very great importance to the proprietors
and occupiers of land, that the fences of farms, whatever
their nature may be, fhould be in a good condition, and
well kept in repair, as without attention in thefe different
re{pects ferious injuries mut be conftantly fultained by them,
The moft convenient and eafy method of effecting thefe
ends is, probably, that of annually going over a certaiu extent
of them, in proportion to the nature and fize of the farm,
as, by fuch a practice, there will never be more to be done ia
any one year than can be ealily accomplithed. See In=
cLrosinc of Land, and Canav.

Fencs-Month, (menfis prohilitionis, ov menfig vetitus,) is
a month wherein the female deer fawn; for which reafon it
it unlawful to hunt in the foreit during that time.

It begins fifteen days before Midfummer, and ends fifteen
days after, being in all thirty days.

There are alfo certain fence or defence months, or fea-
fons for fifh, as well as wild beafts, as appears by ftat.
Weitm. a. cap. 13. in thefe words:

se All waters, where falmons are taken, fhall be in defence
for taking of falmon, from the nativity of our Lady, unto
St. Martin’s day, And likewife, young falmons {hall not
be taken or deflroyed by uets, &c. from the midft of April,
to the nativity ef St. John Baptif,’’ &c.

FEN-CHOUL, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Tche-kiang; 25 miles N.N.W. of Yeu-
tcheou. .

FENCING, the art of defence, or of ufing the fword,;
to Soon an enemy, and preferve ons’s felf from his at-
tacks.

Fencing is one of the exercifes learnt in the academies,
&e.

The art of fencing is acquired by praCtiling with foils,
called in Latin rudes; whence fencing is alfo denominated
gladiatura rudiaria,

Pyravd affures us, that the art of fencing is fo highly
efteemed in the Ealt Indies, that none but princes and no-
blemen are allowed to teach it. Thefe mafters wear a badge
or cognizance on their right arms, called in their lan-
guage efaru, which is put on with great ceremony, like
the badges of our orders of knighthood, by the kings
themfelves.

Montaigne informs us, that when he was a youth, the
nobility all fhunned the reputation of being good fencers, as
fomething too fubtle and defigning, and apt to corrupt vir-
tuous manners,

Fencing is divided into two parts, /imple and compound.
Simple is that performed dire&ly and nimbly, on the fame
linc; and is either offéafive, or defenfive. The principal
object of the firft is whatever may be attempted, in pufh-
ing, or making pailes, from this or that point, to the moft
uncovered part of the enemy. The fecond confifts in par-
rying, and repelling the thrufts aimed by the enemy.

The compound, on the offenfive fide, includes all the pof-
fible arts and inventions to deceive the enemy, and make
him leave that part we have a defign on, bare and unguarded,
upon finding we cannot come at it by force, nor by the
agility of the fimple play. ba

The principal means hereof are feints, appeals, or appels,
which confift in.afudden beat of your blade on the contrary
fide to that on which you join your adverfary, anda quick
difengagement to that fide again, clafhings, and entanglings,
of the {words, half-thrufts, &c. and in the defenfive, to
puth in parrying. Borsi!!

The proper attitude in fencing is to hold the head upright,
though the body hath an inclination forward on a lenge,
and all the weightzrefts on the left haunch when on guard.

The

‘

FEW

The feet, hand, body, arm, and fword, muft be to the line.
For an explication of other terms in this art, fee the articles
Bear, Caveatrinc, FLranconapt, Grizape, Lock,
Lurcuy Turust, &c,

FEND, in the Sea Languaage, imports the fame as de-
jend. ence the phrafe fending the boar, &e. that is, faving
it from being dafhed againit the rocks, ‘hore, or fhip’s fide.
Hence alfo

Fenpers, any pieces of old cable-ropes, or billets of
wood, &c. hung over the fhip’s fide, to fend or keep other
fhips from rubbing againit her; or to prevent her from
ftriking or rubbing againit a wharf or quay.

» Fenper- Polis. See Bours.

| FENDUE EN Pat, in Heraldry, a French phrafe, ap-
plied to a erofs, to denote it cloven down from top to bot-
tom, and the parts fet at fome diftance from one another.

FENEGUE-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of Chinefe
DPartary; 360 miles E.N.E. of Peking.

FENELON, Francis pe 'Sauienac pe tA Motre,
in Biography, the celebrated archibifsop of Cambray, and
pre-emmently diftinguifhed amo-gy his contemporaries, was
defcended from an ancient family, and born at the calle of
Fenelon, in Quercy, in the year 1651. ‘The charge of his
education, which, till his r2th year, was domettic, and pro-
fecuted for fome time in the univerfity of Calrors, was after-
avards undertaken by his uncle, the marquis of Fenelon, a
man no lefs diftinguifhed by his piety than by his valour.
At an early age our Fenelon made a rapid progrels in litera-
ture, and being defigned for the ecclefialtical profeffion, he
became a popular preacher in his 1gth year. His uncle,
dreading the pernicious influence of popular applaufe on an
youthful mind, endued with fineular fenfibility, placed him
under the tuition of M. ‘lronfon, the excellent {uperior of
the congregation of St. Sulpice, who guarded him by his
admirable inttruGtions and difcipline from the danger to
which he would otherwife have been expofed. Between
the pupil and the preceptor, in this {tate of feclufion from
the world, an attachmert was formed which terminated
only with their exiftence; and it appears from letters that
are extant how highly he refpeéted the guide and guardian
of his earlier years, and with what grateful fenfibility he
acknowledges his uncle’s wifdom and kindnefs in placing
him ima fituation fo favourable to his improvement both
in knowledge and piety. Atthe age of 24, Fenelon entered
into holy orders, and began to exercife the moft laborious
offices of his miniftry in the parifh of St. Sulpice. During
his refidence in this {chool of genuine and elevated piety,
for fuch it was at the period to which we refer, his ardent
mind formed and cherithed a defign, which {ome may pro-
bably conceive to be romantic and extravagant ; for it was
nothing lefs than that of joining the miffion to Canada, with
a view to the inftru€tion of the barbarous natives in the
truths of the gofpel. This project, however, being de-
feated by the authority of his uncle, the bifhop of Sarlat,
he foon afterwards folicited to be fent on a fimilar errand to
the Levant; but this defign was never executed. An ac-
cupation fomewhat analogous was found for him by M. de
Hiarlai, archbifhop of Paris, who, apprized of his difpo-
{itionand charaéter, named him fuperior of the New-Catho-
lics, and of the fifters of Magdalen of Traifnel, while he
was yet only 27 years of age; an employment which was

* ufually entrufted to ecclefiaftics of mature experience, and
who had grown old in the moft delicate funétions of the
miniftry. The object of this inilitution, in which the filters
were bound by no vows, was to confirm the new converts,
and to:{upply inftruGtion to thofe who were defirons of
becoming profelytes. ‘The recent converfion of M. de

Vor. XIV.

FEN

Turenne, and the well-known difpofition of Louis KIV.
had given frefh celebrity to this eftablifhment; and, there-
fore, de Harlai was induced to look out fora diftinguifhed
perfon as its fuperior, and to fix on the abbé de Fenelon.
His prefent fituation, aud the duties conneéted with it, co-
incided with his original- views, and he engaged in the dif-
charge of them with peculiar fatisfaétion. Without en-
countering equal dangers of a perfonal kind, the tafk which
he had to perform was not leis dangercus ; for it is,”’ as
he himfelf fays, often more difficult to tri: mph over error
than idolatry, and to eradicate opinions which have been
adopted as being more pure and correét, than to difpel fu-
perititious extravagancies, which neither feduce the mind
ner gratify felf-love.’ About this time, in confequence of
the recommendation of his uncle, the marquis, Fenelon
formed thefe connections, to which were owing his future
high elevation, and the fingular perfeeutions and reverfes
which it was his deftiny to undergo. He was introduced,
among others, to the duke de Beauviliiers and Boffuet ;
the latter of whom direéted his ftudies, and manifefted every
token of efteem for him; though be afterwards proved his
moft inveterate enemy. It was alfo about this period that
the bifhop of Sarlat refigned, in favour of his promifing
nephew, the canonry of Carance, worth from three to four
thoufand livres a year; the only preferment that was enjoy-
ed by Fenelon till he reached the age of 44 years. Ten
years of his life were occupied in fuperintending the com-
munity of female converts; and in this delicate fituation he
conducted himfelf not only irreproachably, bat with the
higheft degree of probity and honour. At this time he was
in the clofeft intimacy with Boffuet ; and was recommended
by him to Louis XIV. asa proper perfon to be employed
in converting the fe@aries of Poitou and Saintonge. This
miffion formed a part of thofe odious mexfures by which
this monarch was led to believe that he fhould annihilate pro-
teltantifm in his dominions; and we cannot but regret that
fuch a chara&er as that of Fenelon fhould be implica-
ted in this difhonourable bufinefs. His condu@, however,
in the execution of it, furnifhes caufe for admiration. Be-
fore he embarked in this profilyting {cheme of his fove-
reign, he petitioned, that the troops and al} the trappings
of war might be removed from the diltriéts within his miffion.
The requeft was granted, and he, tozether with his compa-
nions, who were felected from families of rank, proceeded
to the feene of their labours. Great fuccefs feemed to
attend them; the affociates of Fenelon flattered themfelves
with encouraging profpeéts; but the more difcerning Abbé
was not to be deluded by falfe appearances; nor would the
ingenuoufnefs of his mind allow him to countenance impof-
ture. He candidly flates, that diltruft, and confiderations
purely human, occafioncd moft of the converfions ; and that
it was to no purpole he had caufed all the apparatus of war
to be removed from the view of the terrified multitude, fince
the relations of violences committed in other provinces had
filled them with alarm. © Were it propofed to them,”? he
fays ina letter to Botnet, “¢ to abjure Chriftianity and fol-
low the Koran, you have only to thew them the Dragoons,”
Fenelon, feemingly fufpe@ting that at leaft the immediate
effets of his zeal and exertions were the reverfe of benefi-
cial, became weary of his emplovment; aad he was in a lit-
tle while cecalled. Upon his return to Paris, he preached
frequently, and cultivated an ucquaintance with perfons of
known religious chara@ter; and by the graces of his elocu-
tion, and the gentlenefs of his difpofition and manners, ac-
quired increating reputation. This indeed was a period of
the greateft iatereft in the life of Fenelon, The duke of
Burgundy, eldett fon of the Dauphin, had attained an age

Mm which

FENELON.

which required the fuperintendance of apo Nero Louis
XIV. appointed to this office the duke de Beauyilliers, a no-
bleman eminently diflinguifhed for his virtue and piety, aod
highly refpected by the king, who entrufted him with the
nomination of all the perfons who were required to concur
in the young prince’s education. The duke, on the day
preceding that of his own appointment, propofed to the
king, and obtained his confent, that the Abbé de Fenclon
fhould be preceptor. At this time, viz. September 1689,
when the perfons appointed to their refpeétive offices in the
education of the young prince commenced the fulfilment of
them, Fenelon was no more than 38 years of age. Never,
it is faid, was an inftance of union like that which reigned
among the initrutors of the duke of Burgundy. They
had but one heart and foul, and the foul was that of Fenelon.

Fenelon was fully confcious of the importance of the
charge that was committed to him; this was the education
ofthe future head of amonarchy, which had reached the
higheft {plendour :—ihe abfolute matter of twenty millions
of men, whofe happinefs or mifery would depend on the
perfonal chara&ter of the fovereign. Nor was he unapprifed
that the nature of the youth, whom he was appointed to
mftraGt, was extremely unpropitious. Hiftory reprefents
the duke of Burgundy as dilfplaying in infancy all the
fymptoms of a perverfe nature ;— invincible obitinacy, a re-
volting pride, irafcible propenfities, and the moft violent
paffions, are defcribed as its odious features ; but they
were joined with a great capacity for acquiring all kinds of
Teeaedee: «© He was born terrible,’? fays St. Simon,
“his behaviour made all who beheld him tremble.” By
various means, happily combined, by a continued feries of
appropriate and pertinent obfervations, by patience’, gentle-
ne{s, and unintermitting attention, the preceptor at length
fucceeded in gradually breaking the vidlent character of his
pupil, and ia calming his impetuous paffions. Beauvilliers
and Fenelon directed all their folicitude and exertions to
realize this defign; they fucceeded, and were remunerated
forit; for hiftory fhews, that of all the princes, he who
was the leaft flattered by his inftructors, and to whom the
mof harfh and cutting truths were told in his infancy and
youth, retained the moft tender regard for the virtuous per-
fons who prefided over his education. Of the talents, fide-
lity, and afliduity of Fenelon, asa preceptor, we may form
fome judgment by the aftonifhing proficiency of the royal
{cholar. At the age of ten, -we are told, the prince wrote
Latin with elegance, and tranflated the moft difficult au-
thors with an exactnefs and a felicity which furprifed the
beft judges; he was perfectly matter of Virgil, Horace,
and the metamorphofes of Ovid, and was fenfible to the beau-
ties of Cicero’s orations. Ateleven, he read Livy throngh-
out, and began a tranflation of Tacitus, which he after-
wards finifhed. The Abbé Fleury, attefting thefe facts,
fays, that his mind was of the firit order, and that he was
not contented with fuperficial knowledge, but fought to
penetrate to the bottom of every thing; his curiofity was
immenfe. Great pains were alfo taken with regard to his
religious education ; and one of the biographers of Fenelon
clofes the relation of various circumftances that refpec the
attainments of the young prince with afking, ‘* What mutt
we think of inftruétors who were able to flore the mind of
a youth of 14 with all that is effential in religion, whether
we regard its doGrines of its hiftory ; with all that mott
enchants in mythology, and which {upplies the principal
fubje@s of literature and of the ‘fine arts ; and with all the
leading facts of ancient and modern hiftory ? He had been
taught with precifion the elements of feveral other {ciences.
It was not eafy, faid the eftimable and. correét. Abbé de

Fleury, to find in the whole kingdom, not merely a gentlce
man, but any man, better informed than the prince, At
18, his letters were cited for the eafe and good tafte which
they difplayed. This teftimony was borne to them by Ma-
dame de Maintenon.”? The accounts of the talents and at~
tainments of the prince, we are told, furprifed even Bofluet,
who hada great diltrult of fuch premature geniufes, and a
fecret jealoufy of the rifing fame of the preceptor; and he
took an opportunity of fatisfying himfelf by an interview
and examination.

The fervices of Fenelon in the education of his pupil
were rewarded, in 1695, withthe {plendid preferment of the
archbifhopric of Cambray, which included a dukedom. But
this he accepted on condition that he fhould be allowed to
devote nine months in the year to his fee, and three to the
princes ; andat the fame time he refigned a valuable abbacy.
At the moment of his elevation to one of the higheft digni-
ties of the church, a ftorm was gathering which could not
lefs than alarm his tranquil mind. Thereputation of Fene.
lon, and the afcendency which his attra¢tive and command-
ing qualities feemed certain of cbtaining, alarmed the jealous
mind of Bofluet. The unfuccefsful preceptor of the father
could not hear with indifference the applaufe which all
France beltowed on the preceptor of the fon ; nor liften
without envy to the accents of gratitude which echoed from
every corner of the realm tothe man to whom the people
owed the profpect of a wife and beneficent reign. Although
Fenelon never refufed fubmiffion to Boffuet in matters of re-
ligious doGtrine, this would not fuffice. The latter found,
that if he did not pull down Fenelon, he muft fee himfelf
eclipfed ; and hence he became his unrelenting perfecutor.
The difgrace of Fenelon is the real obje&, but the interetts
of religion are the fhallow pretence ; no tie, human or di-
vine, reftrained the prelate of Meaux ; but confcience, ho-
nour, decency, all were fet afide, that the ruin of his rival
might be accomplifhed. In order to effeét this plan, Louis
XIV. mut a& the part of an abje& tool, and Madame de
Maintenoa be guilty of bafe treachery ; venerable prelates
mutt contradiét their folemn acts, and degrade and difho-
nour themfelves; the Abbé Boffuet, the prelate’s own ne-
phew, and another ecclefiaitic, muft circulate the groffeit
falfehoods and the fouleft calumnies ; the court mutt facrifice,
and throw on the wide world, molt meritorious chara@ers, in
order to terrify Rome, and influence it in its judgment ; the
empty pompous monarch muit bully the pope ; and the fee of
Rome itfelf mult be vilified, and pronounce a deeifion againit
its judgment, to infure a nefarious triumph to the bithop of
Meaux over the archbifhop of Cambray. A fentence of a
tribunal, which his arts and practices had degraded at the
expence of the coltly facrifices, already enumerated, iffued
again{t his adverfary ; but the tribunal of the public avenged
the injuftice ; and the genius of Fenelon fecured a victory
to his innocence, in which diftant empires, and fucceeding
generations have felt participation and joy.

The origin of thefe differences between the two prelates
mutt be traced to the conneétion formed by Fenelon, at a
preceding period, with Madame de Guyon, and to his hav-
ing afterwards adopted and defended her peculiar fenti+
ments. (See Guyon.) When they were firlt announced,
Fenelon had conceived prejudices againit them, but on his
return from his miflion into Poitou, he had the curiofity, on
pafling near Montargis, to pay a vilit to M. Guyon, and to
inquire into her courfe of life. ‘The report he received was
very favourable, and the ftatements that were made to him
of her piety and charity removed his prejudices, and induced
him to imbibe her myttical tenets. Indeed, Fenelon feems
to have had an early tafte for myftical devotion, and to have

particularly

i ee

FENELON.

particularly ftudied the writings of thofe who cherifhed it.
On further acquaintance with M. Guyon, he was con-
firmed in this predilection. But when the “ quietifm”’ of
this devotee excited attention, and became a fubjeét of cor-
verfation and ingniry, Fenelon advifed her, as 1t has been
fuppofed, to fubmit her doctrine and condué to the judg-
ment of Boffuet, who is faid to have treated her with great
kindnefs, and to have gained her confidence to fuch a de-
gree, that fhe put into his hands her printed works, and
alfo a manufeript life, contaiine many extravagances;
though fhe had never placed the fame kind of confidence
in Fenelon. Boiluct, however, being diffatistied, fhe de-
manded to be judged by commiffaries ; and the bifhop of
Chalons, and M. Tronfon, dire€tor of St. Sulpice, were
added to the bifhop of Meaux, in order to examine her cafe;
and with them was afterwards affociated Fenelon, oa his
elevation to the fee of Cambray. Thefe commiffioners met
at Ifly, the country-houle belonging to St. Sulpice, and
difcufled the tenets of M. de Guyon; and as Bofluet
was an entire ftranger to the myttical writers, he delired
Fenelon to fupply him with a fele¢tion of them, and in or-
derto aid hisjudgment, the archbifhop of Cambray furniflied
him with comments and remarks. ‘hele comments and
remarks firft excited the orthodox prelate’s fufpicion of
the other’s partiality to their principles and maxims. In-
deed, Fenelon avowed and defended his do¢trine of the dif-
interefted love of God, without any reference to eternal hap-
pinefs as a reward ; while Boffuet contended that a refer-
ence to the reward was a f{pecific motive to it, but hefitated
to pronounce that Fenelon’s notion was erroneous. After
the conference at Ifly, Boffuet had employed himfelf on a
work which was intended to demolifh “ Quietifm,’’ and
which he intitled “ the State of Prayer.’?’, When M. Guyon
was arrefted, Fenelon refolved not to become a party to the
publication of this work, though Bofluet had previoufly
defired it, nor to give it his teftimonial. He alio induced
Madame de Maintenon, the bifhop of Chartres, and the
cardinal de Noailles, to approve his refufal, on condition that
he fhould publifh a tra& on the points in difpute, in which
he fhould itate his own opinion. This agreement produced
the famous book which was the caufe of all his troubles,
viz. The Explication of the Maxims of the Saints,’ 1697.
With Boffuet for an enemy, and M. de Maintenon and
the king averfe to him, it was difficult for an honeft man
to write a treatife which fhould ftand the teft of ortho-
doxy ; but having fulfilled an imprudent engagement, Fe-
nelon fubmitted his compofition to the cardinal of Noailles,
the bifhop of Chartres, M. Tronfon, and other theologians
of high authority, admitting all their corrections: and
all thefe perfons not only approved it, but fome of them
highly commended it. Thus fortified, the book was ufhered
to the public, and it muft be owned that it met with univer-
fal difapprobation. Boffuet was his moift malignant adver-
fary, and ftirred the king, not partial to Fenelon before
this event, and the whole court againft him. The prelates
of Paris and Chartres, and the other divines who had given
their fanGtion to the ** Explication,”’ joined in the cry againt{t
the book. The archbifhop, thus overpowered by his
perfidious friends and open enemies, was banifhed to his
diocefe. About this time his palace at Cambray, with
all its furniture and books, was confumed by fire. He
fuftzined the lofs with unexampled firmnefs and tran-
quillity: for when news was brought him of the cataf-
trophe, he obfenved, “ That it was better all thefe fhould
be burned, than the cottage of one poor family.’ Boifuet
perfitted in his enmity, and determined to force Fenelon
abfolutely to retract the errors of the work which had

caufed fuch an alarm and outcry. Fenelon, on the 27th of
April, 1697, referred his publication to the judgment of the
pope ; and declining the conferences which Bofluet pro-
poied, he adhered to his purpofe of appealing to Rome.
In the mean while his enemtes purfued him with implacable
violence ; and he received a mandate from the king, dated
Augutt 1, 1697, commanding him to retire to his diocefe,
and there to remain. Every meafure was zdopted, which
the malignity of Boffuet could fuggelt, for enforcing a
fentence of condemnation at the court of Rome; till &
length the reluctance of that court wes overcome, arid pop*
Innocent XII. was prevailed upon, in 1699, to iffue a
brief of cenfure againtt Fenclon’s work, and 23 propofitions
extrated from it. ‘The archbifhop himfelt teftified the
moft profound fubmiffion to the fentence of the holy
fee, read his own condemnation from the pulpit, and
compofed a “* mandement”? againft his book. He even
caufed to be reprefented, for the expofition of the facrament
a fun borne by two angels, one of whom trampled under
foot fome heretical books, among which appeared the title
of his own. This was almcft, as aman of wit called hi:
conduét on the occafion, “ the coquetry of humility ;” it
had, however, all the appearance of fincerity, and his whole
after-eonduét was conformable te it. When the news
arrived of the condemnation of his work at Rome, he was
preparing to mount the pulpit; and to deliver a difeourfe
fuitable to the folemnity of the day, which was the feftival
of the Annunciation ; but after a few moments of recollec-
tion, he changed his purpofe, and made his difcourfe turn
folely on the fubmiffion which is due to fuperiors. His
numerous audience had been previoufly apprized of the fa& ;
and the admirable prefence of mind, the felf-command, aud
the religions calm, which he dilfplayed, fuffufed every
countenance with tears of fympathy, refpe&, and admiration
So bighly pleafed was the court of Rome with the obedieace
of the archbifhop of Cambray, that the whole college of car-
dinals petitioned the pope to fend a complimentary letter ie
hisownname to the pious and yenerable prelate ; but the Abb¢
de Meaux no fooner heard of this defign, than he caufed the
papal epiftle to be frittered dowa to a few cold expreflions of
regard. So amiable, indeed, was the whole deportment of
Fenelon, that a celebrated writer faid of him, “* I know not
whether Fenelon was a heretic in affecting that God ought
to be loved for himfelf, but I know that Fenelon deferved
to be fo loved.’? In his diocefe he united the characters
of a nobleman and of a Chriftian paftor. In the latter capa-
city nothing could furpafs his fimplicity of manners, his cha-
rity, his minute attention to all his duties, his fervent piety
united to indulgence and moderation. He vifited the cot-
tages of the peaiants in the molt condefcending manner, and
adminittered confolation and relief in their diftreffes. When
they were driven from their habitations by the alarms of
war, he received them into his houfe, and even ferved them
at his table. To one of his clergy, who aflumed merit
to himfelf for having abalifhed the Sunday dances of the pea-
fantry in his parifh, he faid, «* M. le Curé, let us not dance,
but let us permit thefe poor people to amufe themfelves ;
why fhould we hinder them from forgetting for a mo-
ment how wretched they are??? His hofpitality “was
boundlefs, and blended with the moft genuine politenefs.
During the war his houfe and table were epen to all offi-
cers, many of whom, when fick and wounded, he lodged
and provided with every kind of neceflary relief. Befides
his conftant hefpitalities to the military, he performed a
moft munificent aé& of patriotifm after the difaitrous winter
of 1709, by opening his granaries, and diftributieg gratui-
toufly to the foldiers corn to the value of 100,909 livres.
Mm 2 We

FENELON.

We may reckon it among the moft pleafing anecdotes
of modern war, that the duke of Marlborough, and the
other generals of the allies, when in poffeflion of that part
of Flanders, exprefsly exempted the archiepifcopal lands
of Cambray- from all pillage or exattion, regarding
them as devoted to the purpofes of common beneticence.
They frequently paid their refpeéts to the worthy pre-
late, and always received from him the ftrongeft im-
preflions of efteem and admiration. Among the illuftrious
vifitors who reforted to Cambray to render homage to its
venerable archbifhop, was ‘“ The young Pretender;’? and
from the converfations of Fenelon with this prince, it ap-
pears that the prelate was a warm admirer of the Britifh con-
{titution. When headvifes him, if he fhould ever regain
the throne of his anceftors, never to conttrain his fubjects
to change their religion, he fays, ‘¢ No human power can
force the impenetrable intrenchments of the freedom of the
mind. Violence can never perfuade men, it only makes
hypocrites. Whew kings interfere in matters of religion,
intlead of proteéting her, they reduce her to flavery. Give
to all, then, civil liberty ; not as regarding every thing as
indifferent, but as enduring with patience what God per-
mits.”” Referring to the political conttitution of the flate,
he afks, “ Is not the fovereign fufficiently powerful? If
we fay that the king can do nothing without the parliament,
is not a monarch happy whois at hherty to do all the good
which he chufes, and has only his hands tied when he would
do wrong? Every wife prince ought to with to be no more
than the executor of the laws, and to have a fupreme coun-
cil to moderate his authority ;’? with much more to the
fame purpofe.

The French courtiers were afraid of being known to vifit
a perfon lying under the difpleafure of their maiter. This was
actually the cafe; and an incident had happened which
placed an infurmountable bar to the reftoration of Fenelon
te court favour. Befides his delinquency in point of ortho-
doxy, Fenelon had been guilty of writing ‘* Telemachus,”
a work which was denounced to the jealous monarch, Louis
XIV. asa moft daring fatire on his-reign. Indeed he had
never heartily approved of his appointment to be the pre-
eeptor of the princes, regarding him rather asa ‘ bel efprit,””
than a man of the world; and the maxims of Telemachus
confirmed him in this opinion. Telemachus faw the light
through the infidelity of a fervant, who, judging highly of
its value, took a copy for himfelf, whillt he was tranfcrib-
ing it by the archbifhop’s order. This MS. he fold to a
bookfeller ; and thus was given to the public a performance
that fecured a degree of fame to its author which he did not
anticipate, and involved him in fufferings which he did not
merit. However, he ttopped the impreflion of the work
which was going on from a copy thus furreptitioufly
obtained; and, after the death of the duke of Burgundy,
he burned every mann{cript of the preceptor which he found
among his papers. Befides the offence which Telemachns
gave to the king, he had alfo offended beyond forgivenefs
Mad. de Maintenon, by his honeit advice to the king, when
confulted, not to marry her; advice which his majefty had
the meannefs to betray. The enmity of Louis, arifing from
thefe and fome other circumftances, may be inferred from
the pains which the duke of Burgundy was obliged to take,
in order to renew his communications with his preceptor.
After four years’ filence from the period of the archbifhop’s
difgrace at court, a eorref{pondence began which terminated
only with the death of the prince ; no lefs honourable to
himfelf than to his preceptor.

After the death of the firft Dauphin, and the great change
which confequently took place in the fituation of the duke

of Burgundy, Fenelon conceived it his duty to addrefs new
counfels to his pupil. He is no longer Mentor, whofe gentle
and paternal voice teaches the young ‘Telemachus how to
reign in the {mall ifle of Ithaca, but the pontiff armed with
the power and the majefty of religion, who reveals, in the
name of heaven, to the heir of a great empire the fearful
duties impofed on him. While flattering courtiers and.
trembling minifters {poke only of his power, and the fplen-
dour of his fupreme rank, Fenelon, in his fublime but:
auttere leffons, traces great dangers and great duties. ‘¢ It
is time,”” fays he, ina letter written to his pupil on this
occafion, * to render yourfelf beloved, refpected, and
efteemed; to become the counfel of his majefiy, the father
of the people, the confolation of the afli@ted, the fupport
of the poor, the ftay of the nation, the defender of the
church, and the enemy of innovation. Let flatterers be kept
at a diflance, and no confidence, be placed: in them; let

merit be diltinguifhed, fought, anticipated, and employed ;.

lilten to every thing, but believe nothing without proof;

and learn to excel all, fince you are placed above all.
Be the father of your people, and not their mafter, All’

mult not be for one, but one ought to be for all, to enfure
their happinefs.”’? ‘The reputation of the pupil reflected the:
higheft credit at this period on his preceptor; it fpread
from Verfailles to the extremity of France ; and Fenelon
began to enjoy the fruits of his exertions and cares. Tene-
lon, at this feemingly aufpicious period, had the fatisfaGtion
of confidering that his counfels had never any other obje@
than the prince’s glory, and the good of the people whom
he was to govern. In this great change of affairs, and
which fo materially affeéted the fituation of Fenelon, he
never diverted his thoughts to himfelf. However, the am-
bitious now courted the excellent prelate ; and the {pring of
1711 produced ciear proofs of the change which had taken
place. Cambray became the road to every part of Flaz.ders.
Yet with all this attention on the part of courtiers, he con-
duted himfelf with fo much modelty and fo much prudence,
that he did not awaken the royal jealoufy ; prone enough to
be excited, and to take offence. As foon as the duke of
Burgundy appeared in arms, and took a pa:t in public
affairs, the good archbifhop became by turns a general, a
diplomatift,.and a minifter; aod difcerning perfons caanot fail
to be highly itruck with this amazing verfatility, and with
the excellent counfels which he imparted in each character.

According to the plan of government, which he prepared for”

the confideration of his pupil, and the leading arrangements
of which he drew up in the form of tables, enliftment into
the army was to be voluntary, and the fervice was to be for
five years. —All offices were to be difcharged by principals,
and none were to be allowed to ferve by deputy.— No rever-
fions of places were to be granted.— ach province was to
have its ftates on the model of thofe of Languedoc; and
the impofition of taxes was to be intrufted to thefe affemblies.
The gabelle, and other opprefiive taxes, were to be abolithed,
and fuch as were more equal.to be fubftituted in the reom
of them. he £/lates-General were to be revived, and to be
aflembled every three years. They were to have only the
power of making reprefentations, and the king was to decide,
The courts of the feudal lands were to be abolifhed, and the
fuitors were to have recourfe to the baillages. Commerce
was to be free, &c. &c. Three months had fearcely elapfed
after thefe plans had been fketched, when the premature
death of the duke of Burgundy extinguifhed the fanguine
hopes which had been fo univerfally indulged. When Fe-
nelon heard the affli€ting intelligence, the only words which
he uttered were, “all my ties are broken. Nothing now
binds me to the earth.”? Ina letter written foon after this.

ftroke,

FENELON.

firoke,-he fays, among other things, God has taken away
all our hope for the church and the ftate. He had formed
this young prince, he had adorned him, he had prepared
him for doing great good, he thewed him to the world, and
immediately he has. withdrawn him from it; I am {truck
with horror 3; and I find myfelf finking without any bodily
complaint. In weeping over the dead prince, my heart is
tora to pieces, but I am alarmed for the living.’

The fucceeding removais of his friends and admirers, the

dukes of Chevreufe and Beauvilliers, were additional blows
tovhis feelings and expetations. Neverthelefs, the declining
ftate of the king’s health, and the favourable fentiments
entertained of him by the duke of Orleans, encouraged his
hopes ; all which were terminated by a fever, fucceeding
the accident of being overturned in his carriage, which
proved>fatal to him in January 1715. One of his laft aéts
was that of writing a letter to the king, concerning the
fpiritual affairs of is diocefe, which alone feemed to be his
remaining concern. He expired in perfeét tranquillity,
deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the Low-Countries,
and efpecially by the lock committedto his charge. Sowell
had he balanced his worldly affairs, that he died without
money, and without a debt. The following portrait of
Fenelon is given by the duke de St. Simon in his Memoirs ;
« He was a tall, lean, well-made man, with a large nofe,
eyes whence fire and fenfe flowed in a torrent; a phyliog-
nomy refembling none which I have elfewhere feen, and
which could not be forgotten after it had once been beheld.
It combined oppolites ; it had both gravity and amenity,
ferioufnefs and gaiety, and equally fpoke the theologian,
the bifhop, and the nobleman. His prevailing expreifion,
as well as that of his whole perfon, was fenfe, fagacity,
grace, decorum, arid efpecially elevation. It required an
effort to ceafe to look at him. His manners were corre-
{ponding ; they were marked with that eafe which makes
others ealy, with that tafle and air of good company which
is only acquired by frequenting the great world. He,
moreover, pofleffed a natural, fweet, and flowery eloquence ;
an infinuating, but noble and diftinguifhing politenefs; a
ready, clear, and agreeable elocution ; a power of makin
himfelf usderftood upon the moft perplexed and abftra&
fubje&ts. With all this he never chofe to appear wifer or
wittier than thofe to whom he fpoke, but defcended to
every one’s level, with a manner fo free and enchanting,
that it was f{careely poffible to quit him. It was this rare
talent which kept his friends fo clofely attached to him,
notwithftanding his fall; and which, during their difper-
fion, affembled them to talk of him, to regret him, to long
for his return, and to unite themfelves to him more and
more.”’ The principal works of Fenelon are as follow ;
viz. Sur le Miniftere des Pafteurs,’’ and a treatife “* De
V’Edueation des Filles,’ both printed in 1688, ‘ Maximes
des Saints fur le Vie interieure’’? 1697, already noticed as
the oftenfible occafion of his difpute with Boffuet ; «© D.a-
logues of the Dead,”? two vols. 12mo. “ Dialogues on
Eloquence in general, and on that of the Pulpit in parti-
cular, with a letter on Rhetoric and Poetry,’”? 12mo.; the
latter being addreffed to the French academy, of which he
became a member in 1693; ‘ Philofophical Works, or
Demonftration of the Exittence of God by natural proofs,”’
r2mo.3 “ Letters on different Religious and Metaphytical
Subjects,” 12mo-; ‘* Spiritual Works,” four vols. 12mo. ;
« Sermons,”? 12mo.; feveral pieces in favour of the bull
Unigenitus and the Formulary. ‘* The moft touching
charm,”’ fays M. d’Alembert, * of his works, is the fenfa-
tion of peace and repofe with which he infpires his reader ;
he is a friend who joins himfelf to you, who fheds his foul
’ 8

into yours, who tempers, and at leaft for a time, fufpends
your troubles andafflictions,”? In his theelogy he feems to
give greater fcope to feeling than to reafon, which fuf-
ficiently appears from his conneétion with Madame de
Guyon, and his predileGtion in favour of *€ Quietifm ;”” but
if he inclined to mytticifm, and thus feemed to deviate from
the eitablifhed fyflem of bis church, he does not appear to
have made the leaft approach to proteftantifm. On the
contrary, no one has more forcibly inculcated the danger of
putting the feriptures into the hands of the people, (a fun-
damental tenet of popery,) than Fenelon has done in his
“© Letter to the Archbifhop of Arras.’”? Submiffion to the
decifions of the holy fee is likewife exemplified in his whole
conduG as well as in his writings.

Indeed, Fenelon feems to have been one of thofe, who,
either from early prepoffeffions, or from falfe reafonings
upon human nature, or from an obfervation of the powerful
in’preffions made by authority on the credulity, and a pom-
pons ritual on the fenfes of the multitude, imagive, that
Chriftianity, in its native form, is too pure and elevated for
vulgar fouls; and, therefore, countenance and maintain the
abfurdities of popery, from a notion of their utility.

Fenelon alfo wrote againft the Janfenilts ; partly to pleafe
the court-jefuits, with views of conciliation, but princi-
pally, becaufe their doétrine, which he termed ‘ pitilefs’””
and ‘overwhelming, was direGtly oppofite to his own
religious fentiments. ‘ God,” faid he, “ is to them only
the “ terrible’? being; to me he is the ‘* gooc”’ being: I
cannot refolve to make him a tyrant who firft fetters us, and
then commands us to walk, and punifhes us if we do not.”
He was, however, though inimical to their opinions, indul-
gent to their perfons, and never permitted them to be pro-
fecuted; and when it was reprefented to him that the Jan-
fenifts were his avowed enemies; “that,” faid he, ‘is an
additional reafon for tolerating and pardoning them.”’

Of all Fenelon’s writings his *¢ Telemachus’’ was the
mott intereiting and popular. It has been publifhed in a
great variety of forms, and tranflated into moft modern
languages. It is properly an epic poem in profe, and: ine
tended to be the inftitute of a prince, to which purpofe it
is admirably adapted: for never were purer, more ufeful,
and more elevated maxims of public and private conduct
offered to the heir of a monarchy. Louis XIV: could not
have more feverely fatirized himfelf than by proferibing fuch
a pidture of wife and humane government, and of the evils
proceeding from unjuit ambition and oftentatious profulion.
What were the author’s views in compofing this work ap-
pear in a memorial which he drew up after the death of Bof-
{uct, his principal enemy, in order to diffuade his friends
from attempting to reftore him to court: God is my wit-
nefs that I wrote the condemned book folely for the pur-
pofe of rejeéting the errors and illufions of Quietifm ; and
as to Telemachus, it is a fabulous narrative in the. form of
an heroic poem, like thofe of Homer and Virgil, in which
I have introduced the principal actions that become a prince
who is deftined to govern. I compofed this work at
an epoch in which I was honoured with marks of the.
king’s confidence and favour; and I muit not only have
been the molt ungrateful of men, but the moft gracelefs,
had I ever defigued to introduce into it fatirical and offenfive
portraits. I abhor the very thought of fuch an intention,
It is true that I interwove in thofe adventures all the truths
which are neceflary for government, and all the faults which
may be committed by the fovereign power ; but I tated
none of them fo as to form portraits and characters ; and
the more the work is read, the more it will appear that it
was my plan to do juitice to my fubje&, without painting

any

FEN

any individual in particular. Thenarration was compofed
in hafte, in {mall partsat a time, and on different occalions ;
“it affords much room for correétion ; and the printed copy
is moreover not conformable to the original. Yet 1 have pre-
ferred the letting it remain imperfect and a cs to
printing itexa@tly as I wrote it. Ithought only of amufing
the duke of Burgundy, and of inftructing him while I
amufed him, without ever obtruding the work before the
public ; andall the world is aware that its appearance was
occafioned by the infidelity of one of my domettics. All
‘the king’s beft fervants know what my principles of honour
and religion are, with refpeét to the fovereign, the ftate,
and the country, and what a lively and grateful recolleGion
I retain of his majefty’s favours.’” ‘Telemachus, as a work
of invention, fays Dr. Aikin, has great merit, and is read
with pleafure for the beauties cf its ityle, and the elegance
of its fictions, by thofe who are little interefted in its poli-
tical leffons. Moreri. Mem. du Duc de St. Simon,
Eloges Academ. par d’Alembert. Hiltoire de Fenelon, &c.
par M. L. F. de Bauffet, late bifhop of Alais, &c. 3 vols.
S8vo. Paris, 1808. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hilt. vol. 5. Gen.
Biog. Monthly Review, vols. 57, 58, 59.

FENERA, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Venice, near
the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 44° 54. E. long. 14° 8'.

FENESTRA, in Anatomy, a name given to two {mall
holes which appear in the cavity of the tympanum, and
which are diftinguifhed from each other by the epithets
rotunda and ovalis. See Ear.

FE/NE’TRANGE, in Geography, a town of France,
inthe department of the Meurthe, and chief place of a can-
ton inthe diftri@t of Sarrebourg, feated on the Sarte, for-
merly the capital of a lordfhip of the fame name, which
being vefted in the duchy of Lorraine, was ceded with it
to France; 33 miles E.N.E. of Nancy. The place con-
tains 1355, and the canton-9923 inhabitants, on a territory
of 2174 kiliometres, and in 21 communes.

FENGELD, in our Ancient Writers, is ufed for a tax
or impofition raifed for repelling of enemies.

It comes from the Saxon feind, an enemy, and geld,
money.

FENG-HOA, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Corea; 25 miles W.S.W. of Ping-hai.

FENIT, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the weftern
coatt of Ireland, in the bay of Tralee, county of Kerry.

FENKI, atown of the kingdom of Corea; 36 miles
N.N.W. of Long-konang,

FENNEL, in Botany. See AnetTuumM. »

Fenner, in Gardening, the common name of a well
known plant of the tall growing culinary kind. See Ane-
THUM.

There are three forts of this plant, Common Fennel,
Sweet-Fennel, and Finochio.

Common fennel has a {trong flefhy root that penetrates
toa great depth in the foil, and which continues for feveral
years. It is capable of being raifed in moft foils and fitua-
tions.

Sweet fennel does not rife fo high inthe flem as the
common fort, and the leaves are more long and flender, and
do not terminate in fo many points. The feeds have greater
Jength, and are more light in their colour. They are ufually
brought from Germany and Italy.

Finochio has been long in cultivation in Italy as a fallad
herb, but is rather ftrong to the palate. It is faid to have
been brought ‘from the Azonian iflands. See ANETHUM
and Finocuio,

Fennevy in the Materia Mediza. See Avetuum fe-
aiculum.

FEN

FEnnev-fower, of, Devil ina Bufh. See NiGEvia.
Fennev-flower of Crete. See GariDELLa.
Fennec-giant. See Fervwua. —

Fennez, Hog’s. See Peucepanum.

Fennet, Scorching. See Tuapsta.

Fenner, Sea. See Crirumum.

FENNY River, in Geography, a branch of the Ganges,
which difcharges itfelf into the bay of Bengal. N. lat.
22° 49'. E. long. gr° 33!.

Another branch of the Ganges, which runs into the fame
bay, is called ‘ Little Fenny river.” N. lat. 22° 517
E. long. 91° 29'.

Fenny-Stratford, a {mall decayed market-town in the
hundred of Newport, and county of Buckingham, England,
is fituated on the road to Liverpool, (the ancient Watling
ftreet,) and is partly in the parith of Bletchley, and partly
in that of Simpfon. The town confilts of one principal
(treet on arifing ground, witha {tone bridge over the river
Lofield. The chapel, which is in Bletchley parifh, having
been dilapidated ever fince the reiga of queen Elizabeth,
was rebuilt in 1724 by fubferiptions, procured by the
exertionsof Browne Willis. Fenny-Stratford is 46 miles
from London, and contained, according to the late return to
parliament, 81 houfes, and 469 inhabitants. It had from
time immemorial a market on Mondays, which was confirmed
by charter in 1609; being difcontinued during the civil
war, it was revived after the reftoration. Un 1665 this
town was much depopulated by the plague, of which 139
perfons died ; the inns were fhut up, and the road was fora
time turned into another dire¢tion ; this calamity alfo proved
fatal to the market, which has never flourifhed, and has for
many years fallen into difufe, Four fairs are annually held ;
a grant for one was procured in the year 1269, two others
were eftablifhed by the charter of 1609. An aé& of parlia-
ment was pafled in 1790 forinclofing the hamlet of Fenny-
Stratford. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. i. gto.

FENTE’, a town of Egypt; 15 miles N. of Abu-
Girgé.

FENTON, Epwarn, in Biography, who flourifhed in
the reign of Elizabeth, was defcended from an ancient fa-
mily in Nottinghamfhire, where he had fome property,
which he fold, as did alfo his brother Geoffrey, being, it is
faid, more inclined to truit to their abilities, than the flender
patrimony defcended to them from their anceftors ; and
they were, fays an accurate obferver of mankind, among
the very few of thofe who take fuch daring refolutions in
their youth, without living to repent of them in their old
age. The inclination of Edward led him to the choice of
a military and active life, and he ferved fome time with repu-
tation in-Treland, but upon fir Martin Frobifher’s report of
the probability of difcovering a north-weit paffage intu the
South feas, he refolved to embark with him in his fecond
voyage, and was accordingly appointed captain of the
Gabriel, a bark of twenty-five tons, in which he accom-
panied fir Martin in the fummer of the year 1577, to the
itraits that now bear his name, but in their return he
was feparated from him ina {torm, and arrived fafely at
Briftol. In a third expedition, which proved unfuccefsful,
he commanded the Judith, one of fifteen fail, and had the
title of rear-admiral; the mifcarriage of this voyage had
not convinced Fenton of the impracticability ef the pro-
ject; he folicited another trial, and it was, after much ap-
plication, granted him, though the particular obje& of this
voyage is not eafily difcovered; his inftruétions from the
privy-council, which are ftill preferved, fay, that he fhould
endeavour the difcovery of a north-weit paflage, and yet he
is told to go by the Cape of Good Hope tothe Eaft Indies,

6

thence

—— ll

FENTON,

thence to the South feas, and to attempt his return by the
fuppofed north-welt paffage, and not by any means to think
of paffing the ftraits of Magellan, except in cafe of abfo-
Jute neceffity. The truth appears to be, he had intereft
enough to be allowed to try his fortune in the South feas.
He failed in the {pring 1582, with four veffels, and was
making to Africa, thence he intended to fail to Brazil, in
his courfe to the flraits of Magellan, but having learnt that
there was already a ftrong Spaniih fleet there, he put into
a Portuguefe fettlement, where he met with three of the
Spanifh fquadron, gave them battle, and after a fevere en-
gagement, funk their vice-admiral, and returned home.
Here he was well received, and appointed to the command
of a fhip fent out againft the famous Armada. In fome ac-
counts of this a€tion he is faid to have commanded the
«¢ Antelope,” in others the “¢ Mary Rofe,”? but his talents
and bravery in the ation are univerfally acknowledged, and
it is certain he hada very diftinguifhed fhare in thofe a€tions,
the fame of which can never be forgotten while England
remains, as we truft fhe ever will, a free and independent
ftate. Little more is recorded of him than that he fpest
the remainder of his days at or near Deptford, where he
died in 1603. A monument was erected to his memory in
the parith church of Deptford, at the expence of Richard
earl of Cork, who had married his niece. According to
Fuller he died within a few days of his miftrefs queen Eli-
zabeth, and he remarks; ‘* Obferve how God fet upa gene-
ration of military men both by fea and land, which began
and expired with the reign of queen Elizabeth, like a fuit
of clothes made for her, and worn out with her; for provi-
dence defigning a peaceable prince to fucceed her, in whofe
time martial men would be rendered ufelefs, fo ordered the
matter, that they all, almoft, attended their mittrefs, before
or after, within fome fhort diftance, unto her grave.”’ Biog,
Brit.

Fenton, Sir Georrrey, brother to the above, being
inclined to books rather than the buftle of a military life,
became a learned. and elegant writer, and an aétive, able
ftatefman, privy counlellor, and fecretary of ftate in the
kingdom of Ireland. We find hima privy counfellor in the
year 1581, under the patronage of Arthur lord Grey, then
lord-deputy in that kingdom. He not a little {trengthened
his intereit at court by his marriage with Alice, daughter of
Dr. Robert Welton, the lord chancellor of Lreland; and it
fhould {eem that he required only an opportunity to difplay
his talents to make his own way. When once he was fixed
in his office of fecretary, he rendered himfelf fo ufeful to
the governor, that none of the changes to which that go-
vernment was fubjeét caufed any alteration in his ficuation ;
and he never failed to ufe his power and influence for the
interelt of his country. He took every opportunity of per-
fuading the queen that the Ivifh were to be governed only
by the rules of frit juftice, and that the fafety and glory
of her government in that ifland depended on her fubjects
enjoying equal laws and protection of their property. The
queen frequently fent for her fecretary, Fenton, to confult
with him on her Irifh affairs, which were fometimes in a
moit difficult and alarming fituation; this fhews the high
opinion fhe entertained of his underitanding, though it
dion happened that when he was returned to his duty, the
advifers as Elizabeth perfuaded her to adopt meafures the
reverfe of what Fenton had recommended. He was the
means of extinguifhing more than one rebellion, and of
totally reducing the bates to fubmit to Englifh govern-
ment. In 1608 fir Geoffrey married his only daughter to
Mr. Boyle, afterwards earl Cork, which proved to all parties
a fource of great fatisfaction, At this period, viz, - ac-

ceffion of James I. to the throne, the zeal and high fervices
of fir Geoffrey Fenton procured him the entire confidence
of fir Arthur Chichefter, the new lord deputy. He con--
tinued to hold his office in full poffeffion of his credit and
authority till O&ober 1608, when he died at his houfe in
Dublin, and was interred with every mark of refpeét in the
cathedral church of St. Patrick, leaving behind him the:
chara¢ter of a polite writer, an accomplifhed courtier, an able
{tatefman, and true friend to his country. He was per-
feétly acquainted. with the French, Spanith, and Italian lan-
guages, and his tranflations from them are fuppofed to have
firft brought him into the notice of perfons of rank and
confideration at court: the tranflations mentioned ia the
Biographia Britannica are, 1. An Epiftle to the Paitors of
the Flemifh Church in Antwerp, written by Anthony dé
Carro, 1578; 2. An Account of a Difpute at Parts betweea
two Doétors of the Sorbonne, and two Miniiters of God’s
word, 15713 3. Golden Epiflles, from the Latin, Freach,
and Italian, 1577; and, 4. The Hiitory of the Wars of
Italy, by F. Guicciardini, in twenty books, 1599. Biog.
Brit.

Frnron, Erisua, was born at Newcaftle, in Stafford-
fhire, about the clofe of the 17th century. His father was
a gentleman of confiderable property ; but Elitha being the
youngelt of twelve children, was deitined to a profeffion,
and was accordingly entered at Jefus college, Cambridge:
His feruples refpecting the terms of conformity precluded
him from all expe€tations of academical honours and eccle-
fiattical preferment. He left the univerfity with no other
profpeéts than thofe which his literary talents could afford.
At firft he engaged in the humble employment of ufher’to
a ichool in Surrey, and was afterwards matter of the founda-
tion {chool at Seven-Oaks, a {chool which at this time is
in conliderable repute, though probably diverted from the
intentions of the founder. In 1710 he engaged as fecretary
to Charles, earl of Orrery, at. Bruflels, and tutor to his fon.
He had already given f{pecimens of his talents in poetry, and
when his engagement with lord Orrery had ceafed, he ob-
tained, through the recommendation of Pope, a fituation
with fecretary Craggs, who, aware of the deficiencies
of his own education, wifhed for a companion, a man of
tafte and learning, from whom he might acquire occafional
inftruétion. He next undertook, for Pope, the tranflation
of the firft, fourth, nineteenth, and twentieth books of the
Odyfiey, for which he received the fum of 300/ His
tragedy of Mariamne rendered him more known; it was
performed in 1723, with very great applauie, and produced
"him 1oc0/. with which he was enabled to difcharge a debt
incurred during his attendance at court; “ an inftructive
comparifon,” fays his biographer, “ between the patronage
of the public, and that of aking or minilter?’ Thus freed
from an embarrafiment, that probably buag heavy va his
mind, we hear but little more of him asa writer. His ex-
ertions in this re{pe&t appear to have been more the produ&
of necefiity, than the fpontaneous effulions of a mind de-
lighted with the employment. He now undertook the do-
mettic education of the fon of lady Trumball, widow of fir
William ‘Trumball ; afterwards he went with him to Cam-
bridge, and theo refided with the lady herfelf as auditor.of
her accounts. Thus eafy in his fituation, he had recourieto
the prefs only for amulement. To an edition of Milten’s
poenis he prefixed a life, written with candour and elegance.
He then publifhed a {plendid edition of Waller, with notes;
this was in the year 1.729, and in the following year he died»
at Eafthampitead, in Berkfhire. His early death was
brought on by wantof exertion and indulgence. His pupil,
lord Orrery, fays of him, * Poor Fenton died of a great

chair

FEO

chair and two bottles of port a-day ;’? but he adds in-at-
teftation of his charaGter, “‘ He was one of the worthieft
and modefteft men that ever belonged to the-court of
Apollo. Tears arife when I think of him, thoughe has
been dead above twenty years.’? Fenton’s poetry is’ little
read now, but his **Ode to lord Gower’? was pronounced
by Pope to be exceeded by none in the Engliff’ language,
except Dryden’s on St. Cecilia’s day. His tragedy of
Mariamne, founded on the {tory of Herod, as related by
Jofephus, maintains a refpeétable rank among dramatic com-
pofitions, though it is never ated. Johnfou’s Lives of the
Poets.
FENUGREEK, in Botany. See'TriGonerra.
FenuGreek, in the Materia Medica. ‘Vhe feeds, which
are brought to us from the northera parts of France and
Germany, have a ftrong difagreeable fmell, and an unétuous
farimaceous tafte, accompanied with a flight bitternefs.
An ounce renders a pint of water thick and flimy. ‘To
-rectified fpirit they give out the whole of their diftin-
guifhing {mell and taite, and afterwards to water a frong
flavourlefs mucilage. hefe feeds are never given inter-
nally; their principal ufe being in catapla{ms and fo-
mentations, for foftening, maturating, and difenfling tu-
mours; and in emollient g’ytters. ‘They were alfo an in-
gredient in the oleum e mucilaginibus”’ of the fhops; but
this has no longer a place in the pharmacoperia. ! Lewis.
Woodville.
*FEN:Y, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
-rank, in: Miang-fi; 20 miles I. of Yuen-tcheou.

FEO, ‘Francisco, in Biography, a Neapolitan com-
pofer, and one of the bett matters of his time. He may ‘be
numbered among the illuftrious compofers who had immor-
talized the Neapolitan fchool, and eitablifhed its fupremacy

over all other nations. Its fire, fancy, energy, and eeprel:
fionyand. the accuracy of its ityle, are the charaéteriftics
of his-compofition. No one conduéted an orcheitra in a’ fu-

erior manner to Feo, who flourifhed about the year 1740.

FEODAL, Feopatts, or Fexdalis, of or belonging to
_a feud, or fee. Sce Fer, Feup, and Fevpav.

FEODALITY, the fealty paidto the lord by his feudal
‘tenant. See Feaury.

FEODARY, Feupary,' or Feudatory, an officer -an-
ciently .made-and authorized by the mafter of the courts of
vwards, °32 Hen. VIII. cap. 26.

‘His office was to be prefent with the eftheator, at the
finding any office of lands; and to give evidence for the
king, concerning the terre, and the value-thereof : to fur-
vey the land. of the ward after the office found, and rate

vit. : He-alfo affigned the king’s widows their dowers, and
received: the ents of ward’s lands. This office is taken
away by’itat. 12 Car. II. cap. 24.

‘FEODATARY, or Fevparary. Sce FEupATARY.

-FEQDER, a meafure for liquids, ufed throughout Ger-
many. See Measure.

--FEODITAS, in Old IVriters, is fometimes ufed for
faclitas, or fealty, which fee.
-.FEODUM, or Feupum, the fame with fef, or fee.

‘-FEOFFMENT, derived from the verb feofare, or in-

‘feudare, to enfeoff, to give one a feud, in Common Law, 1s
: the moft ancient method of conveyance, and fignifies a gift
er grant of honours, caitles, manors, meffuages, lands, or
.the like corporeal or immoveable things, to another in fee-
fimple ; that is, to him and his heirs for ever, by the delivery
- of feifin, and the poffeffion of the:thing given. See Fre,
and Lavery.

. When this is done by writing, -it is called the deed of
feoffment.

folitary.

wie R

In every feoffment the giver is called the foofer, or feaffa-
tor, and he that receives, the, feajie.

The proper difference in our law between a feoffer, and a
donor, is, that the feoffer.gives in fee-fimple; and the donor
in fee-tail. Litt]. 1. c. 4.

This conveyance is now but very little ufed, except
where no confideration paffes, as in. cafe df truftees of lands
for a corporation, &c. It is {till, however, a formal, valid,
and effectual mode of conveyance ; but of late years it has
been alinott entirely fuperfeded™by the conveyance by /ea/e
and releafe, which fee.

‘FEORME. See’Farm.

‘FEOU-CHAN, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Chan-fi; 20 miles I.S.E. of Pin-yang.

TER de Fourchette, croix a fer de fourchette, in. Heraldry,
is a crofs, having a forked iron at each end, like that for-
merly ufed by foldiers to reft their mufkets on; by which
it is diftinguifhed from the crofs fourche ; the ends whereof
turn forked ; whereas in this the fork is.fixed.on the fquare
ends,

Fer de Moulin, q. de iron of the mill, isa bearing in he-
raldry ; fuppofed to reprefent the iron ink,~or ink of a mill,
which fuftains the moving mill-ftone.

FERABOSCO, Axrronso, the Younger, in Biography,
is faid to have been born-at Greenwich of Italian parents.
He feems to have acquired confiderable weight inthis coun-
try, more from his name and the reputation of -his father
thar. real merit. However convinced he may have been
himfelf of his fuperior abilities, we have our doub's concern-
ing the genius, at lealt, of this author, though he had
the poets and dilettanti all on his fide; as his compefi-
tions that have come under our in{pection feem whol-
ly unworthy of a great profeffor. The ‘¢ Ayres,” which
he publifhed in London, 1609, with an accompaniment for
the lute, contain as little merit of any kind as we have-cver
feen in productions to which the name of a matter of efta-
blifed reputation is .prefixed: thefe hee dedicated, with
no great humility, to.prince Henry, the -elde& -fon of
James I.

Three herald minftrels, ycleped Ben Jonfon, T. Cam-
pion, and N. Tomkins, proclaimed the high worth and qua-
lities of thefe Ayres in three encomiattic copies of verfes, pre-
fixed to. the work; but thefe friendly ‘bards, who praife
not witha very {paring hand, feem to have lefs exalted ideas
of the-author’s merit and importance than himfelf ; « For,??
fays he to the prince, “ I could now, with that folemn in-
duftry of many inepillles, enforce all that hath been faid in
praife of the faculty of mufique, and make that commend
the worke; but I defire more, the worke fhould commend
the faculty: and therefore fuffer thefe few Ayres to owe
their grace rather to your highneffe judgement, than any other
teltimonies. Iam not made of much {peech; only I know
them worthy of my name; and therein, I took paines to
make them worthy of yours. ‘

‘Your highneffe moft humble fervant,
4 Ailfonfo Ferabofeo.”

Four of thefe Ayres are iniferted ia Burney’s General Hif-
tory of Malic, vol. iii. ‘The lute accompaniment to which
is mere thorough bafe, which the chords implied by the
ne placed over the bafe by the editor who!ly compre-
hend.

FER /E, in Zoology, the third order in the Mammatta
clafs of animals, or thefe which fuckle their young b
means of lactiferous teats: the order is diftinguifhed by
having fix fharpifh fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and tufks

The genera comprehended in this order are Phoca,
Canis,

a

me R
“Canis, Felis, Viverra, Muffela, Urfus, Didelphis, Talpa,
Sorex, and Lrinaceus, which fee refpectively.

Fera Nature, in our Law, fignify birds or beafts that
are wild, inoppofitionto fuch as are tame; fuch are hares,
foxes, wild geefe, orthe like, wherein’no man may claim a
property, unlefs under particular circumftances, as where
they are confined, or made tame, &c. 2Cro.293. See
Game, and Prorrrry.

FERAH, or Farrer, in Geography, atown of Peviia,
in Segettan ; go miles N.N.E. of Zareng. N. lat. 33°-0!.
E. long. 62° 22'.—Ajifo, a river of Perfia, ‘which runs into
lake Zere, at Neubendumy in Segeitan.

FERABAM,a town of Pertia, in the province of Irak;

2 miles E.N.E. of Nehavend.
» FERALIA, in Antiquity, a feat held by the Romans,
on the 21{t of February, in honour of the dead, or of the
-Dii Maes. Vide Mem. Acad. Infcript. tom. i. p. 43.

Varro derives the word from inferi, or from. /ero ; on account
of arepait carried to the fepuichres of thole to whom the laft
offices were rendered on that day. Teltus derives it from
Jerio, on account of the-vidtims facrificed. Voffius obferves
that the Romans called death fera, crue/, and that the word
feralia might arife thence.

Macrobius, Saturn. lib. i. cap. 13. refers the origin of
the ceremony to Numa Pompilius. Ovid, in his Fatti, goes
back as far as A®neas for its inflitution. He adds, that on

‘the fame day a facrifice was performed to the goddefs Mu-
ta, or Dumb ; and that the perfons who officiated were an
old woman, and anumber of young girls who attended her.
This feait fometimes continued for feveral days; and at
its termination friends and relations kept a fealt of peacesand
love, for fettling differences and quarrels among ove another,
if any fuch exilted.

FERAN, in Geography, an ifland in the North Pacific
ocean, near the S. W. coaft of Quadra aud Vancouver’s
ifland, about 16 miles in circumference. E, long. 234°
234",

PERANZA, atown of Naples, in the Bafilicata; 4
miles N.W. of Acerenza.

FERASTAK, or Ferestrack, a town of Egypt; 14
miles $.S.1. of Iaoué. ?

FERBANNA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Bambouk, 40 miles N.W. of Bambouk. N, lat. 13° 45’.
E. long. 9° 58.

Fersanna Tenda, a town of Africa, in the country of
Dentila, on the W. bank of the river Faleme, 65 miles S.W.
of Bambouk. N. lat. 12° 46’. W. long. 12° 6’.

TFERBAR, or fereser, atown of Great Bucharia, on
‘the Gihon, oppofite to Amu.

FERCULA, or Forcuva, a town of Africa, and
‘principal place of a diftriGt, in the gountry of Tafilet ; 50
miles W. of Sugulmaffa. N. lat. 31° 40’. W. long. 4° 36’.

PFERD-Wir, or Ferv-/Vite, in our Aacient Cufloms, a
formulary, by which the king pardoned manflaughter com-
mitted in the army.

The word is formed of the Saxon ferd, amy, and qite,
unifoment.

_ FERDFARE, fromthe Saxon ferd, army, and fare,
journey, i our Old Writers, is wled for being dilcharged
from going to war. ,

FERDINAND L., in Biography, emperor of Germany,
fecond fon of Philip, avchduke of Auttria, by Joanna of

‘Cattile, was born in Spain in 1503, and being educated in
his native country became a greater favourite with the Spa-
niards than his elder brother Charles V. He was encouraged
to expect the regency of Arragon from his grand-father Fer-
dinand the king, who was perfuaded to alter his laft will ia

Vou, XIV.

FER

favour of another. The young prince fhewed fymptoms of
difcontent at the change; and, beinz brought to Madrid, he
was kept under the vigilant eye of cardinal Ximenes. Some
time afterwards, he was fent to Germany to vifit his erand-
father Maximilian. Here. he married Anne, daughter of
Ladiflaus, king of Huagaryand Bohemia, aud Chariesimme-
diately fettled on him both Auflrias, and allthe de
appertaining to that houfe in Germany. When his brothe?
in-law, Lewis, was flain at the battle of Mohatz, in 1526,
Ferdinand laid claim to, and obtained, the crowns of Hun-
gary and Bohemia. Through the influence of his brother,
then emperor, he was eleéted king of the Romaus in 1531,
notwithitanding the oppolition of the Proteftant ele&ors of
Saxony and Brandenburg. Hungary, w the mean time, was
invaded by the Turks, with count of Scepus at their head,
who eventually gained poficfiion of a great part of the
country. Ferdinand thought it advileable to treat, and to
allow the count all he had acquired, with the title of king of
Hungary, during his life, but at his demife it was to re-
vert to himfelf. At his death, however, a zreat part of
the nation recognized his fon by the name of king Stephen.
Ferdinand now attempted to enforce by arms the perform-
ance of the treaty, but Solyman, the Turkifh emperor, joined
the Hungarians, defeated the forces of Ferdinand, and
feized a great part of Hungary for himfelf. After this,
Ferdinand fubmitted to pay him a tribute for the portion he
ftillheld. His attempts to extend his prerogatives in Bo-
hemia, and render its crown hereditary, together witi: the
progrefs of the reformation in that country, having occ2-
fioned an arnied confederacy againft the royal authority ;
Ferdinand, at the head of a body of imperial troops, dif-
perfed it, aud difarming the people, reduced them to greater
fubjection than-before? He treated the city of Prague with
great rigour, and abolifhed its ancient privileges. In 155
he invaded Tranfylvania, and obtained poffeffion of it by the
refignation of queen Liabella, mother of Stephen ; this pro-
vince was, however, foon wreited out of his hands by So-
lyman, whio recovered it for Ifabeila in 1553. Charles, as
we have feen, obtained for Ferdinand the title of king of
the Romans, but now, en account of his boundlefs ambition,
he was defirous of tranfmitting the imperial crewn to his
own fon Philip. Afterwards, indeed, he committed the
management of his German affairs almoft entirely to Ferdi-
nand, who opened the diet of the empire at Augfburg ia
1555. In this, toleration was granted and confirmed to
Proteftants, and the peace of religion was fora time efta-
blithed. - Charles again attempted to perfuade his ambi-
tiows brother to renounce the fucceffion in favour of Philip,
but his intreaties were of no avail; he therefore, in 1556,
executed a deed’ of refignation of the empire, and at the
diet of Frankfort, in February 1558, Ferdinand was unae
nimoufly declared emperor. ‘The pope, Paul IV., refafed
to acknowledge the refignation of Charles, and fucceffion of
Ferdiaand, becaufe the confent of the holy fee had not been
previoufly obtained. His fucceflor Pius 1V. did, however,
recognize the newemperor. In his charaéter of emperor,
Ferdinand attempted’to reconcile the Proteftants to the Ca-
tholic church; his endeavours were unavailing, but he was
fuccefsful in fecaring the fucceffion to his fon Maximilian.
Itishighly to his credit that he preferved the public peace of
the empire, made a truce with the Turks of eight years,
and terminated a difpute between the kings of Denmark
and Sweden. He died at Vienna in 1564, leaving behind
him four fons and eleven daughters. Ferdinand was un-
doubtedly ambitious, but he was juitly famed for his re-
markable equity, prudence, munificence, and unwearied
application to bufinefs. aha. piqued himfelf on a rigid

a ob-

FERDINAND.

obfervence of his word and gave a flriking inftance of his
puniuality in that refpeé, by beftowing a favour on an ofii-
cer, who, after the promife, had proved himfelf unworthy
of it. “ I owe,” faid the monarch, “ a greater refpect to
my word, than to the merits of him to whom I pledged it.”
Robertfon Ch. V.—Univerf. Hitt,

Ferptnanp II. emperor, grand-fon of the preceding,
fon of Charles, archduke of Stiria, by Mary of Bavaria,
was born in 1578, and elected king of Bohemia in 1617,
and king of Hungary im the following year; but the religi-
ous.difputes in Bohemia having caufed a revolt, Ferdinand

Ps

concluded, which has ferved fince as the political bafis of
the Germanic conftitution. By this treaty the king of
Sweden acquired a large part of Pomerania, with the dig-
nity of prince of the empire: the king of France became
landgrave of Alface, and the Lutheran and Calviniftic re-
ligions were placed upon an equal footing of authority with
the Roman Catholic. A variety of other conditions were
eed on relative to the flates and princes of Germany»
which were received into the fundamental law of the em-
ire. The pope oppofed that part of the treaty which al-
fowed the religious claims of the heretics, but his remon-

was deprived of the kingdom foon aiter the death of his ftranecs were difregarded. ‘The emperor procured the elec-

coufin, Matthias, by whofe influence he had been originall
chofen. He was, however, atthe fame time, appointed
the fucceffion of the empire, and in the charaéter of emperor
he found it neceffary to form a Catholic league, in order to
oppofe that of the Protettants who fupported the elector
Palatine. ‘hat unfortunate prince was completely defeated
at the battle of Prague in 1620, in confequence of which
Bohemia was obliged to fubmit to its former matter. The
leaders were put to death, and the exercife of the Proteftant
religion was entirely fuppreffed. Ferdinand carried his re-
fentment againit the elector fo far as to put him to the ban
of the empire, and to invade the Palatinate, which, by means
of his general, count Tilly, he entirely conquered, and then
transferred the electoral dignity to Maximilian, duke of Ba-
varia. He was now become fo formidable to the Proteftant
party, that a league was formed again{t him in the north of
Germany, headed by Chriftiern IV. king of Denmark. Fer-
dinand, however, triumphed over all his enemies, and then
turned his attention to the affairs of Italy, where the death
of Vincent, duke of Mantua and Montferrat, had left a dif-

uted fucceffion. The Autlrian troops invaded and took

{antua, while their allies, the Spaniards, took Cazal, which
was defended by the French. In the confidence which thefe
fucceffes infpired, the emperor took the moitt hoflile meafures
again{t the Proteitants ; thefe in their turn applied to Guf-
tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who was not only brave,
but the profefled enemy of the houfe of Auttria. A league
was formed, to which the king of France aceeded, and
almoft before the emperor was apprifed of his danger,
a war broke out, which reduced the houfe of Auftria to the
greate!t extremities, buthe was enabled to maké peace in 1635
with the eleGtor of Saxony and moft of the Proteftants. In
the following year, at the dict held at Ratifbon, the emperor
preeured his fon Ferdinand to be clected king of the Ro-
mans, and in lebruary 1637 he died in'the fifty-ninth year
of his age, after an anxious and unquiet reign of eighteen
years. By the performance of feveral vows which he made
againfl the Proteflants, he acquired the appellation of the
Apoftolic Emperor. He is much applauded by Roman
Catholic writers, but his conduct as emperor has little claim
to praife. Mod. Univer. Hilt.

Fervinanp IIT. emperor, fon of the preceding, was
born in 1608, and fueceeded to the empire on the death of
his father: he happily tranquillized the interior of Ger-
many, but had the mortification to perceive that the flames
of war continued to rage with unabated fury on the
frontiers, and that the calamities of the people were pro-
longed by the abilities of the generals employed. Thefe
diftineuifhed themfelves by their gallant conduct, and the
hoitile fovereigns, depending on unfailing refources in their
commanders, were but little alarmed by occafional defeats.
Hoftilities were confequently carried on with vigour, and
the ill-fated inhabitants of Germany ftill groaned beneath
the yoke of oppreflion. Various attempts were made to
negociate, and at length, in 1648, the peace of Muntter was

2

tion of his eldefl fon to the dignity of king of the Romans,
in 1652, but that prince’s death not long after left the fue-
ceflion undetermined. Ferdinand himfelf died at Vienna, in
1657, at the age of 49. He was reckoned a mild, hu-
mane, and generous prince, attached to religion, a friend
to literature, and liberal to thofe who ferved him. Mod.
Univer. Hift. ;

Ferpinanp I. king of Caitile and Leon, the firft in
whom thofe crowns were united,” was fon of Sanchez III.
king of Navarre, and of Nugna, heirefs of Caftile. He
was crowned king of Caftile, in right of his mother, while
his father was living. He married Sancha, daughter of
Alphonfo V. king of Leon, whofe brother Bermudo, when
come to the throne, engaged in war with Ferdinand, and
invaded Caftile. Bermudo was flain in a battle in 1037, and
Ferdinand was acknowledged king of Leon in right of his
wife. He was now the moft powerful monarch in Spain,
but he conducted himfelf with fo much moderation towards
his various fubjects, that he obtained their unanimous attach-
ment. He made war on the neighbouring Moors, and
puthed his conquefts into Portugal, as far as Coimbra, of
which he became mafter in 1045; making at the fame time
the kings of Toledo and Saragofla his tributaries. Garcias,
his brother, was king cf Navarre, and being at this time
extremely ill, Ferdinand paid him a vifit, but finding that
a plan was laid to feize his perfon, he retired in difguft.
The next year Garcias vifited him on a like occafion, and
was actually detained prifoner: he found means, however, to
evade the vigilance of his keepers, and a war enfued between
the brothers, in which Ferdinand aéted on the defenfive.
Garcias was Killed, and Ferdinand is faid to have ufed the
moft extreme moderation after the victory, and to have ab-
ftained from injuring his nephew, the young king of Na-
varre. But the queen, defirous of enriching a new church at
Leon with the bodies of two virgin martyrs, interred at
Seville, caufed Ferdinand, without provocation, to make an
incurfion into the Moorifh territory, the inhabitants of which
he compelled to do him homage, and to comply with his re-
ligious requifition. In the mean time his fon Don Sanchez,
a¢ting as an ally to the king of Saragofla, defeated Ramira,
king of Arragon, in a great battle. Rodrigo, better
known by the name of Cid, commanded under Sanchez on
this occafion. After this, in an aflembly of the ftates, he
declared his intention of dividing his kingdoms among his
three fons. The confequence of this imprudent policy was
a revolt of the Moorifh dependent kings of Toledo and Sa-
ragofia, who refufed tribute, and attempted to fhake off
the yoke. Ferdinand marched againit them with a power-
ful army, but a fudden indifpofition obliged him to return
to Leon, where he died in the autumn of 1065, leaving a
high character for civil and military talents, and for an une
blemifhed private life. Mod. Univer. Hift.

Ferpinanp 11]. king of Caflile and Leon, fon of Al-
phonfo IX. king of Leon, and Berengara, infanta of Caf-
tile, was born in 1200. Qn the death of the king of cal

ul ey

FERDINAND.

tile in 12149, the right to the crown was recopnized by the
ftates to belong to Berengava, his filter, who refigned it to
her infant fon Ferdinand, whom fhe caufed to be inau-
gurated in the cathedral, amidft the acclamations of the
people, but his father, the king of Leon, marched fuddenly
an army into Caitile, with a view of feizing the regency ;
he was, however, obliged to retreat. In 1219, the young
king Ferdinand was married to Beatrice of Suabia, daughter
of the emperor Philip, after which he was eugaged for fe-
yeral years in war with the Moorifh princes, his neighbours,
from whom he took a number of fortreffes. In 1230, the
kine of Leon died, and by his laft will divided his domi-
nious between his daughters, which had nearly produced a
civil war; for while a part of the flates adbered to the ia-
fanta’s caufe, the reft, who were the majority, declared in
favour of Ferdinand. At leagth the ladies, in confideration
of an ample pention, refigned their rights to their brother
Ferdinand, who thus accomplifhed the re-union of the
kingdoms of Caftile and Leon, which have never fince been
feparated. Ferdinand concluded a treaty with the king of
Portugal, and continued to purfue his plan of reducing the
Moors. After a feries of enterprizes, moft of which were
crowned with firccefs, as well by lend as by fea, he took
Seville in 1248, and in the following year gained pofleffion
ef all the remaining Moorifh towns and fortrefles as far as
the fea. He next projected the invafion of Africa, buta
dropfy put an end to his defign, and, in 1252, terminated
his life. He had fhewn great regard, during his life, to
what was then oalled religion, and he didd with all the de-
monttrations of profound piety and humility, which are in-
culeated by the Catholic religion, and was, by his fubjeéts,
immediately regarded as a faint, though he was not ca-
nonized at Rome, and admitted to their calondar till 1671,
during the reign of Clement X. He left a large family,
and was fucceeded by Alphonfo X. furnamed “ the Wile.”
See AtpuHonso, or Atonzo X. vol.i. Mod. Univer.
Hit.
Ferpinanp IV. fon of Sancho, fucceeded his father in
the year 1295, and was folemnly inaugurated in the ca-
thedral church of Toledo. His mother affumed the re-
gency during the minority, and governed with moderation
and prudence, though fhe was much harafled by contending
claims, particularly by thoie of Henry, uncle to the de-
ceafed king, who made loud 'demands for the regency.
At length Ferdinand took the government into his own
hands, aad was married to the infanta of Portugal. Henry
died without iffue, after having rendered himfelf obnoxious
to the greater part of the nation. His eftates were all
feized by the crown, and fo little refpeét was paid to his
memory, that even the rights of fepulture were neglected
till the queen interfered, and expreffed her intention of fol-
lowing his remains to the tomb. ‘ Let his funeral,” faid
fhe, * be fuitable to his rank, for we ought to remember
his birth and forget his faults.’? War was carried on be-
tween Caftile and Arragon for fome time, and when peace
was concluded, Ferdinand refolvedto renew the war againtt
the Moors, and urged the expediency of that meafure with
-fuccefs, fo that the ftates of Valladolid confented to defray
the whole expence of the campaign. A nimerous army
was aflembled by the infant Don Pedro, on the frontiers of
Andalufia, and the city of Alcaideta was quickly invetted.
Upon the arrival of the king at this place, he received in-
formation that two perfons, of the name of Carvajal, were
ja cuftody, and itood charged with the murder of Don
Juan Alonfo de Benavides. He immediately ordered the
prifoners to be thrown from the fummit of a rock, without
even the form of a trial, though they affured him, in the

moft pathetic manner, of their innocence, and even offered
to give the mott irrefrazable proofs of it. When the fa-
vage fentence was about to be executed, the fufferers, con-
{ciou3, perhaps, of their ianocence, fummoned Ferdinand
to aufwer forthis injuftice, within thirty days, at the
nal of God. This appeal had fuch an effect on the king,
that he fickened and dicd on the lalt day of that period,
which happened in the year 1312. Mod. Univer. Aift.
Firepinanp V. furnamed “The Catholic,” fon of
John II. king of Arrazon, was born in 1452, and married,
in 1469, Lfabella of Cattile, filter of Henry IV., at whofe
deceafe, in 1474, he was declared king, and Ifabella queen,
of Caltile and Leon. The new fovereigns were proclaimed
amid{t loud acclamations ; and the fidelity of their ful;
enabled them to defeat all the defigus of their enemies, and
to obtain quiet pofleflion of the crown, though not till the
event of a civil War had decided in their favour. Ferdi-
nand’s father dying in 1479, he fucceeded to the erown of
Avragon, and thenceforth the kingdoms of Arragon, and
thofe of Caftile and Leon, which comprehend all Spain,
except Granada, held by the Moors, became infep hy
connected and united. Ferdinand and Lfabella governed
with great prudence, but rather like independent fovereigns
than as man and wife; they were not unfrequently jealous
of each other in their adminiftration, though.they generally
aéted upon the fame principles, and forwarded the fame pur-
pofes. While they took great pains in giving vigour to
their government, and tranquillity to their people, an in-
temperate zeal led them to introduce that infernal engine of
torture, the court of inquifition, into their dominions. It
was faid, indeed, that it was only intended to take cogni«
zance of the frequent apoftacies among Jewifh and Maho-
metan pretended converts, and therefore regarded as a mea-
{ure equally conformable to the interefts of policy and reli<
gion. This, however, was but a ftate trick, for it was foon dif-
covered that it was a court authorized by the pope to decide
upon the liberty, fortune, and life of anyindividual who fhould
be accufed of holding heretical opinions, or of exprefiing any
contempt for the ceremonies of the church, without being al-
lowed to offer a defence, or even to be confronted with his ac-
cufer. Two thoufand perfons are faid to have fuffered death
under the favage Torquemada, the firft inquifitor general}
and a multitude of Jews and Mahometans quitted the couv-
try with precipitation to elude a fimilar fate. To this hor-
tible engine of torture may be imputed all the degradation
to which Spain has fubmitted fince that period. The fove-
reigns who introduced the inquifition little contemplated
the miferies they were bringing on their country, or they
would have fhuddered at the idea; they were in their natures
moderate and himane, and at all times caufed civil juitice
to be adminiftered with equal fcales without regard to rank
or condition. In 1481 they attacked the Moors, and after
a war of ten years reduced their kingdom of Granada, and
thus the whole of Spain was faic to be completely Chriftian
without perhaps a fingle individual underftanding what was
implied by the epithet. Ifabella next, for Ferdinand was
now become a very fecondary fovereign, in the fervour of
religious zeal, attacked and expelled the Jews from her
dominions. Fortunately for thefe miferable outcalts of
fociety, they have always been ready to follow a Chritian
maxim, when perfecuted in one city, or ftate, to flee to
another. When Iabella had {wept from her dominions
all heretics, fhe had leifure for a project more honourable
to her memory; fhe took achiet concern in fitting out
Columbus for the grand expedition, which belfowed a
new world on Spain, fo little meriting the high honour.
(See America, Cotumsus, &c.) Another a of this
Nnz reiga

FERDINAND.

reign muft not be overlooked; the conquered Moors were at
firfttolerated in their religion, but it was now determinedthat,
by force, or perfuafion, or pious fraud, they mult be con-
verted; a fhort time, in which much blood was thed, proved the
abfurdity and impracticability of the plan, and Ferdinand cem-
promifed the matter by allowing thefe yuhappy people to re-
tire to Barbary, a meafure which tended to preferve the
peace of the country, but which was injurious in a high
degree to its induftry and population. ‘The decline of agri-
culture and manufactures in Spain is dated from this period.
In 1502 the archduke Philip, with his wife Joanna, at the
defire of Ifabella, vifited. Spain, and were acknowledged by
the flates of Caflile as fucceffors to the crowns of Cattile
and Arragon. Upon intelligence of arupture between the
emperor and the court of France, the archduke refolved
upon returning into his own dominions, notwithitanding
the remonftrances of the king, and the entreaties of his wife.
He left Madrid.on the 19th of December, and gave a freth
caufe of offence to his father-in-law, by concluding a treaty
with the king of France. In march Donna Joanna was
delivered of a fon, who was baptized by the name of Fer-
dinand, but the confequences of her delivery deranged her
mind, a circumftance that funk fo heavily in the mind of
Ifabella, as fhortly to bring her to the grave. ‘This event
took place in 15043 and though by her will fhe appeinted
Ferdinand to the regency of Cajftile during the minority of
their grandfon Charles, afterwards the emperor, yet Philip
took meafures to oblige him to refign in his favour, -He
enjoyed his power but a fhort time, dying in Sept. 1506;
and his wife being utterly unable to perform the duties of
government, the regency was therefore again an object of
eonteft, and the competitors were the emperor Maximilian
and Ferdinand. About the clofe of 1511 Ferdinand fent
the duke of Alva, witha {mall army, to demand a paflage
through the king of Navarre’s terr itories into France, and,
on the rejection of his requett, made himnielt matter of Pam-
peluna, and the greateit part of the kingdom; this was
fuppofed to add great Juitre to the Spanith crown, and to
augment the fame of Ferdinand’s admirable policy: He
now fell into a languithing habit of body, and a deep melan-
choly feemed to fettle on his mind, which admitted of no
diverfion, and baffled the flall of the moft able phyficians,
but which neverthelefs fubfided in a meafure when bufinefs
required his attention. He was {till as anxious as ever after
power; unwilling even at the approach of death to admit
athought of relinquifhing any portion of his authority ; he
removed from place to place, in order to fly from his diforder,
orto forget it, but in vain ;

“ yo more than from himfelf can fly
By change of place.”

He died January 23, 1516, being in the fixty-fourth year
of his age. He left his daughter Joanna heirefs of all his
dorninions, and afterwards tncy were to defeend to the
grandfon Charles. Ferdinand had acquired a nigh reputa-
tion for policy and the atts of government, but he was
regardlefs of any engagement provided it interfered with a
new defign ; he even made his perfidy a fubject of boatt and
merriment. | Still, where religion was out of the gueflion,
he difplayed towards his own {bjeéts much moderation and
equity. He was beloved by the lower orders, whom he

roteéted from the oppreffion of the nobles, and took
means to break the power of the feudal nobility. Modern
Univer. FTift. ; : :

FERDINAND VI. fon of Philip V. by his firft wife Mary
of Savoy, was born in 1713, but did not fucceed his father
till the year 1746, at which time Spain, in union with

France, was engaged in war with England, the empire and
their allies On this occafion he difplayed the humanity of
his temper by various aéts of clemency and beneficence,
and at the fame time continued to fupport that fyftem of
policy which was the bafis of the family compact of the
houfe of Bourbon. He readily joined m the peace of Aix-
la-Chapelle in 1748, by which one of his brothers was feated
on the throne of the two Sicilies, and the other acquired
the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guattella. He gladly
employed the return of tranquillity in promoting the in-
ternal profperity of his country; he corrected abufes in the
management of the revenue, abolifhed the burthenfome tri-
bunal of the nunciature, reformed the regular clergy, re-
eftablifhed the marine, and encouraged commerce, manu-
faG@tures, and agriculture. Occupied in thefe ufeful and
beneficent defigns, he refufed to join the French court, in
1754, ina new war with England, and difgraced his minifter,
who endeavoured to change his meafures. In private and
domeftic life his virtues fhone with peculiar luftre, and his
conjugal attachment was fo fincere, that he found it impof-
fible to difpel the deep melancholy which refulted from the
lofs of his beloved confort. He died in Auguft 1759,
when he was fucceeded by his brother Charles III. Mod.
Univer. Hift.

Ferpinanp, king of Portugal, was born in 1340, and
fucceeded his father in 1367. He was extremely handfome,
very courteous, cheerful, and liberal; but his levity and
ficklenefs produced the moft difaftrous confequences to his
government and people. He had retufed, during his fa-
ther’s life time, a proffered marriage with the daughter of
Peter the Cruel, king of Caitile ; and at his dccelien fent
to compliment Henry count of Traftamere, who had ex-
pelled Peter from the throne; yet on the death of Peter
he affumed to himfelf the title of king of Cattile, and en-
tered into a war with Henry. Ferdinand, though he had:
made a league with the king of Arragon, and had a€tually
married by proxy his daughter Leonora, was induced by the
mediation of the pope to make peace with Henry, with the
condition of marrying his daughter Leonora; but a third
Leonora coming in his way, he was led to break his former
engagements and marry her. Thisalliance caufed a revolt at
Lifvon, and proved the fource of much mifehicf and difaffee-
toin during his reign. He entered into an alliance with John
of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, who had a claim on the crown
of Caftile in right of his wife, and engaged in a new war
with Henry. In this conteit Portugal was over-run, and
part of the city of Lifbon was taken and burnt, together
with the flect, and Ferdinand was reduced to make peace
again. Mifunderftandings between the Englifh and Portu-
guefe, and the natural ficklenefs of Ferdinand, eaufed a
fudden treaty to be concluded between the two crowns of
Pertugal and Caftile, with a flipulation that the Englifi
troops, who had come out to the aid of Ferdinand, fhould
be inttantly fent home. Soon after Ferdinand gave hisonky-
dauyhter Beatrix in marriage to the king of Caftile, on con-.
dition that her children, or her hufband, in eafe the died:
without iffue, fhould fucceed to the crown of Portugal.”
"The nation would not, however, confent-to this agreement 5.
they felt their own intereft concerned, and {purned the pro-.
pofal with indignation. Ferdinand was now in weak health, |
and had other caufes of chagrin, befides public difappoint=._
ment; he fickened, and bore a long and painful difeaie with.
much refignation, and died in the fixteenth year of his reign.
Mod.. Univer. Hitt. wg

Frrpinanp J. king of Naples, natural fon of Als
phonfo V. king of Arragon, was rendered legitimate by.
the decree of pope Eugenins TV. and afcended the so =
5 a

FER

ef Naples on the death of his father, in 1458, and was
crowned in the following year. The country was foon in-
volved in a civil war, by the interference of fome difcon-
tented barons, who demanded John of Anjou as their king.
John readily feconded their views, entered the kingdom,
and gave Ferdinand a fignal defeat, which caufed him to be
deferted by the greater part of his fubjects. He, how-
ever, recovered himfelf, and defeated his adverfary at Troia,
and, by his fubfequent conduct, reftored tranquillity to the
kingdom. He employed the years of peace in thole inter-
nal improvements which render a country great and re-
fpeétable, in the encouragement of learning, arts, and manu-
faGtures, and in obtaining for the laws that degree of re-
{pe€&t which commands obedience. He affifted pope
Sixtus VI. in his defigns againit Florence, where he had
rojected the ruin of the family of the Medici. Lorenzo,
Tees with a magnanimity worthy of him, repaired in
perfon to Naples, and threw himfelf into the power and
under the protection of Ferdinand. This liberal and can-
did conduét prevailed on the king to conclude an alliance
with the Florentines,- without confulting the pope. In
1480 the Turks fcivede Otranto, but it was recovered by
his fon Alonzo. To this fon, who was totally unfit for
government, Ferdinand committed the care of the empire,
which excited fo much difcontent, that pope Innocent VIII.
found means to encourage a revolt which threatened the
fafety of the throne. Ferdinand, in his turn, excited adit
turbances againft the pope in the ecclefiaftical flate, which
brought about peace. Pardon to the barons was one of
its conditions ; but this part of the treaty was fhamefully
violated, and many were put to death for their hare in the
rebellion. Soon after, Charles VIII. king of France, pre-
pared to invade Naples, and Ferdinand, confcious that he
had no claim upon the affections and loyalty of his fubjects,
was much alarmed. He took meafures of defence, but in
the midit of his cares he was feized with a ft of apoplexy,
of which he died in 1444, at the age of feventy-one, leaving
his crown to his fon Alphonfo. ‘The ftain of tyranny ad-
heres to his name, but it is allowed that he poffeffed, in fe-
veral points, the true wifdom of a fovercign. He was
author of many ufeful laws, was the reftorer of the uni-
verfity of Naples, te which he introduced feveral eminent
{cholars, and was the author of a volume of orations and
epiltles. Mod, Univ. Hit. f B2
Ferpinanp DE Corpowva, flourifhed m the fifteenth
century, and has been celebrated in iubfequent ages for his
at learniny and almoft usiverfal genius. He uaderftood
all the oriental Janguages, as well as Greek and Latin. He
wasan adept in canon and civil law; -in mathematics, medi-
cine, and theology. fie is.faid to have committed tu memory
the works of the mot fansous {choolmen and juriits, and
thofe of Ariftotle, Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna.
To thefe mental acquirements he added a perfect. knowledge
of martial exercifes, he played upon all mutical intyuments,
and is faid to have excelfed in finging: and dancing. He
was at Paris in 144.5, commanding the applaufe and admi-
ration of that metropolis; and.an accotut of his wonder-
fal powers he was regarded as a forcerer, or even as the
antichrift. It is not known either when or where he died.
Some works on theolocy and !aw have been attributed to
him. Moreri. f
FsrpinanpD De Jesus, a Spanifh_ monk, was born in
Anidalufia, and embraced the monattic flate at Granada in
the year 1588. He was a great proficient in the different
branches.of facred and profane literature, and was fo clo-
guent, that he obtained the name of “ Chryfoltom,” or
“ Golden Mouth.”? He became a celebrated teacher of

FER

theology and morals in the different towns of Spain, and
left behind him numerous writings, which are highly efteemed
in that country, where his memory is ftill regarded as well
for his piety as for his extenfive learning. Moreri.

FER DINANDL, ErtPuantus, a phyfician of Meffag-
na, in the territory of Otranto, where he was born O&ober
2,1569. He cultivated the ftudy of the Latin and Greek
poets at an early age, and wrote elegant verfes in both
thefe languages. In 1533 he went to Naples with the in-
tention of going-through the courfes of philofophy and me~
dicine, and remained there, with the exception of fix
mouths in the year 1591, when all ftrangers were compelled
by the viceroy to leave the territory, until the year 1594,
when he received the degree of doétor in medicine and phi-
lofophy. He then repaired to his native place, where he
fettled himfelf in the pratice of his profeffion, and remained
to the end of his lite, notwithitanding feveral honourable
offers of diftin@ion from feveral feats of learning. The
duke ef Parma, in particular, preffed him to take the pro-
fefforfhip of medicine in the univerfity of his city ; and the
fame invitation was given from the univerfity of Padua.
He died in 1638, in the fixty-ninth year of his age.

This phyfician compofed a confiderable number of trea-
tifes, but only the four following are known, as having
been printed. 1. © Theoremata Medica et Philofophica,””
Venice, 1611. 2. ‘* De vita proroganda, feu juventute con-
fervanda et fenectute retardanda,”? Naples, 1612. 3. “‘Cen-
tum Hiltoriz, feu Obfervationes et Cafus Medici,” Venice,
16213 a treatife which relates to moft of the difeafes of
the body, and is diftinguifhed by confiderable erudition.
Tt has been feveral times reprinted in Germany and Holland.
4. “Aureus de Pefte Libellus,” Naples, 1631. Man-
getus. Bibl. Eloy.

FERDUSI, a celebrated Perfian poet, flourifhed about
the year 1020. - He was originally only a fimple peafant, but,
having difcovered a natural genius for poetry, he became a
cifciple of Affedi, and foon fo far furpaffed his mafter as to
obtain the admiration of the Eaft. His principal work was
entitled «The Hiftory of the Kings,” containing a narra-.
tive, in verfe, of the acts of the ancient fovereigns of Perfia.
Tt is-faid to have contained fixty thoufand diftichs, for eacks
of which he obtained, of the reigning king, the reward of a
piece of gold. It isnow fo much valued, that copies ufually
{ell for more than one hundred crowns. Moreri.

FE/RE, La, ia Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aifne, and chiéf place of a canton in the
diftrit of Laon; fituated in a marfhy foil, near the: river
Sarre, which joins the Oife. The adjacent country may be
inundated. It was very ftrongly fortified by cardinal
Mazarine, but afterwards difmantled 3; 16 miles NLE. of
Paris. ‘The place contains 2,604, and the canton 145334
inhabitants; on a territory of 195 kitiometres,in 26commuties.
N. lat. 49° 40'. E. long. 3° 26°

Fe'R -Champenai/2, a town of France, in the department
of the Marne, and chief place of a canton in the diftti@ of
Epernay; 12 miles E.N.E.of Sezannes. The place con=
tains 1,880, and the canton 7,042inhabitants, ona territory
of 410 kiliometres, in 21,communes.

Pr'ne-en-lardencis, atown of France, in the départmert
of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton in the ditri of
Chateau;Thierry ; 10 miles N.N.E.. of this place. The
town contains 1,884, and the canton 9,883 inhabitants,.on #
territory of 275 kiliometres, in 24 communes.

FEREBE, Geoxres, in Biography, a dilettantt mufis.
cian, who diftinguifhed himfelf in our country at a barbarous
period for every fpecies of fecular mufic. This gentleman,
was matter of arts of Magdalea college, Oxford, 15955 -

nifter:

FER

nifter of Bifhop’s-Cumings, Wilts. ; he was a native of Glou-
cefterfhire, and well flcilled in mufic. Antony Wood, in the
« Faiti Oxon.” vol.i. col. 150, has givena curious account
of him, which we fhall infert in his own words. “ This
perfon did inflru& divers young men of his parifh in that
daculty (mufic) till they could cither play or fing their parts.
in the year 1613 queen Aune, the royal confort of king
James I., made her aboce for fome weeks within the city of
Bathe, purpofely for the ufe of the waters there. In which
time he compofed a fong in four parts, and inftruéted his fcho-
lars to fing it very perfectly, as alfo to play a leffon or two
(which he had compofed) on their wind inftraments. On
the.r1th June, the fame year, the queen, in her return from
Bathe, did intend to pafs over the Downs at Wend{dyke
within the parifh of Bifhop’s-Cumings, of which Ferebe
having timely notice, he dreffed himfelf in the habit of an
old bard, and caufed his {cholars to be cloathed in thep-
herd’s weeds. The queen, having received notice of thefe
people, fhe, with her retinue, made a ftand at Wendfdyke,
whereupon thefe muficians drawing up to her, played a
moit adntirable leffon on their wind initruments, which being
done, they fung ‘their leffon of four parts with double
voices, the beginning of which was this:

««Shine, O thou facred fhepherd’s ftar
On filly thepherd fwaynes, &c.’”’

which being well performed alfo, the bard concluded with an
epilogue, to the great liking and content of the queen and
her company. Afterwards, he was {worn chaplain to his
majefty, and was ever after much valued for his ingenuity.”
FERELE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Hel-
fingland; 45 miles W.N.W. of Hudwickfwall.
FERENTARII, or Ferenparit, am the Romans,

were auxihary troops, lightly armed; their weapons being

‘a {fword, bow and arrows, and a fliag; which were
much lefs cumberfome than a buckler, battle-axe, pike,
&e.

The name feems to have been derived a ferendo auxil's ;
thefe being auxiliary forces; though Varro thinks they
might be fo called, becaufe the fling and ftones feruntur, non
denentur.

We have alfo mention of another fort of ferentarii, whofe
bufinefs was to carry arms after the armies, and to be ready
to fupply the foldiers therewith in battle.

Lydius ufes the name ferentarii for the cataphradi equites,
i. e. cavaliers armed cap-a-pée.

FERENTINO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
the Capitanata; 11 miles S.S.W. of St. Serviero.—Alfo,
a town of the Popedom, the fee of a bifhop, immediately
under the pope, containing 6 churches and 3 convents;
3 miles N. of Alatri.

_ FERENZA, a town of Naples, in the Bafilicata; 4
miles N.W. of Acerenza.

FERES, a town of European Turkey, in the province
of Theflaly ; 12 miles W. of Zeiton.

FERET, a town of European Turkey, in Romania; 36
miles N.N.W. of Gallipoli.

FERETORY, in Hagiography, the fhrine or moveable
cheft in which the body or the bones of fome perfon of emi-
nent fanétity was depofited in ancient churches. Such fere-
tories were generally ornamented with filver, gold, and pre-
cious {tones.

FERETRUM, among the Romans, the bier ufed in
carrying out the bodies of the dead; which duty was per-
formed by the neareft male relations of the deceafed: thus
fons carried out their parents, brothers their filters, &c.
Sce Buriav.

FER

FERG, Francis Paur, in Biography, a landlcape
painter, born at Vienna in 1689, where he fludied under difs
ferent matters. In1718 he left Vienna, and went to Dref-
den and Bamberg in company with Alexander Thicle, in
whofe landfcapes he inferted the figures and animals. He
afterwards vifited England, where, not meeting with the’en-
couragement he had found elfewhere, he became involved in
his cireumftances, and, according to report, was found dead
at the door of his lodgings, exhaufled by cold, want, and
milery.

The ftyle of Ferg was in imitacion of Wotvermans,
but has neither the richnefs nor truth of the latter; his
finifhing is remarkably neat, and his fecues pleafiue, bur his
colour is generally fait, and often mealy ; ftill, his pictures
will always pleafe thofe who are gratified with prettinels,
and have tafte to admire neatnefs and delicacy in execution.
His pictures are ufually {mall. He etched well in aqua-
fortis, and his prints are eagerly fought for by the curious.
He died in 1740 aged 51.

FERGA, Sr. in Geography, atown of Arabia, in tle
province of Hedjas; 75 miles S.S.E, of Medina,

FERGANA, a province of Great Bucharia, fituated on
the river Seir or Sihon. It is mountainous, and abounds ia
tines of gold, filver, copper, iron, and coal. Anudegan is
the capital. N. Jat. about 40° to 42°. IE. long, 657 to
70°. -

TERGUS, a river of the county of Clare, Ireland,
which forms a large eftuary full of iflands at its junctiea
with the Shannon. This river dips under ground in fome
part of its courfe. Ennis, the county town, is on this river,
aod has a fmall port at Clare, which is fituated a few miles
lower on it. This river is navigable from the Shannon
river up to Clare, near Ennis,

FERGUSON, James, in Bisgraphy, a practical philo-
fopher and aftronomer of diltinguifhed reputation, was bora
ia a humble {tation at Keith, a {mall village in Scotland, in
the year 1710. Ata very early age he gave evidence of
extraordinary genius; for he learned to read by merely
liftening tothe inttru€tions which his fether communicated
toan elder brother, and by him he was alfo taught to write.
He was afterwards fent for about three months to the gram-
mar {chool at Keith. His tafte for mechanics appeared
when he was only about 7 or 8 years of age, and by means
of a turning lathe and a knife, he conitru€ted machines that
ferved to illuftrate the properties and ufes of the lever and of
the wheel and axle. Of thefe machines, and the mede of
their applicatioa, he made rough drawiags with a pen, and.
wrote a brief defcription of them. At this time his know-
ledge was fo imperfe@, that he conceived himfelf to have
made fome original diicovery. Unable to fubfift without
fome employment, he was placed with a neighbouring
farmer, and occupied forfome years ig the care of his fieep.
In this fituation he commenced the ftudy of aftronomy, de-
voting a great part of the night to the contemplation of the
ftars, while he amufed himfelf in the day-time with
making models of {pinning wheels, mills, and other machines
which he had an opportunity of obferving. By another
farmer, in whofe fervice he was engaged, he was much en.
couraged in his aftronomical ftudies, and enabled, by the af-
fiftance that was afforded him in his neceflary labour, to. re-
ferve a part ef the day for making fair copies of the obferva-
tions which he roughly fketched out in the night. In
making thefe obferyations he lay down on his back, with a
blanket about him, and by means of a thread ftrung with
{mall beads, and ftretched at arm’s length between his eye
and the flars, he marked their pofitions and diftances. oar

kind

FER

_ kind mafter recommended him to fome neighbouring gentle-

men, one of whom took him into his houfe, where he was
inftruéted by his butler in decimal arithmetic, algebra, and
the elements of geometry. Deprived of the affiftance of his
preceptor, he returned to his father’s houfe; and availing
himfelf of the information derived from “* Gordon’s Geo-
graphical Grammar,’”’ he conftruéted a globe of wood,
covered it with paper, and delineated upon it a map of the
world; healfo added the meridian ring and horizon, which
he graduated; and by means of this inflrument, which was the
firft he had ever feen, he could folve the problems in that trea-
tife. His father’s contraéted circumftances obliged him again
to feek employment; but the fervice into which he entered
was fo laborious as to affe&t his health, and injure his contti-
tution, For his amufement in this enfeebled {tate he made
a wooden clock, and alfo a watch, after having once feen
the infide of fucha piece of mechanifm. His ingenuity ob-
tained for him new friends, and employment fuited to his
tafte, which was that of cleaning clocks, and of drawing
patterns for ladies’ needle work ; and he was thus enabled
not only to fupply his own wants, but to aflift his father.
Having improved in the art of drawing, he was induced to
draw portraits from the life, with Indian ink, on vellum.
This art, which he pratifed with facility, afforded him a
comfortable fubfiftence for feveral’ years, and allowed him
leifure for purfuing his favourite ttudies. From Scotland
he removes to London in 1743 ; and being recommended
to feveral fcientific perfons, he was treated with kinduefs and
friendfhip ; and encouraged to publith fome curious aftro-
nomical tables and calculations, and to commence a courfe
of le€tures in experimental philofophy, which he repeated
in various parts of the country. In the year 1754 he pub-
lithed “ A Brief Defcription of the Solar Sy{tem, to which
is fubjoined an Aftronomical Account of the year of our
Saviour’s crucifixion,’ 8vo.; and alfo « An Idea of the
Material Uniyerfe, deduced from a furvey of the Solar
Syltem,” 8vo. In 1756 he publifhed, in one volume, 4to.
a larger work, entitled “ Aftronomy explained upon fir
Tfaac Newton’s principles, and made eafy to thofe who

have not ftudied Mathematics.”’

About this time he was alfo introduced to his prefent
majefty, then prince of Wales, and had the honour of de-
livering leGures to him, fer which he received feveral pre-
fents; and after his acceffion to the throne Mr. Fergufon
obtained a penfion of so0/. a-year. in 1760 he publithed
his “* Le@ures on Subjects in Mechanics, Hydroltatics,
Pneumatics, and Optics, with the ufe of the Globes, the art
of Dialling, and the calculation of the mean times of New
and Full Moons and Eclipfes,’? 8vo.; this work, and alfo
his “ Aftronomy,”? have pafled through feveral editions
both in 4to. and 8vo.; and of the former, a new edition,
with feveral valuable additions, has been lately publifhed by
Dr. Brewlter of Edinburgh. His ‘ Plain Method of deter+
mining the Parallax of Venus by her Tranfit over the Sun,
and thence, by Analogy, the Parallax and Diltance of the
Sun, and of all the reit of the Planets,’’ firft publithed in
1761, was annexed to the 4th edition of his * Aftronomy,”’
1770; 8vo. In 1763 Mr. Fergufon was elected a fellow of
the Royal Society, and excufed the payment of the ufual
fees and contributions. During the fame year he publithed,
in 8yo. £ Altronomical Tables aad Precepts for calculating
the true times of New and Full Moovs, and fhewing the
method of projecting Eclipfes, from the creation of the
World to A.D. 7800; to which is prefixed a Short Theory
of the Solar and Lunar Motions.”? In 1767 he publithed
«6 Tables and Tradts relative to feveral Arts and Sciences,’’
8vo. ; anda ‘ Supplement to the Lectures on Mechanics,

FER

Hydroftatics, &c. ;? which is annexed to the fecond edition
ofthat work. His ** Young Gentleman and Lady’s Aftro-
nomy, familiarly explained in ten Dialogues,” was publifhedin
1768, and re-printed in the following year, under the title of
« An Eafy Introdu&tion to A ftronomy, for Young Gentlemen
and Ladies.’’ His ‘* Introduction to Elecricity,”’ 8vo. ap-
peared in 1770; and in 1773 6 Seleét Mechanical Exer-
cifes, fhewing how to coaltruct different Ciocks, Orreries,
and Sun-dials, on plain and eafy Principles, &c.”? 8vo. with
an account of his life prefixed, written by himfelf. In 1775
he publifhed ** Two Letters to the Rev. John Kennedy,
containing an Account ef many Miitakes in the A ftrono-
mical part of his Scripture Chronology, and his abufive
treatment of Aftronomical Authors,” 8vo. which were
followed by a “ Third Letter’ on the fame fubje&. In
that year appeared his laft work, entitled “ The Art of
Drawing in Perfpeétive, made eafy to thofe who have no
previous knowledge of the Mathematics,” Svo. Mr. Fer-
gufon alfo communicated feveral papers to the Royal So-
ciety, which were printed in the Philofophical Tranfa@tions,
He died, after long labouring under the in&rmities of a
feeble conftitution, m the year 1776. From the above de-
tail it mult appear that he was a man of extraordinary
genius, particularly in mechanical inventions and con-
trivances. He was diftinguithed alfo by an unaffeGed and
perfpicuous mode of communicating his ideas both in his
lectures and his printed works. His knowledge of pure
mathematics, however, was very limited and fuperficial ; and
our readers may be furprifed when they are informed, upoa
the authority of Dr. Hutton, that he could never demon-
{trate one propofition in Euclid’s elements. His judgment
was clear, his application indefatigable ; his difpofition was
humble, meek, and benevolent, and his manners were dif-
tinguifhed by a fimplicity and courteoufnefs, which engaged
the efteem of all who knew him. The compiler of this
article can teftify, from perfonal knowledge, that he poffefled’
thefe feveral qualities in an eminent degree. His whole
life, as it has been juftly faid, exemplified refignation and
Chriftian piety ; and “ philofophy feemed to produce in him
only diffidence and urbanity, a love for mankind, and for
his maker.’? Account of his Life, &c. above referred to.
Nichols’s Anecdotes of Mr. Bowyer. Hutton’s. Math.
Dict. Gen. Biog.

FERHAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pros
vince of Khorafan; 40 miles S.E. of Neflapour.

FERIA, a town of Spain, in the province of Eftremae
dura, fituated on a mountain near the Guadiana; eight
miles N. of Badajos.

FERIA, among. the Romans, were holy-days, or day$
wherein they abftained from work. The word feriz is
ufually derived @ ferendis vidimis, on account of the vitims
killed on thefe days. Martinius fays, that ferie were fo
called velut itgcs repos, dies facri, holy days. Others ob-
ferve, that all days in general, though they were not feaft-

ays, were anciently called /e/e, or, as Voffius reads it, fefra ;
whence, according to that author, was formed the word
Serie. ‘
The ferix, or dies ferati, were obferved and diftinguifhed
chiefly by reit; whereas the feaits, or dies fefi, befide a
ceffation from labour, were celebrated with ‘facrifices and
games; fo that there were feriz, which were not feaft-days ;
though authors frequently confound the ferie and fe/f.
Others confound the ferie with the dies: nefafi, or none
court-days.

The Latin feria amounts to the fabbath of the Hebrews,
The Romans had divers kinds of ferie, public and pric
vate, {tated and ogcafional ; their names, at leait:thofe x

the.

FER

‘the principal, are efivales, or fummer feria; anniverfarie,
yearly ferie ; compitalitte brie, of the itreets and crofs-
Ways; conceptive, votive feria, which the magiftrates pro-
miled every year; denicales, for the expiation of a family
polluted by the death of any one; imperative, or indidivz,
thofe occalionally decreed by the magiftrate; “ating, the
Latin feria, inflituted by Targuin the Proud, for all the
Latin people, ameunting annually, fays Dioa. Hal. to forty-
feven nations, being celebrated on mount Alba, in memory
of the peace concluded by Tarquin with the people of
Latium. Thele ferize Latine were either ordinary or ex-
traordinary. They-continued at firft only for a day; but
after the expulfion of Tarquin’a fecond day was added, and
a third after the reconciliation between the plebeians and
patricians; and in “procefs of time they were prolonged to
four days. Atthefe feaftsa bull was facrificed, and each
town contributed a certain quantity of meat, wince, an? fruits.

Mefis feria were thofe of harvelt; there were alfo paga-

nales feria, OY pag nalia pracidanee, which were what we
pro , call the vigils, or eves of the feafts ; srivatz, or
proprie, thofe peculiar to the feveral families ; as the familie

“Claudia, Emilie, Juliz, &c.3 publica, thofe obferved by all
in general, or for the public weal; /erntentine, thofe held in
feed-time ; _/ative, thofe kept conttantly-on the fame day
of the year; Saturnales, whereof we fhall fpeak in their
place 5 jiultorum ferie, or quirinalia, the feria ot fools, held
on the feventeenth of February ; wdor firia, thole of
victory, inthe month of Augult; vindemiales, thofe of the
vintage, from the twentieth of Auguf to the fifteenth of
Oober; Vulcani ferie, thofe of Vulcan, which fell on the
twenty-fecond of May. See Feast. ae

Feri was alfo ufed among the Romans for fair-days ;
ecaufe it was their cuftom to hold their fairs on the dies
feriati, or holidays. Struv. Synt. Antig. Rom. cap. ix.

oaAb25 2, XC.
$ Penta i till retained.in the Romifh breviary, though in
a Tenfe fomewhat different from the feri of the ancients ;
being applied to the feveral days of the week, beginning
with Sunday ; provided none of thofe days bea feaft or
fatt-day. Thus, Monday is the ‘fecond feria; T'uefday the
third, &c.

The word feria, in this fenfe, is doubtlefs borrowed from
the ancient feria, a day of reft. Accordingly, Sunday is
the firt feria; for anciently all the days of Ealter-week

ere accounted feltival days, by a decree of Conttantine ;
ee thofe feven days were called ferix ; Sunday being
the firft, Monday the tecond, &c. And this week being
then accounted the firft of the ecclefialtical year, they
afterwards accuftomed themfelves to call the days of
the other weeks after the fame manner, jir/?, fecond, third,
&c. feria. Though others will have it, that the days
of the week were not called ferie from the people’s reit-
ing, that is, on account of being obliged to abftain from
fervile works; but to advertife the faithful, that they
ought to abitain from fin. See Durand, De Off. Div. lib.

vill. cap. I.

Thefe are the ordinary ferie ; but befides thefe, they have

extraordinary, Or greater ferie ; viz, the three laft days of
Paffion-week ; the two days following Eafter day, and
Whitfunday ; and the fecond ferie of Rogation.

FERIAL Days, dies Fertaves, or Fert, among the
Ancients, fignify holidays, or days vacant for labour, and
pleading. ‘

But in the -tat. 27 Hen. VI. cap. 5. and in Fovtefcue,
De Laudibus LL. Angliz, ferial days are taken for work-
ing days. S. Sylvefter ordained—‘ Sabbati & dominici
aici nomine retento, reliquos hebdomadz dies feriarum no-

JF ER
mine diftinétog, ut jam ante in ecclefia voraci caperant aps
pellari.”’ ‘So that ferial days axe properly all the days of
the week, except Sunday.

FERIJEE, in the drefs of the Egyptians, is a fart of
fkirt worn over another garment, and made either of black
woollen, or of other coloured cloth furred; this by the
more genteel people is left open before. It fomewhat re-
fembles a night-gown. 3

FERING, iw Geography, a town in the duchy of Sti-
ria; 14 miles N. of Rackelfourg. ’

FERINO, Sr. a town of Italy, in the department of
the Adda and Oglio 5 5 miles W. of Breno.

FERIO, in Latin treatifes on mufic, implies, I beat, I
ftrike, in marking the meafure ; it is at the down part, or
beginning of a bar, when the hand or foot comes down, as
the fignal for the commencement of a meafure, though in
the middle of a note. See SyncopaTron.

FERISON, in Logic, a mood of the third figure of
fylogifms. In this mood the firft propofition is an uni-
verfal negative, denoted by the vowel ¢; the fecond a parti-
cular affirmative ; and the third a particular negative, fig-
nilied by é and o.

FERLING, in ovr O/d Statutes, is ufed for the fourth
part of apenny. Affif. panis & cerevif. 51 Hen. III,

FERLINGATA ‘Terra, in our Old Writers, accord-
ing to Blornt, is the fame as ferlingus terre, which lord
Coke on Lyttelton fays, was a quarentine, or thirty-two
acres of land. But according to the authorities quoted by
Du Cange, Gloff. Lat. voc. Quarentena, it contained but
forty perches.

FERM, Firma, in Law. See Farm.

FERMACO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Gre-
cian Archipelago, about 10 miles from the coaft of Nato~
lia, (Nplat39° a7 dong. aglaet

FERMANAGH, a townhip of America, in the
county of Pennfylvania, having 1505 inhabitants. A

FrrmManaGu, a county of Ireland, ia the province of
Ultter, formerly fubje& to the old Irith family of Maguire,
and called Maguire's territory. It was forfeited at the
time of Tyrone’s intended rebellion in the reign of James
I. and was one of thofe counties diftributed to undertakers,
on the plantation of Uliter, for a particular account of
which important meafure, the reader is referred to the ge-
neral article IRELAND. Fermanagh is bounded on the
north by the pa of Donegal; by Tyrone and Mo-
naghan on the eaft; by Cavan on the fouth and fouth-weft ;
and by Leitrim on the weit. The boundaries are not
marked by nature, excepting the lakes, which partly fe-.
parate it from Leitrim, and fome hills on the borders of
Tyrone and Cavan. It extends 34 Irifh (43 Englifh) miles
in length, and 26 Irifh (33 Englith) miles in breadth. Its
area is 283,400 acres, or 448 {quare miles, (455,298 Eng-
lifh acres, or 719 {quare miles ;) a very confiderable portion
however of this area is occupied by lough Erne, which ex-
tends from north to fouth of various breadth, and com-
pletely fevers the county into nearly equal parts. The num-
ber of houfes, according to the latt official return publifhed,
was 11,983, which, at 6 toa houfe, would give a popula-
tion of 71,900. “The number of parifhes is only 18, fifteen
of which, containing 23 churches, are in the diocefe of
Clogher, and three-parifhes, with as many churches, are
under the fee of Kilmore. This county isin general hilly,
but it is only on the confines of Tyrone, and in the weft-
ern divifion adjoining Leitrim that it can be called moun-
tamous. ‘There is indeed no part of it which is not capable
of cultivation ; but at prefent many of thefe rifing grounds
are rough and boggy, and merely afford a coarfe pafturage

to

FER

te herds of young cattle, from rearing which the farmers
derive a principal fource of profit. Indications of coal
have been difcovered in many parts of the weltern diftricé
bf this county, and in one place in particular, within a mile
of lough Erne, there is {uppofed to be a very valuable col-
liery, but the time has not yet arrived for turning to ac-
count thefe mineral treafures. Amongft the other fub-
ftances already difcovered in it, manganefe and fuller’s earth
are mentioned. ‘Thefe, however, are not fo valuable as the
limeftone, and different kinds of marles which are found in
it, and are ufed as manure. On lord Ennifkillen’s eftate,
weit of lough Erne, are quarries of a grey, or brown and
white marble, beautifully veined, and of a very fine grain.
The farms are in many parts fmall, to accommodate the
linen-weavers, and the fame fpirit of induitry is found here,
as in the adjoining counties. Mr. Young, nearly 30 years
ago, found them improving in their circumftances, and
living more comfortably than in moft other parts of the
ifland ;, and the neighbourhood of Ennifkillen, on the eait-
ern fide, is in particular a well-inhabited, and well-cultivated
county. J.ough Erne, which is fuppofed to occupy
45,000 acres, and the river Erne, by which its fuperfluous
waters are conveyed to the fea, have been already defcribed
in former articles of this work. (See Erne.) There are
two other lakes comparatively {mall, but by no means of
inconfiderable length ; one called Melvin, and the other
Maenean. Lough Macnean lies between the counties of
Fermanagh, Cavan, and Leitrim, and communicates with
lough Erne ; lough Melvin is in the northera part, and a
{mall ftream flows from it to the fea. The enly town de-
ferving notice is Ennifkillen, already mentioned. (See En-
NISKILLEN.) Fermanagh returns three members to par-
liament, two for the county, and one for the town of En-
nifkillen. Young’s Teur. Beaufort’s Memoir, &c. :

FERMAT, Peter Der, in migeraahyn wae born in the

r 1590, and became, by his talents an acquirements,
aay ot the parliament YF Touloufe, in France. He
was one of the ableft lawyers of the age in which he flou-
vied oe a good poet, and well ganged in claflical and
modern learning, intimately converfant in antiquities, and a

rofound mathematician. His works were collected and

publifhed at Touloufe, in 1679, in 2 vols. folio, under the
title of ‘ Opera varia Mathematica.’’ ‘Thefe contain
Diophantus’s Treatife on Algebra; a method for the qua-
drature of all forts of parabolas; a treatife on the maxi-
ma and‘ minima 5 witht many fmaller pieces, and his corre-
{pendence with the moft celebrated geometricians of his
time. Fermat was as much diftinguifhed by his integrity
and impartiality in the character of a magiftrate, as by his
great learning and knowledge. Moreri.

Fermat, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Caramania; 12 miles S. W. of Akfhehr. :

FERME a Ferme, in ee Manege, fignifies to exercife
in the fame place without ftirring or parting.
a PeRMENE. of ee to boil, in Phyfies, any body,
whieh being applied to another, produces a fermentation
therein ; or, any thing capable of exciting an inteltine mo-
tion in the parts of another ; and of {welling or dilating the
ca the acid in leaven is a ferment which makes bread
rife or fwell. And the moilture in hay is a ferment which
heats, and makes it {moke. Thus alfo, rennet is a ferment
which curdles and breaks milk ; and barm, or yeatt, is the
ferment that fets wort a working, &c. |

Thofe things are called ferments in an illufive fenfe, which,
when added to the liquor, only corre& fome fault therein,
and by removing fome obftacle to the fermentation, forward

Vor. XIV,

FER

it by fecondary means; as alfo fuch as being added ia time
of fermentation, make the liquor yield a large proportion
of {pirit, and give it a finer flavour; all thefe additions
have the name of ferments among our diftillers, but impro-
perly. The primary ufe of ferments is, to fave time, and
make difpatch of bufinefs, while they only occafionally and
accidentally give a flavour, or add to the quantity of the
{fpirit ; and accordingly all fermentable liquors may, with-
out the leaft addition, only by 4 due application of heat,
be brought to ferment more perfeétly, though it will be
more flowly than with the addition of any ferment. The
general ferments ufed on thefe occafions are the flowers and
feces of fermentable liquors generated, thrown up, er de-
pofited, during the time of the fermentation in that liquor,
or after the end of it. There are two of thefe ferments,
procurable in large quantities, and at a fmall price ; tl
are beer-yeaft, and wine-lees. A prudent and artificial
management of thefe, mizht render the bufinefs of the
brewery for diftillation, as in the bufinefs of the malt
diftiller, &c. much more eafy and advantageous. It has
always been found a great difliculty to procure thefe ferments
in proper quantities, and preferve them always ready for
ufe ; and’this has been a great difcouragement to the bufi-
nefs, and hence fome have been obliged to contrive artificial
ferments, or to form mixtures or compounds of particular
fermentable ingredients ; but this has been attempted with-
out any great fuccefs, all thefe mixtures falling fhort even
of the common bakers’ Ieayen in their ufe.

When the proper fort of ferment is pitched upon, tlie
operator ig next to confider its quantity, quality, aad man-
ner of application. The quantity mult be proportioned to
that of the liquor, to its tenacity, and the degree of flavour
it is intended to give, and to che difpatch required in the
Operation. From thefe confiderations he will be able te
form a rule to himfelf; but till fuch a rule is formed, or,
in order to the forming of it, proper trial will thew how
much fuffices for the purpofe. The Way is to begin with a
little, and to add more occafionally, the weight of the whole
being noted beforehand ; fo that on weighing the remainder,
after the proper quantity is taken away, it will be found
how much exaétly has been ufed out of it for the bufinefs.

Among the feveral ingredients of which fermentable li-
quors are made for the fervice of the diftillery, treacle
requires more ferment than almoft any other. This is not
wonderful on a juft confideration of the nature of the fub-
je@, fince the manner in which that concrete juice is made,
mut render it greatly unfit for fermentation afterwards,
though the original product of a vegetable juice very much
difpefed to it in its own nature. The ftrength of the fire
ufed in the fugar making, and its long continuance and
almoit immediate conta@, and the lime and other alkalies
ufed-in refining the fugar, that is, in making the treacle,
do fo condenfe, indurate, and fcorch the body of this juice,
and abfor's its acid, that it is {carcely to be expected that it
fhould ferment at all, even with the addition of jalap, or
other powerful faline and acid or acrid ftimulators, which
tend to break the’ vifcous and aduft connections of the
particles,

The greateft circumf{pection and care are neceflary ip re-
gard to the quality of the ferment, if a pure and well-
flavoured {pirit be required. It muit be chofen perfeaiy
{weet and frefh, for all ferments are liable to grow muity
and corrupt; and if in this ftate they are mixed with the
fermentable liquor, they will communicate their naufeous
and filthy flavour to the fpirit, which will fearcely ever be
got off by any fubfequont refining. If the ferment be four,
it mult by no means be ufed with any liquor, for it wik

° COmRninicate

FER

eémmunicate its flavour to the whole, and even prevent its
rifing to a head, and give it an acetous, inftead of a vinous
tendency. When the proper quantity of a fuitable and
well-conditioned ferment is got ready, it muft be put to the
fermentable liquor in a ftate barely tepid, or fcarcely luke-
warm. The beft manner of putting them together, fo as
to make the fermentation ftrong and quick, is this. When
the ferment is folid, it muft be broke co pieces, and gently
thinned with fome of the warm liquor ; but a complete or
uniform folution of it is not to be expeéted or detired, as
this would weaken its efficacy for the future bufinefs. ‘The
whole intended quantity being thus loolely mixed in fome
of the lukewarm liquor, and kept near the fire, or elfe-
where in a tepid flate, free from too rude commerce of the
external air, more of the infenfibly warm liquor ought at
proper intervals to be brought in, till thus by degrees the
whole quantity is fet at work together.

When the whole is thus fet at work, and fecured in a
proper degree of warmth, and kept from a too free inter-
courfe with the external air, it becomes as it were the fole
bufinefs of nature to finifh the operation, and render the
liquor fit for the ftill. In this ealy manner the whole end
ot fermentation would.be anfwered. But during the whole
courfe of the operation, there are feveral other things that
may be added with fome particular view, as either to imereale
the quantity of {pirit, or give it fome agreeable flavour.
Thefe additions may fometimes require fome alteration in
the general method laid down above, though upon the
whole it is right. Shaw’s Eflay on Difulling.
ADDITIONS.

Fermenrs inthe Earth. tis very probable, that the
natural ferments in the earth may be of mere confequence
than is generally fuppofed, and tend ta elucidate many
things, which at prefent appear very myfterieus. The
different fruitfulnefs of different fpots of the fame fort
of land may be owing to this, as allo the different tempera-
ture of air at the fame time in places very little diftant from
one another. The efuvia fent up by fome of thefe, not
only diffolye fnow that falls on them, but even melt it in
the air as it approaches, and caufe it to fall in rain, not in
fnow. And often in two places within a mile or two of
each other, there fhall be a difparity of heat and cold no
way elfe to be accounted for, fince there is often no dif-
ference of fhade or fhelter.

In Scotland there are large traéts of land, where the fer-
ment-is fo ftrong, that the earth lets a perfon up to the
ankles as he walks; and generally, at about a foot depth
under this, there is found a ftratum of pebbles, fo clofe
rammed together, that they feem an artificial caufeway.
This land, though of no greater depth than a foot, is
found very rich for garden plants, and even for fruit-trees.
Phil. Tranf. N° rio. u

FERMENTARII, or Fermenracet, a denomination
which thofe of the Latin church have given to the Greeks,
on account of their confecrating and ufing leavened ‘or fer-
mented bread in the eucharift.

As the Greeks call the Latins azymites, the Latins, in
return, call them fermentarit.

FERMENTATION. Theimportant procefs by which
faccharine folutions are converted into intoxicating liquors,
is one of the moft complicated in chemiftry, and the precife
caufe of this change is as yet very imperfeGly known. In
the prefent article we fhall notice the conditions requifite to
fermentation, the appearances that occur during the procefs,
and the effential product of it, referving for the articles
Spirits, Difilled, and Wine, fome further particulars.

See

FER

The only two fubftances indifpenfably requifite to the
formation of a fermentable liquor are water and fugar.

No vegetable juice will ferment that is not fenfibly fweet,
and from which a portion of fugar may not be extracted by
chemical means. The itrength of vinous liquors (other.
circumftances being the fame) is in dire@ proportion to
the quantity of fugar contained in them before fermenta-
tion. The addition of fugar to the weakly fermentable
juices will enable them to produce a ftrong full-bodied liquor,
and the very effence of this procefs is the difappearance of
the fugar, and the confequent produdtion of alcohol.

With regard to the water, it does not appear how far
this is an active ingredient in vinous fermentation, though
it is Fully afcertained that a particular degree of dilution is
neceflary to this procefs: this confiftence exifts naturally
in the juice of grapes, in the faccharine fap of many trees,
and of other fpontaneoufly fermentable liquors; and if thefe
very liquors be deprived by gentle evaporation of a confider-
able portion of their water, the refidue will not ferrsent till
the requifite confiltence is reftored by the addition of a frefh
portion of water. On the other hand, if a faccharine mu-
cilage is too dilute, the fermentation is very languid and
imperfect.

But pure fugar and water alone will not ferment, and
therefore fome other fubftance is alfo requifite. To this point
the attention of chemifts has been often directed, but hitherto
with but little fuccefs; indeed, the general refult of the
experiments that have been made is, that feveral fubftances,
very different in their other properties, will anfwer almo&
equally well as a ferment. Muft, or the recent juice of
the grape, contains, befide fugar and water, a quantity of
vegetable acid, chiefly the tartareous, and one or more fub-
{tances obfcurely defcribed under the names of mucilage
and extract. Each of thefe is requifite to the fermentation
of muft; for if any one is abftracted the procefs will not
take place. A warm temperature is alfo requifite to fer-
mentation. This varies according to the natural fermenta-
bility of the materials, and their bulk. Thus, grape-juice
will readily begin to ferment at the temperature of about 60°,
and the procefs is ftrong and vehement at 73° or 80°. The
expreffed juice of the fugar-cane is fo exceflively prone to
fermentation, that in the climate of the Weft Indies the
proces would begin in ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour ;
and hence, as fermentation is the deftruétion of the fugar,
it is neceflary, in making fugar, to counteract this tendency
in the expreffed juice as feed as poflible, which is effected
merely by bringing it to a fealding heat. A low temperature
as that of freezing water, is equally efficacious in preventin
or arrefting the progrefs of fermentation, fo that all do-
metlic procefles of this kind are performed within doors, or
near a fire, and in the iarge way chilling muft be particu-
larly avoided; but as the aét of fermentation produces a
confiderable heat, the liquor within the veffel being feveral
degrees warmer than the furrounding air, large mafles are of
courfe lefs affe€ted by the external cold, and will ferment at -
a lower temperature. '

The firlt figns of fermentation are, a gentle inteftine mo=
tion, the rifing of {mall bubbles to the top of the liquory,
and a whitifh turbid appearance. This is foon followed by
the collection of a froth, or head, confifting of a multitude
of air-bubbles entangled: in the liquor, which,, as the procefs
advances, rife flowly to a confiderable height, forming a
white denfe permanent froth. A very large portion of the
gas alfo efcapes, which has a ftrong, penetrating, agreeable,
vinous odour. ‘T'he temperature of the liquor at the fame
time increafes to feveral degrees above that of the external
air, and continues fo during the whole of the procefs.

Sooner

FERMENTATION.

Sooner or later thefe appearances gradually fubfide; the
head of the foam fettles into a denfe froth, and on turning it.
fide, the liquor beneath appears much clearer and nearly
at reft, having depofited a copious fediment, and from being
vifcid and faccharine is now become vinous, intoxicating,
thinner, and of lefs fpecific gravity.

The procefs of fermentation, however, does not termi-
nate fuddenly, but goes off very gradually, the liquor con-
tinuing to work or throw up foam, to clarify, to attenuate,
and more completely to lofe its fugar, which at la{t can no
Jonger be difcerned by the tafte, or dete¢ted by chemical
analyfis, The vinous liquor, when complete, if of fufficient
ftrength and well fermented, will now keep fora great length
of time in yeflels fecured from the air, and undergoes com-
paratively little farther alteration, except in becoming more
perfeétly limpid by the depofition of an additional quantity
of fediment.

The gas of fermenting liquors has been longs known to

confilt for the moft part ef carbonic acid; it will, therefore,
extinguifh a candle, deftroy animal life, convert cauftic al-
kalies into alkaline carbonats, and the like. But, befide
the carbonic acid, it has been proved by Scheele to hold
1a folution a fenfible quantity of alcohol, and Prouft has
dete€ted in it a portion of azot. Mr. Collier (Manchett.
Tranf.} has further fhewn that in this gas are contained all
the requilites for vinous fermentation. Jie pafled the whale
of the gas froma ninety galloa fermenting tun into a cafk
of water, and divided the liquor thus impregnated into
three parts, of which one being immediately diitilled, af-
forded a {mall quantity of alcohol; to the feeond was
added fome yealt, by which a new fermentation was excited,
and the fubfequent product of diftilled fpirit was nearly
doubled, and the third being fuffered to ferment a longer
fime, produced fome vinegar.
_ The attenuation of liquors, or the diminution of their fpe-
cific gravity by fermentation, is very itriking. Thisis fhewn
by the hydrometer, which {wims much deeper in fermented
liquor than in the fame materials before fermentation.
Much of this attenuation is, doubtlefs, owing to the de-
ftruGion of the fugar, which, diffolyed in water, adds to its
denfity, and to the confequent prodution of alcohol, which,
on the contrary, by mixture with water, diminifhes the
denfity of the compound, ‘The extraé, or mucilage, alfo
appears to be in in degree deftroyed by fermentation,
for the gelatinous confiftence of thick liquors is much lefien-
ed by this procefs: the deftruétion of this principle, how-
ever, is by no means fo complete as of the fugar, many of the
full-bodied ales, for example, retaining much of their origi-
nal clamminefs and gelatinous denfity even after having un-
dergone a very perfect fermentation.

It has been doubted whether the alcohol of vinous liquors
exilts in them ready formed, or in fome intermediate itate,
requiring the boiling heat of diftillation for its complete de-
velopement. It is not eafy to fix upon an unexceptionalle
mode of deciding this queition. It has been argued by
Fabbroni, in favour of alcohol being a produét, and not
an eduét from wine, that wine cannot be again formed by ad-
ding the diftilled alcohol to the refidue left behind in the
retort : he alfo affirms, that if a {mall portion of alcohol is
added to wine, it may be feparated again almott entirely by
carbonat’of potafh, but that this falt will not feparate any
alcohol from wine in its natural ftate. This lat fact, how-
ever, only fhews that the union of the alcoholic with the
other parts of the wine, is too ftrong to be broken by fim-

le affinity, without the afliltance of heat; and, as to the
ormer it is highly probable that the boiling heat operates

Weitere on the otlicr conttituents of wine, the effect of
ei, :

which cannot be done away by the mere return of the fpirit
that has been driven off, ‘This opinion, therefore, though
by no means improbable, requires further confirmation.

The produétion of alcohol feems to be one of the Iaft
effects, or the completion of the procefs of fermentation ;
for if the liquor is diflilled while yet in a fate of high fer.
mentation, it will not yield a drop of alcohol.

The atmofpheric air feems to have no fhare whatever in
vinous fermentation, for it will take place full as well in-
clofed as in open veffels, provided {pace is allowed for the
great expanfion of the materials, and the copious produCtion
of gas. Indeed Mr. Collier found, by direét experiment,
that more fpirit is procured by clofe than by open fermenta-
tion. In three feparate experiments, in cach of which an
equal quantity of wort and yeaft were fermented, under cir-
cumitances precifely fimilar, with the fingle exception, that
in one the veffel was open, and in the othier clofed, (the gas
having no exit but through a tube dipping in water,) he
found, on diftilling each fermented liquor, and drawing off
the fame bulk of fpirit from each, that that from the clofe
veffel was conttantly of lefs {pecific gravity, and, therefore,
richer in alcohol than the other. Where the fpirit from
the open vetlel was 74 degrees below proof, that frem the
clofe veffel was 56 degrees ; where the former was §3, the
latter was 65 ; and where it was 103, the other was 93.

_The theory of vinous fermentation is ftill involyed in great
difficulty, oa account of the very compound nature of the
fubttances employed, and their great tendency to decompo-
fition in various ways and proportions.

The refults of Lavoifier’s experiments fhould not pafs un-
noticed, though it is obvious that much too great fimplicity
is attempted in the explanation of a procefs which every cir-
cumftance fhews to be very complicated. ‘The fimple point
to which the experiments of this able Inquirer tend, 1s (fettine

~ @e = = r a a

alide all other agents) to explain how lugar becomes con-
verted into carbonic acid and alcohol, which, after all, is the
characteriftic phenomenon of vinous fermentation.
_ The entire products of fugar, yeaft, and water, fermented
in clofe veffels, are ftated to be carbonic acid, alcohol, and
water, together with a {mall portion of acetous acid, and
from thefe fa&ts the following theory is deduced. Sugar
> Dior} » - | > a =
is compofed of eight parts hydrogen, 64 oxygen, and
28 carbon, and the procefs of fermentation effets a change
merely in the arrangement of the conftituent parts of the
fugar, converting one portion into carbonic acid, and the
other into alcohol; and hence (as carkenic acid contains
only carbon, with a large proportion of oxygen) the portion
which is left muft contain all the hydrogen, part of the car-
bon, anda very fmall proportion of oxygen: or, in other
words, by this new arrangement of the ingredients of the
fugar, one portion, namely, the carbonic acid, is totally de-
prived of hydrogen, and- overloaded with oxygen, whil
the other portion, namely, the aleehol, abounds in hydro-
gen, and is deficient in oxygen; the carbon being divided
> §
between the new products in nearly au equal proportion
with regard to their refpe@ive quantities.

_No theory more plaufible than the above has, perhaps,
hitherto been offered to the general phenomenon of vinous
fermentation, though it is very defe&ive in many eflential
parts, and even does not correipond with the alleced com-
pofition of alcohol, given by the fame chemift in another part

c . as aad . .
of his enquiries.

The great queftion remaining for future enquirers to de.
termine is, what the fubitance or circumitance is, which
dilpofes fugar to ferment; for it has been proyed that fogar
will not of itfelf begin this {pontaacous change into carbonic

O02

acid

FERMENTATION.

acid and alcohol; though, when once begun, the procels
will probably go on without further affiftance.

It has béen already mentioned, that both extractive mat-
ter and an acid are prefent in every known inftance of vi-
nous fermentation; and, for any thing that appears to the
contrary, both of them are neceilary, though the requifite

uantity of each is very {mall compared to the fugar: there-
bone the ftrength or body of the fermented liquor is in di-
rect proportion to the quantity of fugar alone, and there is
good reafon to fuppofe that the extractive matter and the
acid are enly acceflary ingredients, though full eflential, as
being thofe without which the vinous decompofition of fugar
cannot be effected.

It has been fuppofed that it is the vegeto-animal extra&,
as it has been ealled, which exifts in the fermentable juices
of vegetables, that caufes the firit change in the fugar. The
precife nature of this vegeto-animal matter is not very well
known; it may be fuppofed to be fimilar to the gluten of
wheat, but intimately combined with the faccharine muci-
lage, and hence extremely fufceptible of fpontaneous
change. The chief, if not the only, proof of its exiftence
in many of thefe combinations, is the produétion of a quan-
tity of ammonia during its decompofition by heat, which
alkali is almoft always formed by the action of fire, and
indicates in the fubltance which yields it the prefence of
azot.

Some of the commoneft fermenting ingredients, as the
{weet infufion of malt, technically called wort, it is well
known, will hardly enter into fermentation without the ad-
dition of yeafl ; and hence chemitts have fought in this fub-
ftance for the principle which gives the firit impulfe to the
fermentation of fugar.

The analyfis of yeaft prefents a vaft variety of ingredi-
ents, the chief of which are the carbonic, acetic, ana malic
acids, mucilage, fugar, and gluten. Of thefe the latter is
in the largeft proportion, which would feem to give much
weight to the opinion of the great fhare which the azotic
ingredient has in inducing fermentation.

Yet Mr. Henry found by a feries of very interefting ex-
periments, that malt infufion might be made to enter into
compleat fermentation by impregnating it with carbonic
acid prepared from chalk and fulphuric acid, and the liquor
thus fermented gave a yeaft which made perfect bread,
gave alcohol by diftillation, and vinegar by further keeping.
The wort itfelf undoubtedly contained all the ingredients
ef yeaft, fince this fubftance was produced during the fer-
mentation, but the experiment is decifive to prove that no
addition of azotic extrac is required to begin fermentation
in materials naturally fermentable, though, when once begun,
the yeaft, as fait as it was produced, mutt have affifted in the
fermentation then going on. ‘The evidence for the neceflity
of an acid ro begin fermentation is therefore more decifive,
but it is ftill doubtful whether any particular one is re-
quired, or whether there are uot feveral which will anfwer
the purpofe. In Mr. Henry’s experiments the acid em-
ployed was the carbonic, and, from the arrangement of the
apparatus, probably a fmall portion of fulphurie was alfo
carried in along with it. But in grape juice there is no
proof of the exiftence of carbonic acid ready formed,
though the tartaric, malic, and other vegetable acids con-
tain within themfelves the ingredients of carbonic acid, and
are chiefly and ultimately refolvable into this acid. Yeatft
will even induce fermentation after it is prefled and dried
into folid cakes, (2 praftice not uncommon, as it will keep
fora great length of time in this form,) but after this
operation it can hardly contain any carbonic acid ready
formed, though with abundant tendency to produce it by

the firft mutual aétion of its conftitaent parts. Many in-
terefling enquiries therefore remain to be carried on before
we can have a full and fatisfaGtory theory of the important
procefs of vinous fermentation.

FERMENTATION, eetous.
VINEGAR.

Fermentation, Putrid. See PuTREFACTION.

TexmMEenTATION, Bituminous, in Geology, denotes a parti-
cular change, which, according to the opinion of Mr, James
Parkinfon, (Organic Remains, vol. i, p. 184.) “is pecu-
liar to vegetable matter placed in fuch fituations, as not onl
exclude the external air, and fecure the prefence of init
ture, but prevent the efcape of the more volatile principles,
and which terminates in the formation of thofe fubftances
called bitumens.””? ‘This author, after giving a concife, but
luminous account of the /accharine, the vinous, the acefic,
and the putrid fermentation, to which moft vegetable fub-
fiances are progreffively liable, by the modified admiffion of
atmofpheric air, thus proceeds: ‘ But if, inftead of being
thus expofed to the influence of the air, a mafs of dead ve-
getable matter be accumulated in fuch fituations as allow
of the admiffion of water, but in which the compaétnefs
of the fuperincumbent itratum of earth, not only excludes
the external air, but the-difengaged gafeous matters
are prevented from elcaping, the bituminous fermentation
takes place, and bituminous matters are formed in various
degrees of maturity and purenefs, according to the ftage
at which the procefs may have arrived, or the extraneous
matters which may have been admitted.”? Our author,
however, admits, that a complete hiftory of all the pheno-
mena which occur during the whole of the operation can-
not poflibly be expeéted to be made out, but the proofs of
its exiftence muft be obtained by inference, and from analogy
on comparing it with the other fpecies of fermentation ;
and he thus continues; “ the fubftance, then, which I con-
ceive to be entirely dependent on, and a€tually the produc
of, this procefs, is bitumen; a fubftance which manifefts,
upon examination, all thofe propertics which might, 4
prieri, be expected to be found in a body conitituted un-
der the particular circumftances which I have prefumed to
have direGed its formation.

‘“« Tn the firft ftage of the vinous fermentation, we per-
ceive that a confiderable portion of the more volatile parts
of the mixture is diffipated, and that it is only by the eare-
ful prefervation of the remainder that the accomplifhment
of this procefs is effeted. In the acetous fermentation
this efcape of the volatile parts is continued through the
whole of the procefs, and occafions the great difvence
which exiits between the two produéis. In the firft of
thefe [pecies of fermentation, carbon, that principle which
always feems to affeét that mode of combultion, obfervable
in ignited charcoal, where flame is not prefent, is, we have
remarked, diffipated in very large quantities, by which its
dofe in the mixture muit be confiderably diminifhed ; whilft,
fhould hydrogen even be fuppofed to efcape in a fimilar
proportion, {till, from the decompofition of the water, fuf-
ficient of this principle (which I will call the principle of in-
flammability ) will be yielded, to give the fpirituons and
very inflammable produ@ which we find to be the refult of
this procefs. In the latter of thefe fpecies of fermentations,
in which the diffipation of the volatile matters is carried to
the utmoft extent which the degree of temperature will ad-
mit, the mixture feems to be deprived of almoft the whole
of its hydrogen ; except, perhaps, juft fo much as is left in
combination with the colouring principle, and the water,
whilft the oxygen is attraéted, nearly in the fame’ propor-
tion, by the carbon from the atmofphere, and from the very

confiderable

See Acetous Acid, and

FER

confiderable dofe of this acidifying principle; and, from
fome peculiar modification of their union, the product, vi-
negar, re{ults, poffeffing a high degree of acidity, but not
the leaft degree of inflammability.

« We will now examine the changes which may be ex-
pected to refult from the decompofition of vegetable mat-
ters placed in fubterranean fituations, and confidering thefe,
‘with the properties which are poffefled by the fuppofed
produé of the bituminous fermentation, we fhall be enabled,
efpecially by recolleéting what has been juft faid of the
other {pecies of fermentation, to determine whether it
is right to admit of the exiftence of fuch a fpecies of fer-
mentation or not,

*‘ Secured on every fide by the furrounding earth,
the mafs of vegetable matter is preferved, at it were, ina
well-clofed veffel ; hardly any efcape being permitted to any
of its more volatile particles, nor any admiffion of extrane-
ous matters allowed, except of fuch as are introduced with
the water which may inlinuate itfelf by foaking through the
interftices of the earthy particles, compofing the feveral {trata
which inclofe it. a

“ Tt is decreed, that a flrong difpofition to feparate, and
to unite in another order, fhall fecure the neceflary decom-
pofition of dead organized matter, which, according to the
economy of nature, is but to poffefs a fhort and tranfient
cohefion. Agreeable to this law, this mafs of vegetable
matter, now deprived of the energy of vegetable life, muft
undergo fome change ; but from the clofenefs of its pre-
fervation, it cannot admit that efcape of the gafeous mat-
ters on which the commencement of the vinous, acetous, or
putrid fermentations depend: another procefs is therefore
inftituted. The hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen are difen-
gaged from their former attachments, but being prevented
from flying off in a gafeous ftate, are obliged again to
unite, and to enter into new combinations.

“Under thefe particular circumftances a fubftance may
be expected to be formed, containing aconfiderable portion
of thefe principles fo abundant in vegetable matter. In this
refpeét, there undoubtedly may be difcovered a remarkable
agreement between the fuppofed produé& of this fermenta-
tion, and the hypothefis ly which 1ts formation is attempted
to be explained ; fince, in all bituminous fubftances the abun-
dant exiitence of thefe three principles has been fufficiently
proved by analyfis.

“ In this, as in every other {pecies of fermentation, a confi-
derable difference may exift, as to the degree of perfection
to which the procefs may proceed, and of courfe, as to the
degree of perfeGtion which the produ& may poflefs.

“Thus I expeé to fhew, that, according to length of
time, exclufion from the air, and the exiftence of other favou-
rable circumftances, will thefe bitummous fubftances be
found in their feveral approaches to that ftate, to which
the law of nature feems to have particularly deftined them.

«© Peat, that combuftible and inflammable fubftance,
generaily found in confiderable maffes at a little depth be-
neath the furface of the earth, pofleffing chemical properties
effentially different from every other fub{tance which has
not derived its exiltence from the fame origin, appears to be
the firft produé& of this kind of fermentation, and to have
been formed in fituations not favourable to the rapid com-
pletion of this procefs. The celerity with which this pro-
cefs is accomplifhed muft depend on the clofenefs with
which the gafeous principles are fecured ; but it fhould be
confidered, that fuch peat-bogs as are, comparatively, but
of modern formation, are covered by a coat of vegetable
mould, in an humid ftate, of no confiderable degree of
thicknefs, and therefore the efcape of the more volatile

FER

principles, and the admiffion of atmofpheric air, are only
partially prevented ; the procefs mut therefore be carried on
with much lefs effeét, than in thofe cafes which will be here-
after mentioned, where yaft maffes of vegetable matters have
been fuddenly buried under a confiderable thicknefs of earthy
depofition.

*¢ The abundance of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, in
peat, is demonfrated by its analyfis. By the early ana-
lyfis of Schoockius we learn, that it yields an oil much re-
fembling the oil of amber, with an acid liquor. Monf.
Fourcroy relates, that, on expofing peat to the aétion of
heat in a diftillatory apparatus, a yellow or reddith feetid
water is obtained, an oil of a moft dffagreeable odour, with
carbonate of ammonia, and carbonated hydrogen gas, alfo
{melling moft difagreeably ; a coal being left, which is fre-
quently pyrophoric, and which yields, after incineration,
muriate and fulphate of foda and of pot-afh, mixed with
the phofphate and fulphate of lime, and with the oxyds oi
iron and of manganefe.

“¢ The prevalence of hydrogen in this fubftance is fully
difplayed by the foregoing analyfis, fince not only enough
exifts for the formation of this peculiar oi], but a confider-
able quantity of this principle is alfo difengaged in a gafeous
form ; the agreement, therefore, between this fubftance, and
what might, a priori, have been fuppofed, would be the pro-
du& of a vegetable matter placed under thefe particular
circumitances, appears to be evident. The original mode
of exiftence which belonged to this fubftance is fuf-
ficiently marked by the great quantities of vegetable fub-
ftances which are found in it, which have not fuffered fuch
an alteration, as to hinder the immediately tracing them to
their true origin. That this fubftance has been fubjeCted to
the influence of the two circumftances, which feem effential
to this peculiar fermentation, the prefence of moifture and
f{ubterranean fituation, muft appear fo plain from the itate in
which the peat mofles are found, that, on this point, not a
word need be added. Peat, therefore, I preflume, we may
regard as a vegetable fecondary foffil; having been formed
from vegetable matter, changed in its nature and properties
by a certain fermentation, which had been carried on in the
mineral regions.”

The further profecution of this theory by our authors
in order to account for the formation of amber, and jet, &c.
are too long for ovr purpofe, but are well worthy the
perufal of thofe who wiih to become acquainted fully witk
this fubject.

FERMENTED Ligvors are efteemed great antidotes
to putrefaétion; aecordingly the abftinence from them is ai-
figned as oue ‘caufe why the Turks are more fubje& than
other people to the plague, and other contagious diflem-
pers. It is likewife obferved, that beer, wine, and {piritu-
ous liquors, coming more into general ufe, has been one
great means of fupprefling putrid difeales. See Pringle’s
Obferv. on the Difeafes of the Army, p. 286, 294. and
Macbride’s Ei. eff. 3. See Antiseptic, Cuowper, and
Spruce deer, and-Worrt.

FERMO, Jtal/. as canto fermo, or plain-chant, in Ec-
clefiaftical Singing, is ufed in oppofition to canto figurato, or
figurative fong. Roufleau was of opinion that the Roman,
or Gregorian chant, is a precious relic, though much dif-
figured, of the ancient Greek mufic, which, after having
paffed through the hands of the barbarians, has not loft all
its firft beauties. Enough remains itill to make it far pre-
ferable for the ufe to which it is deftined, to that effeminate
and theatrical, or flat and mawkith mufic, which has been
fubfituted to it in fome churches, without gravity, without

taite,

FER

tafte, propriety, or refpect for the place which they dare
thus profane.

Canto fermo is written only on four lines in the Roman
miffals, and only two clefs are ufed, the bafe clef of F, and
the clef of C, which are moveable, and only one flat upon B,
and two kinds of notes, the long and {quare note, to which
a tail is f{ometimes added, and the breve in the lozenge form,
but all black. hefe are called Gregorian notes, fuppofed
to have been invented or adopted by St. Gregory, tie fir
pope of that name- St. Ambrofe, archbifhop of Milan, is
{aid to have invented the Ambrofian chant, or at lealt to
have brought it from Antioch, and to have eftablifhed it in
his church at Milan, a confiderable time before the ponti-
fical reign of Gregory, who perfecied it, and gave it the
form which it ftill preferves at Rome, and in other churches
where the Roman chant is-ftill practifed. See Prain
Chant, Awsrosian Chant, and GreGcorian Notes.

Fermo, in Geography, acity of Italy, in the marquifate
of Ancona, fituated near the coaft of the Adriatic; the
fee of an archbifhop, erected in the year 1589, by pope
Sixtus V. It contains to churches and 16 convents; 26

miles §.S.E. of Ancona. N. lat. 43° 6! E. long. 13°

/
ERMOR, Wirtiam, in Biography, count Von, a
celebrated Ruffian general, was born at Plefkow, on the
28th of September, 1704. He was educated for the military
profeffion, and entered the army as a common bembardier
in the year 1720, and was fo rapidly promoted, that, in the
year 1729, he became adjutant-general to count Von Maun-
nich. At Dantzie he formed an acquaintance with Frederic
William, king of Pruffia, who conferred upon him the
order of la Generofiteé. He greatly diftinguifhed himfelf
in the Turkith war of 1736, and was promoted to the rank
of general, and commandant of Zolberg. In 1746, he was
appointed infpeétor of building ; and the imperial palace,
a matter-piece of art, was built under his direGtion. In
1755, he was made commander-in-chief, and fhortly after,
for his condu&t in Pruffia, he was raifed to the dignity of a
count of the empire by Francis I. In the following year
he fought the celebrated battle of Zorndorf, with Frederic
Il. kirg of Pruffia. Being fatisfied with the reputation he
had gained, he requefted leave to retire, and though this
was granted him, he was called_again into aétive fervice,
and was finally made governor-general of Smolenfko, and
member of the fupreme fenate, After this he rebuilt fome
towns; when he again retired, refigning all his employ-
ments, and died in 1771, on his eftate of Nicutau, where he
had erested an elegant church. Gen. Biog.

FERMOSELLE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
the province of Leon ;. 30 miles W.S. W. of Zamora.

FERMOY, a very handfome and flourifhing market and
pok-town of the county of Cork, Ireland, which affords a
itriking-inftance of what may be effected by the exertions of
an individual. Lefs than twenty years ago Fermoy was a
miferable village, with along narrow bridge over the fine
viver Blackwater, and one of the laft places at which a
traveller would think of topping for refrefhments of any
kiad, At prefent it is aregularly built town, with a large
barrack for two regiments of infantry, and another for
cavalry adjoining to it ‘on the oppofite fide of the river.
The bridge has been widened; a church of elegant con-
{tru@tion, and well fituated, a large {chool-houfe, a market-
houfe, and a feffions-houfe, whichvalfo ferves occationally for
an aflenibly room, and theatre, have been built, and there are
two good iins, with fome of the beft pofl-carriages to be met
within Ireland. There arealfo an extenfive porter brewery,
a Adur-mill, a woollen manufactory, a bank, and feveral

FER

refpectable fhops. This change thas been efieGted by the
exertions of John Anderfon, efq. who purchafed the greater
part of the old village, and has made Fermoy an objet of
admiration and aftonifhment to thofe who remember what it
was, and who know what Irifh towns in general are. o
the fame individual the fouth of Ireland is indebted for
mail coaches and the improvement ef the roads, Fermoy
is on the road from Dublin to Cork, being 107 Infh miles
from the former, and 17 from the latter of thefe cities.

FERN, in Agriculture, the name of a moft troublefome
weed, which it 1s very difficult to deitroy where it has a deep
foil to rootin. The beft method of killing it in grafs lands
is, probably, by cutting it often while it is in its green and
mot fucculent jtate, asin the {pring ar the beginning of
fummer. The fern thus cut, when tull of fap, and left to
rot upon the ground, tends greatly to improve the foil, by
tendering it more mellow, or if it be burnt when fo cut, if
will yield a much greater quantity of faline matter than any
other fort of vegetable.

This is, however, a wafteful pra@tice, and by no means fo
good as that of colle€ting it and {lacking it up, for the pur-
pofe of littering the fold-yards during the time that cattle
are kept in them, as by fuch a method, a large ftock of
valuable manure may be accumulated, the fera retaining the
moiiture and liquid animalized matters better than ftraw,
by which means it becomes in a {tate it for manure much
fooner than is commonly fuppofed. Befides, it forms aa
excellent warm litter for the live-ftock in fuch fituations.

In tillage lands the beft method of eradicating this plant
is by repeated deep ploughing, fo as to effectually break the
deep matted roots of it, which, often in the more mellow
loamy foils, {trike to the depth of feveral feet. When they
are once well broken, they readily decay in the ground, and
add to its fertility.

Vern is commonly met with in breaking up wafte lands
where the foil is of the friable, hazel, loamy quality.

The athes of this plant become an excellent manure for
all the lighter forts of foil when employed as a top-dreffing.
See Manure.

Fern Web, in Rural Economy, isa term applied toa kind
of {mall infe& of the chaffer fort, which is highly injurious
to the early bloffom of the apple-tree.

Ferns: See Firices. ,

Fern, Common Male and Female, in Botany. See Porv-
PODIUM.

The common female fern is a very mifchievous and trou-
blefome weed to the farmers, being very difficult to deftroy,
where it has any depth of ground to rootin. Its roots will
often penetrate to eight feet deep, and fpreading a great
way, they will rife again to the furface, and fend up new
plants at a confiderable diftance. In grafs land, the beit way
of deftroying therg-is mowing the grafs three times a year,
in fpring, in May, and in Anguft. Dung and afhesare very
good manure for lands which abound with them ; but the
bett of all things for deitroying themis urine. Fern cut up
when the fap is in it, and laid to rot upon the ground, is a
very good manure for land, and will mellow it fo as to pre-
vent its binding. T'rees planted where fern grows, are ob-
ferved to thrive very much, even though it be upon a hot
gravel; the reafon of this is, that the tern fhades the roots,
and Keape them moilt and cool. Mortimer’s Hufbandry,
p- 316. ay
_ Scotch theep put into land where there is much fern grow-
ing among the grafs generally deftroy it in a little time,
pottly by their dung and urine, and partly by treading it
down.

The root of the male fern is greatly recommended by me-

: !

FER

Uical writers, as a cure for rickets in children, Some alfo
give it in powder, again{t worms ; and it has the fame virtues
againft the ftone and gravel, with the reft of the genus of
capillary plants, afcribed to it. It was frequently prefcribed
by the ancients in diet drinks, for removing ob{truétions, and
in chronic cafes of all kinds, but is much difufed at prefent.
Lemery, Dié. des Drog. j

All the {pecies of fern, and other vegetables, which carry
their feed on the back of their leaves, as moonwort, and the
like plants, poffefs the fame general virtues of drying and
ftrengthening the vifcera, efpectally the fpleen.

Fern, Lowering. See Osmunpva.

Fern, Common or Frue Males. See Asprentum.

‘Tern, Mules, See Hemionitis.

Fern, Sweet. See Scanpix.

Ferrn-a/hes. The poor people in many parts of the north
of England ufe afhes of fern inflead of foap for wahhing
their cloaths ; they cut the plant green, and then burn it to
afhes, and make them up into balls with water; they dry
thefe in the fun, and keep them ready for ufe.

The afhes of the common female fern produce a-very fin-
gular phenomenon in the common way of treating them
andtheir falt. If a large quantity of thele afhes be procured,
and the falt tothe quantity of feveral pounds extracted from
them in the common way, it will fucceed better than in
{maller quantities. The greater part of this falt being
dried, if the remainder, which is more moift, be expofed to
the air to receive fome of the vapours of it, this will foon
become fluid, or an oil, as it is more improperly called, per
deliguium. The reft of the lixivium, which will be very
heavy, and of a deep blood-red, or claret-colour, being fet
by in Bee SS un{topped for five or fix months, there
will be found at the bottom of the liquor a very large quav-
tity of falt precipitated to the thicknefs of about two
inches on the bottom of the veffel. The lower part of this
will have all the foulnefs, and appear difccloured; but the
upper part will be extremely pure and white. From the
furface of this part there will grow up a number of plants,
in appearance ftanding ereét, and at {mall diftances from one
another. Thefe are only the laft cryftallizations of the
fubfiding or feparating falt, but they have a regularity that
is very farprifing ; they vary confiderably in fize and weight,
but are all of the fame fhape, exaGly refembling fo many
plants of the common unbranched fern, fending outa great
number of regular leaves on each fide the ftem. Thefe
ramifications of the falt will remain many weeks in this per-
fection, if the veffel be not flirred: but they are fo tender,
that the leaft motion deftroys them, and they after this never
form themfelves again, Phil. Tranf. N° 105.

Fern-oi/, in Pottery, a name given by our merchants who
have been in China to a fort of varnifh, which the Chinefe
ufe in their porcelain manufactories. It is alfo called lime-
oil, and is a thing fo eafily made, that it would be worth
attempting what might be done with it, in our imitations of
the porcelain. ‘They make it in this manner: they take a
large quantity of fern well dried, and f{preading a covering
of it over a piece of ground fufficient for the quantity of
oil they intend to make, they lay upon this a coat of large
lime-ftones, newly calcined into lime ; on thefe they fprinkle
with the hand a {mall quantity of water jult to fldke them.
They cover this bed of lime with another of fern; and fo
on, till they have raifed it to eight or ten feet high; they
then fet fire to the fern, this burns away in a little time, and
leaves a mixture of the lime and its own afhes. This mix-
ture is laid in the fame manner between beds of more fern,
and burnt again, This operation is repeated faye or fix
times. Obferv. fur les Coutom. de l’Afic.

FER

When the laft calcination is finifhed, the mixture of lime
and afhes is carefully gathered up, aud thrown into large
veffels of water, and with every hundred weight of it they
put in one pound weight of kekio; they flir the whole to-
gether; and when the coarfer part has fubfided to the bot-
tom, they take off the finer, which {wims at the top in
form of a fine cream, and putting it into another veffel of
water, they let it fubfide to the bottom by long ftanding :
they then pour off the water, and fave the refiduumin form
of a thick oil.

This they mix with the oil of {tone, prepared by powdering
and wafhing in the fame manner a particular fort of ftones,
and with this they cover all the veffels that they intend to
varnifh. The fern afhes have a veiy great fharein the ad-
vantage that this oil has over our common varnifhes ; and
the Chinefe tell us, that they once inftead of fern ufed the
wood of a tree, called fe-tki, and they fuppofe that the
fuperiority of the old porcelain over the prefent, is owing to
the ufe of this tree inftead of the fern: but it is now too
fearce among them. The new manufaéture which was efta-
blifhed at Briftol excels every thing, that has been done of
the like kind, in the beauty of the varnifhing ; and it is faidy
they have founded their advantage on an imitation of this
and the Chinefe oil of flone. Thefe two oils, as they are
called, are always mixed together; and they mutt be care-
fully preferved of the fame degree of thicknefs, or elfe all
the varnifhing will not be even.

Ferns, Petrified, in Natural Hiffory, are a kind of fofiil
plants found in the {trata accompanying coal, and bearing
fome refemblance to ferns. Mr. William Martin, in his-
“© Petrificata Derbienfia,”’ defcribes and figures three Kinds of
thefe, as found in the Derby fhire coal ftrata, and in iron-ftone.
nodules; thefe he denominates phytolithi, filicites ftriates,
filicites auriformis, and ofmundz regales, the latter in com-
phance with the praétice of former writers, but feems him-
{elf to doubt the identity of any of the three with recent
plants of any kind. In Parkinfon’s Organic Remains, let--
ter 45, &c. of vol.i., a recital of much which has been
written on this fubje€ will be found, accompanied alfo with
doubts of fuch pretended identity: alfo, in W. Martin’s
* Outlines of the Knowledge of Extrancous Fofiils,” pages
63, 64. 84, &c.

Fern, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the county,
of Angus or Forfar ; 6 miles W. of Brechin.

FERNAMBUC. See Brazit J¥ood.

FERNAMBUCO, in Geography, alfo called Olinda, a
captaincy or province of Brazil, lying along the coat of the
Atlantic, and abounding in fugar, cotton, Brazil wood,
cattle, and hides.

FErnamsBuco, or Olinda, as it.was called by the Dutch,
the chief town of the fore-mentioned province, the fee of a
bifhop, fnffragan of St. Salvador; and having a {mall incon-
venient harbour on the coa{t of the Atlantic. By the Por=
tuguefe this town is called Pernambuco. S. lat. ‘8° 13%.
W. long. 36° 16).

FERNANDEZ, Anrtuony, in Biography, was bom at
Coimbra in 1558, admitted in early life a member of the
order of Jefus, and’ having completed® his ftudies fo the
fatisfa&tion of his fuperiors, had the degree of do&or of
divinity conferred upon lim by the uaiverfity of Evora,
where he delivered letares on the fcriptures of the Old and
New Teftament with confiderablé reputation. His talents
rendered him an object fit to be fent out on a miffién to the
Portuguefe fettlements; he went to Goa, where he ob-
tained much refpe& as fuperior of his order in that: city.
On his return to Europe he devoted his time to the dpties
of the pulpit, and. to write commentaries on the bible. His

principal

WER

princigal publications are “¢ Commentaries on the Vifions of
the Old T'eftament,” in folio: and ‘A Commentary on
Ifatah.?? Moreri.

FrernAnDEZ, ALPHONSO, was born at Palencia, in Leon,
in the year 15/2; and appointed preacher-general to the
Dominican order of monks in 16:8. As an author he
wrote “ An Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of hisown Time ;” “A
Treatife on the Benefits conferred by his Order on the
kingdom of Spain by the inftitution of the Inquilition :”
«© Annals of the Town and Church of Palencia ;” thefe
with a “Hiftory of the Devotion of the Rofary,’’ were pub-
lifhed in the Spanifh language. He publifhed other works
in the Latin tongue, and was employed in compiling eccle-
fiaftical annals of Spain, which with other works have been
publifhed fince his death. Moreri.

TFERNANDEZ, Juan, in Geography, an ifland in the fouth-
ern Pacific ocean, firft feen in 1563, and fo called from its
difcoverer, is of an irregular fhape, about five miles long,
and between one and two broad. It is diftant from Chili
about 110 leagues. his ifland has been frequently de+
{cribed by the navigators of the Pacific, and particularly in
the account of Anfon’s voyage: it was a place of refort
for refrefhments, efpecially antifcorbutic vegetables, with
which it abounds; and the freebooters of former times made
it a place of refort for the rendezvous of their forces, or
the divifion of their fpoil. At a convenient diftance from
the coaft of Peru, unfettled and unfortified, abounding in
almoft every requifite for re-fitting, re-victualling, wooding,
and watering, it became not only a defirable ttation, but
was long an unfufpected or defpifed retreat. The Spani-
ards, however, at length dire&ted their attention to it, and
in 1766, or 1767, madea {ettlement upon it. In the latter
year captain Carteret on his voyage round the world, upon
opening Cumberland bay, was furprifed to find the ifland
in pofleffion of the Spaniards, who had built a fort, on
which the Spanifh colours were flying, and fome cannon
mounted. Many cattle were feen on the hills, and about
20 houfes in different parts of the ifland. Carteret had no
communication with the fhore, but failed immediately for
Matafaero. In the year 1792, it was vifited by lieutenant
John Mofs of the royal navy, who then commanded a fhip
ia the fouthern whale and feal fithery. He approached it
onthe weit fide, and came abreaft of the north point ; but,
unapprized of its having been fettled by the Spaniards, he
propofed to catch fifh, and to examine if it afforded fafe
anchorage. But hauling his boat round the N. W. point,
he found the place fortified, and faw a {mall village in the
valley. His requeit, prefented to the governor for leave to
anchor and to fifh, was vot formally granted; however, keep-
ing his boat outof the way of the guns, he caught as many fifh
as ferved the whole fhip’s company. From him we learn,
that in making the ifland from the weitward, it appears
elevated at the N. end, and flopes away towards the fouth,
with a remarkable iflet, or large rock, detached about half
a mile off the S. point. Ata diftance the whole ifland ap-

ears like an entire rock ; but on nearer accefs the inter-
ieGing vallies difcover themfelves, and difplay a fine fcene of
verdure, being covered with wood. The weft fide affords
no anchorage, nor any landing place, the cliffs rifing almoft
perpendicularly from the fea. When abreaft of the N. W.
point, the firlt valley or landing-place opens, where thcre is
anchorage in 14 fathom water, but in an expofed fituation.
Here the Spaniards have a guard-houfe and one gun.
About half a mile to the E. N. E. is the great bay, (Cum-
berland bay of the Buccaneers, ) which is land-locked from
E.to N. W. by W.; but there is no anchorage in lefs than
@ fathoms, till within half a cable’s length of the fhore.

YER

‘Lhe town or village is very pleafantly fituated in a. fine val-
Icy, between two high hills. A battery of five guns is
placed jut round the W. point of the harbour, and com-
mands the road ; though it is poflible to land clear of the
reach of ahy gun. his battery is built of loofe ftones,
piled up breaft-high, and forming embrafures, without
mortar, or any kind of cement. On the left of the valley,
on a little eminence, another battery was then conftruting
of mafonry, with two faces, having 14 embrafures in each,
one face pointing to the anchorage, and the other flankin
the village ; five guns were mounted on that fide which faces
the road, and one inthe other. According to the report
of the commandant, the whole force on the ifland in Ja-
nuary, 1792, confilted of fix foldiers, and 40 of the fet-
tlers armed and trained. Captain Mofs, though not al-
lowed to refrefh his crew, faw great numbers of goats on
the fides of every hill, and regretted that he could not
relieve his crew, who were difordered with the feurvy, and
which would have been fpeedily correéted by the frefh
venifon, fifh, and vegetables to be found there. Towards
the clofe of the year he touched again on the ifland, and
was politely accommodated by the governor with a plenti-
ful fupply of theep, vegetables, milk, and craw-fifh, and
two bullocks. In the town there are about 4o honfes, and
feveral in different parts of the ifland. Every houfe has a
garden, with arbours of grape-vines, forming a delightful
fhade. Figs, cherries, plums, and almonds appeared all
green, and abundance of potatoes, cabbages, onions,
thyme, and_other vegetables and herbs ; but none of them
in perfe€tion, as a fort of grub is faid in a great meafure to
deitroy the kitchen gardens. From other accounts it ap-
pears, that the fouthern part of the ifland is precipitous
and barren ; but there are fome hills of a red-earth, ap-
prosching to vermilion, The foil of the northern part is
oofe and fhallow, fo that very large trees foon perifh for
want of root, and are eafily overturned. The drefs of the
women in this ifland is very fingular; they wear a petticoat
which reaches only a little below the knee, and which is
{pread out by a hoop at the bottom to a great diftance
round them, leaving the legs entirely expofed; they wear
their hair long, plaited into 40 or 50 fmall braids, which
hang ftraight down the back. This drefs is alfo that of
the ladies of Peru and Chili. In every houfe captain Mofs
was prefented by the women with mate, the infufion of the
herb of Paraguay, which they fuck ‘up through a pipe or
tube, that ferves more than one perfon, and is handed about
from one to another. ‘The women are in general handfome,
and every houfe {warmed with children. As Juan Mernan-
dez and Malafuero may be miftaken one for the other, by
ftrangers, both lying in the fame latitude, we may obferve,
that the N. end of Juan Fernandez is higheit, while Mafa-
fuero is lowelt to the north. | Befides, a {mall ifland lies off
the S. end of Juan Fernandez. Thefe two iflands lie So
miles from each other. Juan Fernandez, according to the
obfervations of captain Mofs, lies in S. lat. 33° 40!.
W. long. 80° 30%.

FERNANDO pe Voronua, an ifland of the At-
antic, diltant between 60 and 80 leaguesfrom the coaft of
Brazil. Its furface is mountainous and unequal, but
moftly covered with wood and herbage. The high part of
one mountain, nearly in the middle of the ifland, is diiti-
guifhable from the ret; itis called “* Campanario,” or the
Belfry, from its refemblance to a church tower, and it very
much leans, or overhangs, to the eait. The ifland no
where exceeds two leagues in extent.

According to Don Ullea, to whofe defeription of it cap-
tain Cook refers in the fecond velume of his feeond voyage,

gets t | (p. 278.)5
Gy al
between =

a

|
:
j
,
‘

FER

({p- 278.), this ifland has two harbours, capable of receiv.
ing fhips of the greateft burden; one on the N. fide, and
the otheronthe N. W. The former is, in every refpect, the
principal, both for fhelter and capacity, and the goodnefs
of its bottom, but both are expofed to the N. and W.
winds, though thefe winds, particularly the north, are pe-
riodical, and of no long continuance. He farther fays, that
ou anchor in the north harbour, (called by Cook a road, )
in 13 fathoms water, one-third of a league from fhore, on a
bottom of fine fand; the fea and hill above-mentioned bear-
ing S. W. 3° foutherly. This road feems to be well fhel-
tered from the S.and E. winds. The water in this ifland is
brackifh, and very fcarce; and fometimes no rain falls for
two or three years. In confequence of this deficiency of
moifture, more than from the nature of the foil, which pro-
duces every {pecies of grain, and fruits common in hot cli-
mates, the plants wither and die, and the mott fertile parts
of the ifland, unlefs when they are foftened by the humidity
of the clouds, become as arid and barren as rocks. ‘The
Portuguefe, however, fay, that in the interior parts of the
ifland there isno want of water, that is clear and wholefome.
Inthe inland part of the ifland there isa Portuguefe town,
in which the parifh prie{t and governor refide ; and it has fe-
veral forts conftruéted of ftone, which are fpacious and
well provided with artillery, and garrifoned by foldiers, who
are partly regulars, fent fron Fernambeau, relieved every tix
months, and partly tranfports fent from that mart of Bra-
zil, which fupplies them with provifions and other necefla-
ries, The harbour or roads abound with various kinds of
fifh, and from December to April the fhores of the whole
ifland are covered with the eggs of turtles. S. lat. 3° 53’.
W. long. 32° 34/.

Fernanpo-Po, or Fernanp Pas, an ifland of Africa,
in the Atlantic, near the coait of Benin, about 20 leagues
in circumference ; the land lies high, and the foil is fertile
in manioc, fugar-canes, rice, fruit, and tobacco: the in-
habitants are rude and uncivilized. This ifland feems defti-
tute of any gvod harbour, and very much abandoned to the

oats and feals: but the Spaniards retain the nominal pof-
ee N. lat. 3° 20’. E. long. 10° 45'.

Fernanpo, St. a town of Sonth America, in the pro-
vince of Tucuman; 150 miles W. af St. Jago d’Efteros.
S. lat. 28°. W. long. 68° 16'.—Alfo, a town of South
America, in the province of Cumana.—Alfo, a town of
Spain, in Galicia, near the W. coaft; 37 miles W. of
Orenfe.

FERNAO, or Fernanpo Vicoso, a river of Africa,
which runs into the Indian fea. S. lat. 14° 10!.

TFERNEBO, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Gattricia ; 25 miles S. of Gaffe.

FERNEL, Joun, in Biography, a phyfician of the fix-
teenth century, and a member of the faculty of Paris,
greatly diltinguifhed by his learning and talents. Accord-
ing to the beit authority, for there is fome contradiction
among his biographers, Fernel was boen at Clermont, in the
year 1497. He received. the greater part of his education

\yat a grammar-{chool of that place, under the eye of his pa-
rents; for it was not until the nineteenth year of his aye
that his ardent thirlt after knowledge led him to procure
the permiffion of his father to profecute his ftudies in Paris.
He diftinguifhed himfelf fo greatly among his fellow-itudents
in philofophy, that, after having taken the degreee of matter
of arts, he was requelted to undertake the profeflorfhip of
DialeGtics in his college (St. Barbe’s.) This led him to
a ferious and profound courfe of ftudy, in order to the pra-
fecution of which he renounced all feciety and recreation ;

Vou. XTV.

FER
and his labours were only arrefted by a quartan-ague, with
which he was feized, and which compelled him io fly to his
native province for the reftoration of his health. On his
retuy to Paris,,when he had determined to choofe medicine
for his profeflion, the narrownefs of his father’s finances com~
pelled him to take fome meafures for fubliftence daring his
itudy of that {cience; and he taught philofophy in the chair
of the college of St. Barbe, and was admitted to the degree
of bachelor in medicine (the duties of the profeflorfhip not
impeding bis ftudies) in 1528. In the year 1530, at the
age of 33, he arrived at the do¢iorate, and fettled in Paris.
His pathion for the mathematics, even after he married in
1732; had nearly proved ruinous to his family; when he
lilteied to the advice of his father-in-law, aud refumed the
ftudy and practice of medicine, becoming at the fame time
a teacher of that fcience in the College de Cornouailles in
1536. He foon obtained a moft extenfive fame, and a la-
borious practice, in which he was unufually fuccefsful, info-

much that he had fearcely time for his ordiwary repafts, and
often took his meals without fitting. He was diitinguified

among his brethren by his boidnefs in prefuming to queftion
the dogmas of Galen, in which the molt inplicit and bigot-
ted confidence was univerfally placed. In 1542 he was
put upon the eitabliihment of the Dauphin, Henry, and
was made perfonal phyfician to that prince foon after he
came to the throne. He had hoped hy this change of life
to obtain leifure for the profecution of his favourite ftudies ;
but the wars which Henry II. carried on with the Englith
and Spaniards compelled him to march at the head of his
army, and Fernel foliowed him. But evenamid the agitations
of a military and reitlefs life, at the age of fixty, Fernelfeldom
pafiedaday without writing. It was in one of thefe marches
that he commenced his treatife on Fevers, which was indeed
almoft completed, when the king retook Calais from the
Englifh on the rft of January, 1558. On his return from
this expedition, Fernel followed the court to Fontaisebleau,
taking with him his wife, who, being hitherto accuftomed
to a quiet and ftationary life, and chagrined at this fepara-
tion trom her family and conneétions, fell into a fever, in
the courfe of a few days, which terminated fatally, on the
zoth day of the difeafe. The fhock which this blow gave
to Fernel was fo great, that in twelve days afterwards, he
was himfelf feized with a fimilar fever, which carried him
off on the 26:h of April, 1558, in the fixty-fecond year of
his age, to the univerial regret of the metropolis.

The titles of the works of Fernelius, as he is called in
his Latin treatife, are, 1. « Monalofpherium partibus conftans
quatuor, &c.’’ Paris, 1526. 2. * De Proportionibus, libri
duo,” ibid. 1528. . 3. ** Cofmo-theoria Libros duos com-
plexa,” ibid. 1528. 4. “ De naturali parte Medicinz;
libri feptem,”? ibid. 1532. 5. ‘* De vacuandi ratione,
liber,”? ibid. 1545. 6. ‘© De abditis rerum caufis, bbri
cuo,” ibid. 1548. This work underwent nearly thirty
fublequent editions. 7. “ Medicina, ad Henrictim IT. &c.”?
1554. This collection has been itili more frequently res
printed, with fome changes of the title. 8, * Therapeutices
univerfalis, feu medendi rationis libri feptem,”? Lugduni,
1659. 6, ‘* Confiliorum Medicinalium liber,” Paris;
1582. Many times reprinted. 10. ‘ Febrium curandarum
methodus generalis,”” Francfort, 1577. A pofthumous
work. 11. © De Luis veneree curatione periectiflima li-
ber,”? Antwerp, 1579. Edited by Giffelin, a phyfician of
Bruges. Some other parts of his works have been tranflated,
or edited feparately fince his death, Eloy remarks, that as
many things taken from the Arabian writers are found in
the works of Fernel, and as the elegant Latinity in which he

Pp ; has

FER

has repeated them is generally admired, the following bon
mot hasbeen applied to him; ‘* Faces Arabum melle Lati-
nitatts condidit.’’

FERNELIA, in Botany, fo named by Commerfon, pro-
bably in honour of fome ove of his countrymen or acquaint-
ances, but it does not appear from whom. Juffl. r99. La-
marck t. 67. f.1. Clafs and order, Ve/randria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Rudbiacee.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of four equal teeth.
Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped; tube the léngth of the
ealyx; limb {preading, in four equal broad fegments. Stam.
Filaments four, very fhort, inferted into the top of the tube;
anthers ereét, oblong, furrowed, half as long as the limb, at
Jength reeurved. Pi/#. Germen inferior, globular; ilyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma obtafe.
Peric. Berry crowned with the calyx, of two cells, the
partitions not reaching quite acrofs, but their central part
1s (according to Juffien) fupplied by a receptacle bearing
the feeds. Seeds numerous.

Eff. Ch. | Corolla of one petal, funnel-fhaped, fuperior.
Anthers nearly feflile, in the mouth of the corolla. Berry
of two cells, with many feeds.

Obf. ‘This genus differs from Catefsia in its fhort fila-
ments and the place of their infertion. How far itis diftingt
from Randia, (now made a Gardenia,) except in number,
which is of fma!l or no importanee, may admit of much
doubt. Juffieu allows their fruit to be fimilarly conftruéted.
We merely notice it here for future confideration.

Two {pecies are deferibed.

1. F. duxifolia, Lamarck, Encycl. v. 2.432. Illuit. 287.
« Segments of the corolla obtufe. Berry globofe.”” A
much-branched fhrub or tree, found in the ifland of Mau-
ritius, where it is called Bois de Buis, or Faux Buis, Falfle
Box, from the refemblance of its leaves to common Box.
It has no thorns. The flowers are whitifh, axillary, two or
three together, on fhort, fimple, filky italks, with a bell-
fhaped, toothed braétea, like a fecond calyx to each. Co-
rolla fearcely half an inch long. Berry the fize of a black
currant. Lamarck reckons two varieties; but thefe appear
to us merely the fame plant, gathered at two different fea-
fons of the year, that in fruit having larger leaves.

2. F.obovata. Lamarck, Iluit. 287. t.67.f.1. Seg-
ments of the corolla acute. Berry oval.’? Native of the
fame country, according to Lamarck, from whom alone we
have any knowledge of this -fpecies. What he has aflo-
ciated with it in his plate, is an altered copy of Petefia Ly-
giflum from Brown’s Jamaica, t. 3.3 but has fet this right
in his letter-prefs.

FERNERA, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Culmbach; 12 miles W.S.W. of Culmbach.
. FERNESS, a cape, and alfo a bay on the W. coatt of
Eda, one of the Orkney iflands. N. lat. 59° 2’) W. long.
243!.

FERNEY, a {mall, regular, well built town, pleafantly
fituated near the lake of Geneva, with a handfome feat,
celebrated for being the refidence of Voltaire, at the inter-
fe&tion of two high-ways, the one leading from Switzerland
to Lyons, and the other from the Franche-Comte to Geneva,

FERNITE, a town of the duchy of Stiria; eight miles
S.E. of Gratz.

FERNS, a fmall poft town in the county of Wexford,
Ireland, which is a bifhop’s fee, united to Leighlin. For
an account of the united bifhopricks, fee Lricuiin. The
bifhop’s relidence is at a handfome and convenient palace
lately ere€ted in Ferns. This town is 54 miles fouth from
Dublin.. Beaufort’s Memoir.

FE'R

FEROE, or Farorr, //ands, are fituated in the North
fea, between Ne lat. 61° 15’ aad 62° 21'; and with rerard
to longitude, the town of Thorfhern lies 19° 15! 15” W.
from Copenhagen, and 9° 47’ 45” E. from Teneriffe, They
are eighty-four miles diitant trom the coaft of Norway on
the ealtern fide, and forty-five miles from the Shetland ifles
towards the fouth-weft.. It is not improbable, that the
free-booters, who at one time infelted mott of the northern
feas, firit difcovered the way to thefe iflands, where they
introduced fheep, in order to fupply them with provifions
in their frequent cruizes. In the time of Harald Harfager,
king of Norway, that is, in the ninth century, thefe
iflands were inhabited by fome pian bP es
who for a long time fupported themfelves by piracy and
occafional incurfions inte their original country, Norway,
Thefe people, it is reafonably fuppofed. were firlt fubjeéted
to the Norwegian dominion by king Hagen Adelftein, but
they foon threw off the yoke, and tnaintamed their freedom,
till they were again reduced to obedience by king Magnus
the Good; after which ‘period thefe iflands belonged to
Norway, till they became a part of Denmark by the union
of the two crowns. Chriftianity was introduced into thefe
iflands foon after its eitablifhment in Denmark, A. D.
10023; and they were thought worthy of a particular
bifhop, who was appointed to refide in the ifland of
Stromoe. The Norwegians are fuppofed to have given
them the name of Feroe, from the number of fheep which
they found in them; /aar, in Danifh, fignifying fheep, and
oe an ifland; others, however, conceive, that the name is
derived from fer, feathers, an article with which they have
always abounded ; or from fier, or fiem, far diftant-. Thefe
iflands are in number twenty-two, feventeen of which are
inhabited. They occupy in a direétion from N. to S. fif-
teen miles; extend in breadth from E. to W. ten miles 5.
and contain altogether nearly 23% {quare miles. hey
confift of a group of fteep rocks or hills, rifing from the
fea, chiefly of a conical form, and placed for the moft part
clofe to each other, fome of which proceed with an even
declivity to the fhere; but the greater part of thefe decli-
vities has two, or three, or more floping terraces, formed’
by projecting rocks, and covered with a thin ftratum of
earth, which produces grafs. Clofe to the fea, however,
the land in general confilts of perpendicular rocks, from
two to three hundred fathoms in height. The highelt of
thefe hills is Shzllins, in the fouthern part of Nordftromoe,
being two thoufand two hundred and forty Englifh feet
high. The hills lie fo clofe to each other, that they are
feparated merely by a brook or rivulet ; and between them
there are no vallies of any extent. In the higher ground,
however, between their fanittiates are a few dales, covered
with wretched grafs. The rocks in general confift of
trav, much intermixed with feld-fpar, glimmer and fmalf
grains of zeolites. No certain traces of any crater or
figns of volcanic eruptions are found here; nor does there
feem to be any pumice-ftone or lava, unlefs bafaltes, of
which there are feveral columns, belongs to that kind of
produ€tion. The Feroe iflands contain a great many
itreams and rivulets, which are generally fordable and fur-
nifh trout. Tout is alfo caught in fome frefh water lakes
between the hills. After rain thefe hills prefent a number
of water-falls, the moft remarkable of which is Fofaa, be-
tween Qualvig and Halderfvig, in Nordftromoe. Thefe
lands abound alfo in fprings, which are of two kinds,
cold and warm; of the latter, the moft remarkable is
Vermakielde in Ojtarve. The Feroe iflands which are in-
habited are feventeen, and form feven parifhes: their names are

I ~ Fugloe,

en

FER

Fugloe, Swinoe, Videroe, Bordoe, Konoe, Kalfoe, Oftar-
‘ve, Stromoe, Kolder, Hattoe, Nulfoe, Vaagoe, Myggeness
Sandoe, Skuve, the greater Dimon, and Suderoe. Bordoe
is feparated by anarrow channel from Videroe, and is little
more than 23 miles long, and at its greateft. breadth 1
mile. It has fever villages. For the other iflands, fee their
refpetive articles. In thefe iflands there is no want of
good harbours and anchoring places ; but chere is fome diffi-
culty in obtaining pilots. ‘The currents round and between
the iflands are rapid and ftrong, efpecially three days before
and three days after new and full moons. There are feve-
ral whirlpools at fome diftance from the fhores. The furf
which prevails round thefe iflands is very remarkable, and
in winter and the early part of {pring it exhibits a wonder-
ful and awful {peétacle. As the Feroe iflands lie in the la-
titude of 62°north, the fun, during the three furmmer months,
is {carcely four hours beneath the horizon, fo at that time
there ts no night; at leaft there is light fufficient for
enabling a perfon to read and write. But in winter the
days are fo much fhorter, and would be exceedingly dark, if
the deficiency of light were not in fome meafure fupplied by
the morning and evening twilight. The heat, notwith-
fianding the high latitude, is more temperate in fummer,
and the cold lefs fevere in winter than in the more fouthern
provinces of. Denmark ; the fea round the coatt never freezes ;
and the caufe of this mildnefs of the winter is the vicinity of
the fea. The weather in Feroe is never uniform, and the
barometer is exceedingly variable. Thefe iflands have lain
under the imputation of being foggy and unhealthy ; but
though the firft charge may be true, the fecond is not
fo well founded. The winds and hurricanes in the Feroe
iflands are fo violent among the hills and rocks, as to in-
{pire the traveller with terror. Thunder is not fo common
as in Denmark; but the northern lights are often feen,
particularly in the winter. Thefe iflands are at prefent al-
molt entirely dettitute of wood, but this does not appear to
have been formerly the cafe. Attempts have been made at
different times to introduce wood, by planting bufhes and
trees of various kinds, but they have been for the moft part
attended with little fuccefs. The black cattle here are f{mall,
and little or no trade is carried onin this article. The cows
are much negleéted and ill fed; and of courle yield litue
milk. The Feroe heifers are fmall, with thick drooping
heads; they are generally of a fox colour, and fome few are
almoft black. Little attention is paid to them. Sheep,
of which one peafant will fometimes poflefs two or three
hundred, are the principal riches of thefe iflanders; their
ficfh affords them food: their wool clething = and of the re-
mainder, after their own wants are fupplied, they manufac-
ture articles of commerce. The fheep remain out fummer
and winter, without ever heing houfed ; and on this account
many of them are loft. Dometic cats are common, fome of
which become wild ; and dogs are very ufeful to the peafants,
as they affift them in the care of their fheep. It would extend
this detail too much to enumerate the variety of their fow!
and filth. Geefe were formerly more abundant than they are
now; but thefe iflands have various kinds of ducks, the
moft remarkable of which, on account of its valuable pro-
duétion isthe eider duck. See Erper-down.

One great fource of fubfiltence to thefe iflanders is the fea
fowl which abound on the coaft, and which are caught either
by dragging them out of their holes, or by another method,
for which a bird- pole, witha peculiarapparatus, is employed.
The operation is fingularly adventurous, and attended with
danger, among the high and fleep rocks, which the bird-
takers climb, or from which they are fulpended by ropes.

The catching of feals is alfo of great importanee to the inha-

FER

bitants of thefe iflands. The fithery at Feroe, however, is
much declined ; at one time fifh was an important article of
food and of commerce ; but thefe have now almoft entirely
deferted the coaft. The kinds of fith caught in falt water
are the torfk, halibut, and cod. The whale fishery is peri-
odical, and does not now take place fo often as formerly ;
but where it is carried on it produces great advantage to
thefe iflands. Small whales come to Feroe in fhoals of
from one hundred to one thoufand ; and when it is confider-
ed that each fifth in general yields one cafk of train oil,
which fells for nine rix-dollars, the value of one fithing will
amount to from nine hundred to one thoufand rix dollars,
befides the benefit which the natives derive from the fith
itfelf, which, if not employed for making oil, affords
agreeable and wholefome food. See WHALE-FISHERY.

In Feroe there are no frogs, toads, lizards, {nakes, or
ferpents, and no amphibious animal of any kind.

‘The natives of Feroe are, in general, handfome and well-
made. In the colour of their hair there is confiderable
variety. Their complexion exhibits a healthful mixture of
red and white, acquiring a brownifh caft in hot fummers,
whilft they are employed in procuring turf. Their features
are never disfigured by the fmall-pox, for this difeafe has not
yet become endemial in thefe iflands. The natives of the
Southern iflands, though their whole extent be only 15 miles,
are of lefs ftature, have round faces, {peak precipitately,
and appear to be much livelier in their actions ; whereas the
natives of the Northern iflands are in general taller, have
more lengthened countenances, {peak flower, and are much
graver in their whole deportment. The women are, for
the moit part, exceedingly pretty and well-proportioned ;
many of the people are inclined to be phlegmatic ; but
they poffefs great fenfibility. They are of a religious
difpofition; and when, ona Sunday, they cannot have the
benefit of a clergyman’s fervices, they meet in church, fing
pfalms, hear the fervice read by one among themfelves, and
alfo a fermon. They are peaceable among themfelves ; affa-
ble and friendly in their difpofition; and alfo, according to
their means, hofpitable, kind and benevolént.. They are alfo
honeft in all their dealings with one another, and humane
and compaffionate towards ftranzers. "The language of
Feroe coniifts, in great part, of old Danifh, or rather
Norwegian words; which, by a corrupted pronunciatron,
has aflumed a foreign appearance. However moft of the
inhabitants of thefe iflands underftand the Danith language,
in which the Chriftian religion is taught. This aecoun
of the Feroe iflands we have extraéted, in an abridged ftate,
from the Athenzum ; in which periodical publication ar
anonymous writer has made copigus extracts from
munications of a Danifh clergyman «
veral years, and who had the bet «
ng himfelf with their fituation, +
as with their produ€tions, and t

the inhabitants.

rho. refide
vituraty

FEROENSIS Marea, in Natural Hi fory, 2 name
given by fome authors, to a marley earth, found principal-
ly in the Affures and cavities of ftone, aud called he ge-

nerality of later naturalifts, agaricus mineralis, and lac lune ;
and by the ancients, terra, or creta [eleneufiaca. See Lac.
lune. .
FEROKABAD, in G 1g aphy, a town of Hindoolan,
on the coalt of Malabar; to miles S. of Calicut.
bEROL, a fea-port and good harbour of Peru, on the
coalt of the Pacific, ocean, in the archbifhopric of Lima,
70 miles §.S.E. of Truxillo. S. lat. 9’. W. lox 226
FEROLITA, in Boteny, Aud]. Guian. Suppl. 7. t. 372-
Juli 2, /ub Paring A tree of Geiana, of whicli the
»

4 p2 ower

ER

flowers are tnknown to botanifts. The fruit is a compref-
‘fed, roundifh, rugged, bordered drupa, not very flefhy, with
acompreffed nut of two cells, with one feed in each, but it
often happens that only one cell perfects its feed. The
trunk is 40 or 50 feet high, bearing numerous branches at
the top, the ultimate ones very flender. Leaves two inches
long, alternate, on {hort ftalks, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed,
entire. Fruit in terminal bunches. The bark of the tree is
fmooth and afh-coloured, milky when wounded. The heart
‘ef the wood is a kind of fattin wood, hard and heavy, red
variegated with yellow, taking a fine polifh. It is fometimes
‘called bois de Ferole, from a name of a former governor of
Cayenne, who firft introduced it as an article of commerce.

Juffieu fufpeéts this tree may be generically allied to the
Parinari of Aublet, t. 204—206. Petrocarya of Schreber.
They agree in the drupa of two cells, and are not diflimilar
in habit.

FEROLLI, in Geography, cape or point, a cape on the
W. coaft of Newfoundland, N.of St. John’s bay. N. lat.
$1° 2! W. lon. 74° 52.

FERONIA, in Mytholosy, derived from fer0, to bring
relief, or from the town Teronia, near mount Soracte, was,
according to Servius, the patronefs of the enfranchifed
flaves, to whom were prefented many offerings ; this goddefs
being in high veneration through all Italy. Servius fuppo-
fe; her to be the fame with the virgin Juno, and this fup-
pofition is countenanced by an ancient infcription quoted
by Fabretti, and éxpreffed in thefe terms, “ Junoni Peron.”
The Romans appropriated to this goddefs the care of the
woods and orchards. She had a temple at the foot of mount
Sora&te, where an annual facrifice was offered to her; and
it has been faid that thofe who were fully infpired by this
goddefs walked bare-footed upon coals without being burat,
or fuffering any harm. Horace in one of his fatires (1. i.
fat 5.) mentions the homage that was paid to this divinity,
in wafhing the face and hands, aceording to cuftom, in the
facred fountain which flowed near her temple.

Frronia, in Botany, after a goddefs to w hom the
ancients dedicated forelts. Correa Tr. of L. Soc. v. 5.
224. Clafs and Order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Aurantia Jail.

Cen.’ Ch Gal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall, flat,
in five deep fegments, deciduous. Cor. Petals five, oblong,
acute, {preading, much longer than the calyx. Stam. Fila-
ments ten, inferted into the ‘receptacle, awl-fhaped, erect,
fhorter than the petals, broad and compreffed, as well as
very hairy, at the bafe: anthers ere, ovate. Pz/?. Germen
fuperior, nearly ovate ; ftyle fhort, conical; ftigma bluntith,
notched. Peric. Berry of five cells, globular, with a tough
roughifh coat. Seeds very numerous, in fimple rows,
attached to the central receptacle.

Eff, Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five.
Berry fuperior, of five cells. Seeds numerous. Stigma
notched.

The only known {pecies is

F. clephantum. Roxb. Coromand. v, 2. 21. t. 141.
Elephant apple. A native of moft woods and mountainous
parts of India, flowering, according to Dr. Roxbureh,
during both the hot and cold feafons, and ripening fruit in
hot and rainy weather. It forms a large tree, with a deeply
cracked bark, from which, when wounded, iffues a beautiful
tran{parent gum, excellent for water-colours. The wood
is white, hard and durable, but fplits in the fun. Pulpy
part of the fruit univerfally eaten by the inhabitants of the
eoaft of Coromandel. The dranches ave thorny. Leaves pin-
nate, of about {even obovate, entire, fmooth, oppotite leaflets.

Floqwers in terminal and axillary clufters, white tinged with

FER

purple. Fruit the fize of an orange; greenith. ‘Some
flowers have an abortive piftil.

FEROSEPOUR, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan,

‘in Moultan, on the Setledge; 48 miles S. of Lahore,

N. lat. 31° 5! E. long. 73° 50’.

FERRACINO, Bae ue ne, in Biography, was
born at Baffano in Vicentin, in 1692, of parents fo hum-
ble, that in early life he was engaged in fawing wood as the
means of a livelihood. Having a natural genius for mecha~
nics, he foon invented a faw that was worked by the wind,
and which he rendered fo perfeét, as to perform his work
with expedition and accuracy, without much manual ex-
ertion. Succefs in one invention foon led him to make ex-
periments in other branches of bufinefs, in which he like-
wife fucceeded ; he made clocks in iron; and invented fome
ufeful hydraulic machines ; of thefe, one was formed on the
principle of Archimedes’s fcrew, which raifes water to a
confiderable height. His chief work was the noble bridge
over the river Brenta, at Bafflano, which is greatly admired
for boldnefs of conception, and folidity of conftruétion
Ferracino died foon after he had completed this undertakin i
His life was publifhed in 1764, by M. F. Memo, in ane

who has entered pretty largely into his labours and inventions

Nouv. Dic. Hitt.

FERRAND, Lewis, was born at Toulon in 1645.
where he received the elements of -a learned education but
he finifhed his ftudies at Lyons. He was originally intended
for the law, but he gave early proofs of attachment to
biblical literature and theology, by publifhing, when he was
but nineteen years of age, “ A paraphrafe on the feven peni-
tentiary Pfalms.” Tuthe following year he went to Mentz
with 1 view of employing all his powers in a new tranflation
of the bible from the Hebrew. His zeal being now checked
by the want of encouragement, he returned to France
applied himfelf to the law, took his degrees at Orleans, and
was admitted an advocate of the parliament of Paris. In 1 ley
he hi Rides ay tS ofa planof annalsof the kings
of France and the Ottoman empefors : in 16 bli
«“ Reflections on the Chriitian "Religie. aie oe
nations of the Prophecies of Jacob and Daniel relatin 4
the advent of the Meffiah,”’ in two vols. abounding in sca
curious chronological and hiftorical matter. For this work
on account of itshigh merit, he obtained a penfion of Boe
livres. M. Ferrand died in 1699, having publifhed man
other works befides thofe which have been referred “J
aloft entirely on theology. The laft labour in which he
was engaged was entitled ** A collection of Differtations
&c. on the Bible, in the Latin language,” only one aaiirae
of which was publified during his life. He left behind him
a great mafs of MSS. on various topies ; of thefe, one was
committed to the prefs, entitled « Of the knowledgeof God.”
He was efteemed by his contemporaries a very able, and
very learned man; and he was unguettionably molt indefati a-
ble in whatever he undertook. Moreri. sa
_ FERRANDUS, furnamed Fulgentius, who flourifhed
in the (xth century, was an African by birth, anda difciple
of St. Fulgentius. When that prelate was banifhed ‘s
the Arians to Sardinia, Ferrandus accompanied him ; uh
on his return he was chofen deacon of the church of Car-
thage, when he entered with much zeal isto the neltion
which was the fubje&t of warm difcuffion.at that dane whe:
ther it could be faid that one of the perfons of the Tiinie '
fuifered on the crofs.”? Ferrandus died about the year if
lewing behind him many works that were hist Haceehs
cf by his contemporaries. ‘Che moft confiderable was aN
ColleGion of Eeclefiaftical Canons,”” for reftoring difciplire
in the churches of Africa. This isone of the moft anne

colle&tions

is:

and wealth.

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collections of canons among the Latins. It confifts of between

- two-and three hundred abridged from the councils of Africa,
-Ancyra, Laodicea, Nice, Antioch, &c.

A life of Fulgen-
tius has alfo been afcribed to Ferrandus, but by fome au-
thors it has been afcribed to another of the prelate’s pupils.
Moreri,

FERRAR, Rosert, was an eminent divine, born at Ha-
lifax, in the county of York, at which place he received the

“rudiments of his education; for its completion he was fent

to Cambridge, and afterwards was admitted ad eundem into
the univerfity of Oxford. Having early embraced the doc-

‘trines of the Reformers, and in their defence difplayed a con-
‘fiderable portion both of learning and zeal; he was patro-

nized by archbifhop Cranmer, who appointed him one of
his chaplains, and fubfequently procured for him the
bifhopric of St. Dayid’s. During the regency of
Edward VI. he fell into difgrace at court, on fufpicion of

‘his entertaining heretical opinions, and was put in con-
‘finement on charges falfely preferred again{t him, as was

fubfequently proved; for in the reign of Mary he fo far
diflinguifhed himfelf in the Proteftant canfe, as to excite the
vengeance of the infatiate perfecutor of truth, bifhop Gar-
diner ; by whom Ferrar was fummoned to recant his errors,

and, perfifting in his refufal to comply, was condemned

as an heretic, and burnt at the ftake in the town of
Caermarthen, South Wales; where an inferibed monument
fill records the fanguinary tranfa&tion, and défignates the

{pot on which the pious prelate fuffered martyrdom in the

year1555- Fox’s Arts and Monuments.

FERRARA, in Geography, a city of Italy, and capital of
the exarchate of the Lower Po, fituated on a branch of the Po,
on the frontiers of the Venetian ftates. Fortified by Smarag-

“dus, exarch of Ravenna in 585, it was ereéted into a

bifhopric by pope Vitalian in the year 657, and in 735 it
was made an archbifhopric. It was afterwards enlarged,
and became celebrated under the princes of the houfe of
Elte; but having loft its dukes it declined in magnificence
It is about four miles in circumference, and
defended by a citadel, {trong walls, and baitions. The
ftreets are handfome, and it has many magnificent palaces
and churches They reckon, befides the cathedral, which

“Is ancient, 100 churches, 38 convents, and about 14,000 in-

habitants. The air in its environs is unwholefome on ac-
count of the marfhes that encompals it: Ariofto lies buried
in the Benediétine convent, and in the hofpital of St. Ann
Taflo was cofifined as anidiot. Its univerlity was founded
in 1390 by Albert, marquis of Ferrara; 42 miles S.E. of
Mantua. N. lat. 44° 51’. E. long. 11° 35’.
FERRARESE, late a province of Italy, in the ftate of
the church, is bounded on the N. by the Polefino, on the E.
by the eulf of Venice, on the S. by the Romagna and
Bolognele, and on the W. by the Mantuan and Modenefe.
The whole country is fertile, but low and marfhy, being
often overflowed by the waters of the Po. After pafling
from the houfe of Efte, to which it was granted by the em-
peror Frederic IT. to the {late ofthe church, it now con-
flitutes the department of the Lower Po, being ceded by the
pope in 1797. It has few towns, being badly cultivated,
and thinly inhabited. The chief places are Ferrara and
Comachio. ;
FERRARI, Joun Martuew, in Biography, known by
the furname of De Gradilus, or De Grado, from the villa in
‘whichhe was born, in the Milanefe, was one of the molt expert
hyficians of histime. He practifed medicine at Milan, whence
he was invited to Pavia, to occupy the medical chair in that
univerfity, an appointment which he fulfilled with great

applaufe. He was alfo phyfician to Maria Bianchi Vif-

FER
conti, duchefs of Milan, He died in 1480. He hae left

three large works, which have been frequently reprinted,
The firt is «A Commentary on Rhafes ;’? the fecond is
entitled ‘* Expofitiones fuper vizefimam fecundam Fen 3tiz.
Canonis Avicennz ;?’and the third alfo “A ColleGtion of the
Opinions of Avicenna, and Rabbi Moytes. ’

Ferrari, OTTAVIANO, was born at Milanin 1518, and
having purfued a regular courfe of ftudies, he was made pro-
feffor of moral philofophy and politics in the Canobian
college, a-polt which he occupied eighteen years. He was
afterwards profeffor at Padua, or Pavia, but returned to
Milan, where he died in'1586. He was intimate with the
moft eminent fchclars of his time; and publifhed an intro-
duétion to the Ariftotelian philofophy, entitled ** De difci-
plina Encyclica;”? and another work, ‘De fermonibus
Exotericis,”” which treats on the exoteric books of Ariftotle.
But his moft valuable work is “ De Origine Romanorum,”’
devoted to the detection of the forgeries of Annius of
Viterbo. He tranflated Athenzus into Latin, and wrote
notes upon Arittotle. Moreri.

Ferrari, Lewis, inventor of the fir method of refolving
biquadratic equations, was born at Bologna about the year
1520. He ftndied mathematics under the celebrated Car-
dan, who, having had a problem given him for folution,
gave it his pupil as an exercife of his ingenuity. This led
to the difcovery of a new method of analyfis, which is pre-
cifely that of biquadratics. Cardan publifhed this method,
and affigned the invention to its real author, and, but for
this liberal conduét of the mafter, the pupil, for want of.
publifhing any thing himfelf, would have been unknown to
polterity. At the age of eighteen he was appointed a tutor
in arithmetic, and was equal to the tafk of difputing with
the moit diftinguifhed mathematicians of his own age. He
was afterwards appointed profeffor of mathematics at Bo-
logna, where he died in 1565. Ferrari was an excellent
claffical feholar, a good geographer, and well verfed in the
principles of architecture. He was, however, addiéted to
altrology. Hutton’s Math. Di&. Moren.

Ferrari, Francis Bernarpin, was born at Milan m
1577- He was educated in his native city, attra€ted the no-
tice, and acquired the patronage of archbifhop Borromeo, who,
having projected a grand library at Milan, appointed Ferrari to
travel through different parts of Europe to purchafe the
belt books and MSS. that could be obtained. With this
view he vifited S; aii aad Italy, and procured a vaft numberof
valuable works, which laid the foundation of the Anibrofiaa
library. To this inftitution he was appointed the librarian,
and created do&tor. In 1638 he was nominated director-of
the college of Nobles, then recently ere€ted at Padua, but
the ftate of his health obliged him to refign that fituation in
lefs than two years. He returned to Milan, where he died
in 1699, having attained to the ninety-fecond year of his
age. He left behind him numerous works in ecclefiaftical
and profane antiquities in an unfinifhed ftate. His chief
publications'are, ‘* De Antiquo: Ecclefiafticarum Epiftola-
rum genere,”’ lib, ii. Milan, 1613, gto. ‘*-De Ritu Sacra-
rum Eccl. Catholz Concionum,’? lib. iti. Milan, 1620. 4to.
which was afterwards reprinted by Grevius; and “ De
Ritu Veterum Acclamationibus et Plaufu,”? lib. vii. ; thisalfo
is reprinted in the fixth volume of Grevius’s Rom. Antiq.
Ferrari was author likewife of “A Treatife on the Funer is
of Chriftians.””

Frrrari, Orravro, was born at Milan in 1607, and fo
quickly did he eftablifh his literary reputation, that. at
twenty years of age he was chofen profeffor of eloqueuce in
the Ambrofian college. In 1684 he occupied the fame
poit in the univerfity of Padua, where he was alfo appointed’

2 profeffor,

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pfofeflor of the Greek language, and by his-means that fe-
minary was reftored to its ancient fplendour, On account
of lis extraordinary fervices he received a ftipend of two
thoufand florins; for a panegyric in praife of queen Chrif-
tina he was rewarded with a golden collar, value one thou-
fand ducats, and another, publifhed in honour of
Lewis XIV., obtained him a penfion of 5co crowns for five
years. He was appointed hiftoriographer to the city of
Milan, and compofed eight books of its hiftory, but either
the want of neceflary documents, or the fear of offending
the houfe of Auttria, or his benefaétor the king of France,
caufed him to leave his papers unfinifhed. He was well
known as an antiquary, and publifhed feveral learned works
on that fubjeét, thefe are “De re veftiaria,”’ to which he
added © AnaleGta,”’ and differtations «De Lucernis Sepul-
chralibus Veterum,’? “De Pantomimis et Minis,’’ ‘De
Balneis et Gladiatoribus.”” He died in 1684. Moreri.

Ferrari, Joun Baptist, a native of Sienna, deeply
learned in the Oriental languages, publifhed, in 1622, a Syriac
digtionary, with a view of furnifhing biblical fcholars with
fuch Syriac words as occur inthe feriptures. It is well and
highly fpoken of by Simon and Labbe. He was author of
«Flora, feu de florum cultura ;” alfo of ‘ Hefperides, five
de Malorum Aureorum cultura et ufu.’? He died in 1655.
Moreri, Sce Freararia.

Ferrari, Puirir, was an Italian monk, who flourifhed
in the 17th century, and taught mathematics in the uni-
verfity of Pavia. He recommended himfelf to the efteem of
feveral popes, as Clement VIII., Paul V., and Urban VIIL.,
and was twice general, and twice vice general of his order.
He was author of *Typographia in Martyrologium Ro-
manorum,” “ Epitome Geograp. lib. iv.,”” but his princi-
pal production was his ‘* Lexicon Geographicum,” which
has been frequently reprinted. _ Moreri.

Ferrari, Benepetro, of Reggio in the Modenefe
fate, {pent the chief part of his life at Venice, where,
though the inhabitants of that city cultivated and encou-
raged the drama with more diligence and zeal than any
other city in Europe, during the latter part of the 17th
century, and the beginning of the laft, yet they were not
very early in its eftablifhment ; as the firft regular opera or
drama fet to mufic which was performed at Venice after the
invention of recitative was ‘* Andromeda,’”’ written by Bene-
detto Ferrari, and fet to mufic by Francefco Minelli of Ti-
voli, in 1637. Fervari was himfelf a celebrated performer
on the lute, an able poet, and a good mufician; who, col-
leG&ting together’ a company of the bett fingers in Italy,
brought this opera on the ftage in the theatre of S. Caffiano,
at his own expence, ina very fumptuous manner. An ex-
traordinary initance of f{pirit and enterprife in a private in-
dividual of moderate fortune, to vie with princes in an exhi-
bition of which they only could fupport the {plendour.
(Le Glorie della Poef. et-della Muf.) Ferrari was not only
qualified in an eminent degree for directing fuch enterprifes,
but for fupplying the principal materials ; from. his excellent

rformance on the lute, he was very early ityled Ferrari
della Tiorba. He was a poet, acompofer, and a finger in
his own dramas. For five {ucceeding years, he annnally pro-
duced an opera, which being colle¢ted into volumes in
165x, the printer informs the reader, that Benedetto had
ftill twelve more mufical operas to give to the public. In
1638, «La Maga Fulminata,” bythe fame poet and mulician,
was exhibited at the expence and rifk of Ferrariand of five
or tix of the performers, in a very fumptuous and magni-
ficent manner, though the expence. did not amount to more
than 2000 crowns. A fum which, at prefent, (fays the
,author of The Glory. of Poetry.aud Muiic,’’ 1730) is hardly

FER

fufficient to-fatisfy the demands of an ordinary finger, But
at this time the performers either fhared in the profits, or
were content with a moderate falary ; public fingers being
then but feldom wanted, and that only in the capital cities
of Italy; whereas, at prefent, dramatic reprefentatioys
abound in villages. Ferrari was author of both words and
mulic of two operas, “ Armida,” in 1639, and ‘ Il Paitor
Reggio”’ in 1640; it was, however, much eafier to fet thefe
dramas then than fince, as thefe operas preceded the inven-
tion of airs, the dialogue being only carried on in recitative,
till about the year 1649, when, inthe opera of ‘ Giafone,””
written by Cicognini, and fet by Cavalli, it is faid that the
grave recitative began firft to be interrupted by that ana-
creontic kind of ftanza which has fince been called aria.
Storia Criti. de Teatri del Dottor Napoli Sipnorelli.

FERRARIA, in Botany, fo named by Bane in the
Ephemerides of the Imperial Academy Nature Curioforum
for 1761, in honour of John Baptift Ferrari, a Jefuit, who
publifhed at Rome, in 1633, a quarto volume on the culture
of flowers, the pompous plates of which are faid to have been
drawn by Guido Reni and Pietro da Cortona. He pub-
lifhed alfo at Rome, in 164%, a {till more {plendid work,
in folio, on the culture of orange-trees. Linn. Gen. 465.
Schreb. 451. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 580. Juff. 57. Gawl.
in Ann, of Bot. v. 1. 241. Mart. Mill. Diét. vy. 2. Clafs
and order, Monadelphia Triandria. Nat. Ord. Enjate, Linn.
and Gawler. Jrides, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spatha ot feveral inflated leaves. Pe-
rianth none. Cor. of fix petals, regular, cohering by their
claws, reflexed, pointed, crifped, with involute points; the
three alternate ones rather the fmalleft. Stam. Filaments
three, united into a tube in their lower part, equal, {pread-
ing above; anthers didymous, two-celled. Pi? Germen
inferior, obovate, obtule, fomewhat triangular; ftyle thread-
fhaped, the length of the tlamens; ftigmas three, dilated,
petal like, cloven, deeply fringed, converging. Perc. Cap-
fule oblong, triangular, of three cells and three yalves;
partitions contrary tothe valves. Seeds numerous, roundifh,
In two rows, ;

Eff. Ch. Spatha inflated. Petals fix, regular, crifped
and fringed. Stigmas three, petal-like, fringed. Caplule
of three cells. Seeds roundifh, This genus is very pro-
perly reduced by Mr. Gawler to the original fpecies, and
another which he has defcribed, excluding F. Pavonia of
Linneus, and ixioides of Willdenow. Fe

1. F. undulata. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1353. Mill. Ic. t. 280.
Jacq. Hort. Vind.t.63. Curt. Mag. t. 144. (Flosindicur,
e violaceo fufcus, radice tuberofa; Ferrar. de Fl. Cultura
168. t. 171.) _“ Border of the corolla thrice as long
as the claws. Lobes of the anthers clofe.’? Native of the
Cape of Good Hope, cultivated by Miller at Chelfea in
1759- dit. Hort. Kew. v. 3.305. It flowers with us early
in the fpring, being kept ia a greevhoufe, like other Cape
bulbs. The eaves are equitant, fomewhat glaucous, inflated
at the bafe, and the floral leaves and f{pathas refemble them,
only being fhorter. he /’em is branched above, bearing
numerous, very tranfient flowers, of a fingular curled appear-
ance, variegated with purple and white, and bordered with
brown. ;

2. TP. autherofa. Gawl. in Curt. Mag. t. 951. (F. virj-
diflora; Andr. Repof.t. 285. FE. Ferrariola ; wad, Sp-
Pl. v. 3. 581. Morwa Ferrariola; Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 141.)
«© Claws of the corolla equal to the border. Lobes of the
anthers divaricated.”? Native of the Cape of Good Hope,
introduced by Mr. G. Hibbert in 1802. It much refembles
the former, but differs effentially in the greater length of
the claws of the peta/s, the fhape and greater fize of the

anthers,

FER

anthers, and the fligmas being more toothed at their bafe,
Gawler. ;

FERRARS, Georce, in Biogrephy, was born at St.
Albans about the year 1510. He ttudied at Oxford, and
from thence he removed to Lincoln’s-inn, and became a
diftinguifhed pleader in Weitminfter-hall. He was pa-
tronized by lord Cromwell, and obtained the favour of
Henry VILI. whom he attended in a military and civil ca-
pacity. In 1535 aconfiderable grant was made to him out
of the royal demefnes in Hertfordthire, but, notwithftanding
his ample income, want of economy brought his affairs into
fach a fituation, that, in 1542, while reprefentative for Ply-
miouth, he was arrefted for debt, and thrown into the
compter. He was, however, fet at liberty by virtue of pri-
vilege of parliament, and the officers concerned in his ar-
re{t were imprifoned for contempt of the powers and_pri-
vileges of a reprefentative of the people. In the reign of
Edward he accompanied the protector, Somerfet, to Scot-
land, as commiffioner of the army. He was afterwards
matter of the fports, at a feftivity held at Greenwich for
twelve days, in orderto amufethe king. This appointment
is fuppofed to have been occafioned by fome metrical ftories
of his compotition, inferted in the ‘* Mirror of Magiftrates,”’
the firlt edition of which appeared in 1559. Ferrars is {aid
to have been the author of ‘ The Hiitory of the Reign of
Queen Mary,”’ in the Chronicles publifhed under the name
of Richard Grafton. He publifhed a tranflation of Magna
Charta, from the French, into the Latin and Englifh, and
other laws enacted in the time of Henry III. and Edward I.
Mr. Ferrars died in 1579. Biog. Brit.

FERRATO Sasso, an hiftorical painter known under
that name, but whofe real name was Giovanni Battifta Salvi.
He derived the former appellation from being born at an
ancient caitle fo called, on the borders of the territory of
Urbino, in 1504. He went to Rome to ftudy the works
ot Raffaelle, then, as finee, the admiration of the world.
Francifco Penni affitted Salvi in his ftudies, who had obtained
great flill in copying: but his original works do not exhibit
much comprehention of mind. He died in 1590, at 86
years of age.

Ferraro, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the eaft coalt
of Sardinia... N. lat. 39°31’. E. long.9° 34".

_FERRATT, Care, or Cape Me/uff, a cape on the coaft
of Algiers. N. lat. 36° 9’.

FERRE, Cape, a cape on the S.E. coaft of Martinico.
N. lat. 14° 30!. W. long. 60° go’.

FERRE-ANAH, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis, was formerly, according to Dr. Shaw, the largett
city of Bizacium, though its ancient grandeur is exhibited
only ina few granite and other pillars, which the Arabs
have fuffered to remain. It was well: watered by a ftream
which ran under the walls, and by wells within the city,
encompaffed by a corridor, and vaulted ovér with cupolas.
The circumjacent country, however, is dry, barren, and in-
hofpitable, a want of water. Several circumf{tances lead
us to conclude that it was the ancient Thala, mentioned by
Tacitus, or Telepte ; andthat Thala and Telepte were the
fame; 130 miles S.W. of ‘Tunis.

FERREIN on the Vocal Organ, in Mufic. See Voice.

FERREIRA, in Geography, a town of Spaia, in Gra-
nada ; iix miles S.E. of Guadix.—Alfo, a town of Portugal,
in the province of Alentejo; 13 miles W. of Beja.

Ferreira des dves, atown of Portugal, in the province
of Beira; 15 miles N.E. of Vifeu.

FERREOLA, in Botany, from ferrum, iron, alluding
to the hardnefs of the wood. Roxb. Corom. y. 1. 35.

¢

F5E R
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2, Clafs and order,-Diecia Héxandricy
Nat..Ord. Guaiacane, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male Ca/. Perianth inferior, bell-fhaped,
three-cleft, permanent. Cor. of one petal, tubular; cut half
way down into three ereé& fegments, externally hairy. Stam.
Filaments fix, inferted into the receptacle, awl-fhaped, equal,
ereGt, the length of the corolla; anthers ereét, oblong,
Rudiment of a germen roundifh, abortive. Female Cai.
and Cor. like the male. Stam..none. Pi. Germen fu-
perior, ovate; ftyle fhort, columnar; ftigma three-cleft.
Peric. Berry round, of two cells. Seeds folitary, convex-on
one fide, flat on the other.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx three-cleft. Corolla tubular,
three-cleft. Female, Cal. and Cor as in the male. Berry
fuperior, of two cells. Seeds folitary.

Obf. Sometimes, according to Koenig, there are but
five {tamens.

1. F. duxifolia. Roxb. Corom. vy. 1.35. t. 45. (Ehretia
ferrea; Willd. Phytogr. fafc. 1. t. 2. f. 2.) Native of Co-
romandel, growing to the fize of a tree on the mountains,
but in the Low Countries it is but a fhrub. The wood is
dark, hard, aud durable, very ufeful where its {mall fize
does not preclude its ufe. Branches numerous, rigid, and
divaricated. Leaves not an inch long, on fhort ftalks, al-
ternate, obovate, entire, obtufe, emarginate, fmooth.
Flowers {mall, yellow, axillary, folitary, nearly feffile.
Berry the fize of a large pea, red, eatable,. and very good,
Roxburgh.

FERRER’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N. coaft
of Egmont ifland, or New Guernfey, with a town or village ;
five miles E. of Carteret point.

FERRERAS, Don, Joun pe, in Biography, a noble
Spaniard, born in the province of Aftorga in 1652, was
brought up with the monks, and became diftinguifhed for
pulpit eloquence. He twice refufed the honour of a bi-
fhopric, choofing rather the life of a literary man in the me-
tropolis, than the emoluments attached to the moft ele-
vated fituation in the church. He was eleéted a. member
of the Spanifh academy in 1713, and foon after was made
royal librarian. He took a confiderable part in the com-
pilation of a ditionary, and contributed the articles under
the letter G, and a difcourfe on the origia of the Caitilian
tongue. He died at Madrid in 1735. He was author of
many pieces in theology and general literature, but he is
beft known for a “ General Hiltory of Spain,” in 16 vols.
4to. It has-been tranflated into French by M. de Hermilly.
Moreri. ,

FERRET Isvanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the
E. cosft of Labrador. N, lat. 53° 40'. W. long. 55° 40’.

Ferret, FPiverra, in Zoology, an animal of the mu/-
tela or weazxel kind, called by fome alfo muj/fela /ylvefiris,
furo, and furunculus. See Musrera Furo. *

Ferret; Jndian, viverra Indica, a name by which fome
have called the animal known in America by the. name of
guirpele and quil. See Viverra Mungo.

Ferrers, in Glafs-making, the irons. with which the
workman tries the melted metal to fee if it be fit to work.

It is alfo ufed for thofe irons which make the ting at the
neck of bottles.

FERRETES b’Espacne, in Natural Hifory, a name
given by authors to certain flones of a regular figure, found
on the fides of a rock in Spain which have been fince difeo-
vered very plentifully on the bottom and fides of the Fon-
taine de Salut, near Bagneres in France, and in other places
in the country thereabout.

Every one of thefe flones, fo leng as it remains ia the

*

= ink qecks

FER

rock, is always found between two bundles of clufters of
tran{parent fibres, of which generally one is placed on tke
one, and the other on the oppofite fide; thefe clufters of
fibres are largeft in the largeft ftones; however, they are
always found even about the fmalleft ia fome quantity.
Philof. Tranf. N° 472. p. 30.

FERRETTI, Emirro, in Biography, born at Catftel-
Franco, in Tufcany, in 1489, ftudied at Pifa and Sienna,
and became fecretary to cardinal Salviatiat Rome. He
was admitted an advocate at the age of nineteen; after
which he was made profeffor of law, and fecretary to Leo X.
This office he filled with much reputation for feveral years,
and then retired to his own country. On his return he ac-
companied Montferrat, the commander of the Freach army,
to Rome and Naples. On his return he was taken prifoner
by the Spaniards, and cbliged to pay a high ranfom for
his liberty. He next went to France, and taught the law
at Valence with reat reputation. He was then employed
in various diplomatic ftations, and as counfellor of the par-
lament at Paris. At length, after various negociations,
he finally became profeffur of the law at Avignon, where
his ftipend was raifed to a thoufand crowns. He died in
1552, ana when his fucceflor Craveta began his leGtures by
ftri¢tures upon Ferreti, the fcholars fhewed their attachment
to their old mafter by hifling and driving him from the
place. Terreti was a man of general learning, and well ac-
quainted with claffical literature. He gave an edition of
the principal orations of Cicero, Bayle. Moreri.

FERRETO, an hiftorian and poet of Vicenza, was
born about 1296, and took a confiderable part in the re{tora-
tion of polite literature in Italy. He wrote, in Latin, a
hiftory of Italian affairs, from 1252 to the year 1318. This
is one of the beft compofitions of the age, and was firlt

rinted in Muratori’s Colleétion of Italian writers. Moreri.

FERRETTE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a can-
ton in the diftri€t of Altkirch. The place contains 608,
and the canton 11,470 inhabitants, ona territory of 225 ki-
liometres, in 31 communes.

FERRETTO, in the Glafs Trade, a {ubftance which
ferves to colour glafs. This is made by a fimple calcination
of copper, but it ferves for feveral colours. There are
two ways of making this; the firftis as follows: take thin
plates of copper, and lay them on a layer of powdered brim-
itone, in the bottom of a crucible; over thefe lay more
brimftone, and over that another layer of the plates, and fo
on alternately till the pot is full, Cover the pot, lute it
well, place it in a wind-furnace, and make a {trong fire about
it for two hours. When it is taken out and cooled, the
copper will be found fo calcined that it may be crumbled
to pieces between the fingers like a friable earth ; it will be
of a reddifh, and in fome parts a blackifh colour. This
mutt be powdered and fifted fine for ufe. Neri’s Art of
Glafs, p. 30.

The other way is lefs eafy, but it makes a more valuable
ferretto. It is this: make a number of {tratifications of plates
of copper and powdered vitriol alternately in a crucible,
which place on the floor of the glafs-furnace near the eye,
and let it ftand there three days; then take it out, and
make a new ftratification with more frefh vitriol, and cal-
eine it again as before; repeat this operation fix times, and
a moft valuable ferretto is produced.

FERRI, Paut, in Biography, who flourifhed in the
17th century, was born at Metz in the year 1591. He
purfued his theological ftudies with fo much zeal that he
was introduced to the minifterial office when he was but

FER

19 years old, and even then he had appeared as an author
by a volume of poems written in the moments of relaxa- ,
tion. He poffefled very extraordiaary pulpit talents, and
was the molt popular preacher among the reformed in his»
province, He died of the ftone in 1669, in his 7gth year.
The works publifhed during his life were chiefly thealogi-
cal, but he left behind him colleétions fora hiftory of Metz,
in three or four volumes folio, which are referred to by
Calmet as abounding in curious refearches.. In the height .
of his popularity he was charged with having received an
annual penfion of five hundred crowns from cardinal Rich-
lieu, as a bribe for his fervices in attempting to promote au
union between the Catholic and Proteflant religions. This
charge has been fully invefligated, and proved to be with-
out the fmallelt foundation. Bayle. Moreri.

Ferri, In Cavatier Barrazar, of Perugia, in the
17th century, is inflanced by Rouffean, in his * Muf,
Di&.”? as the moft extraordinary vocal performer that ever
exifted. « This fingular and prodigious finger,’ fays he,
“who had fuch talents as all the fovereigns in Europe
courted and feized by turns, was loaded with gifts and ho-
nonrs during his whole life, and his powers and glory all the
mufes vied with each other in celebrating after his death.
Every panegyric that was written upon this mufician,
breathes rapture and enthufiafm; and his contemporaries
all unite in affirming, that a talent fo perfect and io rare,
was above al] competition, and had even filenced Envy her-
felf. It is impoflible, fay they, to exprefs the brilliancy
of his voice, or the graces of his ftyle. He had all the
charaéteriftics of different ftyles in the highett perfeétion ;
he was lively, dignified, grave, and tender, at his pleafure,
and all hearts were melted by his pathos. Among the in-
finite paffages of the extremeft difficulty which he per-
formed with his voice I {hall only repeat one. He afcended
and defcended in one breath two full o€taves in a running
fhake, in chromatic degrees of half notes with fuch accu-
racy, though without accompaniment, that, if fuddenly the
bafe was {truck to any one of thefe intervals, whether flat
or fharp, the exa&t intonation was inftantly felt in an
altonifhing degree by the audience.” Bontempi Iftoria
Mul.

We ufed to wonder whence Rouffeau took this {plendid
account, as we found nothing fo marvellous elfewhere ; in
Quadrio’s ample lift of opera fingers, from the year 1634
to 1744, amounting to 273, no fuch name as that of Ferri.
occurs. We find him not in Padre Martini, Algarotti,
Planelli, Napoli Signorelli, Arteaga, or Eximeno, and it
feems as if Bontempi, in imitation of Apelles the painter,
who compofled the face of his Venus of the belt features of ’

.all the beauties of Greece, had rather told us what was to

be wifhedin a perfect finger than what really ever did exift
in any one mortal; and we cannot help thinking that Bon-
tempi has coloured his piece the higher from Ferri having
beea his countryman. Que great finger may have pofleffed
two or three of hisexcellencies at molt. But exaggeration
is the conftant companion of panegyric and fatire. If a fin-
ger of the name of Baltazar Ferri ever faw the light, and
had tranfcendent powers, they are certainly magnified 4 la
Herfchel : but his name not occurring in any other mufical
work, or dramatis perfong of the innumerable operas that
we have collated and examined, obliges us to donbt the aus
thenticity of the account given us from Bontempi by the in-”
genious and enthufiaftic citizen of Geneva.

Monf. Laborde has abridged the tale from Rouffeau, and
placed the name of Ferri in Quadrio’s lift, between Cavalli,
and

|

FER

and Paita, among fingers who flourifhed between 1690, and
1700; but zon eff. inventus either there or ellewhere. /
Ferri, Ciro, an hittorical painter, born at Rome in
‘1634. He wasa favourite difcrple of Pietro da Cortona,
whom he affifted in finifhing feveral of his works at Flo-
rence, and at Rome; and whofe ftyle he fo nearly adopted
that their pidtures raay fometimes be miftaken for each
other. Generally, Ferri has lefs grace of defign, lefs eafe
in his a€tions and draperies, and lefs compafs of mind; but
he has more folidity and carefulnefs of finifh than his maf-
‘ter. His St. Ambrofio in the church of that faint at
Rome offers the faireft comparifon between them and Ro-
manelli, a fellow fcholar with Ciro Ferri. His principal
works in frefco are inthe Palace Pitti, at Florence, and at
St. Maria Maggiori of Bergamo.
FERRIER, Jeremian, a Proteftant minifter, and pro-
feflor of divinity at Nifmes in Languedoc, in the beginning of
_ the 17th century, maintained in public debate that pope Cle-
ment VIII. was properly anditruly Antichriit. For this li-
berty of {peech he wasarretled and thrown into prifon at Tou-
loufe ; from the effeéts of which he efcaped, in confequence
of an arrét from Henry LV. forbidding perfons to moleft
him on account of that bufinefs. Notwithftanding Fer-
rier’s zeal in the inftance referred to, he was one of the
firft who, in the political aflemblies of the protettants, op-
pofed their proceedings in fupport of their civil and religi-
ous privileges and immunities. He began now to be fuf-
pected of having been induced by a bribe to defert his
caufe, and was forbidden to appear in their affemblies again.
His condu& in other refpects was equally rep:chentible,
and he was prohibited from exercifing bis mimitry within
the province of Languedoc. He now turned his attention
to the law, but the populace, who are ever indignant at
the treachery of public characters, attacked him publicly
in the ftreets, with flones, and other miflile weapons, fo
that his life was in imminent danger. Not contented with
the injury infli@ted on his perfon, they proceeded to ran fack
his houfe, burning and dettroying his goods and books,
and treating with much brutality his wife and children,
whom the prudence of the maziltrates preferved from great-
er mifchief. Hence he became an avowed convert to the
Catholic faith, fettled at Paris, and took fome pains to ad-
vance his fortune. His zeal was now equally great in de-
fence of his new opinibus, at, lealt of what were confidered
his new opinions, and he publifhed a treatife, entitled ee De
PAntichrift, et de fes Marques, contre les ennemis de Veglife
Catholique,’ 4to. He was likewile fuppofed to be the
author of ‘* Catholique d’etat, ou difcours des Alliances
du roi tres Chretien coutre les calomnies des ennemis de fon
etat.? M. Ferrier was employed by the king in many af-
fairs of great national importance, and was, In 1626, ap-
pointed privy counfellor, Te ftood alfo high in eftimation
with cardinal Richlieu. He died in 1626, and on his death-
bed dictated an epitaph, in which he declared his fteady at-
tachment to the Catholic faith: he went much farther,
and even extorted from his children a promife that they
would live and die in the communion of Rome. Bayle.
Moreri.
FERRIERES, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Ourte, and chief place of ,a canton,
in the dittri@t of Huy ; the place contains 689 and the can-
ton 4,981 inhabitants, on a territory of 145 kiliometres,
in 16 communes.— Allo, a town of Trance, in the depart-
ment of Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the dittri
of Montargis; the place contains 1610, and the canton
9,025 inhabitants, on a territory of 270 kiliometres, in 7
communes.

Vou. XIV.

FER
FERRILITE, in Mineralogy, a name given by Mr-

Kirwan to rocks found at, and in the neighbourhood ofs
Rowley Regis, Staffordfhire, and knowa by the term
Rowley rag. It has beea confidered by many as bafal:,
by others as Floetz greenftone, and by fome called whin,
an indefiuite term ufed in the north of England, and applied
to various hard ftones.

Its colour is greyith-black, inclining to greenifh-black,
and, when expofed to the weather, brownifh. It occurs
maffive in great beds, or ftrata, in the vicinity of Rowley,
Dudley, Walfall, and the fouth-weft part of Staffordhhire ;
and in fome inftances in columnar diftin@ concretions, parti-
cularly at Powk Hill, near Walfall, where it is quarried
for mendirg the roads.

Internally it is glimmering, from minute cryftals of horn-
blende and felfpar, particularly the fra@ured furface of the
latter, which is foliated.

The fraQure is generally fine-grained, uneven, but often
flat, conchoidal, and fine {plintery. The fragments rather
fharp edged.

When difintegration has taken place to a confiderable
extent, it occurs in large globular concretions, which ap-
pear to be compofed of concentric laminz.

It is generally opaque, but fometimes faintly tranflucent
at the edges, gives a whitith gtey ftreak, hardith, {cratches
glafs, brittle, and difficultly frangible, but lefs fo than
bafalt of Werner ; {pecific gravity 2.7 to 2.9.

It melts eafily, without addition, before the blow-pipe,
into a black glafs. :

It confiits of felfpar and hornblende in a confufedly
ceryftallized ftate: it has been analyfed by Dr. Withering,
with the following refult ;

: Silica. : 5

47-5
Alumina : be 2555
Oxyd of Iron - 20.0

100.9

It is probable, as fo great a portion of it confifts of
felfpar, that it contains pot-afh, but which, at the fame
time when this analyfis was made, was not fulpected to
oecur in the mineral kingdom.

It is alfo probable that the iron it contains is in a low
degree of oxydatiob, as it exerts fo much influence on the
magnetic needle, This effet has been long known, as
Dr. Plott, in his ¢€ Hiltory of Staffordfhire,’ mentions,
that it drew tie compais needie 6° out of its proper di-
rection.

The lower ftratum of the Derbythire toad-ftone, which
very accurately refembles ferrilite in its external charaéter:,
is alfo very magnetic.

Mr. Keir has, in Shaw’s * Hiftory of Staffordfhire,’”?
given an intereiting account of this ferrilite, and lately
Mr. G. Watt (in Philof. Tranf. 1804,) has given a {ull
more interefting detail of experiments made on this fub{tance,
by melting, and cooling it with different degrees of ra-
pidity. .

When cooled fuddenly from the fluid flate, it alfumed
the appearance of an opaque black glafs, but when the heat
was fo flowly withdrawn that it was feveral days ia cooling,
its appearance was as ftony, and texture as cryftalline, as
the original rock.

For obfervations on the phenomena, and conclufions
illuftrative of the igneous fonhatiod of bafaltic, and other
rocks ; fee Philof. Tran. 1854.

FERRITER’s Istanp, in Geograply. See Bias
&ETS.
Qgq FERRO,

FER
FERRO, or Hiero, the moft weilerly of the Canary

iflands, about 15 milesin breadth, and 45 in circumference.
The afcent from the fea is difficult, as itis on all fides high
and craggy: but on the fummit it is tolerably level and
fruitful ; abounding with many Kinds of trees and fhrubs.
It produces better grafs, herbs and flowers than any of the
otheriflands ; fo that bees thrive and multiply here exceed-
ingly, and yield excellenthoney. The greater part of the
wine of Ferro, which is bad, 1s diftilled into brandy ; and
there are only three fountains of water on the ifland. On
account of the fearcity-of water, fheep, goats, and {wine do
not drink in fummer ; but they are accultomed to dig up the
roots of fern, and chew them in order to quench their thirft.
The larger cattle are watered at thofe fountains, and at a
place where water diftils from the leaves of a tree. "The
Englifh and French geographers formerly reckoned their
longitude from Ferro; but Englifhmen now count their
longitude from Greenwich, and the Frenchmen reckon
their’s from Paris. N. lat. 27° 45'. W. long. 17° 46’.

FERROGAN, or Farracon, a mountain of Scotland,
in Perthfhire ; 18 miles S. of Blair Athol. Its height is elti-
mated at 2548 feet above the level of the fea.

FERROL, a handfome fea-port town of Spain, and
harbour for the royal navy, in the province of Galicia, the
entrance of which is formed by Cape Prior. It is fituated
N.N.E. of Corunna, and ten Spanifh leagues from Cabo
Ortegal, and has been, fince the middle of the eighteenth
century, one of the moit famous maritime places in Europe,
and one of the beft in Spain. Before the year 1752, Ferrol
was merely.a kind of hamlet, inhabited by the failors of
coafting veflels, and fifhermen: but a town has fince been raifed
with an increafing population. The harbour is very fafe,
being on every lide proteéted from the winds; it is fur-
rounded by redoubts, mounting five cannon on each front, and
four on each fide: the whole is conne€ted by an intrench-
ment and aparapet, which mafk the interior works. It has
one parifh, containing about Sooo fettled inhabitants, and
vceafionally many more, who are attached to the navy- and
the harbour, and it has two hofpitals, one for the inhabit-
ants, and the other for foldiers and failors. It has alfo a
{chool for midfhipmen, magnificently built ; the handfomelt
arfenal in the kingdom ; a machine for hammering copper to
{heath veffels; and an extenfive rope-walk. The’ naval
barracks are large and commodious, and capable of con-
taining 6000 men. Here is alfo a good dock-yard. This
place is at prefent the firft arfenal of the royal navy of Spain :
it was erected by order of Ferdinand VI., the father of
Charles III. Art and nature have confpired to render the

_ pofition of the harbour impregnable. The bafon for the
fleet is immenfe ; each fhip having a feparate warehoufe,
where the tackle, rigging, and {pare ftores are marked, and
placed in the greateft order. ‘The “ prefidiario” is com-
pofed of 600 galley flaves, who are employed in the moft
laborious eee of the harbour.. T'wo caftles, that of St.
Philip, and that of the Palma, defend the approach of the
coaft between Corunna and Ferrol, and the road pafles be-
tween them. Ferrol being’ more a military than a civil
place, has only an alcalde mayor, and fome alcaldes of dif-
tri€ts, to attend to the police of the town; but it has a mi-
litary commandant, a governor, an intendant, a complete
and numerous flaff, who ferve for the fortifications, the har-
bour, and the garrifon, which is.always very ftrong. As
Ferrol is altogether intended for the royal navy, general
commerce and all foreign merchaut-fhips are excluded, except
fuch coafting veffels, &c. as {upply articles of neceffity. The
environs of the townhave many fountains of excellent water,
and the towa has abundance of river and fea fifh. It has

FER

only one manufactory, which furnithes fail-cloth. N. Tats.
43° 28'. W. long. 8° 1!

Ferro, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the
coaft of Peru. S_ lat. 9? 11572

FERRUGINOUS, denotes a thing to sartake of the-
nature of iron, or to contain particles of that metal. r

It-is particularly applied to certain mineral fprings, whofe
water, in their paflage along the ftrata of the earth, meets
with the ore of this metal, or with pyrite containing it, part
of which they wath off, and carry with them, and thus be-
come impregnated with the principles thereof. Such are
what we call chalpbeate waters.

The waters of Tunbridge, thofe of Forges, and of the
iron {pring at Bourges, and many others, are ferrugi-.
nous. :

FERRUGO, the ruft of iron, or a kind of calx foun
on the furface thereof, 3

The ruft of iron is a reftringent ; applied by way of pef-
fary, it reprefles the fluor uterinus; and drank, prevents
conception ; it cures the eryfipelas, and exanthematous.
eruptions. It is of good ufe in a paronychia, roughnefs of
the eye-lids, and acondyloma. ° It alfo ftrengthens the gums,
relieves under the gout, beisig rubbed on the part afi-éted,
and makes the hair grow after an alopecia. Wine or wa-
ter, in which red. hot iron has been quenched, being drank,
is good for the celiac paffion, dyfentery, diforders of
the fpleen, cholera morbus, and relaxations of the ito-
mach. See Iron.

FERRULE, ina Ship, a finall iron hoop, fixed on the
extremities of the yards, booms, &c.

FERRUM. See Inon.

Ferrum Lguinum, in Botany, Horfe-fhoe Vetch.
Hippocrepis.

FERRY, a liberty by prefcription, or the king’s grant to
have a boat for paflage upon. a river, for the carriage of
horfes and men for a veafonable toll: it is ufually to crofs a.
large river. Termes de Ley.

A ferry is no more than a common highway ; and no ac-
tion will lie for one’s being difturbed in his paflage, unlefs he-
allege fome particular damage, &c. (3 Mod. Rep. 294.)
The not keeping up of a ferry has been held to be indi&-
able. Ifaferry be granted at this day, he that accepts fuch
grant is bound to keep a boat forthe public good. Holt,.
Ch. J. Shaw. 257. . .

FERRYLAND Harsour, in Geography, abay on the
eaft coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 47° 8!. W. long.

Cay ue 23

FERSIN, « town of Perfia, in the province of Irak; 22.
miles S. of Sava. 4

FERSINA,_a river of Tyrol, which rifes in a lake near
St. Boldo, and runs into the Adige, 2 miles N. of Trent.

FERTE'-ALLAITS, La, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton
in the diftriét of Etampes. The place contains 780, and the
canton 8,583 inhabitants, on a territory of 167} kiliome-.
tres, in 18 communes. . :

Ferrt-Bernard, La, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton in the
diftri® of Mamers, furrounded with walls, and containing
three fauxbourgs, 21 miles N. E. of Le Mans. N) lat.
48° 11'. E. long. o’ 44’. The place contains 2314, and the
canton 11,720 inhabitants, on a territory of 1812 kilfome-
tres, in 14. communes. ‘This.is the birth-place of Robert
Garnier, a poet.

Ferrt-Chaudron, La, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Nievre ;- 10 miles N.W. of Moulins.

Fervi-Fre/acl, La, a town of France, in the depart-

*ment

See-

FER

“ment of the Orne, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@

of Argentan, 21 miles E.N.£. of Argentan. The place
contains 376, and the canton 8,697 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 200 kiliometres, in 20 communes.

. Fertt-Gaucher, La, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a can-
ton in the diftriG& of Coulommiers; 9 miles E.S.E. of Cou-
lommiers. N. lat. 48° 47. E. long. 3° 22'. The place
contains 1,800, and the canton 10,241 inhabitants, ona ter-
ritory of 2773 kiliometres, in 19 communes.

Ferré-Macé, La, atownof France, in the department of
the Orne, and chief place of a canton in the dittri& of Dom-
front ; 12 miles E. of Domfront. The place contains 3849,
and the canton 13,470 inhabitants, on a territory of 135 ki-
licmetres, in 11 communes.

_ Ferret-St. Aubin, La, atown of France, in the department
‘of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of
Orleans. The place contains 1,558, and the canton 5,330
inhabitants, ona territory of 450 kiliometres, in 8 com-
anunes.

Ferti-/ous-Jouarte, La, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton
in the diftiét of Meaux ; 10 miles E. of Meaux. The place
contains 3,703, and the canton 15,2cGinhabitants, on a ter-
xitory of 210 kiliometres, in 1g communes.

Ferté-/ur-Amance, La, atown of France, inthe depart-
ment of the Upper Marne, and chief place of acanton in
the diftri€t of Langres. The place contains 493, and the
canton 5,972 inhabitants, on a territory of 120 kiliometres,
in 13 communes.

Fertrt-Vidame, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure and Loire, and chief place ofa canton in
the diftric&t of Dreux ; 13 miles W. of Chateauncuf. The
place contains 1,271, and the canton 10,744 inhabitants, en
a territory of 2724 kiliometres, in 29 communes.
_FERTIE/RE, a town of France, in the department of
the Po, onthe Dora; 8 miles N. of Sufa.

FERTILE, in Agriculture, aterm fignifying fruitful or
abundant.

Pertixve Soil, is that fort of foil which, from the nature
of its conftituent principles, is capable of producing full
‘crops. See Soit.

Fertire Flowers, in Botany, and Pegetable Phyfiology,
are the flores faminei, female flowers, of Linneus. Being
furnifhed with only one kind of fexual organs, the pittils,
they cannot indeed of themfelves bring the rudiments of
the fruit to perfection, but with the afliftance of the male
‘ones, termed in contradiftinétion barren flowers, as having
no rudiments of feed, they at length become prolific. (See
Frecunparion of Plants.) Examples are feen in the Oak,
Hazel, and Walnut, where the fertile flowers, diftinguifhed
‘by very confpicuous {tigmas, are of a quite different form
and fize from the barren ones, In feveral plants the fertile
flowers are accompanied by rudiments of ftamens, moitly
inefficient, though liable to become perfe&, according to
circumftances, as in Rhodiola.

Fertive Florets, in compound, and umbellate, flowers,
are not only fuch as anfwer to the above defcription, as in
- the radius of the Daify, After, &c., but the term is applied
to all florets, (whether furnifhed with ftamens or not, as
well as with a piftil,) that bring their feed to perfection ;
which many, though formed with the rudiments of a ger-
men and ityle, do not. In fome compound flowers fertili-
ty refides more towards the circumference than the centre,
as in the Marigold, Calendula, whole difk is altogether
male. In the Sunflower and Knapweed it is otherwife,

FrEoR

yet rather by sbortion. than original conformation See
Frowex.and Frorer.

FERTILITY, Fruirruness, that quality which des
nominates a thing fertile or prolific.

FERULA, alittle wooden pallet or flice, reputed the
{choolmatter’s fceptre wherewith he chaftifes the boys by
ftriking them on the palm of the hand.

The word is Latin, and has alfo been ufed to denote the
prelate’s crozier and ftaff. It is fuppofed to be formed of
the Latin, ferire, to ffrike ; or, perhaps, ferulain this fenfe
may be derived from the name of a plant, called,in Latin,
Jerula ; in Englith, fennel-giant ; the flem whereof was an:
ciently ufed to correct children with.

Under the eaftern empire the ferula was the empero~’s
{ceptre, asis feen on divers medals; it confifts of a long item
or fhank, anda flat fquare head. The ufe of the ferula is
very ancient among the Greeks, who ufed to call their
princes yxp9ixoopn, g.d. ferula-bearers.

Tn the ancient eaftern church, ferula or narthex fignified a
place feparated from the church; wherein the penitents or
the catechumens of the fecond order, called au/cultantes,
axeorunzeor, Were kept, as not being allowed to enter the
church ; whence the name of the place, the perfons therein
being under penance or difcipline: fub ferula erant ec-
clefia.

Feruta,in Botany, aname in Plisy, derived by fome
from fero, to carry, becaufe its light hollow ftalks were carned
in the hand, as walking-flicks ; by others from feria, to ftrike,
becaufe they were ufed to chattife {chool-boys. Fennel-giant.
Linn. Gen. 136. Schreb. 186. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1411.
Juff. 222. ‘Tournef.t. 170. Gaertn. t. 85. Mart. Mill.
Diét. v. 2. Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat.
Ord. Unmbellifere.

Gen. Ch. General umbel of numerous rays, globofe ;
partial imilar to it. General invelucrum deciduous 3 partial
of numerous, fmall, linear leaves. Perianth fearcely dif-
cernible, Cor. Univer/al unitorm 3 flowers all fertile; par-
tial of five oblong, ftraightifh, nearly equal petals. Stam.
Filaments five, the length of the corolla; anthers fimple.
Pig. Germen inferior, turbinate; ftyles two, reflexed ;
ftizmas obtule. Peric. Fruit oval, fomewhat comprefied,
marked with three elevated lines on each fide, feparable
into two parts. Seeds two, very large, elliptical, flat on
each fide, marked with three diftiné ribs.

Eff. Ch. Fruit oval, compreffed, with three ribs on
each fide. Calyx obfolete, General involucrum deciduous.
Flowers uniform, all fertile,

Obf. The ftalk.of the principal umbel fometimes throws
out lateral oppofite flower-ftalks,

The loftiett of umbelliferous plants, whofe ftems, though
annual, and confequently properly herbaceous, have, when
dry, a woody hardnefs ; hence a quibbling ancient is report-
ed to have called Feru/a wood and no wood. The {pecies
in Willdenow are 12, but the fynonyms are not free from
confufion. The /eaves of all are extremely compound,
with narrow, nearly linear, leaflets or fegments, often
fhining. The flowers are generally copious, yellow, dif-
pofed in a corymbofe manner on a round, upright, tall,
hollow item. The plants when wounded exude an acrid or
feetid refin—They generally grow in the fouth and eait of
Europe. —The chief {pecies are,

F. communis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 355. Dod. Pempt. 321. f. 1.
NapSxg of Diofcorides. ‘* Leaflets linear, very long and
fimple.’? This was formerly fuppofed to yield the gum:
called Sagapenum, but modern haturalifts kave thought
otherwife. It is fcarcely cultivated but in curious botanic

Yq 2 gardens,

FER

gardens, on account of its cumberfome fize and weed-like
afpeét. It is common in fields about Rome, flowering
about Midfummer.

F. Ferulago. Linn. Sp. Pl. 356. Sm. Prod. Fl. Grec.
v.31, 191. (F. nodiflora; Jacq. Auftr. append. t. 5. Willd,
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1413). “¢ Leaflets linear-oblong, flat, three-
cleft. Flowering branches moftly ternate. Bra¢teas reflex-
ed, obtufe.””—Native of Auftria, and various more fouth-
erm countries. This is a much more humble plant, with
numerous {mall yellow fowers. Its flavonr is acrid and
naufeous.

F. Affafetids. Wing. Mat. Med. 40. (Affa feetida;
Kempf. Am. Exot. 535. t, 536). ‘ Leaflets alternately
finuated, obtufe.’’—Native of Perfia, from whence the
drug is brought to us. (See Assa-rorTipa.) We know
nothing of this plant but from Koempfer’s account and fi-
gure, from whence the above character is taken.

EF. perfica. Willd. 1413. (Afa foetida; Hope Tr. of
R. Soc. for 1785. 36. t. 3, 4). “ Leaflets many-cleft,
acute, decurrent. Primary umbel feflile.”,—The feeds of
this plant were fent from the mountains of Ghilan in Perfia
to the Peterfburgh Academy, and two roots were commu-
micated to Dr. Hope at Edinburgh, from whence Chelfea
and others gardens have obtained living fpecimeus. The
leaves do not accord with Kempfer’s figure above quoted,
and therefore this is fuppofed a diftinét fpecies from the
Jaft, yielding, neverthelefs, genuine A fia-fcetida, with the
flavour of which every part is ftrongly impregnated, and
which exudes in the form of a milky fluid wherever the
herb is wounded. The /eaves are rather glaucous. Flowers
deep-yellow. It is perennial and hardy with us.

The failors in the Levant make ufe of the firu/a to tranf-
port fire from one iflandto another. This cuftom is of the
earlieft antiquity, and may ferve to explain a paffage in
Hefiod (Op. et Die. ].i.v. 52.) who, {peaking of the fire
ftolen from heaven by Prometheus, fays, that he carried it in
a ferula, ev xoiaw vxe4nxs, fince the foundation of this fable is
undoubtedly owing to what Diodorus Siculus (1. 3.) tells us
of Prometheus, that he, was the inventor of the ftcel, zo
srvesiov, with which fire is ftruck fromthe flint. In all pro-
bability, that prince made ufe ofthe pith of the ferula, in-
ftead of tinder, and taught men to preferve fire in the italk
of that plant. Its ftalks are ftrong enough to ferve for a
fupport, but too flight to wound thofe who are beat with
them. Hence we are told by Diodorus Siculus es Supra)
that Bacchus, one of the greateft legiflators of antiquity,
enjoined primitive mortals, when they drank wine, to ufe
thefe ferula canes, becaufe they frequently broke one an-
other’s heads with thofe they ufed to wear of another kind.

Fervuva, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the herba-
ceous, perennial, flowery kind. ‘The fpecies chiefly culti-
vated being the common fennel giant (IF. communis) ;
the glaucous fennel giant (F. glauca); the Tangier fen-
nel giant (F. Tingitana); and the broad-leaved fennel
giant (F. ferulago).

They are all plants which rife to a great height in fuch
foils as fuit them.

Method of Culture.—ANl thefe plants are capable of being
readily propagated by fowing the feeds either in the autum-
nal or {pring feafon, in drills on beds of light earth, at one
foot apart, and three inches diftant. As the plants advance
in growth they muft be kept properly clean from weeds,
and be well thinned out in order to afford full room for
their {preading out. :

They fhould continue in thefe beds for about two years,
when they may be carefully taken up in the beginning of

FES

the autumn, and be planted out where they are to remain,
They moftly fucceed in the beft manner in the rather moift
mellow loamy foils.

They are rather hardy, and well fuited for being planted
for ornament, in the more extenfive borders and clumps of
pleafure grounds, where they often contitine for feveral years
without requiring any other attention than that of being’
kept clean from weeds.

TFeruva, in the Materia Medica. See AsSA-FOETIDA.

Frrura, a word ufed-by the ancients to exprefs the
horns growing on the deer or ftag at the age of two years.

FEeRuLa, among Surgeons, called alfo {plinters, are little
chips of different matter; as of wood, bark, leather,
paper, &c. applied to bones that have been disjointed when
they are fet again.

The bark of the herb fennel-giant, called by fome, in La-

tin, ferula, was anciently mach ufed on this occafion ;’

whence the name ferula became common to all.

FERUS, Joun, in Biography, who flourifhed in the
16th century, was a native of Metz, where he took the
habit of the Francifcans, and became warden of the order:
He preached many years with great reputation, and died
in the year 1554. His great work as an author was
entitled «* Coinmmentaries”? on almoit all the books of the
Old and New Teftament. Thefe are characterized by Dupin
as large and eloquent difcourfes, in which the holy {€riptures
are faithfully explained. He was a candid as well as learned
expolitor, fo that his writings have been in high eftimation
with Proteftants, as well as by the liberal of his own denomi-
nation. By the bigots he was fiercely attacked and charged
with Lutheranifm. Ferus.did not live to write his own
defence, but he met with an able apologift even in Spain,
viz. Michael Medina, a learned monk, who vindicated the
explications which he had given by an appeal to the fcrip-
tures, and the doétrines of the apoltles. The author had
nearly fuffered for his boldnefs in defence of a friend, and
the works of ferus were inferted in the “ Index Expurgato-
rius.”” Like many good and excellent men of all perfuafions
he denied the lawtulnefs of war, holding it to be repugnant
to the diftinguifhing principle of Chriltianity, which is
univerfal benevolence. Moreri.

FERZAA, in Nataral Hiflory, a name given by the
Perfians to that gem which we call the turquoile or Turkey~
{tone, a blue, opaque, and foft gem. See Turcois.

FESCAMP, in Geography. See Fecamp.

FESCENNINE, in dntiguity. Fefceunine verfes were
a kind of fatirical verfes, full of wanton and obfcene ex-
preffions, fung or rehearfed by the company, with many
indecent geftures and dances, at the folemnization of a

marriage among the Romans, and alfo at the feftival of ©

“© Harvelt-home.”? Hor. ep. i. lib. v. 145.

The word is borrowed, according to Macrobius, from
fafcinum, a charm; the people taking fuch fongs to be
proper to drive away witches, or prevent their effeét ; but
its more probable origin is from Fefcennium, a city of
Gaara Shere fuch verfes were firft ufed.

FESHN, in Geography, a town-of Egypt; 18 miles
N. of Abu-Girgé. e pH

FESOLI, or Fresou1, Congregation of. See Jerony-
MITES.

FESSE, in Heraldry, one of the nine honourable ordina-
ries of the efcutcheon, which it divides horizontally in the
middle, and feparates the chief from the point. It is fup-
pofed to reprefent a broad girdle or belt of honour, fuch as
thofe with which knights at arms were anciently girded.

It poflefles the centre of the efcutcheon, and contains in

breadth

: FES

breadth one third part thereof. Thus, he beareth azure,
a fefle, or, by the name of Elliot.

When the fefle takes up lefs than its proper breadth, it is
called a bar.

Fesse-point is the exaG centre of the efcutchcon.

It is thus called, as being the point through which the
feffe line is drawn from the two fides; and accordingly it
divides the efcutcheon into two equal parts when the efcut-
cheon is parted per fefle.

Fessz-ways, or in Fefe, denotes things borne after
the manner of a feffe; ic. in a line or range, acrofs the
middle of the fhield, which the French call en feffe.

Fesse, party per, implies parted acrofs the middle of
the fhield, from fide to fide, through the fefie point.

This the French exprefs by one word, coupé.

FESSELDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the bifhopric of Bamberg; four miles S. W. of Weif-
mayn.

FESSIER, in Anatomy, the name given by the French

to the glutei mufcles, which are diftinguifhed as the grand,

moyen, and petit. It is derived from feffe, the buttock.

FESTA, Constantius, in Biography. Befides the
works of fuch muiicians as may be claffed under the feveral
{chools of Italy, there are extant many admirable productions
of amuch higher period than Paleftrina, preferved in the col-
leétions of the curious, by Italian compofers, the particular
place of whofe birth or refidence has not been recorded.
Among thefe, there is one who for his genius and abilities
well deferves a niche in every hiftory of mufic. This is
Conftantius Fefta, of whofe compofitions there are feveral
in the Britifh mufeum. There is likewife a motet of this
ancient mafler in the fame collection, printed in the fourth
book of “ Motetti della Corona,”” which was printed fo early
as 1519, ten years before Paleftrina was born.

In the third book of Arkadelt’s madrigals, printed at
Venice, 1541, there are alfo feven compofitions by Coftanzo
Fefta, in which morerhythm, grace, and facility appear, than
in any produétion of his cotemporaries, that we have feen.
Indeed, he feems to have been the moft able contrapuntift of
Italy during this early period; and if Paleitrina and Con-
ftantius Porta be excepted, of any period, anterior to that
of Cariffimi. His motets, for three voices, printed in 1543>
are in the church ftyle of the times, a model of elegance,
fimplicity, and pure harmony; the fubjects of imitation
are as modern, and the parts fing as well, asif it was a pro-
duétion of the prefent century. We could not refift the
pleafure of feoring his whole firft book of three-part ma-
drigals, from the fecond edition printed at Venice, 1559 ;
for we were aftonifhed as well as delighted to find compeii-
tions fo much more clear, regular, phrafed, aud unem-
barrafled than we expected. :

Fesra in Cappis, in Middle Age writers, grand holi-
days, in which the whole choir of the cathedrals wore

caps.

PESTENBERG, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
nae of Oels; 10 miles N. of Oels. N. lat. 51° 21'.

long. 17° 30'.

FESTI Diss among the ancients, were feaft-days or
holidays. , :

Nites diftinguifhed the days of the year into fe/i, pro-
fei, and intercifi. The firit were thofe dedicated to the
eods ; the fecond were thole allowed to men for the manage-
ment of their own affairs ; the third were fhared between
the gods and men,

The fe(ti dies, again, were divided, according to Macro-
bius, Saturn. caps 16. into /acrifices ; epule, or banquets ;

FES
ludi, or games, and ferie ; and the profz/ii into fafli, comi-

tiales, comprehendini, /lati, preliares

FESTING, Micuary Cuaistian, in Biography, an
eminent mufician, whofe inftrument was the violin, and
who, during many years, was the leader and principal con-
ductor of almoft every mufical eftablifhment in London.

This performer, with a feeble hand, little genius for
compofition, and not a deep contrapuntift, ‘by good fenfe,
probity, prudent condué, and a gentleman-like behaviour,
acquired a weight and influence in his profefficn, at which
hardly any mufician of his clafs ever arrived. He led during
raany years at the opera, at Ranelagh, at the concert at
Hickford’s room, at the Swan and Caftle concerts in the
city, and often at Handel’s oratorios. Nor was there a
benefit concert for any Englifh profeffor at that time with-
out a folo on the violin by Mr. M.C. Fefting ; and yet
there is not a ripieno player on the violin at the opera now,
whofe hard and abilities are not fuperior to thofe of Felling
upon that inftrument. Learn hence, ye young profeffors,
that fomething elfe is neceffary, befides mufical talents, to
carry you reputably and comfortably through the world!

Prstinc-Men. See FasTERMAN3.

Festinc-Penny, in Rural L£conomy, a term provincially
applied to the earneft given to fervants when hired at fairs,
or other places. .

FESTINO, in Lagic, one of the moods of the fecond
figure of fyHogifms. ;

In a-fyllogifm in feftino, the firft propofition is an uni-
verfal negative; the fecond, a particular affirmative; and
the third a particular negative.

FESTIVAL. See Feast and Festum.

FESTNERSGREATH, in Geography, a town’ of
Germany, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 16 miles S. S. W.
of Bamberg.

FESTOON, in a General Senfe. See Garvanp.

Festoon, in Archite@ure aud Sculpture, is a decoration
in form of a garland or clufter of flowers.

The word is French, feffon, which fignifies a garland,
formed of the Latin, falum, fea/?.

It confills of a itring or collar of flowers, fruits, and
leaves, tied together, fomewhat biggett in the middle, and
fufpended by the two extremes; from which, befide the
main part which falls down in an arch, two leffer parts hang
perpendicularly.

This ornament is made in imitation of the feftoons or
long clufters of flowers, hung by the ancients on the doors
of their temples, &c. on feltival occafions.

Fefloons are now chiefly ufed in friezes, tablets, and
other vacant places, required to be filled up and adorned
They are fometimes ufed over or under a niche.

FESTUCA, in Botany, a Latin word expreflive of the
fhoot of an herb or tree, adopted by Dillenius, in his Nov.
Pl. Gen. go. t. 3, fora genus of grafles. ‘The Fefluca of
Dillenius however, comprehended under the Bromus of
Linneus, is diftin& from the genus here intended.—Fefcue-
graiss—Linn. Gen. 36. Schreb. 50. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
418. Juff. 32. Lamarck, Iluftr. Gen. t. 46. Sm. Fi. Brit
113. Leers. t. 8. Clafs and order, Zriandria Digynia.
Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume of two valves, ere&, containing
many florets, in a flender, roundifh, two-ranked {pikelet ;
its valves awl-fhaped, pointed, the lower one fmalleft
Cor. of two valves; the lower one largeit, of the form of
the calyx but larger, fomewhat cylindrical, pointed, awned.
“*‘ Nectary either of two ovato-lanceolate, acute leaflets,
gibbous at their bafe ; or of one rather concave, horiz
notched leaf.”? Schreber. Stam. Filaments three, cap

EES

fhorter than the corolla; anthers oblong. i/?. Germen
turbinate ; ftyles two, fhort, refiexed; ftigmas downy.
Peric. none, except the corolla’ clofely enfolding, and
united to, the feed, not burfting. Szed one, oblong, flender,
very fharp at each end, marked with a longitudinal fur-
row.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves. Spikelet oblong, fome-
what cylindrical, two-ranked, with fharp-pointed glumes.

A rather large genus, of flender, narrow-leaved, rigid
graffes, of a glaucous or greyifh-green hue, whofe {pecies
are often very difficult to define. Some diverfity of opinion
has exifted among botanifts refpeCting the generic diftinétion
between Fefuca and Bromus. (See Bromus.) The termi-
nal awn of the former is generally conftant, to which
Dr. Smith has added the fmoothnefs, or at leaft only fine
pubefcence, of the edge of the inner valve of the corolla ;
confidering the moft important mark of Bromus to confilt
in the ftrong briftly fringe of the fame part. With this
laft charaéter will always be found the proper habit, colour
and proportion of the latter genus, whether the awn be
accurately terminal or no.

_Willdenow has 26 fpecies of Fe/uca, but many more are
now known. Of thefe 26, 15 have the panicle pointing to
one fide; the reft have an equally {fpreading panicle.

The Flora Britannica defcribes 12 {pecies, to which two
have fince been added in Lgl. Bot. viz. I’. cefia, t. 19175
a glaucous kind found on barren open heaths in Surrey and
Suffolk ; and /, triflora, t. 1918, found by Mr. Crowe at
Saham, Norfolk, and fince by the Rev. Mr. Holme, F.L.S.
at Hinton, Cambridgefhire, and by Mr. G. Don in Scot-
Jand. This is Bromus trifforus of Linneus, very near
F. gigantea, t. 1820, and like that, approaching too much
to the habit of a Bromus, but both of them have the two
moftt effential characters of Fe/fuca.

F. ovina, Engl. Bot. t. 585, common in dry open
ground, has been much celebrated by Stillingfleet as good
for fheep ; but fame late obfervations have difcredited this
opinion, it being doubtful whether thofe animals eat it,
though it grows where they feed. From this F. vivipara,
t. 1355, was firft feparated, as a f{pecies, in Fl. Brit. it
having before been thought a variety, caufed by its moift
alpine place of growth. But its glumes are very differently
fhaped from thofe of ovina. There is more doubt whether
amethyflina be veally diflin& from ovina,.and alfo whether
rubra, t. 2056, and all its acknowledged varieties, be
{pecifically different from duriufcula, t.470, and dumetorum
of Lianzus and Willdenow. On all thefe fubjeéts experi-
ments and repeated obfervations are wanting. Soil and
fituation caufe great differences in the extent of the creep-
ing roots, and the downinefs, as well as fize, of various
parts. Some of our Britifh {pecies are trifling worthlefs
annuals, as bromoides, Engl. Bot. t. 1411, myurus, t. 1412,
and uniglumis, t.143>, the latter remarkable for having
fcarcely more than one valve to the calyx, the other being,
as it were, abortive. Others are valuable perennial meadow
grafles, nag eee t. 1592, and c/atior, t. 1593.

OF the foreign fpecies, F. pumila of Villars and Willde-
nuw, much better named varia by Jacquin, has an elegantly
party-coloured panicle, and is frequent in Switzerland, and
other alpine coantries in the fouthern parts of Europe.
F. fpadicea is famous in botanic flory as being the long-
dubious Anthoxanthum paenainn of Linneus, or Nardus
Jpuria narbonenfis of Bauhin, and the Poa Gerardi of
Allioni. See Tranf. of Binn. Soc. v. 1. 111. t. 10, and y, 2.
ror. ‘This is a tall handfome perennial grafs, with a denfe
bronze-coloured panicle, and purple anthers. F. fu/éa, a
native of the Levant, has long creeping roots, with very

Fear

woolly fibres, formed, like rubra, to bind loofe fandy fails.
Its brownifh panicle approaches in beauty to Poa Lragroflis.
I’. indicay copied by Willdenow from Retzius, 1s the very
fame plant as fu/ca. :

F. fpinefa, Linn. Suppl. 114, a native of the Cape of
Good Hope and the Canary iflands, is a wonderfully rigid,
{pinous, widely-creeping {pecies, no doubt formed to grow
in the moft artd fand. This is referred by Willdenow’ to
Poa, fee his N’ 41, perhaps vot amifs, but then J. fu/ea
will go near to-be a Poa alfo, notwith{tanding its awns.

F. fluitans of Linneus and Willdenow is removed by
Scopoli and others to Poa. J’. decumbens is alfo made a
Poa inv F). Brit. but it is more naturally perhaps, as Haller
thought it, a Melica. ‘Thus even the above lift in Willde-
now, imperfect as it is, becomes {till fhorter.

We know of no genus of graffes, that requires to be more
ftudied, either in a botanical or economical point of view,
than Fefluca. ;

FESTUM, ina General Senfe. See Feasr.

Fesrum, in our Law Books, is frequently ufed fora
general court or aflembly, becaufe fach were anciently
always kept on the great feftivals of the year.

Thus, in our chronicles, we read, that im fach a year the
king kept his fe/éum at Winchelter, &c. that is, he kept
a court there at that time: ** Rex apud Winton. maximum
fefium & convivium celebravit, tempore Natalis Domini,
convocatis ibidem principibus & baronibus totius regni.”’

FESTUS, Pompeius, in Biography, a well-known
grammarian, but of what particular age has never been afcer-
tained. He wrote an abridgment of Verrius Flaccus
“De Verborum Significatione.”” Scaliger pronounced this
as one of the moft ufeful works conne&ted with the Latia
language. It has pafled through many editions ; the one
by Dacier in ufum Delphini, 1681, is reckoned the beft.
Moreri.

To FETCH Way, in Sea Language, is to be fhaken or
agitated from one fide to another. The terms are ufually ap-
plied to a matt, bow{prit, &c. when it is not fufficiently
wedged, being loofe in the partners ; or to any body which
is moved by the rocking of the ship, for want of being well
fecured.

FETCHING the Pump, is the a&t of pouring water
into the upper part of it, to expel the air which is con-
tained between the lower box or pilton and the lower end
of the pump that refls on the fhip’s foor; and accordingly
to make the water poured into the chamber comnyunicate
with that in the bottom of the pump-well, fo as to be thrown
out above by ftrikine with the break er handle.

FETE, Fr. a feaft, an entertainment of finging and
dancing, intioduced in an aét of an opera, which always
interrupts or fufpeiids the ation. (See barxer.) « Thefe
obtrufive entertainments, fays Rouileau, are only amufing
in proportion as the opéra itlelf is tirefome. In an intereft-
ing drama, well conducted, it would be impoffible to bear
them. We have fometimes thought the fame of the mafque
in Shakefpeare’s Tempeft, though uot in the feaft of Romee
nut Juliet, which is analogous and conneéted with the

ot.

FETHARD, or Fearuarn, in Geography, a market
and poft town of the county of Tipperary, Ireland, which
before the union was reprefented in parliament. It is at pre-
fent rather ina ftate of decay. Fethard is 76 miles from
Dublin, and nearly feven north from Clonmell.

FETT, or Fert: Domenico, in Biography, an hifto-
rical painter, born at Rome in 1589. He was a difciple of
Ludovico Cigoli. From Rome he went to Mantua, with
the cardinal Gonzaga, on whofe acceflion to the dukedom

6 of

PE T-

of Mantua he was declared painter to that court. In the
works of this painter, whe hardly merited fo high an exalta-
tion, there isa peculiarity of feeling and expreffien, but
marked with colouring of a brown or blaekened hue. He
fppears to bave made his ftudies among the Lazaroni, as
his charaéters are in general of a low caft, and even his bett
have their draperies thrown in a common and yulgar man-
ner. Notwithftanding this, his {mall pi€tures, being exe-
cuted with great freedom and firmnefs of touch, are much
admired, which is not a little affifted by their general har-
mony in the tone of colouring. His works are fcarce, as
he died when only thirty-five years old at Venice.
FETICHE, in Modern Hiffory, a name given in Guinea
to their divinities ; one of whom is fuppofed to prefide over
every feparate canton or diftri@, one over every family,
and one over each individual, which he worfhips en that
day of the week when he happened to be born. On this
day they are dreffed in white, and,.as an emblem of their
purity, befmear their bodies and cloaths with a kind of
white loam or clay. Thofe of the better fafhion, and efpe-
cially the chiefs of the people, have, befides this birth-day,
another weekly feftival dedicated to their fetiches, on which
they killa cock or afheep; which facrifice is confumed by the
prieits. The word fetiche, in a ftrict fenfe, fignifies whatever
reprefents their divinities ; this may be a mountain, a tree,
a large rock, a pecaliar fowl or fifh, with the head’of an ape,
or any fuch thing, as their fancy fuggelts. "They not only
believe thefe material fubftances, or fetiches, endowed with
intelligence, and the power of doing them good or evil,
but alfo that the prieft or fetichere, being of their council,
is privy to all that thofe divinities know, and thence ac-
uainted with the moft fecret thoughts and ations of men,
The houfhold, or family fetiche, narrowly infpeéts the con-
duét of every individual in the houfe, and rewards or
punifhes according to the refpective deferts of each. Their
~ rewards cenfift in the multiplication of their wives and flaves ;
and their punifhments in the want of all thefe: but the
moft terrible of all punifhments is death. At Cape Coait
there is a public guardian fetiche, the highelt in power and
dignity. This exalted fetiche is a rock, that projects into
the fea from the bottom of the cliff on which the cattle is
built. Lo this rock yearly facrifces are offered by the
priefts with ridiculous geftures and ftrange invocations, af-
furing the {peétators that he receives verbal anfwers from
T'abra, what times and feafons will be propitious ; and for
this intelligence every fifherman prefents him with an ac-
knowledgment fuited to his ability.
Fericnes alfo denotes among the negroes pieces of
' fophifticated gold, in which is a mixture of one-half or one-
third part of filver and copper. Thefe fetiches are cut by
them into {mall bits, to the value of three farthings each,
which ferve for the current coin of the country. The
fetiches of artificial and bafe gold are ftrangely fhaped in
moulds of a black ponderous earth. The negroes have
alfo fetiches of unalloyed mountain gold, which they keep
for ornaments, and feldom pafs into trade. \
/FETIE, in Geography, a town of the Arabian Irak,
on the Euphrates ; 50 miles N.W. of Baiflora.
-FETISLAW, or Krapowo, a town of Servia, on the
- Danube ; eight miles E. of Orfova. ‘
»FETLAR, Firvar, or Theodore’s fle, one of the Shet-
land iflands, lying two miles E. of Yell, and nine miles in
- eireuit, confills for the moft part of a rich black loam and
fome fand, which yields barley, oats, and pafture, It is fe-
_ parated from Yell by Colgrave found, and has feveral creeks,
but no fecure harbour. Fetlar and North Yell contain

FEU

22” houfes, and 1389 inhabitants.
long. 1° 6'.

FET-Locx, in the Manege, a tuft of hair growing be-
hind the paftern-joint of horfes.

Hence, the joint where it grows is called the fetlock-joint.

FETOVA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Bulgaria; 25 miles S. of Rufzak.

FETSA, in Modern Hiffory, is a name which the Turks
give to the written judgments or decifions of the mufti.
The word in the Turkifh language fignifies /entence, and
in Arabic, reply, or judgments of a wife man.

FETTEE, in Geography, one of the branches of the
Indus.

FETTERCAIRN, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Kincardine ; near it is an ancient ruin called Fenellas caftle,
in which Kenneth III. was murdered; 11 miles N.W. of
Montrofe.

FETU, Ferou, or 4futo, akingdom of Africa, bound-
ed on the weit. by the river Benja, and kingdom of Com-
mendo ; on the north by the country of Ati; on the ealt
by Sabu; and by the ocean on the fouth,

The crown is eleGtive ; and the capital, called alfo Fetz,
ftands in the inland country. Bofman afligns to this kiug-
dom :60 miles in length, and nearly as much in breadth :
he defcribes it as commencing at mount St. Jago, or the
river See!, and terminating at mount Manfoo, or Montfort.
It was formerly very powerful; but has been much reduced
by civil divifions, fo that it is now fubje& to the abfolute
controul of the king of Commendo. Before thefe contefts
it was filled with populous villages, and exhibited figns
of wealth and plenty. Its principal riches confifted of grain,
cattle, oil, and palm wine; and it was rendered beautiful
and pleafant by the groves that fhaded all the roads, and
fheltered paffengers from the rain and fun. It is extremely
well fituated for European fettlements, on account of the
neighbouring trading kingdoms and tbe cheapnefs of living.
The Dutch had a fort at E/mina, which fee.

FETUS. See Foetus.

FETWAS, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 20 miles S.W. of Patna.

FEU, Care, a cape on the E. coaft of Majorea. N.
lat.39° 44’. E. long. 3° 28’.

Feu de Joie, in the Mititary drt, meaning a falute oc-
cafioned by fome joyful occurrence, is generally confined to
three diflin& vollies fired by troops drawn up at open order,
in which the foldiers elevate the muzzles of their firelocks
to an angle of about thirty degrees, or more, thereby to pre-
vent the difcharge from doing injury to thofe ia their front.

But in large armies this ceremony is condued on a fuit-
able fcale: the park of artillery firing royal falutes between
the feveral vollies, for which, in lieu of a word of command,
fignals are given by beat of drum, or eventually by the dii-
charges of three cannon ; the firft indicating that the whole
fhould ‘¢make ready,” the fecond that they fhould “pre-
fent,”? and the third that they fhould “fire.” The re-load-
ing is performed by attending to the fufil.man of each corps
refpectively.

In fome inflances, the feu de joie is performed by fubiti-
tuting a ‘“ruoning fire’? from one to the other flank, in
lieu of firing by volley. This makes the ceremony lait
much longer, aud proves more {triking, efpecially when the
field-pieces attached to the feveral battaliens difcbange as it
comes to their turn, When the force is very confiderable,
each of the three rounds of ‘ running fire’? may occupy
from a quarter of an hour up to a full hour, The mutic
peices performs fome loyal ftrain during the intervals of

uch protra&ed fires, and the ceremony is always concluded
br

N. lat. 60? 58'. Ws

FEU

hy ageneral falute, in which the arms are prefented, and
the colours drooped.

In fortrefles, the whole of the cannon mounted on the
works fire one round, at the fame intervals between the dif-
charges as are ufual in ordinary falutes ; the colours are in-
variably difplayed on fuch occafions.

In the navy, a feu de joie confifts in the difcharge of all
the guns in fucceflion, in the above manner; but if their
number fhould not amount to twenty-one, that number of
difcharges is completed by as many repetitions of the firing
of each gun as may be neceflary. On very joyful occafions
it is common to * drefs the fhip,”? by hanging out, upon va-
rious parts of the rigging, all the colours, of whatever nation
or pattern, foas to make a very motley, but arich and inte-
refting appéarance. During the difcharzes of cannon, the
crew man the rigging, and conclude the ceremony by giving
three cheers.

FEU-ARDENT, Francis, in Biography, a French
monk of the Francifean order, noted for the fury of his
zeal againft Proteftants, and the boldnefs of his feditious
harangues in fupport of the meafures of the /eague during
the reigns of Henry III. and IV., was born at Coutances,
in Lower Normandy, in the year 1541. His name com-
pletely correfponded with his nature and intemperate zeal ;
he was a bitter enemy of the Proteftants, and unwearied in
exciting again{t them the moft cruel perfecutions. Noewith-
ftanding the madnefs of his temper he was unable to item
the torrent of liberality then fetting in, and he lived to fee
his party ruined, and the Proteltants enjoying their religious
and civil rights and immunities, which were fecured to them
by the famous edict of Nantes. He died at Bayeux in
1610, and it is faid fo completely changed, that he was as
anxious for Chriftian union and brotherly love as he had
formerly been defirous of lighting up the flames of perfe-
cution. He was author of Commentaries on feveral books
of the Old and New, Teftament. He edited fome of the
works of the fathers, particularly the five books of Irenzus
again{t herefies. Bayle. Moreri.

FEUCHTWANG, in Geography, a town of Germa-
ny, in the principality of Anipach, fituated on the Sulz,
formerly imperial; 12 miles S.W. of Anfpach. N. lat.

Sete won reer iz.

FEUD, Feropum, the fame with fief or fee. See
Fre.

Ettates in land were originally at will, and then they were
called munera ; afterwards they were for life, and then they
were called deneficia ; and for that reafon the livings of cler-
gymen are fo called at this day ; and afterwards they were
made hereditary, when they were called feoda, and in our
law fee-/imple.

When Hugh Capet ufurped the kingdom of France,
about the year 947, to fupport himfelf in fuch ufurpation,
he granted to the nobility and gentry, that whereas till then
they generaily enjoyed their honours for life, or at will only,
they fhould from thenceforth hold them to them and their
heirs. However, under the reign of Ludovicus Pius, who
fucceeded his father A. D. 814, grants of hereditary fiefs
were frequentin France. Muraton obferves, that the word
feudum, which came to be fubltituted in the place of Lenefi-
cium, does not occur in any authentic charter previous to the
eleventh century ; and Dr. Robertfon adds, (Hilt. Ch. V.
vol. i. p. 269.) that a charter of king Robert of France, A.D.
1008, is the earlie!t deed in which he has met with the word
jfeudum. This was imitated by William, called the Conque-
“yor, upon his acceflion to the crewn of England; for till

his reign, feuds or fees were not hereditary, but only for
life, or for fome determinate time. See Fre.

BEE -U

Feuds were called by yarious names, according to their
refpeCtive natures; as feudum antiguum, which defcended
toafon, &c. from his anceftors; apertum, refulting back
again to the lord of the fee, where the blood of the lat
perfon lat feifed in fee-fimple is utterly extin& and gone ;
honorarium and individuum, a title of nobility, not of a di-
vifible nature, and defcendible to the eldeft fon in exclufion
of all the reft ; improprium, an improper or derivative feud ;
maternum, defcending to the for from the mother; movum,
one newly acquired by the fon, to which, in ancient times,
only the defcendants from his body could fucceed, by the
known maxim of the early feudal conftitutions; novum
held wt antiquum, defcendible in the fame manner asa feudum
novum: paternum, defcendible from father to fon ; and pro-

prium, a proper feud, diftinguifhed from one improper, which
are the two grand and general divifions. Blackit. Com.
vol. ii.

Feup is alfo ufed inour ancient cuftoms for a capital
quarrel or enmity, not to be fatisfied but with the death of
theenemy ; and thence ufually called deadly feud.

Feud, called alfo feida, and faida, in the original Ger-
man fignifies guerram 3 i.e. bellum, war. Lambert writes
it feeth, and faith it fignifies capitales inimicitias, or implaca-
ble hatred.

In Scotland and the north of England, feud is particular-
ly ufed for a combination of kindred to revenge the death
of any of their blood, againft the killer and all his race, or
any other great esemy.

FEUDAL, or Feonat, of or belonging to a feud or
fee. We fay a feudal matter, feudal suri erularreee feudal
feifure, feudal fyltem, &c. A feudal lord, in default of
fealty and homage from his vaflal, may feize the fruits of the
fee. A Neapolitan lawyer, called Caravita, has a Latin
treatife of the feudal law, intitled “* Prelectiones Feo-
dales.”’

About the year 1170, a compilation of the feudal laws, as
practifed in Lombardy, was publifhed at Milan, in two
books, by two fenators and contuls of that city, Gerardus
Niger, and Obertus de Odo. . In imitation of the *¢ Pan-
de¢ts,”? they contain the opinions of lawyers, on queitions
concerning the feudal cuftoms, with fome imperial conftitu-
tions, relating to feuds. They were long afterwards divided
into five books by Cujacius, their beft commentator, before
whofe time they had obtained fo great an authority in many
countries of Europe, that they were received in courts
of juttice as parts of the civil law. The learned Craig aferibes
this authority to imperial conititutions contained in them,
or by which they were confirmed; but Du Moulia, Gian-
none, and others fay, that, like the books of Juttinian, they
acquired by degrees the force of laws, from ufage, from the
approbation of the people, and from the tacit confent of
princes, who permitted them to be publicly taught in uni-
verfities, enriched with commentaries, and cited in tribunals
for the decifion of caufes. It does not appear that any fuch
regard was paid to them in England ; though in many points
our laws were fimilar, as being derived from the fame princi-
ples, and directed to the fame ends. Yet it is not impro-
bable that even in the latter times of king Henry II., and,
fill more in the next century, fome parts of the Englifh
laws, concerning feudal eftates, may have been regulated
according to their decifion, by the itatwtes then made, and,
in the determination of doubtful cafes, by the opinions of the
judges.

When once the ufe of fees was thoroughly eftablifhed in
France, they would needs extend it much farther ; and almott
all the great officers of the crown thus became feudal ;
even the courts of juttice were drawn ing in order

4 vo

————————

ee, V

Lj
to which, they were annexed to certain lands or reve-
nues. ’

The defign of thefe infeodations was to render the offices
hereditary, after the manner of fees, which were now
become fo; and thus the offices of the grand chamber-
lain, grand butler, &c. came to be held by hereditary
right. .

As the northern nations brought in the ufe of coats of
arms, by preferving down in their families the armorial
bearings of their anceftors, fhields, &c.as hereditary marks
of honour, fo they alfo, according to fome, brought in the
feudal law, by means of which, arms grew up to farther
perfe€tion, as is evident by many armorial figures of an-
cient families, reprefenting the acknowledgments and fer-
vices they were obliged to perform to their own lords and
fuperiors.

Thus, rofes, cinquefoils, fpur-rowels, bow and arrows,
hunting-horns, fhips, and the like figures, were expref-
five of the fervices they were bound to do their lord ; and
hence thefe figures have become common in arm: through-
out all Europe. For iaftance, the old barons of Arran and
Lorn were obliged to furnifh their lord with a fhip in time
of war ; and thence it is that their arms carry fhips or lym-
pheds to this time. ;

Teupar Syflem. See Fee.

FEUDATORY, or Feoparary, a vaffal or perfon
who holds of a fuperior in fee ; i. e. on condition of yielding
him fealty and homage, or other fervice. See Pearty, l'rx,
HomaceE, and Vassau.

The eleétors, princes, and free cities, of Germany, were
all feudatories of the emperor.

FEUDBOTE, a recompence for engaging ina feud or
action, and for the damages confequent thereon 3 it having
been the cuftom of ancient times for all the kindred to en-
gage intheir kinfmen’s quarrels; according to that of T'a-
citus De Morib. Germanor. « Sufcipere tam isimicitias
feu patris, feu propinqui, quam amicitias, necefle elt.”

FEUDIST, a lawyer, or door, learned or much con-
verfant in feuds or fees. Du-Moulin is reckoneda great
feudift.

* FEUDO, in Geography.

FRVE. See Avreuia.
» FEVENIST, in Geography, ariver of Carinthia, which
ruins into the Drave, 6 miles N.W. of Villach.

PEVER, in Medicine, a term employed to defignate
various conditions of the body, in which more efpe-
cially the heat is augmented, the pulfe increafed in velocity,

See St. GoTWARD.

and the other funétions more or lefs deranged.

The word, fever, has always been ufed with great lati-
tude, as well by medical writers, as by mankind in general ;
and fearcely two phyficians have agreed in the definition of
it which they have given. ‘he increafe of the animal
heat, however, which is commonly both fenfible to the
touch of others, and diltrefling to the fick, has been the
fubje& of univerfal obfervation ; whence the denomination
of the difeafe, in almof all languazes, bears a reference to
this fymptom. By the Greeks the word pyretos, wugezo:,
from ve, fire, was the appellation applied to fever; and the
name ufed Ly the Romans, febris, was deduced from ferdeo,
or férveo, (fignifying to be sot,) by a tranfpofition of letters
common in molt languages. From the latter our word is
derived, probably through the medium of the French.
That the idea of Acat is predominant in the ufe of the term
fever is obvious from the popular expreflions which repre-
fent a perfon much heated, in any way, as in a fever,”

‘ Vow. XIV.

a

and which defignate the cold.and hot ftages, or the rigors
and heats of intermittents, by the words ‘ ague and fever.’”
Phyficians, however, include, in the term fever, the while
of the phenomena. which belong to the difeafe, the cold as
well as the hot and {weating ftages; that is, the beginning
as well as the middle and end of the difeafe.

Fever, in the moft extenfive fignification of the term, is
the moft general of all the morbid itates to which the hu-
man conttitution is liable ; for, it is common to both fexes,
tu every period of life, and to all climates and countries.
Sydenham affirms, that the various forms of fever conttitute
two-thirds of the difeafes of mankind; and he has calcu-
lated, that as large a proportion as eight of nine of s!1 who
die are cutoff by febrile difeafes ; a proportion which i
probably not over-rated, if we include in the c
not only all the forms of intermittent,
tinued fevers, and the fevers accomp
the fkin, fuch as {mall-po neaf fearlet fever, &c.
bat alfo the various local difeafe 1 injuries of the body,
which are accompanied by fever, fuch as iaflammations of all
the organs, whether induced by internal caufes or external
violence.

In reviewing the numerous forms of fever, however, it is
evident that, for the practical purpofes of the phyfician, this
gencral application of the term is too vague and indefinite ;
{ince the circumftances under which fever occurs are mate-
tially different in various refpe€ts. The moft obvious dif-
tinétion, which has induced an univerfal divifion of fevers

3 E
remittent, and con-

ied by eruptions on

nominated primary, or idiopathic fevers ; the latter _/econdary,

the idiopathic fevers: in the other clafs of febrile difeafes

Under the head of idiopathic fevers, thofe febrile dif-
eafes, which originate froma {pecilic contagion, fuch as
{mall-pox, meafles, {carlet fever, &c. might with propriety
be comprehended ; inafmuch as the eruption on the skin,
which characterizes them, is not the caufe of the fever, but
appears fubfequent to the occurrence of the fever itfelf
Neverthelefs, as thefe eruptive fevers differ moft materially
in their courfe, their phenomena, and their periods, and
originate froma diftin@ {pecies of contagion, it is ufeful
to feparate them from the fimple idiopathic fevers.

This plan has been adopted univerfally by the nofologifts.
Dr. Cullen has conftituted three orders of his firft clafs of
difeafes, entitled pyrexia, or febrile difeafes, from the divi-
fion which we have jut defcribed ; the firit order, compre-
hending the fimple idiopathic fevers, is entitled ‘ febres,’”
or fevers; the fecond, including the fymptomatic fevers, is

r entitled

entitled the order of “ phlegmafia,”’ or inflammations ; and
the third, comprifing the eruptive fevers, is denominated the
erder of “ exanthemata,”’ or efflorefcences. It may be
added, that this fcientific phyfician has likewife conftituted
two other orders of febrile difeafes; the fourth confilting of
*‘ hemorrhagies,”’ from the lungs, uterus, &c,; and the
fifth, entitled “ profluvia,” or fluxes, containing two dif-
eafes, catarrh and dyfentery, which depend on a peculiar in-
flammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchial tubes,
and of the alimentary canal. See Cullen, Nofol. Method.

Fever, properly fo called, or idiopathic fever, is the fub-
ject of the prefent article. It occurs under the form of
ephem¢ra, intermittent fevers, or agues ; remittent, and con-
tinued fevers: the laft of which appear under a variety of
types, in the inftances of the plague, gaol-fever, or typhus,
low, nervous fever, &c. See the conclufion of this article.

Notwithftanding the great prevalence of fever in all ages
and climates, and the univerfal attention which it has excited
among medical obfervers, from the time of Hippocrates
downwards, the difeafe ftill remains the fubject of much dif-
cuffion ; and its effential nature, or the proximate caufe of
its fymptoms, is ftill a problem in medical fcience. This
ob{curity will appear the lefs furprifing, however, when we
confider the almoft endlefs varieties under which fever oc-
curs: for not only are its modifications fo various, that of
thofe fevers, which are nominally the fame, fcarcely any two
inftances accurately refemble each other; but of all the
fymptoms which conftitute thofe varieties, not one can be
found which is invariably prefent in every cafe,—not one,
therefore, which can be confidered as charaGeriftic of the
difeafe. In the technical phrafeology, we are not ac-
quainted with any fathognomonic fymptom of fever. Hence,
although the concourfe of fymptoms, which mark the pre-
fence of fever, is well known, and eafily recognized by a
moderate degree of obfervation and experience, and cowe-
quently capable of being accurately deferibed, yet it is not
eafy to fiamea definition of fever, which fhould comprehend
every variety that may occur.

Boerhaave, the able and learned profeffor of phyfic at
Leyden, at an early period of the eighteenth century, invef-
tigated the fubject of fever more rationally than his prede-
ceffors: he found that ‘Aree fymptoms were generally ob-
fervable in all feyers ; aad therefore he deemed thefe the
charaéteriltic fymptoms of fever, in which he has been
followed by the nofologifts who have fucceeded him. In
every fever, arifing from internal caufes,”’ he fays, (Aphorifm
563,) ** there is always a /hivering, a quick pale and heat,
varying in degree at different times of the fever.’ But of
thefe three fymptoms, he confiders the fecond, or quick
pulle, as the efiential or pathognomonic fymptom, and not
the heat, as was the opinion of the ancients. He obferves
again, in the 57th aphorifm, ‘* Thele fymptoms, indeed,
are prefent in every fever, but the quick pul/e alone is prefent
throughout its whole conrfe, from the beginning to the end,
and by that only the phyfician judges of the exiftence of
fever.” It cannot be queitioned, that thefe three fymptoms
are found in the great majority of inftances of fever, and that
the quickened pulfe is the moft univerfally obferved, and
continues during the longeft period of the difeafe. But, on
the one hand, thefe fymptoms are common to the fympto-
matic fevers, as well as to the idiopathic ; and, on the other,
they have each been obferved to be abfent in different in-
flances, even the quicknefs of pulfe. By thefe three fymp-
toms Dr. Cullen has characterized the whole clafs of febrile
difeafes, the idiopathic, the eruptive, and the fymptomatic
fevers ; in addition to which he has introduced the lefion of
fome of the functions, efpecially of the mufcular ftrength,

FEVER.

which generally accompanies them. His deSnition of the
clafs Pyrexie is as follows. ‘ Poft horrorem, pulfus free
quens, calor major, plures fundtiones lef, viribus prefertim

artuum imminutis.’? Thefe fymptoms, occurring generally’
in the order here mentioned, are deduced from a correct
generalization of the common occurrences in febrile difeafes ;
but if it can be fhewn that each of them has been occafionally
abfent, it will bea fufficient proof that none of them can be
deemed effential to the exiltence of fever. On the contrary,
it will be equally eafy to prove that ali thefe fymptoms have
been occafionally prefent, without the occurrence of fever.

The chillinefs, fhivering, horror, rigor, or horripilatioy
which is commonly one of the firft fymptoms of idiopathi¢:
fever and often of fymptomatic fevers, as has been obferved:
by the beft writers on the fubject, is occafionally abfent ; the
fever begins at once in the hot ftage, or with fome other
fymptom, as naufea,, or head-ache, to which the hot ftage
fucceeds ; and no cold ftage, whether marked by the feelings.
of the patient, or of a by-ftander, cr by the application ofa
thermometer, occurs. For this fact we have the authority
of Celfus: and among modern phyticians Gorter, Burferius,
Fordyce, and others, have diftin@ly attefted its truth. On
the other hand, cold, eftimated by the means juft mentioned,
often takes place, where no fever can be admitted to be pree
fent, as in hytterical complaints. See Celfus, De Me-
dicina, lib. iii, cap. 3. where he fays, ‘ alie protinus a
calore incipiunt, &c.? Gorter. Compend. Med. Traé&. 52,
§ 3. Burferius, Inftit. Med. Praé&t. vol. i, p. 83. Fare
dyce, Differt. on Simple Fever, p. 11.

With refpe& to the quick pulfe, which is deemed by
Boerhaave, and his commentator, Van Swieten, as the
eflence of fever, and the only criterion by which the phyfi-
cian judges of its exiftence, the evidence of its abfence, which
the records of medicine afford, is very abundant. It might
feem extraordinary indeed if quicknefs of pulfe were the
eflential fymptom of fever, that the ancient fathers of phyfic
fhould have become fo well acquainted with the difeafe, with
out paying much attention to the {tate of the pulfe. Yet it is
certain that Hippocrates has feldom mentioned the pulfe,
and lays little itrefs upon it; and we are informed by Galen,
that he (Hippocrates) was the firft writer who mentioned
the pulfe. The pulfe, however, was noticed afterwards by
Herophilus and Erafiftratus, and particularly mentioned by
Areteus. In the time of Celfus it was an objeét of confi-
derable attention with phyficians ; but he exprefsly remarks,
that in trufing to the pulfe, as a teft of fever, we depend
ona mott fallacious criterion (fallaciflima res) ; for not only
external heat, the bath and exercife, but alfo fear, anger,
and the other paffions and emotions of the mind, even the
anxiety of the patient on the approach of the phyfician will
excite and deprefs, and otherwife modify the pulfations.
** Quas venas autem,” he concludes, ** confpectus medici
movet, quam facile mille res turbant !??_ De Med. lib. iii.
cap. 6,

But not only is the pulfe quickened by heat, exercife,
ard mental emotions, as ftated by Celfus, and by other caufes,
when no fever can be faid to exift; but farther, continued
fever has been obferved to go on even to a fatal termination,
without any increafed frequency of the pulfe. The frequency
of the pulfations in health varies according to the age, fex,
climate, feafon, and to the particular conftitution of indivi-
duals, It is only about a century fince the pulfations were
counted, and within that period authors have not agreed as
to the number whieh conttitutes a febrile pulfe. It is ad-
mitted that in the adult age of men, the number of pul-
fations of the heart and arteries is commonly about 73 in a
minute. (See Purse.) But in particular conftitutions

2 the

FEVER,

the pulfe of health is found regularly at a much higher or
lower rate: fometimes beating So times or upwards, fome-
times 50, 69, orlefsina minute. Dr. Fordyce counted the
-pulfe ‘of an old man in the Charter houfe, whofe natural
-number did not exceed 26 contractions ina minute, It is
obvious then that the difputes about the number of pulfa-
tions which conftitute the febrile ftate are frivolous : for the
man whofe natural puife was 40 would be ina high fever
-in other refpeéts when his pulfe reached 60; while the per-
fon, whofe pulfe in health was at 89, might labour under
flight febrile indifpofition when his pulle beat nearly 10¢
times ina minute. But let us advert to other faéts. Sy-
denham long ago ftated, that in the firit days of a fever,
which he calls febris hiemalis, the pulfe continued like that
of a perion in health, “¢ fanorum pulfui non admodum
-abfimilis.”” (Traétat. De Hyrope, pottcripto.) Werlhoff
‘has noticed the fame fact in {mall-pox, and Greding in a
contagious epidemic fever. (Ludwig. Advers. Med. vol. i.
p- I. cap. 1. p. 22.) The pulfe has been obferved ta be
flower than natural, in feveral inftances of malignant fever-,
by many clinical obfervets, both ancient and modern. Several
of thefe are particularly referred to by Burferius ( Loe. citat.
p- 84. et feq.) It may be fufficient to mention Ruffell
(Nat. Hitt. of Aleppo, p. 23>.), Sauvages (Nofol. Methed,
tom. iL p. 397.), and De Haen (Rat. Medendi, p. 12. cap. 2.
p- 52 et 117.) Nay, it fometimes happens, as in a cafe
recorded by the lait mentioned writer, that the pulfe, which
was flow during the continuance of the fever, becomes more
frequent during the ftate of convalefcence and health. he
pulfe, indeed. has been often obferved to undergo confider-
able changes in the courfe of fever, when the reft of the
fymptoms continued unaltered. Dr. Fordyce remarks, that
he “ has feen, in many inftances, a fever take place, and go
On as a continued fever, fo that in the middle of the fecond
week the pulfe has been frequent, from Ico to 11¢, or even
more ; the tongue covered with a brown fur, and dry ; the
fin dry; there has been great depreffion of ftrength,
coftivenefs, violent pain of the forehead, delirium, ftrong
evening exacerbations with ftupidity of the eyes: in fuch
-cafes the author has known the pulfations become as few as
60, 50, or even 45 in a minute, all the other appearances of
the difeafe remaining the fame, or the fever even increaling
jn all refpe&s. This {mall number of pulfations, after con-
‘tinuing for two or three days, has given place to a number
of pulfations as great as before, fo that if a man had at-
tended to the other circumilances of the difeafe, and not felt
the pulfe, he would have had no reafon to fufpeé& that the
pulfe had been fewer during that time. This the author has
frequently fhewn to the pupils attending St. Thomas’s hof-
pital, as it was fhewn to him by Dr. Cullen, fir John
Pringle, &c. &c.”’ (Loe. cit. page 18.) It may be added,
that Dr. Home remarks that patients have died of typhus
under his obfervation in whom the pulfe was not quickened.
(See his Clinical Experiments.) On the whole, then, it

cannot be doubted, that Boerhaave maintamed an erroneous’

dodtrine, in ftating the quick pulfe to be pathognomonic of
fever. See alfo the works of Pringle and Lind.
The increafed Aear is ftill lefs entitled to be deemed an
ential fymptom of fever, notwithitanding the labours of
the Galenifts to prove it the proximate of the whole difeafe,
It is ctirious to obferve the fophifms by which they at-
tempted to reconcile the doctrine of their matter, with
‘Rtubborn faéts, that are incompatible with it. Thus Sen-
nertus affirms, that “ it is not the heat generated in the
heart, and thence communicated to the rett of the body,””
(which is Galen’s hypothefis) that produces or coniti-
“tutes Fever, but the morbid difpofition whieh the heat .oc-

cafions, and which is inconfiftent with the proper perform.
ance of the functions. Hence the heat occafioned by
paflion, violent exercife, or the bath, is not to be deemed

fever, unlefs it reaches that degree of inflammation which

difturbs the funétions.”” (De Febribus, lib. i. cap. I.)
But the excitement of heat, by the fame caufes which raifes
the pulfe, according to the obfervation of Celfus, its oc-
currence in hyfterical and other difeafes, zot febrile, and
its frequent abfence duriug the whole courfe of fever, for
which we may ftate the authority of Fordyce, and other
obfervers, prove that heat is not the effential fymptom of
fever. ‘ Altera res, cui credimus, calor, zque fallax.’
(Celfus, loc. citat.)

The other fymptoms, alluded to by Dr. Cullen, in bis
definition of febrile difeafes, namely, ‘¢ the difturbance of
feveral of the funétions, efpecially .the deprefion of. the
mufcular ftrength,” although they commonly occur both
in idiopathic and fymptomatic fevers, are common toa great
variety of difeafes, aud were not {tated as pathognomonic
fymptoms.

As there is no fymptom, then, which, being invariably
prefent, characterizes the difeafe, called fever, we can only
ebtain a knowledge of the exiftence and nature of the
difeafe, from an attention to the concourfe and fucceffion of
the fymptoms. This attention is extremely important in
a practical view, not only from the great variety of fevers
which require an appropriate variety of treatment, but alfo
from the neceflity of modifying the treatment in different
ftages of the fame cafe of fever. We fhall, therefore, de
tail the fymptoms of fever in the order in which they
ufually .occur, including the whole of thofe which. have
been feen in various cafes, and leaving the modifications of
the difeafe to be more particularly noticed under their re-
{pective appellations. The paroxy{m of an intermittent
fever is generally pointed out as the moft perfe& example
of the febrile ftate, both in refpect to the diftin@nefs and
the regularity of the fymptoms, which charaGterize it.
This has already been defcribed under the article Acvue.
When the paroxyfm is lefs fevere, and does not recur, it is
denominated an Ephemera, (which fee.) There is perhaps
more of fancy, however, than of found obfervation, in the
affinity which has been defcribed between the intermittent
and continued fevers; and efpecially in the affumption of
the intermittent paroxylm, as the prototype of all febrile
difeafes ; and in contidering continued fevers, as confitting
but of a feries of thefe paroxyfms, the fucceeding one com-
mencing before the termination of its predeceffor, fo that
no period of intermifion intervenes. Such, however, has
been the practice of our beft authors; Dr. Cullen, the
fy tematic, has been followed by Dr. Fordyce, the practical,
phyfician, in this account of the difeafe.

Symptoms of Fever—The commencement of fever is ge-
nerally marked by fome degree of languor, laffitude, and
general uneafinefs; the patient feels himéelf ill, without
being able to refer his uneafy feelings to any particular part
of the body. . There is alfo a liftleffnefs, or a defire fre-
quently to change tlie pofture, but at the fame time the fenfe
of wearinefs difpofes the patient to refit this inclination; the
motions when made are fluggih, and frequent yawning and
itretching accompany the attempt. The miod is affected
in a fimilar way; it cannot reft upon any objet; the at-
tention is not under the command of the will, but wanders
from one fubjest to another:; and as the ability of exerting
the muicular powers, or of performing any of the body
becomes actually diminithed; there is likewife au a@ual
inability of exerciting the faculties of the mind ; the patient
caynet think er realon, even upon his ordinary affairs, with

Rra

sus

‘ FEVER.

his ufnal eafe. Along with thefe fymptoms, but more fre-
quently after them, he feels a fenfation of cold, commonly
firft in his back, but afterwards over the whole body ; the
fame kind of fenfation that he feels when furrounded by a
colder medium than he is accuftomed to: he wifhes, there-
fore, to go near a fire, or into the rays of the fun, or to
put on warmer clothing. At the fame time the face and
extremities are obferved to be pale, the features fhrink,
the bulk of every external part is diminifhed, and the ficin
over the whole body appears conftrifted, as if cold had been
applied to it. This fenfation of cold varies much more in
different inftances of incipient fever, than the languor and
Jaffitude before-mentioned ; in fome cafes it is very flight,
in others not at all felt or noticed ; whilft in many inftances,
particularly in the intermittent fevers, it becomes fo great
as to produce a tremor or fhaking in ail the limbs, with a
chattering of the teeth, and frequent rigors of the trunk of
the body. In this ftate, the atual heat of the furface,
whether meafured by the fenfations of a by-ftander, or a
thermometer, is confiderably diminifhed ; in the extremities

““in particular it is many degrees below the ftandard of health.
(See Burferius, loc. cit.-—Currie, Medical Reports on the
effets of Water, cold and warm, in Fevers, &c. p. 168,
2d edit.) Not only on the furface, as is generally imagined,
put even over the whole fyitem, the heat is probably di-
minifhed ; the air expired from the lings, feels cool to the
back of the hand, heldnearthe mouth. Dr. Currie ftates,
that he has found the heat under the tongue, and at the ax-
ila, as low as 94, 93, and 92 degrees of Fahrenheit’s ther-
mometer. (The healthy temperature of the human body,
it may be obferved, is about 98° of the fame thermometer. )
Dr. Fordyce affirms, that 94° was the lowelt degree of
heat that he had witneffed under the fame circumitances.
(Firlt Differtation on Fever, page 40.) The fenfations of
the patient, however, do not always correfpond with the
actual degree of cold, as meafured by the thermometer, or
by the fenfations of others; for it has been remarked, efpe-
cially towards the termination of the cold {tage of the fever,
that the patient feels himfelf cold, even on thofe parts of
the body which are {hewn, by the applieation of a thermo-
meter, to be of the natural heat, or even hotter than they
ufually are in health. With this ftate of coldnefs, the fen-
fibility of the body is contiderably diminifhed ; all the fen-
fations, but efpecially thofe of touch and taite, are lefs ac-
curate and diftin@ than in the healthy ftate. Dr. Fordyce
remarks, that, ‘in the attack of feves, fuch a degree of
infenfibility, with a feel of coldnefs, Ras in many cafes taken
place, that even hot fubftances have been applied in fuch
manner as to coagulate, nay. perform the chemical analyfis
of the part, without any fenfation of heat having arifen in
the mind of the patient.”? (Loc. cit. p. 49-) The dimi-
nution of the faculty of fenfation is very various in differ-
ent inftances of the attack of fever.

Upon the firft approach of febrile languor the pulfe- is
not always altered in refpe& to frequency, but it always
becomes weaker than before; fometimes it is alfo flower
than in health. fora fhort time. But as the fenfe of cold
increafes, it becomes fmaller, and gradually more ard more
frequent, and often irregular. While the contraGtions of
the heart and arteries are thus feeble, all the fecretions of
the fyftem are likewife diminifhed. The tongue and mouth
become dry and clammy, in confequence of the diminifhed
fupply of faliva and of the mucus of thofe parts; the fkin

-alfo becomes dry, as well as pale and cold, there being
little or no matter of perfpiration poured out. The
changesin the urine are itll. more remarkable ; the impaired
action of the fecretory veflels of the kidnies is evinced by

the diminifhed quantity of the urine, at this period of fever,
as well as by the palenefs of its colour, in confequence of
its holding lefs of the mucilaginous and faline parts in folu-
tion than in health, and by the abfence of any cloudinefs or
depofition when it cools. There is generally alfo a fmaller
quantity of feculent matter evacuated from the inteflines
at the commencement of fever, or in other words a degree
of conttipation, which implies a deficiency of the fluids fe-
creted from the inner furface of the alimentary canal, as
well as of the bile and pancreatic liquor, by which the
feces are rendered more liquid and moveable, and the bow-
els are ftimulated to aétion. Analogous to thefe changes
in the fkate of the fecretions are the fudden and confider-
able detumefcence of fwellings, which may happen to fub-
fit on the furface of the body, and the drying up, or cef-
fation of the difcharges from ulcers and wounds, during
the cold ftage of fever.

The refpiration alfo fuffers fome change in the attack of fe-
ver, being often fhort and frequent, and fometimes attended
with a cough, more particularly in intermittent fevers. There
is at the fame time a great anxiety, or a fenfe of weight, full-
nefs, and great uneafinefs in the breaft. This diftrefling
feeling, which has been thought by fome phyficians a pa-
thoguomonic fymptom of fever, and hence denominated
febrile anxiely, 1s totally different from, and independent of,
the general uneafinefs all over the body, which was before
mentioned, and often occurs in a very difproportionate de-
gree. It refembles that anxiety which takes place from
grief, fear, and other depreffing paffions of the mind, and
which is alfo accompanied by palenefs, and diminution of
fize of the veins, which are feen on the furface. The pa-
tient likewife refpires irregularly, as one under the influence
of the paffions juft noticed, and frequently fighs deeply,
as if to free himfelf from the load that opprefles the region
of the heart. :

At the beginning of the attack of fever, fometimes as the
very firft fymptom, but often later, a dul! pain is felt in the
{mall of the back, which feems to occupy the lumbar ver-
tebre, but is not accurately referred to any particular point.
It is very fimilar to the pain which arifes from weaknefs or
fatigue; but, unlike that, according to Dr. Fordyce, it is
equally felt in the horizontal, as in the ereét pofture of the
body. The headsat the fame time is affected with pain,
which is commonly feated in the forehead over the eyes,
and feels to the patient as external ; fometimes it likewife
occupies the back part of the head; and occafioually it is
felt all round the head. It varies much in degree, but com-
monly increafes as- the attack proceeds; it is ufually at-
tended with a fenfe of weight, and is often augmented hy
light falling upon the eyes. A fimilar pain generally arifes
all over the body, which the patient often deferibes as feated
in all his bones, without being able to particularize in what
part of the body it is felt. Sometimes it is more particularly
confined to the larger joints; and it is occafionally attended
with great forenefs, as from over-fatigue. Such forenefs,
however, is more commonly confined to the fublequent
periods of the difeafe. ,

From the commencement of the attack of fever th
natural fanétions are always deranged. The changes in the
appearance of the tongue are among the firft indications of
this derangement. Att firft the tongue appears to be thinly
covered on its upper furface with an extremely vifcid fluid,
efpecially in the nsiddle and towards the root, the edges and
point being nearly free from it. The under furface of the
tongue, below the point, is fearcely ever covered with this
matter. Sometimes, at the very beginning of the diforder,
the covering of the tongue is a folid cruft of a whitith

vi] colour,

x

FEVER.

colour, adhering fo firmly as tg be incapable of being
feraped off; fometimes it verges towards a brown colour.
At the approach of the cold ftage of fever the ftomach is
commonly affected; the appetite for food ceafes, and
averfion even to the fight or {mell of food often takes place.
Dr. Fordyce remarks, that he “has known feveral inftances
where perfons, fitting down to the table with a flrong appe-
tite, an attack of fever having fuddenly taken place, in lefs
than two minutes they have been unable to eat any thing,
and have been feized with perfe@ averfion even to the fmell
of food.”” (Loc. cit. p.g3.) Sicknefs at the ftomach
offen comes on at the. firit attack, and this is increafed
occafionally to fuch a degree as to produce vomiting.
‘More commonly, however, this does not take place at the
very commencement ; but the difinclination to food increafes
gradually tonaufea, then to vomiting, which in fome cafes
is very fevere, not ouly the contents of the ftomach being
evacuated, but likewife thofe of the duodenum, and of the
‘glands, the fecretory duéts of which open into it. Bile,
therefore, and the pancreatic juice, are thrown up, together
with the contents of the ftomach, and the other fluids
fecreted into the ftomach and duodenum. Of thele fluids,
however, the bile is the moft coafpicuous from its colour,
tafte, and fmell, and it has, therefore, often been obferved
by practitioners, while the gaftric and pancreatic, and other
juices feereted into the duodenum, as they are not very
confpicuous from their fenfible qualities, have not been
taken into the account. Combined with the averfion to
food, and ficknefs, there is generally a confiderable degree
of thirft.

' Few other fymptoms, which are obfervable at the com-
‘mencement of fever, remain to be mentioned. The ftate of
the countenance is very peculiar and charateriftic, from the
‘moment of the attack. It not only becomes pallid, or of a
“dirty hue, in common with the relt of the furface of the
“body, but it affumes an expreffion of dullnefs or heavinefs,
‘partly, in confequence of the languid aétion or relaxed con-
dition of the mufcles of the face, and partly from the
fame condition of the mufcles of the eye-ba]l, by which its

, form and moticn are altered, and its ufual brightnefs and
uicknefs are impaired. The difpofition to fleep is dimi-
nifhed or loit; or, if it occurs, the repofe is fhort and in-
“terrupted, and very imperfect, fo that there is much dream-
fing, during which the ideas that prefent themfelves are
moftly of an unpleafant kind.

When the fenfation of cold, and the attendant fymptoms
have continued for fome time, (the period being very
various in the different kinds of fever,) the cold becomes
lefs violent, and is alternated with fiufhes of heat. In the
more fevere continued fevers, it frequently happens that the
cold is not permanent for any length of time, but that this
alternation of chills and heat takes place from the beyinning.
By degrees the cold goes off entirely, and a heat greater
than natural is extended, at firtt unequally in different parts,
but at length gencrally over the whole body; but even
when it is a far advanced, that the heat, meafured at the
axilla or under the tongue, is greater than the ftandard of
health, a flight acceffion of external cold will produce a

eneral chillinefs. ‘Chere is no regularity in the reftoration
of the heat to the furface; in fome parts the heat is above
‘what is natural, while in others tt remains Below this
ftandard ; aud hence arifes that mixed fenfation of cold and
“heat, which every one acquainted with fever has experienced,
in the tranfition from the cold to the hot ftage of the
‘ aroxy{m. This inequality of the diitribution of the heat

R lefs in the fimpler forms of fever, and greater in thofe
‘which are mere complicated and irregular. In general the

q

fenfe of cold predominates, even after a morbid heat his
taken place at the axilla, under the tongue, and in different
parts of the thorax and abdomen. At length, however,
the heat of the furface becomes general and uniform, rifing
to 102°, 103°, 104°, and fometimes 105° of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer. Different authors indeed {peak of febrile
heat four or even five degrees higher than this; but fuch
heat has never occurred under the obfervation of Dr. Fordyc=
or Dr. Currie, the beft authority on this fubje& ; the writer
of this article has frequently employed the thermometer, in
cafes of continued fever, and never obferved a higher tem-
perature of the body than 104°, in intermittent or con-
tinued fever, the patients being in cool apartments, with
very light bed coverings. The fenfation of heat becomes
at length ftrong and fteady, and the acceffion of external
air does not produce a return of chillinefs as before; this
fenfation is moft powerful in the extremities, particularly
on the palms of the hands and {cles of the feet.

The increafe of the circulation takes place at the fame
time as the returning heat, and often in the fame unequal
manner, being evidently greater in fome particular parts,
than in others. Thus it frequently happens, that one part
fhall become red and enlarged, one arm, for inftance, while
the other is pale and contracted ; the veins of the one being
full, and the blood flowing in them more rapidly, while
thofe in the other remain contracted. ‘This fhall continue
for fome time, when the parts become affected in the oppo-
fite way ; the arm which was florid and diftended, becoming
pale aud contracted, and vice verfd. This fhifting, how-
ever, remains but a fhort time in fimple fever, perhaps not
above half an hour; in the paroxyfms of intermittents it
continues longer, and itill longer in the firft attack of con-
tinued fever. Univerfal rednefs at length takes place; the
features of the face and other parts of the body recover
their ufual fize, and become even more turgid; and the
fuperficial veins evince the greater circulation now going on
through them by their fullnefs and increafed fize. The
{kin is relsxed and fmooth, no longer exhibiting the goofe-
fin appearance, by its contraction round the litéle glands
and roots of the hair, but it continues for fome time dry.
The pulfe now becomes fuller and ftronger, and its fre-
quency continues or is {till farther increafed; in fimple
fevers, it beats occafionally at the rate of 140 or 150 ftrokes
in a minute, with a confiderale degree of fullnefs and hard-
nefs (Fordyce); but in the hot ftage of intermittents, and
in the heat of continued fevers it is moft commonly from
92 to 110, at this early period of the difeafe ; fubjeét, how-
ever, to great variation according to the coniftitution of the
patient, and the type of the fever. The refpiration,
though more free than daring the chillinefs, continues {till
frequent, and accompanied by a fenfe of load and anxiety,
which the patieut endeavours to remove by occafional
labouiou’s efforts, and deep fiching. The feeretions. fil
remain diminifhed ; the fkim is parched, no perfpiration
breaks forth; the tongue and mouth are alfo dry and
parched, and the fur on the former becomes thicker, the
urine, though it becomes higher coloured’ than in the cold
ftage, remains tranfparent, and depofits no fediment; and
the bowels are coitive. The thirft is confiderably increafed
as the heat advances, the naufea and vomiting gradually
diminith, but the averfion to food is augmented.

The corporeal ftrength and the mental. powers become
more oppreiled ; the fenfibility, however, is reftored in ge-
neral with the returning circulation and warmth of ‘the fur-
face ; fometimes it becomes even more acute than in the
healthy ftate, fo that ‘the {kin. is more an irritated, the
eyes are offended with the light, andthe leait-noife is heard

§ bviseommas weds eager! 8 A

FEV ER.

with pain, and greatly difturbs the feelings of the patient.
"The attention becomes lefs under the controul of the will,
and the faculty of recolleétion and the reafoning power are
exerted with difficulty, and imperfe@ly, fo that fome confu-
fion.of thought takes place, which often arifes to delirium,
when the hot ftage is completely formed: occafionally, in-
deed, a degree of delirium occurs in the beginning of the
cold {tage, but more frequently in the fubfequent periods of
the fever. he numerous and diftreffing dreams, which
conftantly recur in the difturbed and unrefrefhing fleep,
which takes place. in the firft ftages of fever, may be con-
fidered as the flighteft degree of delirium. (See the articles
Devirium, and Dreams, in Pathology.) In the next
degree the patient, when he awakes, is {ome time before he
cau attend to the impreflions made on the organs of fenfe :
he does not know his bed, jis bed-chamber, or his attend-
ants for a few minutes, but feems to awake as it were a
fecond time, and becomes periectly fenfible. If the deli-
rium is ina little greater degree, the ordinary impreffions of
external objects produce no effect; the ideas, which float in
the mind rapidly, feem to be excited without train or con-
nection ; the aflociation being carried en by the internal im-
preflions alone.. If the attention of the patient, however,
be ftrongly excited by external impreffion, he is capable of
diftinguifhing the furrounding objects, and of returntug cor-
rect_au{fwers to queftions put to him; but that flrong im-
preflion being withdrawn, he relapfes into his delirious
dream, \
fever, the faculty of diftinguifhing the objeéts_ that fur-
round him gradually diminifhes ; he begins to exprefs his
ideas in words, i. ¢, to talk incoherently ; the teas which
prefent themfelves rapidly, and without apparent connec-
tion, are generally difagreeable and diftreffing. He is fome-
times in a church-yard among tombs, fometimes falling from
a precipice, fometimes purfued by wild beafls, in the midit
of conflagrations, &c. The delirium inereafing, he be-
comes completely infenfible to external objeéts. . This is a
eommon progrefs of the alienation of ce in fever, begin-
ning on the fecond or third day, or later, and increafing to
the fourteenth or fifteenth, if the patient furvive fo long ; at
firtt being only obvious in the night, or during the imperfe&t
flumbers, or in the waking moments, when external impre{-
fions are fewer, or almoft entirely excluded ; but afterwards
continuing night and day without intermiflion.

With the beginning of the hot ftage, the head-ache is
commonly increafed, and appears to be diflimilar from that
which took place inthe cold ttage. ‘The latter pain, Dr. For-
dyce remarks, always feels to the patient as external ; “ it
as clearly a pain affecting the integuments of the head, per-
haps the fkin alone, at moft the pericranium; but the pain
which arifes in the fecond ftage is felt by the patient inter-
mally, and gives him the idea that there is fomething diftending
the head or the brain, fo as to attempt to burt the cranium.”
{See Firlt Diff. on Fever, pp. 85 aud 228.) In the mean
‘time the carotid and temporal arteries beat full and {trong,
the eyes are wather red, and the face is flufhed. Conneéted
with thefe fymptoms, which obvioufly imply an increafed
quantity and impetus of the blood carried to the brain, the
organs of fenfation, while fully capable of conveying impref-
fions to the mind, neverthelefs produce fometimes erroneous
impreffions. Thus the patient-can fee, but he miftakes ob-
_jedts,; he fancies one individual is another, or that a man is
a poit: and his organs of hearing, which are alfo more
readily affected, do not convey the fame perceptions, which
the fame founds would excite in health, The fame thing
happens with regard to his other fenfes.

KAR the fymptoms above enumerated increafe from the

As the delirium increafes, with the advance of the _

_{weat, and ulcers again begin to difeharge matter.

fecond day of fever, The tongue grows more foul, and the
cruft which forms upon it thicker, until the middle of the
fecond week. Towards the end of the fecond week this
cru{t often difappears more or lefs, aud the furface of the
tongue looks raw when moilt, and when dry has a polithed
glaze, efpecially about the middle, fome of the cruit remain-
ing upon the fides towards the edges (Fordyce.)

Before thefe fymptoms, however, have advanced to the
degree juit defcribed, and after the general heat has con-
tinued for an indefinite time, (in the ephemeral and intermit-
tent fevers a few hours, in continued tevers feveral days,) it
often happens, that a partial moilture begins ig: appear on
the fkin, generally on the forehead, which exte gradually
downwards to the neck and breaft, and at length a free
{weat takes place from the whole furface of the body. At
the fame time the fymptoms of the firft flage of the fever
begin to abate, fometimes one giving way firlt, and fome-

times another, fo that it cannot be faid which has the prio-

rity : fometimes the weight aud anxiety about the pracordia
are firfl obferved to diminifh, fometimes the change of the
pulfe from hardnefs to foftnefs is the firlt obvious amend-
ment, and fometimes the relaxation of one or other fet of
fecretory veffels, &c. Such a change of the fymptoms,
terminating {peedily in a reftoration of the health, has beea
called, by a term borrowed from the Greek, a Crifis, (which
fee,) and the excreted fluids, which are poured torth at the
time of this change, have hence been denominated critical
difcharges. ‘The moit ftriking appearances both to the
patient and by-ftander, is the perlpiration,- which is fre-
quently carried to the extent of profufe {weating, in inter-
mittents, and the fimpler forms of fever, but fometimes
amounts only to gentle moifture. While the fweating
continues, all the fymptoms of the previous ftages abate :
the preternatural heat is gradually diminifhed ; the pulfe be-
comes fofter and lefs frequent ; the breathing is likewife
frequent, and more free, and is unaccompanied by fighing,
and the anxiety and heavinefs in the cheit are greatly alle-
viated ; the head-ache gradually goes off, and the pains of
the loins and extremities ceafe ; the naufea and vomiting no
longer diftrefs the patient, who now acquires a relifh for
light nourifinent ; the thirit is removed ; the mouth and
tongue become moill, as the falivary and mucous glands pour
out their fluids, and the tongue becomes gradually =.
firit upon the edges, afterwaxds in the middle and near the
root, the cruit, which had formed upon it, coming off in
{mall flakes, until the whole furface is in its ordinary itate.
The fecretions of the liver, pancreas, and inteftinal glands
being reltored, the bowels begin to act, and the evacuation
from therm comes to its ordinary quantity. _ A loole ttool is
commonly palfed, at the ead of a paroxy{m of intermittent
fever; aud fometimes a diarrheea comes on in continued
fever, and being the mof{t obvious, is then confidered as the
critical difcharge. The urime generally undergoes fome
peculiar changes in the crifis of fever: it is not only fecreted
in larger quantity, but, although bright and tranfparent
when difcharged, if allowed to yemain for fome time, it is
obferved to grow turbid, as if containing a quantity of a
yellowith-red powder, and at length to depofit fakey cryttals
of adirty red colour, commonly termed a /ateritious {ediment.
Tumours, which were diminifhed during the cold, and more
painful in the hot ftage, return to their ufual fize during the
The
intellectual funétions are alfo reftored daring the crifis; the
attention of the patient is no longer abforbed by his uneafy
feelings, the confution of his head is relieved, and he is not
harafled by the perpetual recurrence of diftreffing images to
the mind, efpecially in his flumbers; a difpoiition to calm

fleep

FEVER.

fleep returns ; and the countenance refumes its natural ex-
preflion, ;

It was remarked by Hippocrates, and the majorify of the
ancient phyticians, that thefe crifes occurred more frequently
on particular days of the fever, which they, therefore, ob-
ferved with great care, as affording both particular indica-
tions in practice, and the means of prognollicating the

henomena of the fubfequent periods of the difeafe. Hence
they called thefe days Criricat days, (which we have al-
ready defcribed under that head). Thefe periodical changes,
happening on particular days, are, however, feldom dil-
tinétly noticed mn this country ; they feem to occur more
decidedly in warm climates, where all fevers have a greater
tendency to aflume the remittent form. Dr. Cullen, who
believed that even in this country thefe critical days were
obfervable, though lefs diftin@ly than in hot climates, ex-
plained their occurrence upon the principle, that continued
fevers were in fome degree difpofed to take on the types of
intermittents ; and in this principle he has been followed by
Dr. Fordyce. (See Cullen, Firfl Lines, § cxix, et fog.
Fordyce, Third Differt. on Fever, parti. p. 120.) But
it muft be remarked, that the do€irine of critical days, as
taught by Hippocrates, was ridiculed by Afclepiades and
Celfus, who practifed in the fame climate with Hippocrates;
and in the fame city with Galen: (fee Ce'fus, Loc. cit,
lib. iti, cap. 4.) and Herophilus altogether denied its truth,
See Carticat Days.

In this country, and in cold climates in general, continued
fevers are feldom terminated by crifis. Some praétitiozers
have maintained, that a crifis never takes place, whiift others
have infifted that crifes happen in all continued fevers. Dr.
Fordyce juftly remarks, that thefe extremes of opinion are
both inconfiftent with correct obfervation. It is admitted,
however, that crifes occur much lefs frequently iu this cli-
mate than in hotter countries; and we think that the phy-
fician juft mentioned confiderably over-rated the proportion,
when he fays, that “ not above one-third part of the fevers
which happen in London are terminated by a crifis.’’
suas cit. p. 126,) We believe the proportion to be very
ar below this ftatement. In the great number of inftances
of fever, no crifis takes place, but the difeafe terminates in
a more flow recovery, or in death.

The fymptoms, before enumerated, increafe gradually
tothe end of the firlt, or middle of the fecond week ; fome-
times by the feventh day the fymptoms have attained their
greateft feverity ; fometimes, too, the fecond week is gone
through without very fevere fymptoms, and in other cafes
fymptoms of the greatett diftrefs and danger then occur;
and there are all gradations between thefe extremes.

The appearances in the fecond week, when the fever is
not extremely fevere, are often as follows. The pulfe is
frequent, beating from 100 to 110, in the evening, and in
the morning fomewhat lefs; the fkin continues dry and
hot, in various degrees; the tongue is covered with a
brownifh fur; the appetite is often totally loft; thirft con-
tinues, but is often complained of lefs during the fecond
than during the firlt week ; and the depreflion of itrength
is confiderable. The fleep is dillurbed and fhort, and the
delirium is manifefted in the intervals by the incoherence of
the obfervations of the patient, until he is completely
roufed.by fome ftrong impreflion on the fenfes. In the
morning the delirium 1s lefs than in the early part of the
night, and the fleep fometimes tolerably quiet; even dur-
ing the day there is confiderable confufion, and occafionally
much flownefs of intelle&. Hence perhaps the thirft, as
well as the head-ache, and pains of the back and limbs, is
lefs complained of, rather than from actual relief or dimi-

nution of thefe fymptoms. «The eyes havea dull and- con
fufed appearance, and commonly fome degree of redaets,
from a number of {mall veffels diftended with blood. Some-
times a degree of ftupor comes on in the morning, and con-
tinues till the more ative delirium of the night. If this
{tate fhould remain, Dr. Fordyce obferves, till about the
fourteenth day, the evening attacks become by degrees lefsy
but the {Lupor continues, with deafuefs, and inattention to
external objects, and thefe appearances remain the very lait
{ymptoms of the difeafe.

Very frequently about theend of the fecond week, and often
fooner, the fymptoms begin gradually to diminifh in feverity,
The firil appearance of this abatement is not uncommonly
a cleannefs and healthy look about the edges of the tongue ;
fometimes, although not very generally, a fweating takes
place all over the body, and the fkin afterwards continues
moift ; more commonly the moiiture and foftnefs of the fkin
appear inalefs marked manner. The delirium abates alto-
gether in the day, and returns lefs feverely at night ; or if
the patient be deaf with fome ftupor, thele fymptoms are
little changed in the twenty-four hours, but remain uatil
the whole of the difeale has difappeared. he depreffion
of ftrength goes off, but leaves real weaknefs behind. The
urine depofits fometimes a copious lateritious fediment for a
day or two, and afterwards returns to its natural appears
ance. Sometimes there is a copious lateritious fediment in
the urine made in the night, and a mucous one in that
made in the day time. The coftivenefs goes off, and the:
feces return to their ardinary appearance ; and all the fee
cretions become gradually increafed, not equally, but fome-
times one more fpeedily, fometimes another. The eyes,
unlefs when the delirium has ended in ftupor, begin to have
a more healthy.appearance, are more compofed aud clearer,
and exprefs a greater attention to the objeéts around them,
The fleep returns, but not-equally; the patient fometimes
palling a quiet, at other times a reftlefs night. The appe-
tite returns, although feldom regularly ; fometimes it is vo-
racious, but the patient is notwith{tanding fatisfied with a
yery {mall quantity of food; in the other cafes it returns
very flowly. Although the depreffion of ftrength fomes
times goes off almoft at once, yet it leaves the patient often.
with a greater feeling of weaknefs. Thus, however, the
whole difeafe difappears, and the patient recovers his ftrength
very quickly, :

But although this favourable termination of fever occurs
in a large majority of in{tances in this country, itis never=
thelefs a difeafe frequently fatal, and, under particular cire-
cumitances, the caufe of great mortality.

When fever terminates fatally, the fymptoms prefent
themfelves chiefly under two different afpe€ts, but varioufly
modified, approaching to each other, or even partially com-
bined. The individual varieties it is impoflible to depi@ ; a
knowledge of them can only be attained by perfonal ob«
fervation of numerous cafes at the bed-fide of the fick.
One of the forms, juft alluded to, confiits principally of a
great aggravation of the fymptoms of the hot flage. The
heat of the {kin continues great and pungent, and its furface
dry and parched ; the countenance is flufhed, and the eye
fulfufed with rednefs, and intolerant of light; the head.
ache is fevere, little or no fleep is obtained, the delirium is
augmented, and is accompanied with extreme rettleflnefs,
often with, vociferation, and, even great mufcular itrength,
fo that the patient is with difficulty confined in bed; and
the pulfe is frequent, with confiderable harduefs. About
the end of, the fecond week thefe fymptoms fuddenly
change; the delirium ends in an indiftin@aefs or confufion
approaching to itupor, the articulation becomes indiitinct,

the

OV ER,

the breathing laborious, the ftrength finks rapidly, cold
€weats, and convuliive motions enfue, and the patient is cut
off in a few hours. Sometimes fymptoms of inflamma-
tion of the lungs fupervene, and continuing together with
the delirium, hot fkin, frequent pulfe, and brown tongue,
the patient dies with fymptoms of fuffocation ; and fome-
times inflammation of the inteftines, or other important
organs, being fuperadded to the original fever, accelerates
and modifies the fatal termination. This has been called in-
flammatory fever. The other form of the difeafe, above-
mentioned, is extended more commonly to the third week,
fometimes later, and the progrefs of the fymptoms is more
gradual. The depreflion of the mufcular powers continues
to increafe with the difeafe ; the eyes become funk, dull,
and liftlefs ; the countenance dejeéted, and of a dufky hue ;
the deliriumsts-attended with a low muttering, and the pa-
tient lies without the difpofition or the power of making
any exertion, or he picks the bed-clothes ; the tongue be-
comes crufted with a dark brown or black matter, a fimilar
fordes colle&s upon his teeth and lips; the pulfe is frequent,
beating from 120 to 130 times ina minute, and is at the fame
time {mall and feeble ; the refpiration is alfo weak, generally
frequent, and interrupted with fighing or a dry cough ;
the voice becomes indiftin& or inarticulate ; and there are
flight convulfive twitches, or fubfultus tendinum. At
length the proftration of ftrength becomes extreme ; the
patient lies on his back, being unable to fupport himfelf in

any other pofition, and even flides down towards the bot-

tom of the bed ; he is altogether infenfible to external im-
preffions ; the fphinGters, as well as the mufcles of volun-
tary motion are relaxed, and he paffes his Ytools and urine
imvoluntarily in bed; the pulfe becomes very feeble, tre-
mulous, and fearcely to be felt at the wrift; partial, clem-
my f{weats break out; the eyes appear glazed and fixed,
and the other features fhrink ; the patient is unable to fwal-

tow; his breathing becomes irregular and laborious, at-
oS 5

tended with fome noife in the throat, as the fatal event
approaches ; the extremities grow cold; and, often after
fome hours, the fun@tions of life finally ceafe. When fever
affumes this form it contlitutes zyp4us, or the nervous, ma-
lignant, &c. fevers of authors.

There are fome other appearances, which, though not
the ordinary attendants on fever, occafionally occur, efpe-
cially when the difeafe is of a fevere kind, and which have
been confidered as evidence of malignancy, or of putref-
eence. | Generally in the fecond week of the difeafe, but
fometimes as early as the fourth or fifth day, (fee fir John
Pringle’s Obf. on Difeafes of the Army, part iii. chap. 7,
and Huxham on Fevers, chap. vii. p. 97.) an eruption of
fpots, not elevating the cuticle, of a red colour, fometimes
pale, often darker, or even of a livid or purple hue, ap-
pears on the fkin: thefe f{pots, or pefechie, are thickeft on
the breait and back, lefs numerous on the legs and arms, and
are feldom, if ever, feen on the face. ‘They were frit de-
feribed, among the moderns, by Ingraffia of Naples, af-
terwards more particularly by Fracaftorius, under the names
of lenticule, pundicule, or peticule ; whence alfo the fame
appellations were given to the fevers themfelves. (See Fra-
eattorius de Morb. Contag. lib. ii cap. 6.) Betechie ap-
pear in fever, moft frequently in clofe and crowded fituations ;
formerly they were very frequent attendants on the fevers
which occurred in the perfons under confinement in clofe
cells, or crowded apartments in our piifons. Dr. Willan
has ftated, however, upon the asthority ef the prefent
furgeon of Newgate, that fince a general attention to ven-
tilation and cleanlinefs has been adopted, petechié do not
#ow appear in more than one cafe of fever in thirty in that

prifon. He has alfo added, from the obfervation of the
phyfician of the Fever Inftitution, in London, (the writer
of this article,) that the proportion of cafes, in which pe-
techie occur in that inftitution, is about one ia forty-
two. (See Willan on Cutaneous Difeafes, order iii. gen.
Purpura, p. 468.) Sometimes the purple fpots are of a
large fize ; in which cafe there are often alfo livid blotches,
or ftripes like the ftrokes of a whip, vibices, and hxmor-
rhages break forth from the internal parts, as the bowels,
lungs, ftomach, and wherever the furface is covered with a
very thin cuticle, as from the noftrils, the gums and mouth,
&c.

A rath of a different fpecies, which Dr. Willan has
termed rofeola, “a rofe-coloured cfflorefcence, varioufly
figured, without wheals or papule, and not contagious,”
(Loe. cit. order ni. gerus 4,) fometimes makes its appear=
ance in fever, of the. typhous type: fometimes it precedes
the formation of purple fpots and vibices, and in other
cafes it is feen early in the fever, but remais only fora
fhort time without any material confequences. Some other
cutaneons appearances occafionally occur, as mentioned by
Huxham, (Loc. cit. p.97,) fuch as miliary puftules, a
fcabby eruption about the lips and nofe, and aphthe.

Appearance on Diffedion.— An examination of the bodies
of thofe who have died of fever, though it has often thrown
light upon particular fymptoms, efpecially on thofe which
have occurred late in the difeafe, has neverthelefs failed to
elucidate the fubject of fever in general. The appearances
which have been prefented to ‘the view of the diffeétor have
been fo various, the organs affected fo different in different
inflances, even when fuch difference could not have been
anticipated from a knowledge of the fymptoms, that the
principal general inference which can be deduced from the
obfervations of the anatomilts may be expreffed in the words
of Riverius ; (fee his Praxis Medica, lib. xxvit. cap. 2. Ap-
pendix,) that acute and dangerous fevers © rariflimé fieri
fine interna et peculiari vifceris cujufdam affeGtione, et plee
rumque inflammatione; quare nunquam omittenda cura
hypochondriorum, capitis, thoracis, uteri, renum, et veficz ;
ut omni ratione inveltigemus, gue harum partium infigniter
jaboret, et ci, quoad fieri poteft, fubveniatur.”” Some one
or other of the vilccra are moft commonly difordered, efpeci-
ally by inflammation, in the courfe of thofe fevers, each of
which demands our attention refpectively, in condu@ting the
cure, according to the feverity with which it fuffers. Dr.
Donald Monro has remarked, that, in fatal fevers, “the
febrile matter is apt to fall on particular parts, and there te
create abfceffes ; particularly in the brain, the lungs, and the
glandular organs.”’ (‘Treatife on Military Hofpitals, vol. i,
p: 237-) On the whole, it would appear, that the brain is
the organ which has been found to have fuffered molt by
the attack of acute idiopathic fever. But we have to ob-
ferve, with regret, that diffections of bodies, cut off by fever,
have been often too incompletely examined, to enable us to
draw any fatisfa€tory comparative conclufions from them.
Thus even fir John Pringle acknowledges that of the few
difle€tions made under his infpection, fome were direéted to
the brain or to the bowels only, all the cavities being examined
but in a fmail number of cafes. In thofe inftances of fever,
in which the funétions of the brain were much difordered,
that organ has exhibited feveral morbid appearances: the
mott frequent of thefe are a congeftion of blood; the veffels
of the pia mater, or invefting membrane, being all diftended,
as if inje&ed ; the brain itfelf, when divided, prefenting a
number of red points, which pour out blood ; the arachnoid
coat is not unfrequently at the fame time feparated from the
pia mater by the interpofition of a gelatinous or feraus fluid ;

thefe

n

FEVER.” , 5

thefe membranes are both occafionally thickened, their
tranfparency being partially loft, and they fometimes adhere
clofely together in particular parts, as well as to the dura
mater. Occafionally an effufion of ferum is found in the
ventricles of the brain, Sometimes, though comparatively
in rare inftances, the inflammation of the brain has been fo
decided, as to have terminated in fuppuration, or abfcefles
of the fubftance. Thefe have been chiefly obferved in the
lobes of the cerebrum, the cerebellum in general being lefs
liable to difeafe: but two inftances of purulent matter being
formed in the cerebellum are noticed by fir John Pringle,
(Loe. cit. part iii. cap. 7.) Even fuppuration of the
cerebrum is not a common refult of fever in this country.
Dr. Fordyce fays, that he“ has caufed the heads of many
patients, who have died with very great delirium in fever, to
be opened, and never found any marks of fuppuration.
Molt commonly the brain appeared exaftly as it is com-
monly found. Sometimes the blood-veffels were diftended
with blood, but never was any fuppuration found; general-
Jy no uncommon appearanee at all.”? (Third Dillert. on
Fever, part i. p. 98.) In the yellow fever, Dr. Jackfon
ftates, that “* the brain upon diflection appears to be more
or lefs affe€ted in the majority of fubjeéts who die in the
acute {tate of the difeafe ; the membranes are then inflamed,
or-the blood-veffels turgid to an extraordinary degree, give
an appearance of commencing gangrene rather than of in-
flammation, properly fo called; water is {ometimes found in
the ventricles, with evident effufion in the interftices ; but
this is an effect not general, not even frequent.”” Inthe
accounts of an epidemic fever, which occurred at Geneva,
in the year 1805, publifhed by two phyficians, it is ftated by
both that congettion of blood was often found in the brain,
but in other cafes the brain was in its natural ftate. And a
Dr. Eisfield, who publifhed an account of an acute typhus,
as it prevailed at Leipfic, in 1799, obferves, ‘¢ in very’ many
careful diffections of the brain (though I only once detected
an abfcefs, and this was in the right hemifphere, about half
an inch in diameter) the veffels, particularly thofe in the
vafcular membranes, almoft always appeared turgid with
blood. The four ventricles abounded with water, and fome-
times a good deal of extravafated blood was prefent. The
cortical fub{ftance was inflamed, foft, and flaccid.’? (See
Beddoes’ Refearches, Anatomical and Praétical, concerning
"Fever, as conneéted with Inflammation, p. 48.) The laft-
mentioned circum{tance does not neceflarily imply inflam-
mation. It was obferved by Chambon (Obf. Clin. Pract.
Obf. 29.) that the fubflance of the brain in every part
is often found harder than natural after malignant fevers.
‘This, Dr. Clutterbuck remarks, we know to be a common
effe& of inflammation in other parts. (Inquiry into the Seat
and Nature of Fever, part i. p. 173.) The writer of this
article lately witnefled an unufual firmnefs of the brain of a
patient, dead of petechial fever, at a time when the abdo-
minal vifcera had already become very putrid. The con-
geftion in the brain was very confiderable.
Not only, however, are thefe congeftions and inflammatory
phenomenaof the brain frequently abfent, but fometimes toge-
ther with them, and not feldom intheir abfence, fimilar ap-
pearances are obferved in other vifcera, moreefpeciallyin thofe
of the abdomen. Dr. D. Monro included other organs with
the brain in his mention of the morbid changes produced
by fever: and fir John Pringle remarks, that when contagi-
ous fever proves fatal, it generally terminates either in the
aGtual mortification of fome part, or inan abfcefs of the
brain ; and he adds, that ‘* the inteftines more particularly
are difpofed to mortify.”’ He likewife quotes the Traite
dela Pelte, to prove that fome of the vi/rera were always

Vou. XIV.

mortified and inflamed, the brain and lungs moft frequently,
in thofe who died of the plague at Marfeilles. Dr. Lisfield,
continuing his defcription of the appearances difcoyered by
the diffeétion of thofe who died of the Leipfic fever, fays,
‘the lungs were often found deftroyed, inflamed, ulcerated,
gangrenous, covered with much exuded lymph. The liver
inflamed (efpecially the concave furface) tender, flaccid,
full of blood, or pale and bloodlefs. I did meet with inflam-
mation and gangrene of the uterus, the urinary bladder, the
proftate and other glands (particularly the mefenteric) of
the colon, and reétum.”? ‘The pains in the head were
fometimes fo violent, and the delirium fo furious, as to indi-
cate inflammation of the encephalon, which however was
difcovered in the abdomen.’ In three difleétions of perfons
cut off by an epidemic fever in Normandy, Dr. Moucet
found the veffels of the brai and its membranes gorged with
dark blood ; the lungs were alfo difeafed ; all the ramifica-
tions of the mefenteric arteries full of black coagulated
blood ; the inteftines in part inflamed, in part putrid and
gangrenous, in two of the cafes; a prodigious congeftion
in the fmall curvature of the ftomach and in all the in-
teftines, efpecially the fmall. Of the fever which raged at
Leghorn, in the fummer of 1804, Thiebault reports, “ that
there were few of the vifcera which it did not leave fome-
times found, fometimes gangrenous, or at leaft with black
fpots on the furface. This alteration was efpecially feen on
the concave part of the liver, the inner furface of the ftomach
and inteftines, often in the right fide of the lungs and
diaphragm: the abdominal vifcera, and {till more the abdo-
minal mufcles, were exceffively flabby and tender. The
cavities of the thorax and abdomén, the pericardium and
the ventricles of the brain, contained a yellow liquid, often
foetid,-and of a dark bloody tinge. The {uperticial veffels
of the vifcera, efpecially thofe of the brain and inteftines,
appeared dilated, and their extremities filled with a ‘black
matter. ‘¢ Nothing was found conftant but the gangrenous
nature of the alterations, and their being move concentrated
on the ftomach’and inteftines than in the other vifcera.?
(Recueil, period xxsiii. 12—13.) Palloni (Offervaz. Med.
Livorno, 1804,) gives a very fimilar account. In his dif-
feftions, the force of difeale {till more plainly appears
to have been exerted upon the abdominal aad contiguous
vifcera. During the fimilar epidemic of 1800, in Spain,
profeflors Sabater and Ramos found in the abdominal vil-
cera fanious and purulent effufion with gangrene. It is ex-
prefsly faid that, in the two other great cavities, the head
and the thorax, effential changes were feldom found. In
fome fubjects, however, black gangrenous points appeared
upon the lungs, and in others upon the brain, “ The altera-
tions in the abdominal vifcera were the only ones that can be
confidered as the dire&t end immediate produ& of the dif
eafe.”’ (Berthe, Precis de la Maladie d’Andaloufie, 1802,
p- !82—5.) Dr. St. Firth, houfe furgeon to the Philadel-
phia difpenfary, informs us, in his diflertation on malignant
fever, (1S04,) that the brain was generally found ina dileafed
ftate, thementnges being confiderably inflamed, thedura mater
being fometimes agglutinated to the pia mater, the blood-
veffels turgid with blood-as if inje&ted, the brain firmer than
ufual, water frequently in the ventricles, and fometimes
blood effaufed between the meninges. The ftomach was
always difeated ; great inflammation obftrvable through.
out ; erofions of the villous coat frequent ; infammation
extending to the inteitines; bladder diicafed; liver, {pleea,
pancreas, kidnies generally found ; Igngs, pericardium,
and heart inflamed.” We quote thefe obfervations fam
Dr. Beddoes’ refearches, not having the original works. x
add, that, im two cafes which we lately inveltigated by
sf dikeRion,

PE VE XK.

diffection, the villous coat of the {mall inteflines was ulce-
rated in parts, and altogether deftroyed in others; the brain
at the fame time bore marks of- great congettion in the one
cafe, and its ventricles were much diftended with ferum in
the other.

‘We have dilated upon the fubje& of the morbid ftructure
oceafioned by fever, (which mult ever be deemed highly im-
portant,) becaufe it is too much negleéted, partly from.a mif-
taken fear of contagion from the dead body, which deterred
even Morgagni from fuch invettigation; and partly from pre-
conceived hypothefis, which has led te the examination of
only one cavity of the body, when difeafe might be difco-
vered in all.

Ratio fymptomatum, or explanation of the 8S; ymptoms.—
The firft {ymptoms of every fever obvioufly indicate a dimi-
nution of the nervous power. Of the nature of this power
we only know that it originates in the brain, and is com-
municatéed to every part of the animal frame by the medium
of the nerves ; and that the a¢tion of thofe parts, their mo-
tion and fenfibility, depend upon this communication. ‘The
firft fymptoms of fever, then, indicate that lefs of this
nervous power is produced and imparted to the organs of
the fyftem ; or, 10 ufe acommon expreffion on this occafion,
that there is a torpor or atonic condition of the brain and
nerves. This is fhewn by the /anguor and Jafitude, con-
nected with the relaxation of the mufeles. A fimilar con-
dition is produced by the depreffing paffions, atting through
the medium of the mind on the nervous power ; wheuce
the whole body becomes relaxed, as is fhewn by the lengthen-
ed mufcles of the face, the lofs of ftrength, &c., and if the
mufcles of the heart are alfo relaxed, fainting is produced.
The depreffion of flrengih depends upon.the fame caufe ; the
mufcles being unable to move the body with the ufual force,
and the powers of the mind being impaired. ‘The mufcular
erergy and powers of the mind are much conneéted in the
animal economy; fo that if the body have been fatigued,
the mind cannot exert its powers of attention, memory, and
judgment with alacrity, and vice verfd. A ftudent in ma-
thematics would be unable to trace the fteps of an intri-
cate problem, after having contended in an athletic game ;
or, on the other hand, stter having fatigued the mind by
going through a new ard laborious demonftration, he would
be unable to exert the powers of his body im a fox chafe.
We cannot think much, and ufe ftrong exercife at the fame
moment. Both thefe powers, therefore, feem to depend
alike on the nervous energy, and the fimultaneous diminution
of both implies the diminifhed ftate of that energy. Yet
this is different from ordinary debility, and has therefore
been diftinguiflied by the terms depreflion of ftrength ; the
powers of the body not being loft, but only prevented
from acting by the difeafe ; for if the difeafe ceafes in eight
or ten hours, (as in the paroxy{m of an intermittent, ) the
depreflion of ftrength: ceafes likewife, and both the body
and mind can exert themfelves with a vigour nearly equal
to that which they pofleffed before the difeafe began, or in
perfect health. The nervous power is diminifhed, hke the
action of a fpring, which is overcome by the temporary
preffure of a weight, that does not de ‘troy its elalticity.

Another refult of the mufcular relaxation is the feeble
action of the heart, on which many of the fymptoms depend.
This is evinced by the feeble, /maif pu//e, by its occafional
irregularity, and even flownefs, at the onfet of the fever.
This languor of the circulation, efpecially in the extreme
veflfels, is the caufe of the palene/s of the /Rin, and the
fhrinking and diminution of fize in the features, and every
other external part, as well as of morbid f{wellings. The
condition of the furface is the fame, to all appearance, as

is produced by the application of external. cold, which con-
ftriéts, or rather diminifhes the a¢tion of, she fmall fuper-
ficial veflels; whence the cutis anférina, or goofe-fkin con-
traction and roughnefs of the furface takes place. Whence
alfo the /Sin is dry, at the fame time, as_perfpiration cannot
be produced from veffels in which the citculation is nearly
fufpended. It mufl be ebferved, however, that the action
of the capillary veffels of the fkin is not entirely regulated
by the ation of the heart and great arteries; for the former
are fometimes diftended quickly, as in the. blufh of fhame,
or collapfed, as from external chill, when the pulfe remains
unchanged. From the fame caufe, (the languor of the cir-
culation, and the contraéted condition of the extremities of
the arteries,) the other fecretions are diminifhed. The
mouth and songue become dry from the {canty fupply of
faliva ; the pancreatic juice, the bile, the mucousand ferous
excretions i the alimentary canal being diminifhed, as weil
as the mufcular aétion of the bowels enfeebled, the faeces
are not pafled fowards, and co/fivene/s takes place ; the urine
isnot only fmall in quantity, but of pale colour, from the
dimiaution of the faline and mucilaginous animal matter,
which are fecreted by the kidiies in health, and give it its
peculiar colour. From the fame imperfect circulation the
difcharges from iffues and ulcers ceafe in the attack of
fever.

Until we obtain a more accurate knowledge of the origin
and nature of animal heat, and of the means by which it is
maintained at the regular temperature of 973° or 98’, not-
with{tanding the varieties of the atmofpheric temperature
in which we live, we {hall not be able to explain fatisfacto-
rily the changés which the heat of the body undergoes
during. the different ftages of fever. We knew, however,
that the variations of the heat are much connected with the
funGions of refpiration and circulation. In what are called
cold-blooded animals, the funétion of breathing ts performed
at long intervals, and is capable of great fufpenfion without
injury to life ; and general coldnefs takes place in the human
body, when the paffage of the blood is diverted from the
lungs, as when the foetal organization of the heart remains
in afterlife. With the circulation the connection of animal
heat is fo well known, that, in popular Janguage, rednefs, or
a florid colour of the fkin, (which arifes from its vefiels
being diftended with blood,) is almoft fynonytmous with
heat. Tn all inftances of acute inflammation the fenfe of
heat is in a great meafure proportionate to the vafcularity
and rednefs of the part affected. At the onfet of fever,
then, both the aétual co/d and fenfe of cold are doubtlefs
the effe&t of diminifhed circulation on the furface, which
is fomewhat augmented, perhaps, by the imperfect re{pira-
tion which is then carried on. It is not fo eafy to explain
fatisfaftorily the fenfation of cold exiting, when to the
feel of another perfon the heat is natural. This may be at-
tributed partly, perhaps, to the {tate of torpor in the brain,
partly to the difordered condition of the fentient extremi-
ties of the nerves, and partly to the aétual chill, which res
mains in particular parts, while others have become warm.

The fenfibility of the organs in general, we have faid,
is impaired, and the fenfations are occafionally not only
diminifhed, but depraved. This alfo arifes principally
from the deficient circulation in the extremities of the arte-
rial fyftem. Senfibility is greatly dependent upon a fuf.
ficient circulation of arterial blood to the extremities of the
nerves, as well as to the brain. T'hofe parts of the body
through which red blood does not flow are pofleffed of lit-
tle or no feeling ; fuch are the cuticle, the nails, hair, ten-
dons, &c. while, on the contrary, parts that are extremel
vafcular, as the true flkin, are endowed with acute fenfibility.

Again,

;
;
:
:

FEVER.

Again, the inereafed flow of blood to any part is generally
attended with increafe of the fenfibility of the part; whence
the augmented fenfibility, the forenefs and tendernefs of
parts that are inflamed. Hence, then, we may explain the
diminifoed and depraved fenfidility ot the fkin, and organs of
fenfe, in the cold ftagze of fever. Even the torpor of the
brain itfelf is increafed, and therefore partly to be accounted
for by the weakened circulation in it, at that period of fever,
and 1s probably, in many cafes, a fecondary effect.

To the enfeebled circulation alfo, much of the anxiety,
and fenfe of load about the region cf the heart, the fighing,
yawning, and ftretchirg of the limbs, is to be attributed,
as well as the fhort and di/furbed re/piration. The force of
the heart being unable to propel the blood to the extremi-
ties of the arteries on the furface, a greater quantity muft
be accumulated in the great veflels about the heart and in
the lungs; whence the load and oppreffion, the labour and
irregularity of refpiration; whence alfo the fighing and
yawning, which are a fort. of inftinG@tive aGion, by which
we dilate the lungs, give a freer paflage to the blood, and
efore relieve, for atime, the uneafy fenfation. Accord-
to Dr..Vordyce, indeed, this fa&t has been proved by

diffection. ‘¢ Im thofe diffections,’’ he fays, “ which have
been made of patients, who have died in the attack of fim-
ple fever, the large veins going to the heart, that is, the
vena cava, both fuperior and inferior, the right auricle of
the heart, and the pulmonary arteries, have been found dif-
tended with blood to a much greater degree than they are
commonly, when death takes place from other caufes.”
( Virft Diflert. p. 90.) Sometimes a cough attends the cold
itage of fever, arifing from the irritation of this accumu-
ated blood in the thorax.

The /ifilef{ne/s and gereral uneafinefs which are at the fame
time prefent, are almoft the neceflary confequence of thefe
morbid conditions of the fenforium, of the circulation, of the
/breathing, and of the mufcles of all parts. Uneafy feelings
lead us inftinGtively to feek relief in frequent changes of

_ potture. Betides thefe uneafy feelings, however, there are
bead-ache, and pains in the back and the limbs, which have
been differently explained by different phyficians. Some
have afcribed the head-ache to the ftate of the brain in the
cold ftage of fever, but erroneoufly, in the opinion of Dr.
Fordyce, fince, whether it occupy the forehead over the
“eyes, or the back part of the head, it is equally external to
the fenfations of the patient. In like manner, the fpinal
‘Marrow, as it is improperly called, being a continuation of
the fubftance of the brain through the tube of the fpine,
has been confidered as the feat of the pain of the {mall of
the back which commonly occurs. (See Clutterbuck on
Fever.)-’ But why it fhould occur only in that part of the
back, and not along the whole f{pine, it might be difficult
toexplain: while, on the other hand, if it were an affection
of the great mufcles of the loins, (and it very much refem-
bles the pain of weaknefs and fatigue,) it fhould, like this

ain, be greatly benefited by the horizontal polture; which,
indeed, we believe to be the fact, notwithftanding the affer-
tion of Dr. Fordyce... And the occurrence of fimilar dull

“pains in all the limbs renders it probable that it is chiefty
-mufcular, and connected with a deficiency of nervous energy,
‘as in mufcles which have been exhaulted by fatigue.

The-affection of the ltomach, indicated by the /oft of af-
petite, fickne/s, thir/t, and foul tongue, tome or all of which
sare among the fymptoms of the febrile attack, may not be
fo capable of a fatisfactory explanation, It mult be obierved,
however, that there are at leat three fources of derange-
“ment to this organ in the cold ftage of fever; namely, the
ftate of the mufcular fibres of the itomach and of its fecre-

.

tions, which fuffer in common with the other mufcles and
fecretions of the body; the great fympathy which exiits
between the ftomach and the brain; and, above all,

perhaps, the intimate fympathy of the ttomach aud the fkin.

It feems demonftrable, from the effets of ftimulant and
tonic’ fubftances in augmenting the appetite for food, and
the power of digeftion, that a certain vigour of the mufcular
part of the {tomach is neceflary to, aid co exiftent with, the
proper exercifeof thefe functions ; and, therefore, that,a re-
laxation and debility of the fame part mutt be the caufe of
a diminution of them, Obfervation alfo has taught us,
that when the mufcles are exhautted by exercife, the itomach
partakes of the fatigue, and the appetite and digellive
power are greatly impaired or loft. ‘The influence of a
morbid condition of the brain on the ftomach, by fympathy,
is well known to be great, infomuch that fome writers have
confidered this influence as amply fufficient to account for
the diforder of the ftomach in fever. Both in infigmmation
of the brain, andin the cafe of external injuries of the head,
ficknefs and vomiting are among the moft invariable
fymptoms. Dr. Clutterbuck remarks, that the ftomach
not only receives nerves from the great intercoftal nerve,
bat alfo communicates directly with the brain, by means
of the eighth pair of nerves, or par vagum. “ Hence.” he
adds, «it is little to be wondered at, that the functions of
the ftomach in fever, like thofe of the other organs ot
fenfe, fhould fuffer a deviation from the natural ftate. In
this way the uneafy fenfation often felt at the pit of the
ftomach in fever, the total want of appetite, the loathing
and difguit commonly experienced even at the fight of food,
are naturally and eafily accounted for.” _( Loc. cit. p. 74-)
Dr. Cullen, on the other hand, is difpofed to confider the
{tate of the fkin as the principal occafion of the affection of
the ftomach, in confequence of the fympathy between the
twoorgans. The fympathetic influence of the ftate of the
fkin in inducing diforder of the ftomach is fupported by a
curious fa& obferved by Sydenham in the plague. In the
attack of that difeafe, he remarked, that vomiting oc-
curred, which prevented both food and medicine from
remaining onthe ffomach ; and that the means by which he
was enabled to allay this fymptom, was inducing pertpira-
tion by the aid of external covering; as foon as the fin
became moift, the ficknefs diminifhed, and the proper medi-
cines were then retained. (Sydenham, Oper. fect. ii. cap. 1.3
We fhall ftate hereafter that the occurrence of the hot
{tage generally removes the vomiting, that of the {weating

ftage always. :
This do@trine is {till farther fupported by a confideration
of the origin and removal of the ¢hir/?, which occurs at the
onfet of fever: ‘The fenfation of thirft doubtlefs arifes
from different caufes, and under different circumitances
the mere drynefs of the mouth and fauces, from evaporation
of the moiiture, in confequence of the heated breath, or
from deficient fecretion, may be attended with that feufa-
tion; fometimes it feems to be excited by a peculiar condi-
tion of the ftomach, while the mouth and fances remain
moilt, as appears from the thirit which arifes from falted
food in the itomach, or food of difficult digettion, or too
great in quantity ; or, as Dr. Fordyce faggetls, -it feems
to be fometimes occationed by a diminifhed proportion of
water in the blood-veflels, as, in the cafe of diabetes, when
the kidnies aét with extraordinary rapidity, or after a great
difcharge of fluids by perfpiration, This author, however,
confiders the matter as not capable of being determined,
(fee his Firft Differt. p. 223.) although he is difpoled to
refer it toa particular affeétion of the ftomach. (ibid. p. 59.)
This opinion, we think, is fearcely to be queitioned for a
Siz moment ;

FEVER.

‘moment ; fince thirft often occurs in fever, when the tongue
and fauces are moilt, and generally before any diminution
of the watery part of the blood has taken place. But
feveral circumftances conduce to prove an intimate connec~
tion between this affe@tion of the ftomach, which ocecafions
the fenfation ofthirft, and the ftate of the fkin, It has
been found by feamen, when accidentally deprived of drink,
(as by lieutenant Bligh, and his men, in_ their miferable
voyage in the South fea,) that by inmerling the body in
water, or applying wet clothes to the fin, the thirft has
been relieved. Dr. Currie relates the cafe of a gentleman, who
was prevented from taking any fub{tance, folid or fluid, into
the ftomach, in’confequence of an ob{truétion in the cefopha-
gus. In the frit days of his abltinence the fenfation of thirft
was very troublefume; but it abated, and, as hedeelared, was
always removed by immerfon in the tepid bath. (Med. Re-
‘ports ‘on Water, &c. p. 2553 2d edit.) The fame author
has ftated, from numerons experiments, that the thirft,
which continues in the hot ftaye of fever, is almoft inftan-
taneoufly removed by the affulion of cold water on the fkin,
which at the fame time induces perf{piration, and refolves the
febrile paroxy{m. (See Corp.) On the contrary, the
{wallowing of cold drink, in the hot ttage of fever, which
relieves the thirft, is often followed by a relaxation of the
perfpiratory veffels of the fkin; and, whencold, drink does not
produce a fenfible increale of perfpiration on the flkin, the
elief which it affords to the thirft ie momentary only: which
obvioufly proves the reciprocal fympathy of the organs.
(Currie, loc. cit. 178.) And this is farther proved, as we
have already ftated, by the ceffation of thirft when the {weat-
ing ftage of fever is eftablithed.

All the fymptoms, then, of the onfet of fevers con-
Rituting the phenomena of the cold tage, are explicable,
dire@ily or indireétly, on the fuppofition of a depreffion or
diminution of the nervous energy, however induced. In
like manner, the fymptoms of the hot ttage and the fub-
fequent phenomena, in continued fevers, are referrable to
an imperfect recoiling, as it were, of the nervous power,
and more immediately to the increafed action of the heart
and arteries, and of the capillary veffels.

The heat, the rednefs of {kin, and flufhed countenance,
the returning fize of the external parts, the reftoration
or even increale of the fenfibility of the organs, are all the
refilt of the diftenfion of the’ extreme veflels by the red
blood; as the oppolite fymptoms of the cold {tage were the
confequence of an oppofite condition of the circulation.
Hence the frequent /orene/s of the body, which cannot bear
its own preffure without pain; hence intolerance of light in
the eye, and the quick fenfibility to noife in the ear, both
of which increafe the head-ache, which is now more acute, and
deep-feated: hence alfo difeafed parts become more pain-
ful. The quick, and frong pul/e, implies the greater force
of the heart, and of the arterial a€tion ; neverthelefs the dry-
nefs of the fkin, and the continued fuppreffion of the reft of
the fecretions, evince the continuance of a morbid condition
(a conftriGtion or {pafm, it has been called) of the extremities
ef the exhalant and fecretory arteries, by which their func-
tions are impeded. This condition bears a confiderable
analogy to the ftate of inflammation, (fee INFLAMMATION,)
and’ when this ftage of fever, and thefe particular fymptoms
mre very fevere, the fever has been called inflammatory
Sever.

Conneéted with, and in a great meafure the refult of this
morbid condition of the circulation in the brain, is the
delirium, which, though it occafionally occurs in the cold
ftage, is ufually abfent until the hot ftage has been formed.
At is often accompanied by a throbbing or ftrong beating of

the carotid and temporal arteries, rednefs of the eyes, and
fiufhed countenance, which give us reafon to believe that it
arifes from over-excitement of the brain, by the quantity of
blood thrown up into it by the increafed action of the heart.
In this {tate the ideas crowd themfelves, as it were, upon
the attention of the patient, and change rapidly from fub- .
ject to fubje& ; he is unable to court the accefs of fleep,
in confequence of the torrent of images which are prefent-
edto the mind. The condition of the brain appears to be
fimilar to that of the whole of the fentient parts; as the
eye is more acutely fenfible to the impreffion of light, and
the fin to that of touch; fo the brain or the fenforium is
more ealily excited tothought, by the impreffions of inter-
nal irritation, which are exceedingly multiplied in this ftate
of fever. Hence the inceflant dreaming which diftreffes
the patient, if he falls into an imperfect fleep; and as the
internal feelings are all of a painful nature, whether we con-
fider the anxiety, the head-ache, the pains of the back and
limbs, or general uneafinefs, &c. the dreaming ideas, which
are affociated with thofe feelings, are alfo of a pain-
ful and diftreffing nature. (See Darams,in Pathology.) If
this increafed aétion of the veffels of the brain continues, a
degree of preflure is apparently produced by a more per-
manent diftenfion of them, and a ftupor and deafnefs come
on. If the patient die in this ftate, a general congeltion of
the veffels of the brain is found upon difleétion; but the
mere active delirium, unattended by ftupor and deafnefs,
may even prove fatal, yet no traces of the morbid condition
of the veflels of the brain fhall be difcoverable after death.
(Fordyce, Third Diff. p. i. p. 99. 109.) In thefe cafes, it
fometimes happens that the delirium ceafes fome hours
previous to death, although the other fymptoms of fever
continue. ‘This obvioufly arifes from the finking powers
of the circulation ; whence the a¢tion of the arteries of the
head is reduced to fomething approaching to the naturat
{tate, before it ceafes altogether with death. Delirium is
occafionally connected, it is fuppofed, with an enfeebled
action of the veflels of the brain; in which cafe it aflumes
another form, is not accompanied with any violence, but
with great feeblenefs, and alow muttering rather than a
boiiterous noife. It is the delirium mite of authors, (See
De irium.) We believe, however, that even this low deli-
rium is commonly the refult of fome degree of congeftion
of the veffels of the brain, arifing from eee siealicy of
the arterial ation, although that action may not be violent.
The /weating, like the dry heat of the fecond ftage, is
ee in a manner not very well underftood. It was
uppofed by the older phyfiologifts, as by Albinus, Haller,
&c. that the {weat, as well as the infenfible perfpiration, is
a mere exudation of the watery part of the blood through
the cuticle ; hence it was faid to arife, in fever, from a me-
chanical relaxation of the extreme arteries, which were fup-
poled to be fpaf{modically contraéted during the hot ftage.
But it has been obferved, by later phyfiologifts, that this
opinion refpecting the nature of the perfpiration is contrary
to all analogy, and founded only upon experiments made on
the dead body. The opinion of Dr. Fordyce and Mr.
Cruickfhanks appears to be the true one: namely, that the
matter of perfpiration is fecreted from the blood by the ca-
pillary arteries, and thrown out on the furface by organic
pores in the cuticle, (however difficult to be difcovered, )
“connected with the extremities of thefe arteries; and that
in this procefs there is not a feparation merely, but a new
combination, as in fimilar inftances of fecretion, (See Dr.
Currie, loc. cit. p. 200.) Although, therefore, the oc-
currence of perfpiration has been confidered as the caufe of
the ceflation or diminution of the fymptoms of fever, (and
5 certainly

PEN E.R.

certainly no fuch change takes place without fome appear-
ance of moifture on the fkin,) yet it is probably only one of
the figns or effects of that ceffation, in common with the
reftoration of the other fecretions, which are alfo diminifhed
or fufpended in the attack of fever. This point, however,
feems to be afcertained, that the procefs of perfpiration is a
cooling procefs, and the principal means by which the over-
heating of the body is prevented or removed. The heat of
fever declines gradually, as the perf{piration goes on; but
the rapidity with which it declines is varied by the quantity
of bed-clothes, and the clofenefs with which the body is en-
veloped. While perfpiration goes on, it is difficult to raife
the temperature of the body above the natural ftandard, and
under fuch circumiftances it iscapable of bearing very extra-
ordinary degrees of heat, as was proved by the experiments
of fir Charles Blagden, Dr. Fordyce, aad others. Whether
the refrigerating effect of iweating depends folely on the
evaporation, or whether an abforption of heat takes place in
the procefs of the fecretion of perfpirable matter, is not
certain.

The turbid urine, throwing down a fediment of a lateriti-
ous or brick-duft appearance, arifes from the reftoration of
the fecretion of the kidnies, which now feparate the lithic
acid, as well as the animal extractive matter, in greater
quantities than in health ; but the urine contains, at thefe
times, only a fuper-abundance of thofe fubftances which it
contains in a ftate of health, there being no new or morbid
matter produced in it. This change in the urine has been
Aikewife explained upon the fuppolition of a fpafm, in the
fecreting afteries in the kidnies, which fuffered only the
thinner parts to pals, or pale urine, in the firft ftages of
fever ; but being relaxed in the fweating ftage, the thicker
parts were allowed to pafs, and thus occafioned the fediment.
But the kidnies, like the other fecreting organs, are not
mere fieves, nor are thofe thicker parts exifting in the blood,
previous to the commencement of the {weating flage ; they
are then produced by the action of the kidnies. There is,

_ however, an intimate conneétion of fympathy between the
action of the perfpiratory veflels of the fkin, and the fecre-
tion of this over-proportion of lithic acid, and animal mu-
cilage by the kidnies: for it is geaerally producible at
pleafure by a dofe of Dover’s powder, or other fudorific
medicine.

The fymptoms, which occur in the later periods of fever,
when it goes on to a fevere or fatal degree, are explicable as
the effects of anextreme prottration of ftrength. Hence the
tremors, and flight convulfive motiens, or /ub/ultus, of the
tendons and muicles ; hence alfo the irregular vifion, with
the appearances of little bodies flying before the eyes,
(mu/fce volitantes of authors) or of black {pots upon objects
looked at, which imply a partial lofs of fenfibility in the
retina, or nervous membrane of the eye; hence the general
infenfibility, the difficulty and labour of refpiration, the in-
voluntary difcharge of ftools and urine, the difficulty of
{wallowing, &c.

The regular periods at which the paroxyfms of intermit-
ting fevers, and the exacerbations of remitting, and even of
continued fevers, return, require fome notice, although a
fatisfactory explanation may not be attainable. The fact
has been generally referred to the influence of heéi/, which
is produétive of many phenomena in the animal economy.
(See Hazir.) It is obfervable, that all men, even ina
dtate of good health, have a fort of feverifh condition in-
duced in the evening, which goes off in the morning: there
is fome depreffion of ftrength or debility both of body and
mind, and the pulfe is quicker than in the morning. In
proportion as the health 1s more delicate, this fate is more

evident. It is probable that this diurnal paroxyfm is to be
attributed to the efie& of the irritations of the day, which
are fufpended during the night; and this diurnal habit
might be fufficient to account for the ufual evening exacer-
bation of continued fever. A fimilar diurnal habit is like-
wife obfervable in many of our ations and funétions ; as in
thé returns of fleep and waking, and of our appetites and
excretions, which, if prevented from takiny place, or being
gratified at the accultomed period, are apt to ceafe or be-
come lefs urgent. This is often remarked with refpect to
the defire of fleep, to hunger, and to evacuation of the
bowels. Thefe faéts might afford an analogical explanation
of the periodical returns of intermittent fevers, if they were
all quotidian ; but they afford us little affiftance in account-
ing for the return of the paroxy{m of thofe fevers at the end
of forty-eight hours, in the cafe of tertian, or of feventy-two
hours, in-the cafe of quartan fevers. But it is remarked by.
Dr. Cullen, that even thofe diftant paroxy{ms are in fome
degree connected with the diurnal revolution, as the times
of their acceffion are generally fixed to one time of the day;
fo that quotidians.come on in the morfing, tertians at noon,
and quartans in the afternoon. (Firft Lines, § lvi.) Some
writers have attributed all thefe periods to the habit, but as
the fecond and third paroxyfms of a tertian occur as regu-
larly, often more fo, at the end of forty-eight hours, than
the feventh and eighth, habit could not be the caufe of the
return in the former imftances, whatever might be fup-
poted with refpeé to the latter. On the whole, we can
only conclude that a difpofition to thefe periodical
changes is a general fact in the animal economy. See
Periops of Difeafe; allo CATENATION. ;

General Prognofis in Fevers—In continued fevers the
event cannot be prognofticated with any approach to cer-
tainty. The difeafe is in its nature of a dangerous tendency;
and although there fhall be no unfavourable fymptom for
the firft feven or eight days, yet the fever may afterwards
affume a dangerous character, and terminate fatally : while,
on the other hand, recoveries occafionally take place, whea
the feverity of the fymptoms feemed to preclude all hope.
A large proportion of the cafes of fever, however, if pro-
perly treated, terminate favourably. Under the various
forms which fever puts on, we can arrive at a correct notion
of the probable termination of each particular initance, by
taking a comprehentive view, of the living machine; by
eitimating the relative importance of the feveral organs and
their fun&tions, in the maintenance of life; and, therefore,
by obferving accurately the. number of thefe, which are
affeGted by the difeafe, and the degree in which they are
deranged ; and we mutt farther takeintothe confideration the
{pecies or type of the fever, its general tendency, as well as

the particular tendency of the prevailing epidemic; and

likewife the peculiar circumftances of the patient, in refpe&
to age, conititution, previous habit of body, mode of life,
&e.

The prognofis of a favourable termination is deduced
principally “ad the lefler degree of violence in the fymptoms
in general, or the fmaller number of thofe which are fevere ;
and likewife from feveral changes in the courfe of the difeafe,
which experience has afcertained to be falutary.

Favourable Symptoms.—If the fenforium continues un-
affected until the middle of the fecond week, and a delirium
moderate in degree fhould then come on, it is not unfavour-
able ; it implies a moderate affeGtion of the brain. Deaf-
nefs is moit commonly a favourable fymptom in this
country; it implies, indeed, a morbid condition of the
brain, but one which experience has proved to be free

from the danger which attends the eppolite condition. A
Aeepy

REENVVER:

fleepy or dozing flate, from which the patient is ‘eafily
waked, at the fame time taking his food, and difcharging
his {tools and urine properly, is commonly favourable. A
fpontaneous, thin, warm fweat, efpecially after the firft
week, or about the fourteenth day, is genevaily favourable ;
as is likewife a gentle bilious diarrhoea, about the fame pe-
riod, if connected with foftnefs of the pulfe ; it generaily
relieves the head. A copious difcharge of turbid urine
about the fame period, although not a common occurrence,
is generally critical; the turbid appearance of the urine
fometimes anticipated the favourable changes in the other
fymptoms of fever. If the tongue, after being dry and
parched, becomes moiit and clean about the edges, it 1s a
favourable fymptom, and it often appears like the laft men-
tioned fymptom, for fome time before the other changes
take place; it implies a reftoration of the fecretions, and
therefore a refolution in the fever: it may be confidered
alfo as a fign of falutary change in the organs of digeftion.
‘The {tate of the pulfe, we have already obferved, is an un-
certain index ; but it may be obferved in general, that when
the pulfe does not rife to above 100 or 110, it may be con-
fidered as favourable. When the countenance has a na-
‘tural appearance, the eyes are not dim or heavy, the patient
lies in a natural pofture, (fee Decusrrus,) the breathing
is eafy, the voice natural, and the appetite returns, all thefe
mutt be deemed favourable fymptoms, as they indicate that
there is no failure of the vital powers. When the pulfe is
obferved to rife in ftrength, in the latter periods of the
difeafe, with an abatement of the {tupor, tremor, and other
‘affeGtion of the nervous fy{tem, it is favourable, implying
that the morbid condition is not fo fevere as to refift the
influence of medicines.

In intermittent fevers the previous occurrence of but a
Amall number of paroxyfms is favourable ; for the fhorter
the duration of the difeafe, the more eafily it is cured.
The poftponing of the paroxy{m, or its occurrence later
than the regular hour, is a favourable circumftance ; as is
falfo that gradual change of the whole train of fymptoms,
until the fit at length becomes incomplete, either in refpect
to the cold, hot, or {weating ftlage. The more complete
the crifis and the interval between the paroxyfms, the more
effeQual the medicines given.

Unfavourable Symptoms. —The degree of danger, which
is to be anticipated in fevere fevers, is principally indicated
“by the two following circumftances ; viz. by exceflive ac-
tion or excitement ; and by exceffive debility, or failure of
the vis vite, or nervous power. The firft of thefe conditions,
generally, is obferved chiefly in thofe fevers which have
been called ardent, or inflammatory; but, partially, that
is, in individual organs, it isnot uncommon in all forms of
fever. ‘The fecond, or exceffive failure of the vital powers,
is peculiar to fevers of the low nervous ortyphous kind.

The fymptoms of exceffive a€tion of the vafcular fyitem,
which are neceflarily unfavourable, (for the powers of life
may be exhaufted by fuch a@tion,) area ftrong, hard, and
frequent pulfe; an intenfe heat on the furface; a quick
refpiration ; a dry and parched tongue, without much fur,
or that of a light colour; a violent delirium, efpecially
when commencing early; a ringing or other noife in the
ears; intolerance of light, with a confiderable reduefs of
‘the eyes; intenfe thirft; conftant watchfulnefs, and reftlefs-
nefs, with acute head-ache, or violent pain in the ear, and
much throbbing of the temporal and carotid arteries.

‘Thefe laft-mentioned fymptoms. imply a violent action of '

the veffels in the brain, approaching to inflammation, with
~a long continuance of which the exiftence of the fafety of

that organ, or of life itfelf, is incompatible, Tf any other»

of the large or important vifcera are attacked with inflam-
mation, as the Jungs, liver, inte/lines, &c., the danger is
hkewife confiderable. The fymptoms, which denote the
occurrence of fuch inflammation, will be found deferibed
under the. proper heads. See Pyeumonia, Hepatitis,
Enteritis, &c. :

T’he fymptoms of a failure of the vital powers, however,
which are more common in the fevers of this country, are
lefs under the controul of medicines, and therefore more
dangerous; and more efpecially when conjoined with a
congeltion, or low degree of inflammation, in any of the
Important vifcera. We fhall note thefe fymptoms of failure
of the wis vite, as they are connected with, and exhibited
by, the difordered flate of the funétions of the leading
organs. It hes been ftated, under a former article, that
death is always occafioned by an interruption of the func-
tions of the brain, of the heart, or of the lungs (fee
Deatnu) ; and accordingly the fymptoms which occur in
the functions of the fenforium, and in the circulation, and
refpiration, in fevers, are thofe which mark the greatelt de-
gree of danger.

The defect of energy in the fenforial fun&tions is indicated
by the extreme mufcular debility, or prottration of ftrength,
in the’ latter periods of Mees Thus, if the pa-
tient is unable to fupport himfelf on either fide in bed, but
lies conftantly on his back, and even flides to the foot of
the bed, a dangerous debility is indicated. Tremors of the
hands, (as wellas of the tongue, when protruded,) and of
other parts, which with a flight increafe pafs to fubfultus
or ttarting of the tendons, and thefe again into ‘convulfions,
are bad fymptoms, as they imply an imperfe& and irregular
diftribution of the nervous influence from the brain. fter
the tremors and fubfultus tendinum patients frequently re-
cover; but rarely, if ever, when convulfions fupervene.
Sir John Pringle remarked, that a tremor of the hands in
the beginning of fever was one of the moft conftant figns
of that fever being of atyphous nature. (Loe. cit. part iii.
chap. 7. § 2.) When the diaphragm is affeéted {pafmodi-
cally, giving rife to hiccup, it is a fatal fymptom; as is
likewife the relaxation of the fphin&ter mufcles of the blad-
der and the ftraight gut, (or reétum, ) which allows the urine
and the ftools to pafs involuntarily, and which marks an
extreme degree of debility. And when the mufeles of the
gullet, and thofe of refpiration, become fo far enfeebled, that
the a& of deglutition becomes difficult or impra€ticable,
and the breathing is fhort and very Jaborious, death is ge-
nerally to be confidered as near at hand. ‘The foaming at
the mouth, and the rattling noife in the throat, which is
called by nurfes the dead-rattles, are the ftill*more imme-
diate precurfors of death; and are oecafioned by air of
refpiration paffing through the mucus and faliva, collected
in the mouth and throat from total inability of {wallowing
it. Other unfavourable fymptoms, indicating the deficiency
of the nervous power, are found in the different degrees of
{tupor and delirium, which are more indicative of danger,
in proportion as they appear earlier in the difeafe; but
which often occur, neverthelefs, to a very confiderable ex-
tent, in cafes which terminate well: fo that we mutt take the
other fymptoms into confideration before we decide upon
the'danger of 'thefe. Dr. Fordyce has ftated, that * al-
though the patient fhould be infenfible to all external objects;
though he fhould fleep very little, or fcarcely at all; yet,

if the‘deglutition and refpiration fhould remain unimpeded,

the patient is not to be defpaired of ; it happens moft com-
monl¥that he recovers. But if he refpires with great dif-
ficulty or hardly at aH, or if the deglutition be almoft to-
tally prevented; or if attempting it throws the patient into

couvulfive

IEW ER

convulfive contractions, he rarely recovers.’? (Third Differt.
on Fever, part i. p. 111.) Neverthelefs, he juftly eftimated
the unufual continuance or increafe of delirium as a danger-
vous fymptom; for, “on the other hand,’? he adds, “ if
the other febrile appearances do not keep pace with the de-
liriam ; though the pulfe fhould become more flow and lefs
obitruéted ; though the tongue fhould become cleaner and
moifter ; though the colour of the fkin fhould become more
natural, the fecretory veflelsmore relaxed ; if, however, the de-
lirium fhould {till continue, without itupor ordeafnefs, and the
other marks which have been pointed out as accompanying
fulnets. of the veflels of ‘the brain; in fuch cafe, notwith-
ftanding the pratitioner and by-{tander are flattered, the
patient is frequeatly cut off.”” (Lbid.) The more aétive de-
lirium is often accompanied with an inflammatory condition
of the brain, even in fevers arifing from contagion, in which
the other organs evince a defeét of power, and the reit of
the fymptoms are alfo indicative of great debility : this
combination of a local inflammatory action with general
defe&t of power, whether it be confidered as implying an
inequality of the diftribution of nervous influence, or be
explained by any other hypothefis, is invariably dangerous,
in whatever organ the inflammatory action takes place, but

articularly when it isin the brain. It is neceflarily em-
Bacaitiog to the phylician, and difficult to treat fuccefsfully,
from the oppolite nature of the remedies required for the
fuppreffion of the local inflammation, and of the general
prottration of ftrength; the nature of the one affection
abfolutely contra-indicating the treatment, which the nature
of the other ‘as decidedly requires. Conne&ted with the
defe& of fenforial power, the abfence of thirft, while the
tongue and mouth continue exceedingly dry and parched, is
deemed an unfavourable fymptom ; and a delirious patient
fancying himfelf well, is equalty unfavourable, as implying
a great obtufenefs of the fenfations.

In refpe& to the circulation, all unufual perturbation in
the action of the heart and arteries is in fome degree unfa-
vourable; but efpecially extreme frequency and feeblene!s
of the pulfe, and irregularity. “When the palfe bears above
¥20 times in.a’minute, or more, in fever, it muft be con-
fidered 4s ca unfavourable fymptom; when it reaches 130,
or upwards, the prognofis is extremely unfavourable. Al-
though in fome difeafes, as in hydrocephalus, the pulfe has
.been counted at upwards of 200 beats ina minute; yet, in
fever, before it comes to 150, it is generally too {mall and
feeble to be counted at the wrift, and the cafe is then to be
confidered as defperate ; the pulfe, indeed, has fometiines
been fo obfcure as not to be felt at the wrilt, for a day or
two before death, when it might be felt at the temples, or
in the axilla. In this ftate, the extremities are generally
cold, which is another fatal fymptom, when combined with
thofe before-mentioned. Sometimes, from an irregularity in
the action of the heart, the pulfe intermits. An intermitting
pulfe, according to Dr. Fordyce’s opinion, “is always a
very dangerous fymptom, excepting where it alfo took
place when the patient was in health, and before the difeafe
arofe; but in the attack it is particularly hazardous.”
(¥Firlt Differt. p. 85.) It is certain, however, that an in-
termitting pulfe occurs in fome cafesalong with favourable
fymptoms ; we have icen it‘in a few cafes, and only under
fuch circumftances, in all of which recovery took place.
It is remarked by Dr. Gregory, the prefent profeflor of
phyfie at Edinburgh, that when the intermiflion is connected
with an obfcurity or indiftinctnefs of the pulfation, it is
always very unfavourable. Frequent irregular fluthes in the
face, and other parts of the furface, are alfo among the un-

6 1

favourable fymptoms,.as implying great irregularity of the
circulation.

Great derangements of the refpiration, whether fuch as
denote a degree of inflammation in the lungs, (conftituting
the pneumonia typhodes of authors) which, from the contra
indications already mentioned, is extremely difficult and em-
barraffing to the pra¢titioner, or fuch as denote the failure
of the-mufcalar powers, before alluded to, are always ex-
tremely unfavourable fymptoms.

Deficiency of the nervous or vital power is farther indi-
cated by the effufions of blood which take place from the
extremities of the arteries under the {kin, forming the pe-
techie, vibices, and blotches, before defcribed. Thefe are
always fymptoms of a fevere difeafe, but far from being
mortal, The iarger they are, and the nearer they approach
to purple in their colour, the more they are to be dreaded.
(Pringle, loc. cit.) Dr. Huxham obferves, that. “ when
black, livid, dun, or greenifh fpots appear, no one doubts.
the malignity ; the more florid, however, the {pots are,
the lefs is to be feared ; itis a good fign when the black or
violet petechie become of a brighter colour. The large
black or livid {pots are almoft always attended with profufe
hemorrhages. The {mall dufky brown {fpots, like freckles,
are not much lefs dangerous, than the livid and black ;
though fluxes of blood do but feldom accompany them.
The vibices, or large livid or dark greenifh marks, feldom
appear till very near the fatal period.”” (Loc. cit. chap. viii.)
The paffive hemorrhages mark a greater degree of the fame
condition of the folids and fluids. Black and very fetid
{tools ave bad; as indicating a ftrong putrefcent tendency
of the bile and fordes in the bowels, and as partly arifing
from blood effufed into the canal. The urine fometimes de-
pefitsa black and fcetid fediment, which confitts of effufed
blood, and is equally unfavourable. Thefe, together-with
the black fur which colle&s about the teeth and mouth, the
feetid breath, tle difpofition to gangrene in parts inflamed by
blifters, or by the preflure of the body in bed, the loofe tex-
ture, and black colour of the blood, &c., are the fymptoms,
which have been confidered as denoting a putrid condition of
the fluids in thefe forms of fever. It cannot be queftioned, that
there is often a putrefcent /exdency in the circulating fvids
and-in the folids, fo that they readily undergo the procefs of
putrefaction, when difcharged or after death; but it is
well afcertained, and has. been confirmed by direét experi-
ments, that an aCtuailly putrid fate of the fmallef portion
of the circulating fluids is incompatible with life. It is
fufficient, however, to know that thefe fymptoms denote
great danger, or a great tendency to death, and to have
learnt from experience, the remedies which contribute to
remove the fymptoms, and to counteract that tendency.

The changes which take place in the urine were formerly
much attended to, and although not fo much is to be learnt
from its appearances, re{pecting the nature and progrefs of
the fever, as was once fuppofed, neverthelefs this excretion
ought not to be neglected by the praGtitioner. _ It is an un-
favourable fymptom when the urife, after having been
turbid, becomes again pale and limpid; as it implies a re-
turn of the torpor or conftriGion of the extreme vefleis,
i, e. a renewal of the febrile attack, and is therefore com-
monly followed by. ether bad fymptoms, as by delirium,
congeftions in'differentorgans, &e. Incontinence of urine,
whether dependent on a laxity or paralytic ftate of the
fphin@er mufele of the bladder, or whether the urine “is
pafled involuntarily froma ftupor or indolence of the patient,
isalways unfavourable: if this is overlooked, excoriations
are apt to take place from the patient lying wet, whence

i inflamma.

FEWER.

inflammiation and fometimes gangrene arife. A difficulty
in difcharging the urine, or pafling it frequently in {mall
quantities, indicate confiderable irritation and congettion’ of
the bladder, and are therefore bad fymptoms : a fuppreflion
of urine may be confidered as one of the worlt fymptoms of
fever. When the urine exhales an offenfive odour, or is
black in its colour, efpecially when containing the black or
bloody fediment before mentioned, it indicates a ftate of the
body which is dangerous. _ Even the ordinary healthy ap-
pearance of the urine, combined with fymptoms of fevere
fever, is confidered as indicating an unfavourable ftate. (See
Lommius, Medicinal Obfervat. lib. i. p. 5.)
Vomiting, efpecially of blood, or of matters of bad co-
*Lour and {mell, is a fymptom of extreme danger. Obitinate
coftivenefs in the latter {tage of fever, which is generally
aceompanied with fevere héad-ache, is very unfavourable. It
feems to imply preat torpor in the bowels, in confequence
of the affeétion of the nervous fyftem. Diarrhea, in the
late periods of fever, is generally unfavourable, efpecially
when the fxces are liquid, and at the fame time very pale,
or black, and feetid: the pale colour implying the abfence
of the bile and proper fluids of the inteftines ; the black and
fetid condition indicating a corrupted ftate of the bile and
other fecretions, or a mixture of blood, and a putrefcent
tendency of the whole contents of the bowels. A more co-
pious difcharge of unmixed blood from the inteftines is a
dangerous fymptom ; if hiccup or convulfions follow it,
death generally foon enfues. This condition of the bowels
feems to arife in many cafes from a neglect of opening them,
or removing the fordes in the beginning. A great dilten-
fion of the abdomen, er of the epigaltric region, arifing
from flatus, which the ftomach and inteftines have not fuffi-
cient power to expel, is often among the late and fatal fymp-
toms of fever.

The changes of the countenance afford very important indi-
cations in alice: to the feverity and probablewevent of the dif-
eafe. Witha {mall fhareof experience, indeed, any perfon will
recognize fever, from infpeétion of the countenance alone:
and the difeafe never advances to a dangerous ftate without
being accompanied by proportionate alterations in the fea-
tures. In extreme debility, the eyes are often much funk
or collapfed ; fometimes they remain fixed and unmoved,
which {tate is connected with the coma and ftupor ; and
occafionally arifes from a fpafm of the muicles of the
eye-bail,.in which cafe they are alfo fometimes prominent ;
at other times there isa conftant rolling of the eyes, which
is often connected with delirium: or there is a diftortion,
or {quint, which commonly implies fome preffure or other
affection of the optic nerves. All thefe are of courfe unfa-
vourable fymptoms ; as is alfo that curious defect of vifion,
from impaired fenfibility of the retina, which gives rife to
the appearance of mu/ce volitantes. When the white part
of the eye is principally feen, the pupil being turned up-
wards, and the upper eye-lid a little let down, it is unfavour-
able, as implying a {pafmodic contraCtion of the mufcles of
the eye-ball, and great relaxation in thofe of the eye-lid.
The prognofis is alfo bad, when a fort of film is formed over
the eye, or mucus collects within the eye-lids, on their edges,
or at the angles of the eye, or when the cornea is red; or
when one eye feems larger than the other, implying irregular
ation of the mufcles. Any diftortion of the features is a
bad fymptom, for the fame reafon, indicating the great af-
fection of the funétions of the fenforium. -

.Great reftleffnefs, a conftant motion of the arms, un-
covering the bofom, or the arms and legs, which neverthelefs
are not hot, picking at the bed-clothes, as if to catch flies

or infeéts, grinding the teeth, (which is a fpafmodic af-
feétion of the mufcles of the lower jaw,) are all fymptoms of
confiderable danger, as indicating great derangement of the
nervous fyftem. The changes of the voice, as conne¢tedy
with debility of the mufcles of refpiration, as wellas of the
leffer mufcles of the larynx, are alfo unfavourable figns.
The tone and articulation are thus varioufly~altered; and
the thick black cruft and fur which collect on the tongue
and lips, and in the fauces, farther contribute to impair the
fpeech, by preventing the free motions of thofe parts.
A cold fweat, cold extremities, and great collapfe of the
countenance, together with laborious re{piration, and rattling
in the throat, are figns of impending diffolution.

The caufes of Fever-—At prefent we fhall confine ,our
attention to the remote caufes of fever; the proximate
caufe will be the fubjeét of difcuffion in the fequel. (See
Cause, in Medicine.) It isnot always eafy to diftinguifh
between the predi/pofing and the exciting caufes of fever ;
thofe circumitances which have been ranked among the
latter by fome phyficians have been confidered by others as
operating only in the former way ; and it would feem that
in certain cafes, where the predifpofing caufes are applied
fuddenly or to a great extent, they actually become exciting
caufes of the difeafe. The middle periods of life appear
to be more liable to fever, than either of the extremes of
old age or infancy. Inflammatory fevers in particular are
more readily produced in the vigourof the conititution, or
in youth, from the period of puberty to the age of 35 or
40. Whatever produces either of the oppolite ftates of
plethora and ftrength, or inanition and debility, predifpoles
the habit to fever, and favours the operation of the exciting
caufes: plethora giving a predifpofition to fevers of the
inflammatory kind, while inanition predifpofes to intermit-
tents, remittents, and to the nervous or typhous fever from
contagion. Hence, with refpeét to the laft mentioned cir-
cumitance, the connection between bad diet, or fearcily of
food, and fever, has been obferved from the earlieft periods of
hiftory, and peitilence and famine have been commonly mens
tioned together. It is probable that the extenfive occur-
rence of contagious fever in London, during the winters of
1799 and 1800, was occafioned by the predifpofition-to be
affected by contagion, which the fearcity of provifions in
thofe years produced ; and that the almot total difappear-
ance of fuch fever, fince that period, mutt be aferibed to
the abfence of fuch predifpofition ; fince the exciting or
occafional caufes continue to exilt as before. Galen juitly
remarks, ** Oportet enim hoc in toto fermone memoria.
repetere, quod nulla caufarum fine patientis aptitudine agere
potelt.” (De. Differ. Febr. Tranfl. of Leonicenus, lib. i.
1809.) It is not improbable, however, that the depraved
aliment, which is ufed in times of f{earcity, may of itfelf
a&tually produce fever. ‘The weaknefs produced either in
the nervous fyftem, by deprefling paflions, fuch as fear and
grief, or in the fanguiferous fyitem, by great evacuations,
appears to conititute a great predifpofition to be affe&ted by
fever. With refpe@ to the depreffing paffions, there cannot
be a doubtof the influence which they exert in predifpofiag
the body tu fuffer from the exciting caufes of fever. They
obfervation that the panic occafioned by the prevalence of a
coytagious epidemic difeafe, tends to favour its progrefs, is
as old as Thucydides ; who has mentioned, that thofe who
were low in fpirits, and felt much fear and anxiety durin
the dreadful peltilence which he has defcribed, were cut of
mott fpeedily. Diemerbroeck quotes an obferyation of
Pigrzus, who compares the effect of imperfe& aliment.en
the body with that of the deprefling paflions on the mind,

ia

PEVER.

in facilitating the accefs of ‘the plague, € Sicut mala
vidiis ratio preparat humores, fic animi paffiones preparant
fpiritus ad recipiendam peftem; et triftitia, terror, ira, ac
metus, funt pabulum ac nutrimentum pettis”? And
Bauderonus obferves, ** Confidentes ut plurimum fervantur ;
contra meticulofi facile corripiantur.””? (See Diemerbraeck,
de Pefte, lib. i. cap. 8. § 9. and again, lib. ii. cap. 7. Annot.
where much. evidence on this point is collected.) The
debility occafioned by fatigue, from violent or long con-
tinued exertion, is another caufe which predifpoles the
body to be affeéted by the exciting caufes of fever. This
is, without doubt, one of the reafons why foldiers, har-
raffled by fatigues of a campaign, fo readily fall into fever
when confined in hofpitals and barracks. The fact was fo
generally obferved, at the time of the epidemic fever which
Diemerbroeck has defcribed, that many among the lowett

people abftained from hard labour; even the peafants during.

the hay-harveit were unwilling to mow and colle the hay,
being taught, by many lamentable examples, that thofe who
undertook any fevere work were immediately afterwards
feized with the plague. (Loc. cit.) It is probab'e, in-
deed, that very violent exercife, as well as violent and fad-
den gufts of paflion, may at once throw the fyftem into a
febrile ftate: we are certain that au ephemera, beginning
with fhivering, which is f{ucceeded by heat, and, laitly, by
{weating, is not an uncommon refult of a fevere day’s jour-
ney, or labour, in thofe who are unaccuftomed to fuch ex-
ertion. Excefs in the gratification of the venereal appetite,
as contributing to debilitate greatly, efpecially the nervous
fyftem, is jultly ranked among the predifpofing caufes of
fever. Evidence of the pernicious influence of this excefs
was abundantly manifeft during the laft plague at Marfeilles,
in which the recently married people fuffered greatly. Im-
moderate ftudy or other application of the mind, which not
only implies a fedentary life, but particularly an encroach-
ment on the hours of fleep, which greatly debilitate and
exhauft the nervous fyftem, alfo favours the action of the
exciting caufes of fever, if it does not a€tually in fome cafes
bring it on.

Yet notwithftanding the unqueftionable influence of a
debilitated ftate of the conftitution, in general, in giving a
predifpofition to fever, it has been obferved, that perfons
Jabouring under particular difeafes, which are connected
with much debility, are not liable to be affe&ed by the
exciting caufes of fever. Dr.Gregory remarks, in his
lectures, that he has known perfons much debilitated by
dropfy, and pulmonary confumption, who have been greatly
expoled to the operation of contagion, without being at-
tacked by fever; and Dr. Lind obierves, that thofe who
labour under fcurvy are lefs liable to be attacked with fever
from contagion, than thofe in health. (‘Treatife on
Scurvy.)

' There is a particular predifpofition attached to certain
conititutions, (which are not to be diftinguifhed by any
external charaéter,) to be affected by the exciting caufes of
fever, upon every flight expofure to them. ‘This is daily
exemplified in refpect to contagion, and is often obferved
with refpeé to the efluvia of marfhes. The predifpofition
to be affected by both thefe caufes, but more efpecially by
the latter, is diminifhed by the habit of expofure; fo that
new-comers are more certainly feized with intermittent and
remittent fevers, for inftance in the countries where they
revail, than the inhabitants ; and the attendants on patients
ouring under continued fever are perhaps lefs liable to be
infeéted than vifitors. The greateft predifpofition to inter-
mittents appears to be occafioned by a previous attack of
the difeafe, infomuch that a relapfe is often produced, at

“Vow. XIV. :

fome diftance of time by very flight caufes, and even, it
pak appear, without expofure to the original exciting
canfe.

Particular feafons, efpecially thofe in which great heat
prevails, or, in low countries, thofe which are very wet,
feem to give rife to a great predifpofition to fevers ; the hot
feafons producing a tendency to bilisus and inflammatory
fevers, the wet to infermittents and remittents, and the
combination or alternation of the two is particularly per-
nicious. ‘The hiftory of medicine fhews us, that it is in
fuch feafons that contagious-and pettilential fevers have
moft generally prevailed. (See Errpemic.) Great heat,
indeed, appears to be frequently an exciting caufe of fever,
efpecially in warm climates. (See Insovation.) Anex-
pofure to cold and moiiture appears alfo to favour the opera-
tion of the exciting caufes of fever, efpecially of the miaf-
mata of marfhes in the produCtion of intermittert and re-
mittent fevers. It is hence, probably, that the night-air
appears to be fo fatal near the coaits in tropical climates,
as related by Dr. Lind, Dr. Badenoch, (Med. Obf. and
Inquir. vol. iv. p. 156.) Bontius, Rouppe, and'others. Dr.
Lind has ftated, that, ‘ during the fickly feafon, a boat,
belonging to the Medway man of war, which attended on
fhore every night to bring freflz provifions, was three times
fucceffively manned, not one of her crew having furvived
that fervice.”

We mutt here notice a circumftance refpeéting the pre-
difpofition to fevers, in warm climates, which was firft
noticed by Dr. Lind, of Windfor, in his inaugeral effay,
publithed at Edinburgh in 1768, and afterwards more par-
ticularly examined by Dr. Jackfon and Dr. Balfour; namely,
the influence of the moon, or of the fun and moon con-
jointly, in giving a predifpofitionm to fevers to the human
body. Dr. Mead, indeed, had collected fome evidence of
the influence of thefe luminaries in: this climate, (fee his
treatife De Imperio Solis et Lunz,) but that influence has
been faid to be much more obvious in tropical countries, in
producing relapfes or firlt feizures of fever. Dr. Lind ob-
ferved eight feamen attacked by a relapfe at the fame time,
during the occurrence of a lunar eclipfe, which of courfe
implied a full moon. Dr. Jackfon made fome obfervations
om the fubje& in 1776, in the Welt Indies, and found that
of 30 cafes of remitting fever, 28 had happened on one or
other of the feven days preceding a new or full moon; in
the following years his obfervations were’ continued, and
feemed'to confirm this refult. (See London Med. Journal,
vol. viii. p. 25.) In 1785, Dr. Balfour publifhed’ « A trea-
tife on the Influence of the Moon in Fevers,” in which he
ftates that the attack of the bilious remittent fever of Bengal
almoft invariably commenced on one of the three days which
immediately precede and follow the change of the moon ;
and that the changes of this planet are no lefs remarkable
for occafioning relapfes. ‘ For my own part,’’ he fays,
«« T have obferved this tendency to relapfe at the full and
change invariably for thefe fourteen years ; and in particular
cafes can proguofticate the return of the fever at thefe
periods, with alnvof€ as much confidence, as I can foretel
the revolution itfelf.”” Dr. Lind, however, fifteen years
after the publication of his thefis, feems to have changed
his opinion, and was difpofed to attribute the frequent at-
tacks and relapfes of thefe fevers * to the noxious yaponrs
arifing from the fwamps, produced by the high tides, which
happen at the time of the full and change of the moon, and,
overflowing a great part of the country, leave it in a marfhy
{tate at low water. This I am induced to believe to be the
fole caufe,’” he adds, “ firft, becaufe this lunar influence
entirely ceafes, when the patient is removed but a few miles

2 from

FE V-E Rs

from the {wamps that are left uncovered by the tide at low
water; fecondly, becaufe intermittent fevers are not ob-
ferved ta follow lunar periods at many places within the
tropics, even at Canton, (where there ts a la:ge river and
great tides,) by reafon of the induftrious Chinefe keeping
the river within its bounds.””, (Lond. Med, Journal, vol. viii.
p- 146.) But Dr. Jackfon contends, that at Savanna la
Mar, in Jamaica, the connection of the moon with fevers is
more. remarkable than in any other part of the world, in
which he has been; although the tide fearcely ever rifes
eighteen inches, and the beach is fandy. (Ibid. p. 302.)
Dr. Balfour has fupported his original doctrine in fubfequeat
publications “on fol-lunar influence;” to which we refer
the reader for farther evidence. See alfo Dr. Jackfon’s
Treatife on the Fevers of Jamaica. |
Exciting caufes of Fever.—Dr. Cullen was of opinion
that idiopathic fevers were induced by the operation of two
exciting caufes only ; namely, contagion, or human effluvia,
and the mia/mata of marfhy or {wampy ground ; the former
giving rife to continued, and the latter to intermitting and
remitting fevers. (See Erriuvia, in Medicine.) . It
feems probable, however, that this opinion was adopted
rather in conformity with his hypothefis refpecting the
nature of fever, than from a comprehenfive obfervation of
fa&ts; and his reafoning in fupport of it is lizble to much
objeGion, if not to an eafy refutation. ‘ As fevers are fo
generally epidemic,’ he fays, “it is probable, that fome
matters floating in the atmofphere, and applied to the bodies
of men, ought to be confidered as the remote caufe of
fevers; and thefe matters prefent in the atmofphere, and
thus aéting upon men, may be confidered either as conta-
gious, that is, effluvia, arifing dire€tly or originally from the
body of a man under a particular difeafe, and exciting the
fame kind of difeafe in the body of the perfon to whom
they are applied; or mia/mata, that is, effluvia, arifing
trom other fub{tances than the bodies of men, producing a
difeafe in the perfon to whom they are applied.” (Firft
Lines, § Ixxviii.) Now, it has been demonftrated by mo-
dern experiments, that contagious effluvia are not capable
of floating in the atmofphere, to the diftance of even of a
few yards, without lofing their infeétious quality, and that
the noxious powers of miafmata are fimilarly, though not
equally, limited, (See Conracion.) And, although fevers
are often epidemic, yet they are feen daily fporadic, 7. e.
limited to individuals, who breathe the fame air with thou-
fands who efcape ; and we have endeavoured to thew, that
the fuppo'ition of the exiftence of thofe canfes of epidemics
floating in the atmofphere, is not only gratuitous, but ab-
folutely in oppofition to a number of fats. (See Epipe-
mic.) Befides, even vulgar obfervation has left no room
for doubt, that many of the circumftances, which induce a
predifpofition to feyer, or favour the operation of contagion,
miafmata, and other exciting caufes, (if fuch exift,) are
themfelves the exciting caufes of the fimpler forms of fever,
whether denominated ephemera, fimple fever, fynochus, or
by fome other term, ‘That fuch fevers are frequently oc-
cafioned by expofure to great heat, and to cold and moifture,
by fatigue, anxiety and grief, watching, intemperance, Ke.
is admitted by phyficians in general; (fee Fordyce Firft
Diff. on Fever, p.136to 179. Huxham on Fevers, p- 2.
&c.) and when it is confidered how frequently we fee indi-
viduals affected with fevere and even fatal fevers, when no
fource of contagion was known, when no epidemic was
prevalent, and when the reft of the family, whofe mode and
circumftances of life were in all points the fame, were not
affected by any difeafe, we can {carcely hefitate in afligning
the origin of the fever to fome one of the caufes jult enu-

*

merated. The ftatements of the ancient phyficians accord
accurately with thofe of the moderns, juit quoted, on this.
aaa * Quod igitur ex Jaboribus,’? fays Galen, ** ira,
triltitia, et folis ardoribus, atque frigoribus, vigiliis, et
cruditatibus, ebrietatibus, et crapulis, quidam febricitare
confpiciuntur, nemo eft qui, ipfa do€tus experientia, non ,
agnofcat.”’ (De Different. Febr. lib. i.) or

Contagion is, however, the exciting caufe of the mof.
dangerous and fatal forms of continued fever, whether ec-
currring in gaols, hofpitals, fhips, camps, or, among the
dwellings of the lower clafles of the people, aud thence
denominated gaol-fever, hofpital-fever, &c. or malignant, .
putrid, contagious fever, typhus, &c. OF the nature,
origin, and mode of communication of contagion, as well
as of the means of preventing, its operation, avoiding its
influence, and deftroying its powers, we haye already treated ©
at length in a preceding article, to which we refer the
reader. See CoNTAGION. ,

Many phyficians of the laft century were of opinion that
intermittent fevers were produced by contagion ; among
thefe were Boerhaave, Van Swieten, Baglivi, Cleghorn, and
Fordyce. It is proable that thefe fevers may have fometimes ,
{pread in hofpitals, like eryfipelas, puerperal fever, and other ,
diforders, not in themfclves coutagieus, before the prefent
fy{tem of ventilation and cleanlinels was fully adopted; but,
we believe, that few phyficians at prefent fupport that opi-
nion. Lancifi was the firft who pointed out the connec-
tion cf intermitting fevers with the effluvia of marfhy ground; |
his obfervations, however, were long overlooked by medical .
men. But, in our own country, we have now ample eyi-~
dence of this conne€tion : it is chiefly in the low and fenn
counties, as in Lincolnfhire, Cambridgefhire, the hundreds .
of Effex, &c. that agues originate; and thofe which are
feen in London, and other parts remote from the fens, can

generally be traced to thofe counties. In the neighbour=

hood of the Pontine marfhes, near Rome, the fact is fo
univerfally known, that the villages are all perched upon |
the hills; and there are fearcely people fhiment in the
levels to expedite travellers from the poft-houfes, The
army-phyficians have alfo obtained much decilive evidence ©
relative to this faét. The nature of the exhalations of ,
marfhes, which give rife to intermittent and remittent fevers, .
is not however afcertained: it is obyious that itis not
moi{ture alone, evaporating from the furface of the marthes 5.
it appears to be rather the refult of the decompofition of ani- .

mal and vegetable matter in water. (See Miasmara.) .°

Sir John Pringle remarks, * that neither canals, nor even
large inundations, where the water is deep, are nearly {fo
dangerous, or exhale fo much noxious vapours, as marfhy
grounds, or meadows that have been once floated and
but lately drained ; and that fields, though dry in appear-
ance, may yet be moift by the tranfpiration of the fubterra- ’
neous water.’”? (On Difeafes of the Army, part ii. chap. 2.)
‘« It has been generally remarked,” Dr. Rollo obferves,
“that the effluvia of marfhes are moft a€tive, when the wa-_
ter is drained off, and the earth appears, which was certain-
ly the cafe in St. Lucia: the greater part of the regular ,
intermittents, that is, of the milder fevers we had, hap-_
pened when the rains were moft frequent, and before the
ltagnating pools difcovered their bottoms; but the moft _
dangerous remittents appeared when the marfhes had no |
water, but a fliny matter on their furface. - Cairo is healthy ~
while the Nile inundates the neighbouring lands; but _
when the mud is expofed, on the retiring of the river withia -
its banks, the fevers begin to rage as the miafmata rife. —
Thefe effluvia, like thofe of contagion, as we have alread be
fated, are limited in their operation, we mean in the dil. ,

tance

——

PoE WER.

tance: to’ which they are: capable of being communicated
through the air, in an aétive ftate. Dr. Lind obferves that,
in fhips lying at fome diftance from a fwampy fhore, the
amen efcape intermittent fevers, though immerfed in fogs ;
‘but when they approach near fhore, or communicate with
the land, they become affeéted. 'Thofe who were fent on
dhore for provilions, efpecially in the night, as mentioned
by Dr. Badenoch, fpeedily perifhed in confequence of the
fever thus induced; partly, perhaps, in conlequence of a
pre-difpofition to be readily affe€ted by the miaimata occa-
dioned by the cold of night, and partly from the condenfation
.and more active ftate of the miafinata arifing from the fame
caufe, Thefe effluvia rife to fo {mall a height, that fol-
Giers lying in the firft foors of barracks in Jamaica were
defs affected than thofe in the ground floor, as ftated by Dr.
Hunter: who has alfo affirmed, that a few hundred yards

often include the limits between healthy and unhealthy _

ground in camps. (Obfervat. on the Difeafes of the Army
in Jamaica.) See Epipemic, under the fecond head;
where other faéts are enumerated, and fome obfervations
yadded refpecting the difappearancte of intermittent and re-
Mittent fevers in London, and other large cities, in confe-
‘quence of the removal of the fources of miafmata, by im-
provements in the ftruCture, and cleanlinefs of the ftreets, &c.
Onder all, thefe circumflances, intermittent and remittent
devers,are moft prevalent in autumn, in which feafon, efpe-
‘cially when wet, they are the fatal endemics in low and damp
countries. Of this we have a recent example in the
mortality occafioned by the late unfortunate expedition
to the ifland of Walcheren; which, indeed, might have
‘been -anticipated ; (O&. 1809,) for fir John Pringle
dong ago obferved, when {peaking of the United Provinces,
© but the air is worlt in Zealand, as. that province is not
Be low and watery, but furrounded with the cozy beaches
of the eaftern and weitern Scheldt, and the moft marfhy
arts of the country ; fo that almoft every wind, except
‘from the fea, adds to its native moift and unwholefome air.’’
(Loe. cit. part i. chap. r.) In the autumn of very wet
years, intermi rents have been obferved to occur even in
high, sndat other times dry fituations ; thus they were pro-
duced in certain high parts of Northamptonthire, where
they were not known to have exifted either before or fince,
in the year 1782, which was remarkable for the wetnefs of
the fummer. (See the Syllabus of Lectures given at Guy’s
Hofpital, p. 15.) The operation of heat, in augmenting
the deleterious effeéts of thefe miafmata, is evident, as well
from the general occurrence of intermitting and remitting
fevers in the autumnal feafon, as from the more frequent
and formidable fevers of this fort, which are generated in
warm climates; witnefs the periodical fevers of Cairo on there-
tiring of the Nile, and thofe which occur near the other great
African rivers; as on the coaft of Guinea, where the country is
often half depopulated by them, and fome parts even quite
deferted from this caufe. (bid. ) The overflowing of the Eu-
phistees and the ftagnation of the water on the adjoining de-
fert, have always been confidered as the principal caufes,efpe-
ally in the hotteft feafons, of the fatal remitting fever of Buf-
forah. (See Tranfadt. of a Soc. for the Improv. of Med. and
Chirur. Knowledge, vol. i.) Whence the Arabs fometimes
inundate the defert, by breaking down the banks of the Eu-
hrates, in order to be avenged on the Turks of Bufforah.
Lhe fevers induced by a fingle inundation have been knownto
deftroy between ite and fourteen thoufand of the inha,
of that place. (See Wilfon on Fever, vol. i. p. 193.)

t is fortunate, however, that the marfh miafma is not, like
ontagion, capable of adhering to clothes, or other fub-
Sees: but is diffipated and becomes harmlels in the atmo
a

boo “J

fphere, as we have before obferved,’ata fhort diftance from
its fource. :
It is worthy of remark, that both contagion and miafmata,
or, to ufe the words of Dr, Cullen, both «* human and marth
efuvia,”’ appear at times, to eperate rather as predifpofing
than exciting caufes ; while thofe circumftances before ent-
merated, as inducing a predifpofition, become in fact the
exciting caufes of the fever which enfues. It has been ob-
ferved by Dr. Lind, and others, that perfons expofed to the
influence of contagion, fometimes receive it into the fyftem,
in which it remains latent, or producing only flight indifpe-
fition, fuch as. head-ache, languor, &c. for a
time ; when expofure to cold, an aét of intemp
drinking, eatiag indigeftible food, fatigue, watct
anxiety fhall occur, and immediately the contajio
produced ; which would lead us to believe that many
thofe perfons who remain. uninfected, after confiderable ex
pofure to contagion, efcape in confequence of the abfence
of fuch exciting caufe. “The fame caufes, which give rife
to relapfes,” {ays Dr. Lind of Haflar, ** I am inclined to
think do fometimes excite, or render active, an infection, be-
fore received into the body; but fo flight, as of itfelf to’ pro-
duce no bad confequences.. I am confirmed in this opinion
by the quick and fenfible effe@ of infeCtion from bad fevers,
when in fuch a degree as of itfelf to communicate the difeafe.
But if a perfon perceives no fymptom of an infection, till
many days after having left his place ofabode, and is firit
taken ill of it immediately after having been wet with rain,
expofed to'cold or damp; or having been guilty of intempe-
rance and exceffes, it is probable that thefe caufes have
excited this dormant poifon into a&tion ; and thats without
their influence, it would never have affeGted the conftitution.”
(Lind on Fevers and Infeétions, chap: ii. § 1.) Ina fimilar
manner, the marfh miafmata often exert no influence on the
conftitution, for feveral weeks after the perfon has left the
fenny diftri&, when the ague fhall be immediately excited
by a debauch, a quarrel, being wet or chilled, &c.
_ Expofure to co/d is commonly mentioned among the excit+
ing caufes of fever; and it can fcarcely be doubted that
the fimpler forms of fever do frequently originate from this
caufe: and as thefe more fimple fevers are occafionally con-
verted into the more fevere or malignant fpecies, by the coh-
fined or uncleanly fituation of the patient, by improper
treatment, or in confequence of fome peculiar itate of the
conttitution, fo co/d may juftly be ranked among the com-
mon caufes of fever. -This notion, however, as it is popt«
larly entertained, is carried far beyond its juft extent. ° We
have already feen that'cold operates by pre-difpofing the
body to be acted upon by contagion and by:marfh miafmata;
and alfo, fecendarily, by calling into attion the dormant
poifon of both fpecies. In thefe cafes, its operation is only
indire&t. More commonly the popular opinion arifes from
a miftake, which confifts in fuppofing the firtt /ymptoms,
(viz. the fhivering and fenfation ical to ‘be in fa the
caufé of the fever; thefefymptoms being confidered as the
effe& of an external chill, when they are, in truth, the re-
fult of the internal condition of the circulation and ner
vous fyftem, as before explained. Hence fevers have
been attributed to.cold, which proved tobe the eruptive fever
of {mall-pox, or meaifles, and, of courfe, origitated from con-
tagion. On the whole, expofure to cold mutt be confi-
dered as mot commonly concurring with the noxious efiu-
via, and other catfes, in producing’ idiopathic’ fever, and
net as alone the ative agent. Thowfands: are ‘conitantly
expofed to cold in this climate, in whom no fever is ex»
cited ; and in the great: majority of thofe who are affect
ed by cold, the difeafes abe vecafioned. are principally
‘ t2 the

fiderable

FEVER.

the fymptomatic fevers conneéted with local inflammation,
conflituting the feeond clafs of <« Phlegmafiz’? in Dr.
Cullen’s arrangement, as mentioned in the commencement
of this article. '[he general effeéts of cold on the hn-
man body, as well as its particular effeéts in the pro-
duction and alleviation of difeafes, have been difcufled at
length under a former head. See Corp, in regard to
its aGion on the living Body.

It would appear that the effluvia arifing from animal,
and even vegetable fubftances, during the procefs of pu-
trefudion, have in fome inttances given rife to fevers ofa
fevere and fatal kind. (See Epipemic.) But under
what particular combination of circumftances fuch fevers
have been excited, it were not eafy to ftate: it would
feem, however, that animal putrefaction alone is not ca-
pable of producing thefe effeéts ; fince perfons engaged
in particular trades, in which they are much expofed to
thefe efluvia, do not fuffer from fever, as {kinners, night-
men, &c.; nor are ftudents of anatomy particularly af-
fected by fevers from the often very putrid effluvia of a
diflecting room.

A redundance of Ji/e has been fuppofed to be a common
exciting caufe of intermitting, remitting, and continued
fevers, chiefly from the circumftance, that it is often thrown
up from the ftomach in confiderable quantity, during the
ficknefs which occurs at the onfet of thefe fevers. But it
fhould be obferved, that vomiting, however excited, (whe-
ther by the commencement of fever, by fubftances taken
into the ftomach, or by agitation on fhip-board at fea,) if
often repeated, with violent ftraiing, generally brings up
alfo the contents of the duodenum, and emulges the duéts,
which open into that part of the inteltines. Bile, therefore,
and pancreatic juice, are thrown up in the laft efforts to
yomit, but not in the beginning. This appearance of bile,
therefore, is not an effential part of the attack of fever ;
it is merely accidental, «If the pancreatic juice,” fays
Dr. Fordyce, “had been blue, and had any particular tafte
or{mell, and the bile had been colourlefs, infipid, inodorous,
oras much fo as the pancreatic juice is, in that cafe, whatever
has been faid of the redundancy of bile, as an effential part
of the attack of fever, would have been faid of the pan-
creatic juice.” (Firft Diff. on Fever, p.g5.) Dr. Cullen
remarks, that the opinion may have been partly counte-
nanced by the fact, that intermitting and remitting fevers,
being the effeéts of marfh eMluvia, occur moft frequently in
the warm feafons, and the latter in warm climates, from the
influence of which the bile is difpofed to pafs, by its fecre-
tories, in greater quantity than ufual, and, perhaps, alfo
changed in its quality ; but he corifiders this appearance of
bile, when vomiting takes ‘place, as a circumitance acci-
dentally concurring with the fevers, from the flate of the
feafon in which they arife. (Firit Lines, § 51.)

When anexciting caufe of fever has once produced its
operation, the conftant or repeated application of that caule
is not required to keep up the difeafe ; on the contrary, the
difeafe will then go through its courfe, although the caufe
be entirely removed ; nay, farther, it will not be increafed,
it is faid, in degree or duration, by a fubfequent application
of the fame canfe, but will go through its courfe unaltered.
(Fordyce, Firft Differt. p. 180, et feq. alfo in Tranfa&. of
a Soc. for the Improvement of Med. and Surg. Kuow-
ledge, vol. i. art.1.) Thus, to adduce-a palpable exam-
ple, a fecond inoculation of {mall-pox adds nothing tothe
violence of the difeafe produced by the firft infertion of the
poifon; thus, alfo, to ufe the words of Dr. Fordyce, “a
fever taking place from infeétion in the mot wealthy and
obleft perfons in the country, and-treated with all attention,

with regard to infection, goes threugh its courfe in the
fame manner as in a patient in an hofpital, where there are
many others affli€ed with the fame difeafe, provided that
attention is paid that there fhall be an‘equal charge of the
air of the atmofphere, and freedom from putrefaétion.’?
(Loe. cit. p. 189.) On the whole, this ftatement may be
confidered as begging the queftion, and Dr. Fordyce feems
to have generalized too far, in transferring his obfervation
refpecting {mall-pox to idiopathic fever. For if, with re-
gard to contagious fever, we produce ‘ an equal change of
the air” in an hofpital, as in the chambers of the rich, the
contagion cannot be conftantly applied in any confiderable
quantity, “And, with refpeét to intermitting and remit-
ting fevers, it is a well known faét, (even {tated by Dr. For-
dyce himfelf, though explained upon the notion of avoiding
humidity,) that thofe fevers, although they remained obfti-
nate while the patient continued expofed to the miafmata,
which produced them, f{peedily yield to the fame treatment,
when the patient is removed See the Tranfattions before
quoted, p, 14. ; “
Daéitrines refpeing the Nature or proximate Caufe of
Fever.—Phyficians have been eager to explain the nature
of difeafes from the earlieft dawn of medical hiltory, and
have too often quitted the laborious tai of obfervation in
purfuit of hypothetical {peculations, which have tended to
obfcure, rather than to elucidate, the feience of pathology,
and to retard the progrefs of its improvement. Inftead of
accurately marking and comparing the phenomena of life,
aad thence deducing the laws of the animal economy, whe-
ther in health or difeafe, phyficians have too often contented.
themfelves with transferring the deductions of the collateral
{ciences to the deétrines of life, milpending their’time and
talents in finding out analogies, which exifted only in their
own imaginations. Hence not only the fiétions of the Greek
philofophy, but the principles of the more certain fciences,
of mechanics, of chemiftry, of magnetifm, and of electricity,
have been affumed in fucceffion as explanatory of the aétion
of living bodies, and have each contributed not a little to con-
fufe the language and opinions of pathologifts. ‘This is more
particularly obvious with refpeét to the dorines relative
to fever; which, frem the univerfality of its occurrence;
the flriking appearances which it exhibits, and the ravages
which it has committed in all ages, has always arrefted the
attention of mankind, and has employed the pens of the
mott enlightened profeffors of medicine for upwards of two
thoufand years. Neverthelefs, it is at this moment a fub-
ject of difcuffion, and of much differenze of opinion ;- eth
ficians being divided in their views both of the effential na-
ture of the difeafe, and refpeéting the feat which they af-
fign to it in the body; and one of the lateft practical wnters
on the fubjeét, whom we have often quoted,. has affirmed,
that “ what the real derangement in the fy tem is, which.
produces the external appearances in fever, Is not at
known.” Fordyce. ™
Although nothing abfolutely fatisfaGtory, however, is to
be obtained from an inveltigation of the doétrines which have
been promulgated relative to fever, it will be neceflary to
ftate the outlines, efpeciully of thofe of modern times, which
have affumed a fyftematic fhape, and have given colour to
the various modes of praétice that have been purfued.
Various gratuitous hypothefes refpeéting morbid derange-
ments of the fluids of the animal body, and the generation
of new morbid humours, have prevailed, with occafional mo-
difications, from the time of Hippocrates downwards: and
although in the fyftems of Hoffmann and Cullen, and ftill
more completely in thofe of Brown and Darwin, thefe hy-
pothefes are reje€ted, and are alfo exploded among Britifh
3 practitioners

FEVER.

practitioners in general, as incompatible with more correét
obfervation, they are neverthelefs the prevalent doétrines of
the people at large. (See Humorar Pathology.) Hip-
pocrates confidered the morbid heat as the effence of fever,
and upon this notion he feems to have founded his dif-
tinction of the varieties of the difeafe; asthe cau/us, xxvo-,
or burning fever; the /eipyria, Auzy;iz, ia which the exter-
nal parts are cold, while the internal are hot; and the
epialus, ixtadoc, or mild fever, in which there is a fimulta-
neous feeling of heat and cold. (See Hippoc. lib. i. and
Hi. ree wow, $5 (Edit Fafij. ac Prenot. &c.) Thefe
different forms of fever he afcribes to the fuperabundance
of one or other of the four humours, blood, phlegm, yel-
low and black bile, (fee Hirrocrares,) and he feems to
confider the difeafe as the refult of a conteft on the part of
nature, (the prefiding principle of the animal body,) to ex-
pel the morbid humour, or to render it inert and harmlefs
‘by the procefs of concoéion.

Paffing by the abfurd notions of Afclepiades, refpecting
‘the motion of atoms or corpufcles, which, when it was free,
cont{tituted health, and, when obftruéted, excited fevers, &c.
which again differed according to the fize of the corpufcles;
(fee Czlius Aurelianus, lib. i. cap. 14.) and the hypo-
thefes of other ancient phyficians, which have been imper-
fe@ly tranfmitted to us; we come to the dodtrines of Galen,
which were univerfally received and taught, where fcience
exifted, for the fpace of thirteen centuries. The hypothetis
ef Galen was little more than an amplification of that of
Hippocrates, with which he combined other hypothefes,
deduced from the philofophy and fcience of his age, and
ithus, by giving a fy{tematic form to the doétrine, and fup-
‘porting it with much learning, he at once multiplied and
perpetuated the corruptions of medical fcience, which the
anduétive and experimental philofophy of our own times has
not yet exterminated. (See Gaten.) He alfo confidered
the preternatural heat as the effence of the febrile ftate, and

enters into feveral plaufible ftatements explanatory of its:

origin. He obfervesthat heat is excited by motion, by pu-
trefaction, by the dire& application of heat, as of the fun

or fire, or by the retention of warmth, which fhould be dif—

fipated, or by the addition of a fort of ferment. Whence

the exciting caufes-of fevers are ealily underftood in regard’

to their operation: the heat of the atmofphere, which pre-
vails about the rifing of the dog-ftar, increafes the heat of
the heart, (being taken in by breathing the hot air,) and
alfo the heat of the arteries on the furface; over-faticne
and violent exercife occafion heat by the friction of the
mufcles, tendons, and joints; depraved and crude aliments
produce an acrid and pungent humour, which excites heat ;
and the putrid miafms in the air, during the periods of pef.
tilénce, when infpired, excite putrefaétion and heat in the
body, efpecially when the habit is already predifpofed to
putrefaGtion, from bad d#t, &e. The fevers thus excited

are modified by the prevalence or putrefaction of one or.

other of the four humours of Hippocrates: of the three
kinds of intermittents, the quotidian arifes from the cor-
ruption of phlegm, the tertian from that of the yellow, and
quartan from that of the black bile. Wherever the heat
begins, it extends to the heart, whence the general com-
motion of the veffels is excited: “ and Nature is employed
in exerting her powers, endeavouring to affimilate the good
humours to the parts which are to be nourifhed, andto expel
the bad humours. But if at any time Nature is unable to
expel all the morbid humour, either from its thicknefs, its
abundance, or its tenacity, or from fome obftruction of the
paflages, or from her own want of power, it neceflarily-will
undergo putrefaction, if it remains long in the animal -body.”?

But by putrefaétion Galen appears to mean any new com--
bination or change of quality, for he includes concofion
under that term. ‘ Altera autem putrefaétio, quam et coc-
tionem effe diximus, &c.’? (De Differentiis Febrium, lib.i.
See alfo Van Swieten Com. ad Aph. 730.)

This doctrine, which became known throughout Europe
on the revival of learning, kept pofleffion of the fchools until
the middle of the feventeenth century, when a new light
was thrown upon the fubjeét of the animal economy by the
difcovery of the circulation of the blood. But in the va-
rious parts of this doctrine, afterwards varioufly combined
with the fyftems which originated with the further progrefs
of the collateral fciences, we fee the rudiments of moft of
the theories which the modern fy{tematics advanced; until at
length the phenomena, conneéted with the irritable and fenfi-
ble properties of the living folid, were attentively invefti-
gated in the courfe of the lait century. A humoral pa-
tholory, conneéied with the notions of obftruction, acri-
mony, lentor, plethora, or putrefaction in the vafcular
fyftem, and of a regulating principle, nature, autocrateia,
archeus, anima medica, vis medicatrix natura, or by what-
ever term it may have been defignated, was found in all the
fyftems, down to that of Boerhaave inclufive, whether
among the mathematical, chemical, or mechanical feéts.
(See Mepicine.) Hence various means:of removing fevers
were fugeefted, and remedies were employed by one fet of
theorifls for correéting acrimony, for refilting putrefaction,
for aiding concoétion, for obviating plethora, for evacuating
the morbid humours, or for diluting them ; and regulations
were adopted by fome for {upporting the operations of na-
ture, and for removing obftructions or interferences with
them ; while others, confidering the rational foul as the di-
re&ing principle, were content to look on, and truft to its
wifdom, cultivating what they called the art of medicine
by expectation ; which confifted rather in renouncing all
art, and in banifhing all a&tive remedies.

Thefe doétrines, refpeGting the morbid condition of the
humours in febrile difeafes, and the confliG of nature in at-
tempting to fubdue their effects, to change their nature,
and to expel them: from the fyltem, &c., originated in ig-
norance of the {tructure and operations of the animal frame,
were fropagated by the bigotry of learning, which would
vather err with Galen, than queftion his authority on mat-
ters of the-fmalleft moment ; aud were ftrengthened by the
facility with which the new difceveries in chemical and me-
chanical philofophy combined with them, -in explaining the
motions of the circulating fiuids. They were countenanced
alfo by the various difcharges which occafionaily occur
in the crifes of fevers, of which the notion of concoGion,
er of fermentation and defpumation, dedeced from a che-
mical analogy, afforded a plaufible explanation. But we
have already tated, that the inferences drawn from the ap-
pearance of thefe difcharges were incorrect ; for that the
latter were the figns and effeéts of a favourable change in
the difeafe, and not the caufes of it. (See Concoction,.
and Crisis.) Nor is the notion of a materies mordi, in
the fluids in fever, fanétioned either by obfervation, or by-
the moft fuccefsful plan of cure.. When the difcharges -
luded to confift of the fecreted fluids, they contain nathing
which is not ordinarily prefent, although in lefs quantity ;
when they confift of *blood,-it cannot be imagined that the
fmall” portion evacuated has contained all the morbid hu-
mour with which the general mais was infeed. But
many fevers are.cured without waiting for concoéion, or
evacuation ; and the occurrence of ab{olute intermiflions is
not eafily reconcileable with «the exidtence of fuch morbid
humour,

The:

BET W EPR:

-© The dawn of a more correct knowledge of the merbid
aGtions of the animal fyftem, of which jome glimmerings
had appeared in the writings of our countryman, Willis,
and of Baglivi, (in their treatifes ‘* de Pathologia Cerebri et
Nervorum,”’ and “ {pecimen de febra motrice et morbofa,’’)
was obvious in the works of Hoffmann, before the middle
‘of the lait century. He direted the attention of phyficians
to the primary moving powers of the animal frame, the
‘funGtions of the nervous fyitem ; functions which, had
not the pernicious influence of learned authorjty led medi-
cal obfervers out of the proper train of invelligation, could
‘not have been overlooked for fo many ages. ‘The proper-
ties of the living folid were now inveltigated by Gaubius,
Haller, and others; even Boerhaave himfelf began to at-
-tend to them, and in the fourth edition of his Aphorifms,
{fee Aph. 755.) added the words, ‘ forté et nervofi (cil.
fucci) tam cerebri quanquam cerebelli cordi deftinati in-
ertiz,” (a fluggifhnefs of the nervous fluid communicated
from the brain to the heart,) to the flugeyhnefs of the ar-
terial fluids, which he had formerly tated as the proximate
caufe of intermittent fevers.

From this time the phenomena refulting from the fenforial
funétions in difeafe became the fubjeét of more attentive
‘inveftigation, and hence have arifen three modern fy{tems,
in which the nature of fever is explained by a reference to
thefe funétions, to the exclufion of any fuppofition of
-difeafe in the fluids, except as an effet of the fever. Thefe
are the theories of Cullen, of Brown, and of Darwin.
The theory which Dr. Cullen promulgated, from the me-
dical chair in the univerfity of Edinburgh, almoit rivalled
that of Boerhaave in the extent of its reception; and even
continues to be adopted, with flight modifications, by fome
later writers. (See Currie, Reports on Water, p. 165, 2d
edit.) It had the merit of great ingeauity, and of accord-
ing mere completely with the advanced flate of know-
ledge refpecting the fundtions of life, than the hypothefes
which preceded it. The Brunonian theory of fever is not
particularly prominent in the general fyftem of its author,
who reduced all difeafes to two or three very fimple princi-
ples, without much regard to the variety of phenomena, by
which they are charaéterized. That of Dr. Darwin is
more complex, but much more comprehenfive in its applica-
tion to the varieties of fever ; it is obf{cure, however, from
the peculiar language in which it is expreffed. We fhall
diate the outlines of each of thefe theories. :

Dr. Cullen’s Theory.--'The firft. change induced in the
animal fyftem, by the operation of the exciting caufes of
fever, is, in the opinion of Dr. Cullen, a ‘* diminution of
the energy of the brain ;” which is indicated by all the
fymptoms of the firft ftage of fever, as we have already
explained. The powers of the body and the mind, the
fun@tions of fenfation and motion, refpiration, circulation,
aiid fecretion, all fail, or are dimimifhed in the general de-
bility ; but after a certain time, a morbid inereafe of fome

-of thefe funGtions, efpecially. of the circulation, takes
place, with an augmentation of the heat. ‘The three ftates
of debility, of cold, and of heat, which regularly fueceed
each other in fever, in the order juft mentioned, are pre-
fumed to exilt in the relation of caufe and effect; the firft
ftate being the refult of the -fedative or debilitating
influence of contagion, marfh miafmata, and cold, which
are the exciting caufes. Dr. Cullen acknowledges his
inability to explain fatisfactorily, how the debility pro-
duces all the phenomena of the cold ftage, efpecially. the
JSpa/modic conftriétion of the extreme arterial veflels, which
is inferred from the fufpenfion of the feeretions,.and the
fhrinking of parts in the cold itage, as well as from the’

continuance of this"fufpeniion’ in the hot ftages after the
action of the teart and large arterics is increafed. Were
the conilriétion of the cold ftage merely the refult of the
weakened aétion of the heart, it is fippofed, that, on the
return of its ordinary or increafed aétion, the conftriGion
would be removed, and the fecretions reftoreds Here Dr.
Cullen reforts to ‘the Vis Medicatrix Natura, {o famous in

the {chools of phyfic,’”? the innate preferving r of the
conflitutiou, which has been appealed to for. ution of
difficulties by all medical theorifts, from Hipp es down-

wards. This s fpafm of the-extreme veflels,”? then, is
contidered as ‘¢ a part of the operation of the vis medica-
trix nature ;’? at the fame time, Dr. Cullen is of opinion,
that, during the whole courfe of fever, there is an atony
exilting in the extreme vefiels, depending on the diminifhed
energy of the brain, and that the relaxation of the fpafm
requires the reitoration of the tone and ation of thefe.
To this atony in the veffels of the |! :
lofs of appetite, naufea, and.von
alfeted by fympathy.. The fp:
yeflels throws. a load ‘of blood»
the circulating fyftem,. which pro
to the heart and arteries, and
action, which continues till the fj -relaxed or overs
come. The hypothefis is thus briefly reeapitulated. “ Upon
the whole, our doéirine of fever is explicitly this. The
remote caufes are certain fedative powers applied to the
nervous fy{tem, which, diminifhing the energy of the brain,
thereby produce a debility in the whole of the funions,
aud particularly in the aGiion of the extreme veflels. Such,
however, 1s, at the fame time, the nature of the animal
economy, that this debility proves an indire& ftimulus te
the fanguiferous fyftem; whence, by the intervention o
the cold ftage, and {pafm conneed with it, the ation of
the heart and large arteries is increafed, and continues fo till
it has had the efleét of reftoring the energy of the brain,
of extending this energy to the extreme veflels, of reftoring
therefore their aétion, and thereby, efpecially removing-the
{pafm affecting them; upon the removing of which, the
excretion of {weat, and other marks of the relaxation of
excretories take place.”? (Cullen, Firit Lines, § 46.)
Plaufible as this hypothelis undoubtedly appears, it is
liable to feveral objections ; partly, becanfe it is gratuitous

in fome particulars, and partly, becaufe fill pl applicable

ntral parts of
Zigees BE. .

rce of irritation
m to a greater

to all the phenomena of fevers. In the firf ce, it muft

be remarked, that by afluming the exiftenee of @ peculiar
power or agent, fuch as the vis medicatrix nature, we aes
quire no knowledge, and advance net a ftep her in our

explanation of the fads, than if we ftated fimply that the
facts occur. It is an admiffion, that the fa@s are inexpli-
cable, that they are part of the phenomena of life, which
we deem incapable of farther generalization in the prefent
ftate of our knowledges ‘Chis creation of imaginary agents,
to account for ultimate fats, has had a pernicious influence
in every department of fcience. What information did
philofophers acquire refpe€ting the laws of gravitation, by
the fubititution of an ether; or phyfiologifts, refpecting fen-
fation and mufcular motion, by the fuppofition of a ner-
yous juice? Yet upon the fame footing ftands this autocras
tid, Or vis medicatrix, in regard to the laws of the animal
economy. It is an impofition, by which we conceal from
ourfelveS our own ignorance, and prematurely arreft the
progrefs of inquiry. But this by the way. '
This hypothefis, however, isnot only gratuitous in the
afflumption of a particular agent, but alfo in afluming the
exiltence of a /pa/in in the extreme veflels, and -in fuppofing
the cold flage to be the cawfe of all’'that follows. The
phenomena,

PE V-E-R.

phenomena, prefented by the fkin in the cold ftage, may
arife from the mere feeblenefs of the heart, which is render-
ed unable to diftend the diftant and minute veffels with blood,
or from a mere inaétion of the cutaneous capillaries, inde-
pendently of the heart, as we believe to be the cafe; and
not from a fpafmodic contraction of the extreme veflels.
And the prefumption, of the continuance of that fpafm,
when the fuperficial veffels are filled and diftended with
blood to a preternatural degree, would appear to be incon-
fiftent with obfervation; for fpafm and diltenfion are terms
of oppofite import. The fame veflels, which receive little
or no blood in the cold flage, and are over diftended with it
in the hot ftage, cannot Le in both cafes affected with {pafm.
But, it is contended, the perfpiratory veffels at leatt are
{pafmodically conitrifted in the hot ftage, for no: fluid is
oured out. Here, however, it fhould be obferved, that,
although the poverty of language, which compels us to
‘borrow the terms of mechanical fcience, in {peaking of the
henomena of life, may render the ufe of fuch a word as con-
ftriGiion admiffible ; yet it is not from a mere mechanical con-
ftriGtion and relaxation of the extreme arteries that the
per{piration and other fecreted fluids pafs off. ‘Thefe fluids
are not pre-exiftent in the blood, and feparated as through
a fieve, but are produced by new combinations, effected by
an unknown aud inexplicable action of the fecreting extre-
mities of the veffels ; this action is interrupted by various
conditions of the veffels, by their over diftenfion, it would
feem, as well as by their collapfe ; and as we are ignorant of
the procefs of fecretion, fo we know not how it is fup-
prefled. The fuppofition of fpafm is equally gratuitous in
both cafes ; and the word conftriction is only to be confider-
ed as exprefling, by an incorrect analogy, the non-appear-
ance of the fluids to be difcharged. The contraction of
the veffelsin the cold ftage, and their diftenfion in the hot,
are equally to be confidered as part of the concourfe of the
fymptoms, and not aneffential caufe of the fever.

The hypothehs, which affumes the {pafm of the extreme
veflelsin the cold ftage, as the caufe of all the following
fymptoms, is not merely gratuitous, however, it is alfo in-
confiftent with the various phenomena of fever. This incon-
fifteney feems to have erifen from the aflumption of a fimple
intermittent or ephemeral paroxy{m, as the prototype of
every form of fever. But in many of the forms of pyrexia,
and even of idiopathic fever, there is no evidence of the ex-
iftence of this fpafm. The cold, itis true, generally ufhers
in the paroxy{m of an intermittent ; but it is often fcarcely
obvious in that of a remittent, and in various cafes of con-
tinued fever it does not appear at all ; fo that the effect oc-
curs without its imagined caufe. Befides, there is often no
proportion between the two; the cold flage may be fhort
and flight, when the fucceeding hot {tage is long and fe-
vere, and vice verfe. Even admitting, with Dr. Cullen and
Dr. Fordyce, that continued fevers are but a feries of pa-
rosyims, following each other, and generally diftintly di-
vided by exacerbations and remiflions, yet a cold {tage does
not occur to introduce the exacerbation, and confequently
the , fueceeding phenomena are not the refult of a fpafm
or cold fit. A degree of pyrexia, marked by heat, quick
pulfe, oppreffion, languor, &c. is often produced by various
ftimuli, {uch as much heating food, or drink, exexcife, &c.
but the.cold ftage is wanting.

We may conclude, therefore, that the occurrence of
the heat, and its concomitant phenomena in fever, de-
pends upon fome other principle in the animal economy,
aud not upon the exiitence of a cold ftage, and its fup-

ofed,fpafm. As well, indeed, might we fix upon the
tae asa caufe.of the phenomena, which, in continued

atten

fevers, fucceed it; fueh as the delirtum,~proftration of
ftrength, &c.; and, in truth, the omiffion to notice the
influence of the morbia heat upon the future progrefs of
the fymptoms conftitutes, as Dr. Currie has juftly re-
marked, an imperfeétion in Dr. Cullen’s theory. For it
is certain, that the accumulation of the heat itfelf is a
fource of much irritation to the vafcular and nervous
fyftems, as is. proved by the relief which follows the ab-
ftra&tion’ of it by means of cool air, and the application
of cold water to the fkin; for as the heat is decreafed,
the pulfe immediately becomes lefs frequent, head-ache
and reftleffnefs are diminifhed, fleep is induced, and even
perfpiration is excited.

We have yet to add, that the idea of a proximate
caufe, implies that, which being prefent, the difeafe is
prefent, and being abfent, the difeafe difappears. Now,
the cold ftage is only prefent during a fmall part of the
progrefs of fever, which is another reafon for confi-
dering it only as one in the concourfe of the fymp-
toms.

The Brunonian Theory.—We have already given a brief
view of the fyftem by which Dr. Brown attempted to ex-
plain all the phenomena of the living body, whether in
health or difeafe (fee Excrraziriry); ad the various
modifications of fever were of courfe included in that ex-
planation. The increafing number of fa€ts, which the
proper ftudy of the animal economy after the time of Hoff-
man produced, enabled the pupil to advance a ftep beyond
his matter, in generalizing thofe fa&ts: and it cannot be
doubted, that fome of the dogmas of Brown were the refult
of a legitimate induétion, and therefore fome of his princi-
ples were more juft than thofe of Cullen. But like moft
theorifts, he overftepped the boundary of obiervation, and
involved himfelf in hypothefis, to which he made fats bend
by mifreprefenting them. Fevers, like all other difeafes,
are attributed to debility, dire€t or indireét ; and he affirnss
“ that the diftin€tions that phyficians have made about the
differences of fevers are all without foundation, and that
they are all the fame, with no other difference but in degree,
and that, unlefs in that refpe€t, they do not differ from other
difeafes 6f the fame form.’? (Elements of Medicine, § 662.
note m.) But he does not attempt to explain how the va-
rious fucceffion of fymptoms refults from the ftate of debi-
lity, or how the various modifications of the pyrexiz are to
be,accounted for upon this principle. The only approxima-
tion tofuch an explanation, that we have been ableto difco-
ver, reiembles the one given by Dr. Cullen, inafmuch as it
is little more than an enumeration of the leading changes in
the fymptoms, but lefs explicit than that of Dr. Cullen.
Weare told, that * the debility during the cold ftage is the
greateit, that of the hot lefs, and that of the fweating ftage,
which ends in health for the time, is the leait ofall. Hence
ina mild degree of the difeafe, as cold is the moft hurtful
power, its effect is gradually taken off by the agreeable heat
of the bed orofthe fun, andthe flrength thereby gradually
drawn forth. The heart and arteries, gradually excited by
the heat, acquire vigour, and, at lat, having their perfpira-
tory terminations excited by the fame ftimulus, the molt
hurtful fymptom is thereby removed, the hot fit produced,
and afterwards the fame procefs carried on to the breaking
out of fweat.’ (§ 666.) We are farther told that
*€ the caufe of all thefe difeafes (wiz. fevers, from the fim-
ple and intermittent to the gaol-fever and the plague,) is the
{ame with that of difeafes not febrile, to wit, debility ; dif-
fering only inthis, that it is the greateit debility compatible
with life, and not long compatible with it.’ (§ 670.)
It_ may appear ftrange that a theory fo vague’ and

inexplicit

REWER

Mnexplicit fhould have obtained. the number of admirers,
which the doctrines of Brown have every where gained.
The mott rationai of its advocates however, Dr. Wiifen,
who has {tripped the fyftem of many of its errors and in-
conliltencies, not content with thefe general terms, has
flated the proximate caufe of fever, according to the Bru-
nonian principles, to be ‘¢a change in the laws of excitabi-
lity, in confequence of which the fame agents no longer
produce the fame efleéts :’’ that is to fay, the fame external
agents, food, light, exercife, &c. which in health produce
moderate excitement, in fever produce exceffive excitement.
He adds, however, ** how the remote caufes of fever act in
inducing this change, and on what change in the living folid
this change in the laws of excitability depends, we neither
‘can, nor ever fhall be able perhaps to determine.” (Trea-
tife on Febrile Difeafes by Al. Phillips Wilfon, &c. vol. i.
P 559-)

Upon this ftatement, it is only neceflary to remark, that
Dr. Wilfon has fallen into the error which is common in
the difcuffion of proximate caufes, that of miftaking the
fymptoms for the difeafe iefelf. ‘The change in the law of
excitability is but a general expreflion for the change in the
phenomena of the individual life, 7. e. for the fymptoms of
the fever; whereas, the change in the living folid is, in
fact, the eflence of the difeafe, 7. e. the proximate cante of
‘the fymptoms, which he defpairs of inveftigating fuccefs-
fully.

Dr. Darwin’s Theory.-—In the theory of this ingenious
wphyfician, the phenomena of fever are referred to thofe
laws of organic life, which he has deduced with great acute-
nefs from a comprehentive view of the phenomena of the
living fyttem. His theory, indeed, is much involved im the
obfcurity of thelanguage, which he has chofen to adopt ;
Jt is, occafionally perhaps, aided by fancy, where obferva-
‘tion was deficient ; and it is given by its author ‘ rather as
obferyatious and conjectures, than as things explained and
demonttrated ;”? but it appears to afford a glimple of the
true explanation of the concourfe ef fymptoms in fever, un-
der its various forms, a foundation and a fcaffolding,’’ to
‘borrow the author’s words again, ** which may enable fu-
ture indultry to erect a folid and a beautiful edifice.”’ (See
Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life, by Eraf{mus Dar-
win, M.D. &c. Clafs 4. Supplen. ad finem.) Dr. Darwin’s
fy {tem is grounded upon the fame fundamental principles, as
thofe of the Brunomian {chopl (fee Excirasriity) 3 the
incongruities of which, however, he not only in a great de-
gree avoided, but he likewife introduced a principle, which
had been. overloeked by Brown, namely, the principle of
affociation, or fympathy, by which, doubtlefs, many of
the actions of the living body are regulated. It is upon the
obfervation of this principle, that the Darwinian theory of
fever is chiefly conftruéted ; whence the author gave it the
title of the “* Sympathetic ‘Theory of Fever.”

Two general laws of the animal economy are flated by
Darwin, as well as by Brown; 1. That all excitement or
action of the living organs and funétions occafions a diminu-
tion: or exhauttion of their power (excitadili/y in the language
.of the latter, /en/orial power in that of the former,) ac-
cording to the degree of excitement ; 2. That reft, in-
aétivity, or the abftraétion of the ufual ftimuli, render
thofe organs more fufceptible of the action of the ftimuli
fubfequently applied. Thus, when a {mall part of the
capillary veffels of the fkin are expofed for a {hort time to:
acold medium, as when the hands are immerfed in iced
water for a minute, thefe capillaries become torpid or
quiefcent, owing to the abftraétion of the ftimulus of hear.
‘The fin then becomes pale, becawfene bload pailes through.

the external capillaries, and appears fhrunk, becaufe their,
fides are collapted from ina€tivity, not contraéed by fpafm 5 .
the roots of the hair are left prominent from the feceding
or fubfiding of the fin around them ; and the pain of colds
nefs.is produced. But in this fituation, if the ufual degree
of warmth be applied, thefe veffels regain their activity ; .
and,. having now become more irritable from an accumula-
tion of the fenforial power during their quiefcence, a greater
action of them follows, with an increafed glow of the fin,
and another kind of pain, which is called the hot-ache,
eniues. Here we fee an epitome of fimple fever beginning
in the vafcular fyftem. When the fame operation goes on
more generally, as by immerfion in the cold bath, the cold
fit fucceeded by the hot fit is more general, and both may
be increafed and prolonged by continuing inthe bath, which
has indeed: proved fatal to fome weak and delicate people,
and to others who had been much exhaufted by heat and
exercife; the fame torpor and fubfequent orgafm having
extended to the heart and great veflels.

Thus far the two theories nearly accord ; but beyond
this point the Brunonian doétrine leaves us to a general
{tatement of debility, altogether inadequate to account for
the various forms and pkenomena of fever. But Dr. Dar-
win appeals to other eftablifhed faéts in the animal economy,
upon which thefe varieties appear to depend. From thefe
a third general law may be deduced; namely, 3. That the:
funétions of different parts of the fy{tem are fo far catenated,
or aflociated with each other, as it were in cireles, either
from direct connection in ftruéture, from the habit of aéting
together, or more frequently from caufes at prefent inferu-
table, (fee CaTENATION,) that an inereafe or decreafe of:
the aétion of one organ is followed or accompanied by an
increale or decreafe of the action of another; fometimes by
a fimilar change, that is, increafe followed by increafe of
activity, or decreafe by decreafe ; but occafionally by the
contrary change, that is, increafe followed by. decreafe of
activity, and vice verfé in the affociated parts. The
former of thefe is termed a direé fympathy ; the latter a
reverfe fympathy. The inftances of fympathy between
different parts of the animal frame are very numerous. To
the medical reader it were fufficient to mention the fympa-
thiesin the funétions of the ftomach and brain, the ftomach -
and {kin, the {tomach and heart, the brain and heart, the
{kin and lungs, the uterus and mamme, &c.; but for the-
unprofeffional reader a brief illu(tration may be requifite.

The {ympathetic. aGtion of the flomach and the brain
occurs perpetually to the obfervation of the phyfician.
Thus indigeftion, however induced, is frequently the caufe
of head-ache ; and head-ache, dependent upon certain ftates:
of the brain, produces lofs of appetite and ficknefs, as in
hydrocephalus. We have alfo inftances of both dire&t and
reverle fympathy between thefe organs ; for when the aétion
of the veflels of the brain is langiid and feeble, as in ap-
proaching fyncope, naufea and lofs of appetite occur in the:
{tomach, in which cafe the fympathy is direét; buts when
the veflels of the brain are acting with inereafed power, as’
in phrenfy, naufea and lofs of appetite are likewife induced,
in which the fympathetic action is reverfed. Similar fympa-
thies occur between the ftomach and ikia. Thus, moilten-
ing the fkin relieves thirft, as we have already ftated; and
a copious draught of warm liquor will often at once produce:
a. perfpiration on the fkin. We have feen that Dr. Culler
attributed the fymptoms in the digeftive funétions in fever’
almoit entirely to fuch a fympathy ; and that Sydenham:
removed ficknefs and vomiting by exciting perfpiration.
The ftimulating influence ef food on the nerves and veflels,
of the ftomach generally excites,, by direét fympathy, the

nerves

* FEVER.

nerves and vellels of the fkin, and produces a glow on the
furface; but in certain debilitated conttitutions, or ftates
of the conftitution, the fame Rimulus in the ftomach occa-
fions, by reverfe fympathy, a chillinefs, even a fhivering,
and palenefs of the fkin. Expofure to a cold atmofphere
(which abftraéts the ftimulus of heat) occafions an increafe
of appetite and of the digeftive power, in ftrong habits ;
but the fame expofure often deftroys the appetite, and pro-
duces even waka, in feeble conttitutions ; thefe may be
confidered as initances of direét and reverfe {ympathy ; or
perhaps both as inftances of direct fympathy, the fenforial
power accumulating in the ftrong conftitution, and pro-
ducing increafed a¢tion of the cutaneous vetfels ; but not
in the weak. The aétions of the ftomach and the heart are
catenated to a confiderable degree ; heating food and drink
generally quicken the pulfe, and the action of narcotic

oifons on the ftomach immediately diminifh its frequency
and ftrength, and often caufe it to intermit. "The a¢tions of
the fkin and lungs are alfo much affociated ; thus cold ap-
plied to the fkin, and producing torpor of the cutaneous
capillaries, as fhewn by the paleneis, chilly fenfation, &c.
immediately occafions difficult and laborious breathing, pro-
bably from a fimilar torpor being produced in the capillaries
of the lungs. The lofs of appetite and nausea induced by the
aGtion of the uterus after conception, and by inflammation,
or the irritation of a ftone in the kidnies, may be canfidered
as examples of a reverfe fympathy between thele organs.
There are many inftances of the fympathy of parts con-
neéted by ftructure, or by the habit of ating together.
Thus, the irritation of a ftone upon the neck of the bladder
produces an action of the lower gut, with a fruitlefs effort
to ftool, denominated tenefmus; and, vice ver/ii, a tenef-
mus, as in dyfentery for inftance, often excites a degree of
ftrangury or fruitlefs effort to pafs urine. In the fame way,
not only will a pungent odour, affeting the noftrils, excite
tears, but the fudden impulfe of ftrong light upon the eyes
very frequently excites {neezing ; which may be obferved
daily in the ftreets of London, during the fummer, in per-
fons who fuddenly receive the reflected light from a white
pavement, as they pais froma fhade. Thus alfo fympathe-
tic pains of the mamme occur in diforders of the uterus,
which organs are conneéted in the funGions and purpofes
which they ferve in the animaleconomy. See Symparuy,
and CaTENATION.

Thefe three laws or principles of aétion in the animal
economy, then, 1. The exhauftion or diminution of the fen-
forial powers by exertion ; 2. The recovery or accumulation
of the fame powers, during quiefcence or impaired action ;
and, 3. The dire and reverle affociation of parts, by which
the actions of one part give rife to actions in others, are
the grounds of Dr. Darwin’s explanation of the phenomena
of fevers. We have feen how the cold and hot fits of fimple
fever are produced, frem the external influence of cold ;
the firft by the torpor of the capillary veffels, from the ab-
{traGtion of the ftimulus of heat ; the fecond, by the reno-
vated aétivity of the capillaries from the accumulation of
fenforial power during that torpor. Dr. Darwin, however,
remarks, that this renovated activity of the capillaries is not
owing to the renewed action of the heart, which forces
them open by the mechanical impulie of blood; that the action
of the eapillaries often recommences fooner than the ation
of the heart, thefe veffels having a greater mobility than
the heart and large arteries, as appears in the fudden blath
of fhame ; and that, in low fevers, the capillaries acquire ia-
creafed ftrength, as is evinced by the fiufh and heat of
the fkin, while the pulfations of the heart and arteries re-
main feeble. Hence fimple fever is of two kinds; in one

Vor. XIV.

the pulfe is ftrong, in the other weak: in the fever with
ftrong pulfe, not only the cutaneous capillaries, but alfo the
heart and arteries readily acquire a greater aCtivity by the
accumulation of fenforial power during the torpid ftate,
which laft is farther increafed by dire@ fympathy with the
increafed aétivity of the capillaries ; this happens in ftrong
conftitutions, and is often feen in vernal intermittents: in
the fever with weak pulfe, on the contrary, the heart and
arteries do not acquire much increafe of fenforial power,
but continue in fome degree in their ftate of torpor, while
the orgafm of the capillaries is produced, whence there is a
hot fit, with feeble pulfe.

But when the fympathies of other parts of the fyftem are
called into aétion, together with this torpor and crgafm of
the cutaneous veffels, and of the heart and large arteries,
the fever-fit becomes more complicated and dangerous.
And again, when the torpor commences, from the opera-
tion of other exciting caufes of fever in other organs of the
body, and extends, with the fubfequent orgaim, by dire@
or reverfe fympathy, to the organs aflociated with them,
other various forms and modifications of febrile difeafe are
produced. Thus, if the ftomach is affected with torpor,
either primarily, as from the aétion of contagion, fvrai-
lowed with the faliva, or fecondarily, by its fympathy’ with
the cutaneous capillaries, or with fome internal vifcus, a total
lofs of appetite occurs, followed by ficknefs and vomiting,
Ifthe brain is affe&ed, either primarily, as by the depreflive
pailions, by exhauftion from watching, &c. or fecondarily, as
by the influence of contagtous or marth effluvia, received into
the ftomach, or the lungs, then proftration of the general
powers, head-ache, delirium, {tupor, tremors, convulfions,
&c. are induced. In the fame way, the fecretions from
the internal organs, as from the kidnies, are diminifhed
when a torpor takes place in them, either primarily, or by
fympathy with the cutaneous capillaries, or other parts, and
are rettored with the renovated aétion. Thefe phenomena
take place in different degrees in almoft all fevers, and vary
according to the nature of the organs primarily affeGed,
and to the ftate of the coniitution, or of the organs
individually. Thus when the ftomach is flightly dif-
ordered, as by indigeftible food, or when the vafcular
{yftem is deranged from expofure to cold, (when no inflam-
mation. is produced,) the fever which enfues is mild, the
brainy fuffers little by fympathy, no delirium, &c. occur,
and health is foon reftored. If, on the contrary, a virulent
contagion aéts upon the ftomach, and through its medium
upon the brain, the fenforial powers are greatly exhautted,
and the complication of dangerous fymptoms, arifing from
the morbid condition of the nervous fyitem, and from the
total lofs of powers in the organs of dizeftion, eecurs, con-
{tituting the contagious, nervous, and maliguant fevers, or
typhus, under its various forms and denominations. The
opinion that contagion operates firft on the ftomach, has
been adopted by Dr. Lind, and other pra@tical writers, and
is corroborated by many facts. When the contagion is
fufficiently powerful to produce an immediate and fenfible
effe&t, ficknefs, together with a difagreeable tafte, which
has been defcribed as “reaching to the flomach,” is its
ufual eperation, (fee Lind on Fevers and In fe&tion,
chap. ii. fect. 1.) and is followed by fhivering tremors, head-
ache, and a low and weak or irregular pulfe, from the fym-
pathy of the brain and the fkin. ~The primary action of the
contagion on the ftomach is probably the caufe of. the
greater virulence of the cafual, than of the inoculated fmall-
pox, which however is liable to be varied by the quantity
of the contagious matter received by its virulence, and by
the previous fufceptibility of the conftitutian. When the

Uu fenforial

FEVER.

fenforial powers of the ftomach, heart, and brain, are pri-
marily exhaufted by narcotic poifons, as by digitalis, to-
bacco, and contagion, (which both Brown and Darwin
confider, perhaps erroneoufly, as exhaufting by excefs of
ftimulus,) thefe organs are longer in recovering their exci-
tability, than when they fuffer from defect of ftimulus, or
Secondarily, from fympathy with the capillaries of the
fkin, or of fome other organ. From either fpecies of ex-
hautftion the fenforial power in voluntary or involuntary muf-
cles might be removed by a {hort quiefcence ; but with the
heart to ref is death; whence that organ recovers more
flowly, and thus produces fever with weak pulfe. Thofe
organs which are in perpetual aétion, indeed, being en-
dowed with a greater abundance of vitality, recover their
fenforial powers in the farne proportion more readily, other-
wife life could not continue. As the fenforial power accu-
mulates, the actions of thofe organs increafe ; whence a de-
gree of inflammation often occurs in the brain audits mem-
branes, accompanied with fiuthed countenance, reduefs of
the eyes, and delirium, fometimes followed by ftupor; or
a fimilar inflammatory aGtion occurs in the ftomach, or 1:f-
teftines, or in the lungs, or the heart. Thefe, however,
are generally fecondary effects of low fever, but death is
feldom produced without fuch an occurrence in fome of
thofe vifcera. Dr. Darwin jultly confiders the painful or
uneafy feelings, or (to ufe his language, the fenforial power
of fenfation,) excited efpecially when inflammation takes
place, as contributing farther to augment the actions of the
heart and arteries, and of all the moving fyftem along with
them; whence the pulfe, under fuch circumftances, ac-
quires a degree of fharpnefs in its ftroke, unobferved in
health.

When the flomach is fecondarily affe@ed, and the torpor
is primarily produced in fome other vifcus, the actions of
which, on the reftoration of the fenforial power, are aug-
mented to the degree conftituting inflammation, and of
courfe pain, or the fenforial power of fenfation is alfo ex-
sited, as in pleurify or peripneumony, the heart and arteries,
not having been exhaufted by a narcotic power, as by con-
tagion, foon refume a itrong action, the pulfe becomes
hard, and the difeafe is termed an inflammatory fever, or
phlegmafia, “Thus,” fays Dr. Darwin, ‘the peripneu-
mony is generally induced by the patient refpiring very cold
air, and this efpecially after being long confined to warm
air, or after being much fatigued and heated by exceflive la-
bour or exercife. For we can cover the {kin with more
clothes, when we feel cold ; but the lungs, not having the
perception of cold, we do not think of covering them, nor
have we the power of covering them, if we defired it ; and
the torpor thus produced is greater, or of longer duration,
in proportion to the previous expenditure of fenforial power
by heat or exercife. This torpor of the lungs affects the
{kin with fhuddering, and the itomach is alfo fecondarily
affeGted ; next follows the violent aGion of the lungs from
the accumulation of the power of irritation, and an inflam-
mation of them follows this violent ation, &¢.?? (Loc.
cit. Supplem. 1. § 16. 7.)

The theory, of which we have thus given an imperfect
account, ftripped of the peculiar phrafeology of the author,
appears to us incomplete, as it confefledly is, to afford an
approximation to at leaft a more comprehenfive and more
confiftent doGrine of febrile difeafe, than any that has yet
been promulgated: more comprehenfive, becaufe it not
only includes the varieties of idiopathic, but alfo of fympto-
matic fevers ; while other hypothefes {carcely embrace more
than one form of the firft, namely, the ephemeral, or im-
termittent paroxy{m, and have dwelt toe much upen fome

particular fymptom, as the caufe of the whole difeafe, fuck
as the heat, the cold fit, or the quick pulfe ; and more con-
fiftent, becaufe it is derived from thofe laws of the animal
economy, which have been deduced. from the obfervation
of the general operations of life, both in health and difeafe,
To the language, however, many objections arife, as well
as to feveral collateral ftatements, which are employed in
filling up the outline, which we have drawn; fuch as the
notion of a retrograde aétion of the abforbents, of the ab-
forbent aétion of the capillary veins, of the exceffive itimu-
lus of digitalis, and the matter of contagion, &c.; but
thefe are not effential parts of the doctrine. We fhall now
proceed to ftate briefly the principal points of another
theory of fever, lately publifhed, which, from the erudition
and practical knowledge with which it has been maintained,
is entitled to confideration. Weallude to

Dr. Glutterbuck’s Theory —Fever has ufually been called
a general difeafe, affecting all the functions, in contra-
diftinétion from /oca/ difeafes, in which fome particular
organ is the primary feat of the diforder, and the affeGtions
oi the other eee are fecondary, or fymptomatic, But
Dr. Clutterbuck denies the exiftence of general difeafe,
and maintains that all general or extenfive derangement of
the animal fy{tem is ee to local derangement in fome
one organ. ‘The organ univerfally affected in all the
varieties of idiopathic fever which differ but in degree, as
well as in thofe which arife from {pecific contagion, as ma-
lignant fore throat, fcarlet-fever, {mall-pox, &c. is, in the
author’s opinion, the brain. ‘This is manifeft, he contends,
from the fymptoms, as the head-ache, the depreflion of
{trength, and other derangement of the animal functions, the
delirium, the tremors, failure of vifion, &c. It is manifeft
from the nature of the remote caufes which aét chiefly on
the brain and nervous fyftem, as intoxication, fear, grief, and
other paflions, external irritation, not to mention miafamta
and contagion, of the operation of which we are ignorant ;
as wellas from the predifpofing caufes, which probably
confift in a deficiency of fenfibility, as in idiots, negroes,
old people, and infants: but it is more particularly manifeit
from the confequences of fever whether after recovery, or
after death, afcertained inthe latter cafe by diflection, Among
the confequences of fever, which are not uncommon after re-
covery, are an impaired condition of the fenfes; fuch ae
deafnefs, imperfeét vilion, depraved talte; paralyticaffeGtions,
or convulfive complaints, as epilepfy and chorea; derange-
ment or lofs of the mental powers, fuch as melancholy,
great irritability of mind, lofs of memory, or even complete
fatuity. The confequences, obferved by diffe&tion atter
death occafioned by fever, are frequently vifible difeale
of the brain, of which feveral examples are quoted by the
author. He then proceeds to fhew, that the local affection
of the brain, thus manifelt, is in fact inflammation of that
organ; or that fever, therefore, * is nothing lefs than a
{fpecies of phrenitis, or topical inflammation of the brain,”
and fhould be arranged in the order of Phlegmafie, with
pleurify, enteritis, and other fymptomatic fevers: but as
phrenitis has been generally applied to a particular form of
inflammation of the brain, and implies delirium, which does
not always occur in fever, although it is a frequent fymp-
tom, Dr. Clutterbuck propofes the term Encephalitis ‘as
the denomination for fever. The arguments adduced in
proof of the notion that the topical affeétion of the
brain, in fever, is inflammation, are, 1. The analog
between the fymptoms of fever and thofe of inflammation,
viz. pain, heat, throbbing, acute fenfibility, &c. bein
common to both; 2. The occafional buff af the blood in
both; 3. The fimilarity of feveral of the exciting caufes of

both ;
1

Pee VER.

both; 4. The occafional alternation of fever with inflam-
mation; 5. The analogy in regard ta the cure of the two
difeafes generally, as by means of blood-letting, vomiting,
{weating, parging, bliftering, and the application of cold ;
6. The Pantone of fever not being diftinguifhable, on the
whole, from thofe which belong to phrenitis, a3 defcribed
by authors; 7. That the morbid condition of the brain,
difcovered by diffeGtion, is {uch as implied previous inflam-
mation. (See an Inquiry into the Seat and Nature of
Fever, &c. by Henry Clutterbuck, M. D. 1807.) The au-
thor has illuftrated thefe arguments at confiderable length,
with great perfpicuity, and with an ample collection of fa&ts
and obfervations, compiled from the records of medicine ;
“but our limits confine us to a mere fketch of the general
doftrine, and to a few obfervations relative to its apparent
folidity and truth.
Inthe firft place, Dr. Clutterbuck, like other theorifts
~enamoured of a favourite doétrine, appears to have laid
too great ftrefs upon thofe phenomena which fupport that
‘doctrine, and to have conceded le{s to oppofing facts, than
‘they are entitled to claim. Hence, in retracing the delinea-
‘tions of fever, in the words of the moft creditable writers,
he has diftinguifhed by italics all thofe figns which indicate
derangement of the encephalon, by which they are made to
ftand the moft prominent features in the picture. Hence, alfo,
he has aflumed the pofition, that the derangements of the na-
tural and vital fun@tions, which are nearly, if not altogether, as
univerfal concomitants of fever, as the diforders of the animal
funétions, are, neverthelefs, in all cafes, fecondary fymptoms,
originating from the primary affection of the brain. Thus
thenaufea, the vomiting, the total lofs of appetite, and of the
digeftive power, are believed to be always fympathetic of
the affection of that organ; fo likewife is the quickened
ation of the heart and arteries, and of the refpiration. That
this, however,isa gratuitous affumption may be fhewn, 1. By
attending to the very hiftories which Dr. Clutterbuck has
quoted, in which the occurrence of the deranged condition
‘of the ftomach is as conftantly mentioned, as that of the
diforder of the encephalon ; 2. By obferving, that the fym-
pathy between the brain and the ftomach is perfeétly reci-
procal; fo that the brain fuffers in fympathy with the
ftomach, not lefs manifeftly than the ftomach with the
brain; and, 3. By remarking, that the fymptoms of dif-
ordered ftomach are capable of being relieved or removed,
while the fuppofed caufe (affe€tion of the brain) remains ;
the thirft being allayed, and the ficknefs removed, by chang-
ing the ftate of the fkin only, the former by moiftening it
with water, the latter by exciting fweat, as obferved by Sy-
denham. © Whence Drs. Cullen and Darwin feem to be
rather juftified in attributing the derangement of the
ftomach, when it is affeéted fecondarily, more frequently to
ite fympathy with the ftate of the fin, than of the brain.
Farther, the contieCtion of many of the leading fymp-
toms with fome diforder of the brain, or common fenfo-
rium, (is admitted by all, and equally favours the hypothefis
of the other authors, as well as that of Dr. Chitterbuck ;
fince whether the brain is primarily or fecondarily affeCted,
certain phenomena in the nervous fyftem muft neceffarily
enfue. We have juft ftated fome reafons for believing that
itis often thus fecondarily affe&ed; and it now.remains to
offer our reafons for fuppofing, that inflammation of the
brain, when it does occur in fever, (to which we cannot
conlider it ‘as‘effential, ) is commonly fecondary likewife.
PoThe firkt fymptoms of the affe&tion of the brain are by no
means thofe which indicate inflammation or unafal excite-
ment’of the fenforitim ; on the contrary, they are fuch as
indicate an oppofite ftate, which Dr. Cullen has termed

atony and collapfe, and Dr. Darwin torpor: the head-ache
itfelf, according to the obfervation of Dr. Fordyce, is
altogether diftin@& from the head-ache of inflammatory
excitement, or of the hot ftage. Any fymptoms that can
be interpreted as indications of local inflammations, fuch as
rednefs of the eyes, protrufion of the features, flufhed
countenance, throbbing of the arteries, and even delirium,
are the appearances belonging to a fubfequent period of the
fever. But at this fubfequent period, inflammatory con-
geftions are liable to occur in the other vifcera, if not fo
frequently, at leaft, not unfrequently ; as in the flomach, for
example, the inteftines, the lungs, and other organs, This fact
has been noticed by many phyficians of accurate obfervation.
Riveriis long ago remarked that ‘ acute and malignaszt
fevers fearcely ever occur unaccompanied by inflammation
in fome one of the vifcera ;’? and he has ftated in another
place, in moft diftin@& terms, that we ought affiduoufly to
recolle@, that all thofe fevers, with which local inflamma-
tion is conjoined, are not fymptomatic, but often idiopathic,
and that the inflammation fupervenes, not being the caufe,
but the confequence of the fever; “ quz febrem iftam non
efficit, fed illi potius fuccedanea eft.”” Thus, he adds,
“we frequently obferve, in practice, that patients labour
under continued fever for a day or two before pain of the
fide and other fymptoms of pleurify appear ; thus alfo many
perfons on the third or fourth day of fever fall into inflam-
mation of the brain, &c.”? * Sic nobis frequenter in ufu
practico videre licet egrotantes, ab initio febre continua
laborantes per unam aut alteram diem, antequam dolor lateris
et elia pleuritidis figna appareant : fic mu/# tertia vel quarta
febris die in phrenitidem incidunt, &c.”’ (See River. Prax.
Med. lib. xvii. cap. 1.) Dr. Donald Monro, whofe tefti-
mony on fubjeéts of morbid anatomy is of confiderable
weight with Dr. Clutterbuck, remarks, when {peaking of
malignant fever, that ‘* this fever occafions in general more
or lefs rednefs (I do not know that we can properly call it
true acute inflammation) of the membranes ; and the febrile
matter is apt to fall on particular parts, and there to create
abfceffes, particularly in the brain, the lungs, and the
glandular organs.” (See his Treatife on Military Hofp.
vol. i. p. 237. and Dr. Clutterbuck’s Treatife, p. 172.)
Obfervations to this effe&@ might be eafily multiplied, and
we have already enumerated feveral in a former part of this
article. It is fomewhat fingular, that Dr. Clutterbuck,
who quotes the remark of Dr. Monro, fhould deem it fa-
vourable to his hypothefis of exclufive inflammation of the
brain ; fince it ebvioufly proves zn equal liability to inflam-
mation in other organs, if it proves any thing. Now, it
muit be admitted, that, if fever depends upon inflammation
of the brain, and is merely fymptomatic of fuch a ftate, this
ftate muft be always prefent, when the fymptoms of fever
occur; one clear negative example is furely fatal to the
theory. Dr. Beddoes collected a confiderable quantity of
evidence from the hiftories of diffeGtions, made during the
prevalénce of feveral epidemic fevers on the continent, from
which it is proved, indeed, that congeltion, or fome other
morbid appearance was frequently obferved in the brain or
its membranes ; but it is alfo fhewing that abfceffes, gan-
grene, or other marks of inflammation, were not lefs fre-
quently found in the sifcera of the thorax and of the abde-
men, efpecially in the ftomach and liver. Thele faéts we
have detailed, when {peaking of the confequences of fatal
fevers, as difcovered by difleGtion, and it is unneceflary to
repeat them here. Dr. Beddoes is fairly led (fuppofing
the facts accurately reprefented) to this inference, that “ ja
idiopathic fever, the flomach and contiguous parts have
been found more conftantly and more deeply affected with

Uuta inflame

FEVER.

MERA, Acuvue, and Remitrent.) In the fynocha, or
inflammatory fever, this is the principal indication to be
followed; in the fynochus, or fub-inflammatory fever, it is
the rule of practice in the greater part of the difeafe ; and
evenin typhus, originating from contagion, it is commonly
to be kept in view in the firft days of the complaint, and
partially for a longer period. We are not in pofleffion of
any means,. by avhich we can with fafety effect a direct di-
minution of the aGtions of the animal fyftem in fever: our
meafures, therefore, are limited to a negative or indire&t re-
du@ion of excitement, by withdrawing or diminifhing thofe
irritations or f{timuli, which are conftantly applied to the bo-
dy, in one degree or other, and a€tually excite the actions
of life, (fee Excirrasitity,) or which are more particular-
ly the confequence of the febrile ftate. Of the firft of
thefe irritations, the ordinary impreflions made upon our
fenfes, the exercife of the body and mind, the ufe of food
and drink of various qualities, are examples ; of the latter,
the exceflive heat, the thirft, and the various painful fenfa-
tions, &c. The fyftem of avoiding thefe as much as _pofli-
ble, or of moderating their force, when that is imprattica-
ble, conftitutes what has been called the antiphlogifitc regi-
men, which it is requifite to purfue in almoft every conti-
-nued fever. Although the irritations naturally occurring
in health, are doubtlefs falutary, and fupport the aétivity of
the living body ; yet, in the febrile ftate, when the body is
more fenfible tothe operation of ftimuli, on the one hand,
and more feeble, (in typhus at leaft,) and therefore lefs ca-
pable‘of bearing their ation, without {uffering exhauttion,
on the other, they become exceedingly prejudicial.

1. Inthe hot ftage of fever, the fenfes are generally more
acute, and the ordinary impreflions excite a painful irrita-
tion, and thus contribute to augment the vafcular aétion, and
to increafe head-ache, refllefsnefs, &c. Hence the obtru.
fion of too much light is to be prevented, all noifes are to
be excluded, and fuch covering, er-bed, to be employed as
is leaft uneafy to the body of the patient. In large towns,
fluffing the ears with cotton may perhaps more effectual-
ly leflen the effe€t of noife than laying ftraw in the
ftreet. But no impreffion is to be more carefully guarded
againft than that of external heat; while at the fame time
every other means of increafing the heat of the body is to
be fhunned. Both thefe precautions are to be obferved as
foon as a hot ftage is fully formed, and to be attended to dur-
ing its continuance ; the more the morbid heat is augmented,
the more neceflary this attention becomes, fince the uneafy
fenfations conneéted with it are the conftant caufe of in-
creafe to all the other.fymptoms. This is not lefs evident,
than the general and fpeedy relief which follows the ab-
{traGion of this morbid irritation, 7 ¢. in the common
phrafe, the application of cold. Yet it was formerly an
univerfal practice, to augment the heat in the early ftages of
fever, in {pite of the inftinétive feelings of the patient ;
partly under a notion, that fweating might thus be pro-
duced, and a crifis accomplifhed ; and partly ‘from an hy-
pothetical opinion, that heat contributed to accelerate the
procefs of concoétion, and therefore to fhorten the fever.
Our countryman, Sydenham, was one of the firft to point
out the advantages of a contrary practice, which he adopt-
ed when the reft of European phyficians were purfuing the
hot regimen, ‘The fame notion of the humoriits, and with
others, the fear of the fubfequent debility and proftration of
ftrength, which occur in the latter periods of typhous fe-
ver, and the doétrine that debility is the proximate
caufe of the difeafe, have alfo contributed to conjoin with
this a ftimulating mode of treatment, in fevers of this cha-
racter ; fo that fome practitioners no fooner hear the name

of fever, efpecially when the epithets putrid, contagiouss
malignant, &c., are conneéted with it, than they imme-
diately ply the patient with wine, Peruvian bark, and other
ftimulants and cordials, whatever be the period or circum-
ftances of the difeafe, for the purpofe of obviating or an-
ticipating the confequences of debility. This the expe-
rience of all enlightened and unprejudiced phyficians of the
prefent day, condemns as a pernicious error, in the early
{tages of fever, when there is a dry heat on the furface of
the body. Tornot only is the general vafcular aétion, and
with it the head ache, delirium, thirft, reftlefsnefs, &c.,
dire&tly augmented, but they are alfo indire@ly increafed
by the increafe of the irritation of fuperficial heat; and the
very debility, which is intended to be prevented, is, there-
fore, actually accelerated and augmented, in confequence
of the exhauftion which over-excitement induces. ‘Thus
petechia, and other figns of putrefaction (as they have been
termed, ) were common refults of the hot regimen ; which,
on the other hand, was inadequate to produce a crifis by
{weating, or to fhorten the febrile ftate by conco@tion, as
we fhall prefently ftate.
> The reduction of the morbid heat, then, conftitutes an
important part of the fyitem of avoiding irritation. It
is accomplifhed by external and internal means; the
external confifting of the application of cool air, or of
cold or tepid water to the furface of the body, and of
furrounding the patient with light clothing, by which
the animal heat is not accumulated; and the internal, of
cold drink; and perhaps of what have been denominated
refrigerant medicines. ‘The human body evolves a fufficient
quantity of heat to preferve its regular and agreeable tem-
perature, in fo rare a medium as the air, when the tempe-
rature of this is not under 62° of Fahrenheit’s thermome-
ter, or unlefs it contain moifture ; and in air at 62°, the
caloric difengaged from the body is neither carried off, nor
permitted to accumulate fo as to become unpleafant. But
if more caloric be difengaged than in health, a lower tem-
perature will be required Por its due abftraction, in propor-
tion to the greater heat and ftrength of the patient. A
temperature of the air in his apartment of between 45
and 55 degrees will be the moft grateful, perhaps, in the
ordinary forms of typhus. In the fynocha, in which the
temperature of the body is higher, that of the patient’s
bed-room may be kept as low as 35° or 40° with advantage.
In this country, the former temperature is very commonly
attainable ; if the heat of the atmofphere be higher, the
evaporation of watery fluids, {prinkled upon the floor or
other parts of the bed-room, efpecially fuch as are im-
preguated with the effential oil of aromatic plants, contri«
butes fomewhat to reduce the temperature, and feels re-
frefhing to the patient. The free admiffion of pure air is
at all times neceflary, not only as producing evaporation
and confequent coolnefs, but as carrying off the morbid
effluvia arifing from the body, and affording a pure pabu-
lum for refpiration; of which we fhall have occafion to
{peak hereafter. The late Dr, Gregory, father’ of the
prefent profeffor at Edinburgh, ufed to remark, when he
had been viliting one of the richer clafs of people in fever,
that if he had the patient im acool ward of the infirmary,
he ceuld enfure his recovery; whereas, from the mere cir-
cumftance of the heat and clofenefs of the apartment,
which he could not regulate according to his wifh, he weuld
in all probability, find the fymptoms of the fever increafed
at his next vifit. ‘The writer of this article has frequetitly
experienced the great and obvious benefit of a cool and well
ventilated room, independently of medicine. He has vifited
patients, who had applied for admiffion into the Honfe of
Recovery,

FEVER.

Recovery, in their own clofe and fuffocating apartments,
and found them in a ftate of delirium, with dry black
tongue, great heat, and other bad fymptoms; having di-
reéted them to be removed to the Houfe, he has found
them cool and perfectly collected, with other fymptoms of
equal amendment, on the following morning, from the
mere influence of a cool bed, and an airy apartment.

Another mode of reducing” the morbid heat is the appli-
cation of cold or tepid water to the fkin. As the fever is now
fuppofed to have advanced beyond the fourth day, after
which period a complete folution of it is not to be expected,
either the cold affufion may be employed, or the furface
of the body may be wafhed, by means of a fponge, with
cold or tepid water, or tepid water may be ufed in the way
of affufion. The fame precautionary rules, as we have
already ftated, are to be obferved in regard to all thefe
modes of tle external application of cold water. The
tepid affufion (2. e. of water heated to that degree which is
warm, but not hot to the fenfations, or from 87° to g7° of
the {cale of Fahrenheit,) produces a cooling effect, equal to
that of cold affufion, partly in confequence of a more
{peedy evaporation, and partly becaufe fo great a glow, or
re-a€tion, as it has been called, does not fucceed. ** Where
the ebjec is to diminifh heat,’’? Dr. Currie obferves, (Re-
ports on Water, vol. i. p. 69. chap. x. 2d edit.) * that
may be obtained with great certainty by the repeated ufe
of the tepid affufion, fuffering the furface of the body to
be expofed in the interval to the external air; and if the
beams of the fun be excluded, and a ftream of wind blows
over it, the heat may be thus reduced where cold water
cannot be procured, even in the warmeft regions of the
earth, on the plains of Bengal, or the fands of Arabia.”
The effects of the affufion of tepid water on the {kin are
thus enumerated. ‘ It very generally produces a con-
fiderable diminution of heat, a dimimfhed frequency of
the pulle and refpiration, and a tendency to repofe and
fleep. Ihave alfo ufed it in feverifh diforders of various
kinds where the lungs are oppreffed, and the refpiration la-
borious, and where of courfe the oppreffion might be dan-
eeroufly augmented by the fudden flimulus of the cold af-
tufion. It is alfo applicable to every cafe of fever, in
which the cold affufion is recommended, and thofe may re-
ceive much benefit from it whofe fears or whofe feeblenefs
deter them from that energetic remedy. I have not, how-
ever, found its effe€ts fo permanent as thofe of the cold
affulion, and I have sever feen it followed by the total cef-
fation of regular fever, as often occurs after the cold
afiufion.”? (Currie, loc. cit.)

Where the affulion of cold or tepid water is not employed
in fever, benefit may be derived, though in an inferior degree,
by fpunging or wetting the body with cold or warm water, or
vinegar and water. According to Dr. Currie’s experience,
however, it is not only lefs effectual, but in many cafes lefs
fafe 5 for the fyftem will often bear a fudden, a general, and
a ftimulating application of cold, when it fhrinks from its
flow and fucceffive application. Inthe Houfe of Recovery
belonging to the Fever Inftitution of London, all thefe
meafures have been conftantly employed according to the
circumftances of the patient, as pointed out by Dr. Currie,
and relief has been invariably the refult ; no indivjdual re-
medy, to which we have reforted, has appeared to produce
fo prompt and decided a diminution of the febrile fymp-
toms; which, though o/ten temporary only, is in many
cafes permanent, and renders the future courfe of the
difeafe apparently milder and shorter, than it would other-
wile be.

The fenfation of ¢/ir/? is another irritation, which is often

very diftrefling in fever. In this inftance, as in that of
extreme heat, the inftinétive feelings of the patient direé&
him to the fource of relief; to fimple diluent drink in the
one cafe, as to expofure tocool air, or immerfion in water,
in the other. Had not the rage for hypothefis for ages,
blinded the pra¢titioners of medicine, the obvious propen-
fities of the conftitution could not have been fo long and fo
obitinately thwarted, nor the grofs inconfiftency have been
committed, of acknowledging the fuperintendance of na-
ture, her falutary and healing exertions, her vis medicatrix,
yet of countera€ting her inftin&tive difpofitions and opera-
tions with fo much induftry. Thus, drink, as well as cool
air, has been denied to patients in fever by fome phyficians,
and, when allowed, was directed to be given warm, notwith-
ftanding their defire for it cold. The ancient phyficians,
indeed, with whom obfervation on the whole was paramount
to hypothefis, generally admitted of a free ufe of cold
drink; Galen confidered it as a moft important remedy in
fever; and Avicen, Rhazes, and others of the Arabian
phyficians, were more indulgent in this refpe€t than the
Greeks. Neverthelefs, Aetius recommended total abiti-
nence from liquids until the thirit was greatly augmented,
and then to allow it to be fully gratified by copious draughts
of cold drink. Celfus alfo recommends the ufe of copious
cold drink in the height of the fever, ‘* but not before the
fourth day, and after great thirft.”? (De Medicina, lib. iii.
cap. 7.) “¢ In the article of drink,” he fays, in another place,
“ the ftruggle is great, and that in proportion to the feverity
of the fever ; for this inflames the thirft, and demands wae
ter moft importunately, when it is moft dangerous.??
(Lib. iii. cap. 6.) After the revival of learning, when the
Galenical hypothefis of conco¢tion was univerfally adopted,
cold drink was generally prohibited until the fever had at-
tained its acme, under the notion that it increafed the cru-
dity of the fluids, and prevented the progrefs of concoGtien :
“* verum materiam morbi incraffando, atque iutus includen-
do,” fays Lommius, “ longe facere co€tioni rebelliorem,
itemque meatus, quibus ea tandem vacuari debeat, obitru-
ere.” (Lomm. de Febribus contin. curandis, fe&. iii. cap. 2.)
The conclufion, however, which common fenfe wouid de-
duce from a confideration of the inftin@ive propenfities of
the conftitution, is fortunately corroborated by obfervation
and experience. Dr. Fordyce, after refuting fome argu-
ments and {tating fome facts, upon this point, adds this
remark: ‘* the author, therefore, concludes, that as it is of
no ufe to reitrain the patient from drinking as much as he
pleafes, orto compel him to drink more than he chufes, fo
it is of no ufe to prevent him from drinking it of the de-
gree of heat that he likes beit.”? (Third Differtat. p. i.
p- 211.) The abfurd oppofition to the intimations of na-
ture, which many practitioners have been led to maintain by
equally abfurd reafoning, almoft juitifies a farcafm of the
late Dr. Moore, who faid, that “ between a good phyfi-
cian and a bad one, there was a wide difference ; but between
a good phyfician and none at all, the difference was very
little.” At prefent, however, the obfervation is not ap-
plicable ; fince the abfurdities of former phyficians are now
adopted by the people at large, and one of the greateft
difficulties which a practitioner has to encounter at prefent,
is to prevent the mifchief of popular interference, and to
defend the operations of the conftitution from popular in-
terruption.

With refpe& to the ufe of cold drink in fevers, Dr,
Currie afcertained that its fafety and utility are dependent
on the fame principles, and that its adminittration is to be
regulated by the fame rules, as the external application of
cold ; namely, that when there is a fteady heat of .

ace,

PiEIV’E R:

face, without any fenfe of chillinefs, or a general perfpira-
tion, itis fafe and falutary, and attended by fimilar effects,
though generally lefs in degree, than thofe of the cold
wafhing. ‘This principle was, indeed, long ago pointed out
by Galen and others, though with lefs precifion. The
degree of corporeal heat, the ftrength of the patient, the
fummer feafon, &c., are ftated by Lommius, from the
ancients, as indicating the fafety of cold drink. ¢ Fiduciam
addunt, febris admodum urens, ztas juvenilis, corpus boni
habitus, firmorumque vifcerum, atque his (ut fere fit)
juncte vires, eftas media, confuetudo. Ingens febris ardor
fine noxa frigide impetum fultinet, &c.”? (Loc. cit.) The
effeéts of cold drink, when copioufly taken in the hot flage,
as defcribed by the ancients, as by Actius, Celfus, &c. are
{weating, a difpofition to found fleep, and relief from the
fever. ‘ Poft que,” fays the author ju quoted, after
having mentioned the quantity of cold water drank (three
or four pints), and occafional. vomiting or diarrhoea produced
by it, “ reclinati ac probe operti, mox uberrimis {udoribus
totas noctes, vel etiam altiffime dormientes, defluxerunt,
quibus finitis, omnem in poiterum amiferunt febricita-
tionem.’? Cold drink is feldom employed, at prefent, to
this extent ; but a treatife was publifhed nearly a century
ago, by the reverend Dr. Hancock, of St. Stephen’s, Wal-
brook, entitled * Febrifugum Magnum, or common water
a cure for all fevers,”? in which he ftates, that very copious
draughts of cold water, drank at bed-time, at the begin-
ning of fevers, invariably produced copious iweating, and a
folution ef the difeafe, in feveral cafes, which he has related.
He was not, however, aware, that fuch a practice was only
fafe after the hot ttage was completely formed.

2. Another irritation, which it is requifite to avoid in
fever, is motion, efpecially that which requires the exercife
of the mufcles; and it muft be obferved, that every motion
of the body is more {timulant and exhautting in proportion
asthe body is weaker. Hence that pofture is to be chofen
which employs the feweft mufcles, and which keeps none
of them long ina {tate of contraGion. In the horizontal
pofition, the patient is fupported in every part by the bed,
and he is not obliged to exert many of his mufcles to main-
tain an equilibrium, as when in the ere¢ét pofture. Some
mufcular exertion is, however, required to lie on one fide
or the other, although it be imperceptible in health; fince
in the extreme proftration of {trength, in the laft flage of
fever, the patient invariably flides upon his back. Speak-
ing, which as it alfo tends to accelerate refpiration, fhould
be particularly refrained from.

3. The exercife of the mind alfo adds much to the ex-
citement of the body, more efpecially when there is con-
fiderable debility, as in fever, and when, therefore, the exer-
cife of the mental powers requires more exertion on the
part of the patient. Hence as foon as a febrile attack has
come on, every circumftance that can lead to thought, and
efpecially to fuch as is conneGted with anxiety, or may tend
to excite paffion or emotion, is to be carefully fhunned.
It is {carcely neceflary to warn the praétitioner againit ex-
citing anxiety in the mind of the patient about his difeafe,
by making it the fubjeét of converfation in his prefence ;
but it fhould be inculcated to nurfes and friends, and all un-
neceffary attendants and vifitors fhould be excluded, that
the fubje& of bufinefs, and all other intereiting converfation
may be avoided.

4. A very important part of the antiphlogiftic regimen
relates to the nature and qualities of the food and drink to
be given to perfons labouring under fever, particularly in
the early periods of it. The prefence of recent aliment in
the ftomach always proves ftimulant to the fyftem, and the
more fo in proportion to the quantity received, to the foli-

dity of its texture, and therefore the difficulty of its digef-
tion, &c.; im all thefe points the irritation ought to be
moderated as much as poffible, confiitently with the fafety
of the patient. In the beginning of continued fever no great
quantity of nourifhment is immediately required, the fy item
being able to fupport itfelf for a time, without any thing
being thrown in to be formed into chyle and blood. Total
abitinence from food, for the firft few days of continued
fever, was much practifed by the ancients, who have left us
a great many precepts refpecting the regulation of the diet
in febrile difeafes. A confiderable degree of abftinence in
fact is rendered abfolutely neceflary by the lofs of appetite,
and even avertion to food, which prevail through the
greater part of the courfe of fever; but fome aliment be-
comes requifite to prevent the patient from finking under
the exhauttion of the difeafe. In the firft place, however,
no principal meal fhould be employed under thefe circum-
{tances, even were the organs of digeftion capable of retain-
ing a large quantity of food, or of converting it into chyle,

on account of the irritation which it would induce: {mall -

quantities, therefore, fhould be given, and repeated more
frequently than in health. Inthe fecond place, no felid
animal food ought to be given during the exiftence of con-
tinued fever, however flight.
when taken, if the ftomach do not altogether reje& it, is to
increafe the heat of the patient, not only to his own fenfa-
tions, but itill more to the feel of the by-ftander, and fre-
quently, theugh not always, to the thermometer; to in-
creafe the frequency of the pulfe and refpiration ; to excite

great reftleffnefs and a fenfe of uneafineis, and to augment *

the deprefiion of itrength, during the time that it remains in
the ftomach and inteitines. In fhort, it totally deranges
the fever, and often produces the appearance of a freth
paroxyim. (Fordyce.) If the fame kind of food be per-
fitted in, it increafes the evening exacerbations extremely,
brings on delirium much more rapidly, and to a much
greater degree than it would otherwife arife, and in every
way aggravates the danger of the difeafe. Dr. Fordyce
prefles a farther caution ftrongly upon the attention of his
readers: ‘ even after the difeafe has been terminated by a
crifis,”” he fays, ‘* animal food, in a folid form, fhould be
rejected, there being no caufe which has produced relapfes,
as far as the author’s obfervation has gone, fo frequently as
ufing folid animal food too foon,’? from a notion that it
would {peedily reftore the ftrength of the patient. And

he properly fuggefts that under fuch circumftances, the |

fever being gone, the depreffion of ftrength no longer exift-
ing, and no farther caufe of weaknefs remaining, ‘* the
patient, with very moderate nourifhment, and the ioe and
rett which are fo apt to enfue after the fever has been com-
pletely carried off, will have his {trength reftored in a ve

{hort time, without ufing any thing that fhall run any if

of reproducing the difeafe.” (Third Differt. part i. p.184.) -

The moft proper nourifhment in fever, then, confilts of
light, fluid, vegetable matters; efpecially the farinaceous
fubflances, coagulated by heat. Decoétions of barley have
been employed for this purpofe, as the fimpleft nourifhment,
from the earlieft ages ; and the feeds of oats, or other fari-

naceous grain, with the hufks removed, afford fimilar food ©

by decoction in water. ‘The various forms of vegetabe
ftarch, which are prepared uader the names of fago, tapioca,
arrow-root, &c. antwer the fame purpofe of furnithing
aliment, which gives the leatt dilturbance to the organs of
digeftion.
of a decoétion of baked flour, or of bread twice baked,
which we call rv/és, was much recommended in acute
difeafes. All vegetable fub{tances, however, are not to be
employed indifcriminately as food, in fevers. Even the

farinaceous

The effe& of fuch food, °

The polenta of the ancients, which was compofed »

FEVER.

farinaceous fubftances, if diffolved in water, without-being
coagulated by heat or otherwile, afford a very vifcid food,
which is not eafily digeftible, and difturbs the ftomach and
the conftitution at large: all fuch vegetables as cabbage,
lettuce, green peafe, and the like, are to be rejected, on ac-
count of their difpofition: to run into the vinous and
acetous fermentations, which the ftomach, having its powers
depreffed, is not ftrong eHduch-to countereét; whence a
confiderablé quantity of vapour is extricated, which diliends
the ftomach and inteftines, and produces partial {pafmodic
contraGttons ig them. Al! kind of ‘food which is adhefive
to the ftomach produces Irritation in ‘the fyftem, fuch as
firong folutions of. giim Agabic, fjellies, fornied from the
fleth of! young anitals,,.or from the membranous parts,
which fhould the¥efore be avoided. © The fruits, efpecizily
the fub-acid or fumhmer sruits,: or fuch’-of, them asy from
containing lefs mucilage, ‘are not very prone'to fermentation,
(Fordyce, ) afford: 'a” light and agreeable nourifhment, as
grapes, &c. ; thofe which ‘confift of much.acid, and little
fugar, althongh agreeable in {mall quantities, do not con-
tain fufficiest nonrifhment to be depended-upon, fuch as
lemons. Another clafs of fruits, which contain, befides
native vegetable acid, a fermentable mucilage, fugar, and a
quantity of farinaceous matter, fuch as apples, pears, apri-
cots, peaches, &c. fhould have their mucilage coagulated
by heat, when given to patienté in fever : baked, boiled, or
roatted, they conftitute a light and nutritious: food. If
animal food be employed at all during the progrels of coa-
tinued fever, (and the prejudice in favour of it in this
country is fo ftroug, that it is almoft impoffible to prevent
the attendants on the fick from giving it, or to convince
them that the patient can be fultained through the fever
without it ;) it fhould be ufed only in folution in water,
and folutions only of the mufcular parts of full grown ani-
mals. Thefe afford a lefs vifcid fluid than the flefh of
young animals, or than the membranous, tendinous, or liga-
mentous parts: the fat or oily part fhould be removed by
cooling and fkimming it off, before the folution be given to
the fick. i
5. The nature of the drink whichis proper to be given
to perfons labouring under fever requires fome coufideration,
‘We have already obferved, that, with refpeét to quantity,
it is ufelefs either to force the patient to drink more than
his thirft requires, or to debar him from drinking as much
as it urges him to take; and alfo, with ref{peé to its tem-
perature, that it may be taken cold, even in large quantity,
under the fame circumftances as the application of cold ex-
ternally; namely, when the patient is ina fteady heat,
without any fenfe of chillinefs on the one hand, or profufe
general per{piration on the ether. In regard to the qua-
lity of his drink, the principle of avoiding irritation or ex-
citement of the arterial action is to be conftantly kept in
view, at leatt in the carly ftages of fever. When there is
confiderable heat of the body, water from the fpring is
generally moft grateful to the palate of the patient, and is
not, perhaps, to be excclled in wholefome qualities by any
combination of art. The flight empyreumatic flavour given
to it by toalted bread, or the impregnation of it with a
fmall quantity of the effential oil of the plants of the
clafs didynamia of Linneus, fuch as fage, balm, &c, mutt
be deemed altogether indifferent in their effeéts on the dif-
eafe; and may be employed or not, according to the fug-
eftion of the palate of the patient. All fermented and
pirituous liquors, as directly timulant to the fyftem, fhould
be interdi&ed during the early and middle ttages‘of con-
tinued fever, of whatfoever denomination, Dr. Fordyce,
mifled by a piece of hypothelis refpeting the procefs of
Vou. XIV.

digeftion, and mifconflruing the meaning of the word jer-
mentation, has recommended “ weak vinous fluids”? as drink
in fevers. As thefe are ina ftate of fermentation, he fays,
“and as fubftances in a ftate of fermentation are apt to
excite any other fermentation that the fame fubflances are
éapable of, are perhaps ufeful to excite in the ftomach the
fermentations by which the food is converted ito chyle 3
they are, therefore, fo far, perhaps, better than pure water.””
(Third Differt. part i. p. 216.) But this is an abufe of
terms ;, for there is no analogy between the procefs of the
vinous fermentation in vegetables, and that of animal di-
geftion; and the fame author had already cautioned his
readers againft the ufe of thofe vegetable fubftances as
food, which were prone to fermentation, on account of the
ill confequences which fuch fermentation produces. A
more free ufe of vinoue liquors is reforted to, with great de-
triment to the patient, by fome practitioners, who fuppofe
that fever isa difeafe of mere debility, and therefore think
of flimulating from the moment the idea of fever occurs:
and the fame pernicious praétice is puriued by the people in
general, at leaft the uninformed part of them, from the
truly Englifh prejudice, that if a perfon eannot ect, (/. e. can-
not take /o/id food,) he cannot live ; and that wine and fpirits
are therefore requifite to nouri/h him. Thefe notions are fo
general among the uninformed, whether in or cut of the
profeffion, that it requires the conftant vigilance of the
practitioner to prevent the praGtical mifchief refulting from
them: we have hence thought it neceflary to {peak ftrongly
upon this point; and regret that Dr. Fordyce, whofe opi-
nion is by fome deemed Iittle lefs than oracular on this fub-
je@, allowed himfelf to be mifguided by an hypothefis, fo
as to give any countenance to the praétice. While the in-
dication of avoiding irritation is to be purfued, fermented
liquors,’even of the loweft quality, fuch as {mall beer, are
{carcely admifiible, unlefs the febrile excitement be very
moderate.

6. here are other irritating powers which are occa-
fionally applied, atid require to be removed in fevers ; thefe
are e(pecially a colleG&tion of crude and undigefted food in
the ftomach, and of feces in the inteftines. If food had
been taken a fhort time previous to the attack of fever,
it-muft remain undigefted, and therefore tend to aggravate
feveral of the fymptoms, efpecially the uneafinefs about the
precordia, the headache, the heat, and the velocity of the
circulation and refpiration. This, therefore, isanother rea-
fon for the adminiftration of an emetic, as well as for the
free ufe of diluting liquids. And the ftimulus of retained
feces in the bowels equally fuggeits the propriety of laxa-
tive medicines‘or glyflers, by which they may be removed ;
for, while prefent, they occafion a fenfe of fulnels and weight
in the abdomen, and of uneafinefs and reitleffnefs in every
part of the body, and augment the fever confiderably. Of
the effet of putgatives, as a general evacuant remedy, we
fhall have oceafion to {peak immediately. ‘* The avoiding
of irritation im all thefe particulars,” Dr. Cullen obferves,
after a brief enumeration of the fame circumftances, “ con-
ftitutes the antiphldgiftic regimen, abfolutely neceffary for
moderating the violence of re-a€tion ; and, if I miftake not,
is proper in almolt every circumftance of continued fevers.”
{Firlt Lines, § 132%)

To enable us to fulfil the fivlt indication of * diminifhing
exceffive ation’? in the fyftem, feveral remedies are com-
monly ufed in aid of the antiphlogiltic regimen; thefe are
chiefly fuch as produce an evacuation of the circulating
fluids direétly, or of the fecretions from them through their
refpective emun¢tories: for, as itis believed that the activity
of the fyitem depends, in a great meafure, upon the itimulus

AX of

FEVER.

of the fluids diftending the veffels through which they cir-
culate, it is inferred, that the diminution of the quantity of
the fluids muft diminifh the aétivity of the fanguiferous fy{-
tem. The fa& is proved by, experience, whatever. expla-
nation may be adopted.

Blood-letting, by opening a vein in the arm, or any. other
part of the body, is the moit direct means, of diminifhing
the quantity of fluids in the fyflem, and has been reforted to
from very ancient times ; its effects have been explained by
various hypothefes, which it is notneceflary to. enumerate or
difeufs.. "To abftraét that fluid, which is the immediate pa-
bulum of life, cannot, it is obvious, be.a matter of indifference
to the contlitution: if it be the moft powerful means of
Ynfluenoing the vital a&tivns, fo it is the moft dangerous when
improperly employed : if the molt effectual mode of dimi-
nifhing excitement, it 18 confequently the moft apt to in-
duce extreme debility. A cautious confideration of many
circumftances is, therefore, requifite in determining on the
propriety. of blood-letting in fever. Dr. Fordyce affirms,
{peaking of fever in the fenfe in which we have defined it,
(as diftinét from the phlegmafie, or local inflammations,)
that, “ the taking blood from a large vein, in any part of
the body indifcriminately, never diminithed, fhortened, nor
carried off a fever, in any cafe he has feen, nor has he found
any upon record in which it had this effeét.’”? (Diflert.
Third, partii. p. 4.) A ftatement which may, perhaps,
render the extent of his reading very queftionable; but
which, as it relates to the fevers of this country, we are dif-
pofed to confider as correét. A pure inflammatory fever,
or fynocha, is never feen, we believe, in this country; pa-
tients are feldom deftroyed by a mere general excitement,
without topical congeftion; but. commonly by the fubfe-
quent exhauftion, together with local injury of fome par-
ticular organ. In the fevers which we are acquaiated with
in this climate, then, blood-letting is generally to be avoided,
on account of the danger of the fubfequent debility which
it occafions ; more efpecially when we confider that this
debility is to be expected, at all events, to enfue, in confe-
quence of the failure of the digettive powers which fup-
port the wafte of the body; of the lofs of fleep.neceflary
to reftore the vital energy ; and of the conftant over-aétion
‘of the whole fyftem, which is followed by proportionate
exhauttion. In typhus, under all its modifications, thefe
obfervations demand attention ; and its now generally ad-
mitted that blood-letting is a pernicious practice in that
form of fevers. 1t were not eafy, indeed, to comprehend
how the practice in low fevers could have been fo generally
and fo long puriued, did we not know the influence of au-
thority in perverting obfervation. While the precepts of
Galen and Celfus were followed by Sydenham, Huxham,
and others, thefe fagacious obfervers did not fail to remark
the occafional injuries which the practice produced; (fee
Wilfon on Febrile Difeafes, vol. i. p.671, et eg.) yet they
did not efcape from the trammels of authority, but re-
peated the practice, expreffing ‘¢ great concern and aftonith-
ment’? at the failure and mifchief, which were often moft
evident. (See Huxham on Fevers.)

As the employment of blood-letting, in idiopathic fevers,
-requires much caution and difcernment, the following cir-
cumitances were fuggetted for the confideration and guidance
of the practitioner by Dr. Cullen, 1. The nature of the
prevailing epidemic ; from which we learn the nature of the
fymptoms which are to be expected, as well as the in-
fluence of different remedies. 2. The nature.of the remote
caufe; all fevers arifing from contagion, whatever be the
ftate of the patient, or the appearances of the difeafe in
the commencement, -will foon aflume the form of typhus,

and therefore blood-letting is feldomn admiffible, althougk
the excitement in the beginning be confiderable. 3. The
feafon and climate in which the fever occurs ; for the fymp=
toms are much more violent, and the changes more fudden
in fultry than in temperate climates, in the autumn than in
the fpring. The praétitioners in het climates have been
divided in their opinions refpeétingWblood-letting ; but ia
this, asin mett other cafes, the extremes are to be avoided ;
and it feems probable, that blood-letting is only to be em-
ployed in tropical climates, when the violence of the
excitement threatens. to proye fpeedily fatal, or to induce
extreme debility, and then only to pufh it to that extent,
which the urgency of the fymptoms abfolutely requires.
(See Fever, yellow.) 4. The degree of phlogiftic diathefis,
or of high excitement; which, however, it is difficult to
define, ‘he fame, degree of excitement, which warrants
blood-letting in an epidemic, which partakes much of the
Jynocha, or inflammatory charaéter, or in a fever from cold,
violent exercife, or rage, does not warrant it in a typhoid
epidemic, nor in fever from contagion, 5. The period of
the difeafe. In the moft ardent fevers, as foon as the fymp-
toms fhew any tendency to decline, the proper period for
blood-letting is paft. Even Huxham, prejudiced as he and
mott of his contemporaries were in favour of this remedy,
admits that ‘* bleeding, unlefs an the beginning, feldom
did fervice.””? 6. The age, vigour, and plethoric ftate of
the patient, 7. The patient’s former difeafes, and habits
of blood-letting ; if he has been fubjeét to inflammatory
complaints, more vigorous remedies may be employed; and
if he has been in the habit of lofing blood, he bears the lofs
of it better, as habitual blood-letting produces habitual
plethora, 8. The appearances of the blood drawn ; which
are chiefly the firmnefs or loofe confiftence of the coagu-
lum, the prefence or abfence of the duffy coat, the propor-
tion of ferum to the craflamentum, &c. (See Broop,
morbid alterations of the.) 9. And, laitly, the effeéts of the
blood-letting that may have been already praétifed ; namely,
the continuance or alleviation of the fymptoms, the occur-
rence of debility, &c. (See Cullen loc. cit. § 142, and
Wilfon on Fevers, vol.i. pp. 648, and 668, where this
fubje& is fully and ably difcuffed.) On the whole, however,
few cafes of fever in this country require venefeétion, and
in no cafe, perhaps, under any circumitances, is this remedy
admiflible after the firft five days of the difeafe.

But the ufe of /ocal blood-letting, wy means of leeches, or
cupping, is often of great advantage in certain conditions
of fever, more efpecially in relieving local congeftions ot
blood in the head, and the fymptoms thence refulting.
Thus, when there is much head-ache, or delirium, accoms
panied by flufhing of the countenance, and rednefs of the
eyes, the application of a few leeches to the temples, or
the fcarificator and cupping-glafles to the fame part, or to
the nape of the neck, or even taking four or five ounces of
blood from the jugular vein, has often diminifhed thefe
fymptoms confiderably, fometimes carried them off entirely,
and with them the whole fever. Under the fame circum-
ftances bleeding from a part diftant from the head has been
ofno manner of ufe. If the itrength of the patient be much
diminifhed by the fever, or otherwife, the application of
one leech to each temple is often of confiderable ufe.
(Fordyce.) We are difpofed to believe, that the local eva-
cuation of blood is a remedy too much negleéted in the
general practice in fever.

Sweatiug is another mode of diminifhing exceffive vafcular
action in fevers. The obfervation, however, that a free
{weating commonly takes place in the crifis cf intermittent
fevers, and in thofe which occafionally occur in continued

fevers,

FEVER.

fevers, has led to much abfurd and pernicious practice, for
the purpofe of forcing perfpiration, Praétitioners miftook
one of the fymptoms of the ceffation of fever for the caufe
of that ceffation. But neither does fweating certainly carry
off fever, (for it frequently takes place without even pro-
ducing any alleviation,) nor is it alone a fymptom of its
ceflation. Under fuch circumftances there is a general
increafe of all the fecretions, the faliva, urine, &c.; and
the tongue becomes moift, the fkin foft, and fo on.
But when {weating is excited by the hot regimen, by ftimu-
ant alexipharmic medicines, a load of bed-clothes, anda
heated atmofphere, thefe beneficial accompaniments do not
take place; on the contrary, the heat of the body, the
thirft, and general excitement are increafed, as well as the
head-ache, anxiety, and difficulty of breathing; and the
very reverfe of the indication of « removing irritation, and
diminifhing exceflive aétion,’? is accomplifhed. This arti-
ficial excitement, fupported by the hot regimen, perhaps,
will enable us to account for the appearance of relief often
produced by blood-letting, and for the perfeyerance of our
anceftors in the ufe of that remedy. More accurate obfer-
vation, however, has decided, that, in general, the moft
advantageous perfpiration is produced by the oppofite plan,
viz. by cooling the body, and diminifhing excitement ; in
which cafe it is an indirect confequence of the treatment,
and approaches more to the {pontaneous fweating, which
accompanies the natural felution of fever. On the whole,
therefore, the ufe of diaphoretic medicines is to be con-
fidered rather as auxiliary, than as an eflential part of the
treatment of fever.

_ The principal medicines now employed for the purpofe of
exciting peipuato are the neutral falts, efpecially thofe
compofed of an alkali with the vegetable acids, and the

reparations of antimony. ‘The neutral falts poffefs a very
Feeble power, which is fuppofed to be refrigerant ; a term
which is not very intelligible, and perhaps originated from
the cold produced during their folution; the combination
of pata or ammonia with vinegar, or lemon juice, are
chiefly employed. But antimonials are more certain in

eir operation upon the fkin. Of thefe the fecret prepara-
tion of Dr. James, commonly called James’s powder, the
pulvis antimonialis of the London pharmacopeia, which is
probably the fame as the former, and the tartarized anti-
mony, or emetic tartar, are principally ufed. They are all
fomewhat uncertain in their operation, and none of them is
pofleffed of any {pecific febrifuge quality ; the two former,
confifting of the fimple oxyd, and therefore being liable to
be combined with any acid in the firlt paflages, and thus to
be rendered more or lefs active, according to the quantity of
acid which may be accidentally found there, are more un-
Certain in their aétion, than the emetic tartar, in which the
antimony is already faturated with an acid. The moderate
ufe of diluent drinks tends to aid the operation of diaphore-
tic medicines, partly by the fympathy of the fkin with the
flomach, and partly, perhaps, by fupplying an increafe of
the thinner parts of the blood. The ufe of diluents was
carried to a great extent by the Spanifa and Italian phyfi-
cians, in what they ealled the dieta aguea, which confilted
of abftracting every other kind of aliment and drink, and
giving, in divided portions every day, for feveral days to-

ether, fix or eight pints of plain water, generally cold,
but fometimes warm. (See Philofoph. Tranfa&ions, vol.
xxxvi.) But this drenching has not been fubfequently coun-
tenanced either by reafon or experience. The ufe of diluent
drinks has been {uppofed to be advantageous by diminifhing
the acrimony of the blood, and confequently its ftimulating
quality, in fevers; but the exiltence of this {tate of acrimony

:

has never been proved, and we are not acquainted with any
evidence that renders its exiitence probable.

Purging, fo far as to empty the bowels of undigefted
aliment, or feculent matters remaining in confequence of
the weakened periftaltic motion, we have already faid, is
ufeful, by removing a troublefome fource of irritation. Dr.
Cullen, Dr. Fordyce, and others have confidered this as
the only advantage derived from emptying the inteitines,
and believed that it merely obviates the mifchief, which
would enfue from the retention of thofe matters. Dr.
Fordyce, indeed, afferts that all evacuation beyond this is
detrimental, as inducing debility, “and that fimple evacua-
tion from any of the glands, as tending alfo to weaken, is
detrimental initead of being ufeful.”” Many other phyti-
cians have expreffed fimilar opinions, and rather diffuaded
us from the ufe of purgatives, among whom are De Haen,
Werlhoff, fir J. Pringle, &c. who, with Dr. Cullen, con-
fider it <¢ fufficient to prevent coltiveneis by almof daily
clyfters, if the patient bad not otherwife regular ftools.’”
(Pringle, Difeafes of the Army. p. iti. cap.1. See alfo
Cullen, loc. cit. § 149, &c.) Dr. Cullen confiders purg-
ing as injurious, both from producing debility, and from
taking eff the determination to the fkin, and thus prevent-
ing perfpiration ; but this, in the aétive ftate of fever, is
not, we believe, the refult of its operation; fince, as we
have fhewn, with regard to the diminution of the febrile
heat by cold water, whatever tends to allay the exceffive
ation of the cutaneous veflels, tends to produce a flow of
perfpiration, The neceflity of preventing any accumulation
in the bowels, however, whether by repeated clyiters, or
gentle laxatives by the mouth, is univerfally admitted.

But fince the prejudices of fyftem and of particular {chools
have been fomewhat laid afide, it has been obierved by feveral
intelligent praétitioners, that a more active employment of
purgative medicines is frequently beneficial in fever ; and
that not only in inflammatory fever, but in typhus. Dr.
Hamilton has recently called the attention of the me-
dical world to this important fubje&t; and he affirms
that he has for many years given up the ufe of emetics and
clyfters in typhus; and that he finds all the advantages of
thefe remedies obtained in a more effectual manner by ca-
thartics given internally. (See his Obfervations on the Uti-
lity of Purgative Medicines.) With this view he chiefly
employs a combination of the fub-muriate of mercury, or
calomel, with a few grains of jalap or rhubarb. He con-
fiders, that, if fever does not originate in many initances
from an accumulation and corruption of the contents of the
alimentary canal, it is generally conne&ted with, or produc-
tive of, fuch a ftate; and he affirms, that the removal of
the dark and offenfive matter which purging, under fuch
circumftances, generally effeéts, is a moft important fep in
the cure of fevers. The prefence of thefe matters in the
canal is a fource of augmentation to the general fever; and
we have in feveral cafes feen delirium removed, the head-
ache diminifhed, and the ftate of the fkin, tongue, and
circulation, proportionally alleviated by the operation of a
moderate cathartic; in fome inftances, in which the fever
had been preceded by confiderable conttipation, a brifk ca-
thartic or two have appeared to remove the fymptoms al-
together. In the early ftage of fever, then, cathartics are
advifeable, both as removing a great fource of irritation,
and as exciting the glands which open into the bowels,
and the mucous follicles and exhalaat arteries in their coats,
to pour out an increafed quantity of fluids, by which the
geueral excitement is diminifhed ; although in a confiderably
lefs degree than by blood-letting. (Sce Catuarric.)
The firit operation, of removing irritating fordes, is after-

Xx2 wards

FEVER.

wards neceffary during the whole pregrefs of the fever ; and
in the weakeit condition the ufe of a clyfter may be re-
‘forted to. The fecond operation, with a view of emulging
the biliary ducts, and of evacuating the morbid fecretion
of the liver, and of the other glands, and clearing the
whole canal, is often required during the continuance of
the difeafe. This is indicated, 1. By the appearance of the
ftools, whether they are of a highly bilious colour, which
implies a copious extrication ot bile from the liver; or of
a dark brown or green hue, and very offenfive odour, which
implies a morbid {tate of the fecretion ; 2. By pains in the
abdomen, efpecially when there is at the fame time a degree
of fulnefs and tenfion in the epigaftric and hypochondriae
regions, and a tendernefs perceived on prefling the abdo-
men; or when there is alfo a degree of tene/inus, or frequent
defire to go to {tool. 3. When, together with thefe fymptoms,
the tongue is much loaded and parched, or fometimes when
there is a confiderable {pitting, when the countenance is of
a dirty or leaden hue, and the breathing more oppreffled
than the ftate of the circulation would lead us to expeé&.
Sometimes with this ftate of the abdomen and counte-
nance a great languor takes place, even to fainting, al-
though there are no other fymptoms of extreme prottration
of itrength, and the pulfe, though quick, is not equally
languid; under fuch circumftances we have feen the lan-
guor {peedily removed by a copious evacuation from the
bowels. A degree of dyfenteric affeGtion is not unfre-
quently feen in the advanced periods of fever, ‘that is, a fre-
quent difcharge of loofe or flimy ftools, with fome griping
and tenefmus ; this is molt effectually relieved by purgas
tives with which opiates are combined, in order to obviaté
the irritation and exhauftion which the operation of the ca-
thartics might induce. Calomel and opium combined in fmall
dofes feem to anfwer this purpofe very effe€tually. "Where
the mere emptying of the bowels is ihe object of the medi-
eine, and efpecially where extreme weaknefs has already
come on, or is to be {peedily expected, the milder neutral
falts, as the fulphate of magnefia, the Cheltenham, or Ro-
chelle falts, caftor oil, magnefia and rhubarb, &c. are the
moikt proper remedies ; (but the more active agents, as calo-
mel, and jalap, in moderate dofes, (Dr. Hamilton’s formula
confilts of three or four grains of the former, with fix,
eight, or ten of the latter,) are requifite; and. thefe, in-
deed; may almott fuperfede all other laxatives ; or fenna,
yhubaro, &c. may be given with the calomel. It is not
very important to dilate on the different remedies ; for when
the indication is underftood, the means of fulfilling it will
readily occur. An aétive purgative, during a ftate of ex-
treme debility, may be produétive of great mifchief ; and in
the latt ttages of contagious typhus {uch a medicine is to be
abflained from altogether: even the mildeft cathartic ope-
ration has, at fuch times, occafionally produced a dangerous
finking of the vital powers. But from this faét it were an
error to infer, that active purgatives are to be difcarded al-
together from our praétice in typhus, as the Brunonians
have afferted.

The humoral pathologifts, from an hypothetical notion
of the remains ot the materies morbi being retained in the
conititution after the ceffation of fever, have directed the
adminiltration of cathartics to carry them off, and to pre-
ferve the convalefcent from their future influence; and fir
John Pringle has fuggelted the propriety of ufing them,
during the ftate of convalefcence, with a view to prevent
a too hafty repletion, which an indulgence of the appetite
is fometimes apt to produce; but, she obferves, cathartics
at that time feem otherwife neceflary. But Dr. Fordyce
remarks, that he has obferved more relapfes to take place

when purgatives haye-been ufed after the ceffation of fevers
than when they have not been employed. Indeed, the no-

‘tion’ of the humorifts, that by partial evacuations, whether

by bleeding or purging, the remaining fluids could be de-
prived of the morbid matter, fuppofed to be diffufed in
them, is too abfurd to require a ferious refutation. Never-
thelefs, this pra€tice of purging, ‘to carry off the dregs’?
of fever, fmall-pox, &c. is ftill generally prevalent among
the ignorant, both in and out of the profeffion.

Lhijiring the fkin has been reforted to asa remedy i
fever, upon two very different principles, whieh are fearcely
ecnfiftent with each other, and neither of them, perhaps, is
much entitled to our confidence. Inflammation, and fup-
puration, or fome other difcharge, having been obferved to
precede the ceflation of fever in certain cafes, this procefs
was attempted to be imitated by the-application of blifters
or irritants, compofed of cantharides, muttard, &c.; and
the humorifts, with their ufual abfurdity, fuppofed that
thefe applications would, like a magnet, attract the morbid
matter to this irritated part, by which it might be carried
off. On the other hand, the inflammation, thus excited,
has Leen confideredsby others as ftimulant to tie fyftem, and
therefore as ufeful to fupport the ftrength in the laft ftage
of proitration, the difcharge being altogether overlooked.

Had the recommendation of blitters, as a general remedy
in the early ftages of fever, refted. only upon the principles
and pra¢tice of the humorifts, we fhould have difmifled
thé fubjeét briefly: but it has been maintained by feveral
eminent obfervers, and by nonemore ftrongly than by Dr.
Lid of the Haflar hofpital, whofe experience and abilities
are entitled to the higheit regard.‘ [ do not know a more
certain proof,” fays this refpectable author, “ of a prevailing
infeétious fever, than that of twenty patients in fevers
blifiered at night, fixteen will next morning be entirely free .
from heat, head-ache, pain, and fever.” (Loc. cit. chap. ii.
fect. 1.) And he denies the ftimulating effe@ of blifters
in contagious fevers, and affirms that, “according to the
nurfes’ phrafe, the patient generally received a cool from the
blifer.’ (Ibid.) Thefe encomiums, however, are very far
from being corroborated by general experience, or by the
authority of many able phyficians; on the contrary, the
teitimony of the majority tends to prove, that little is to be
expected from blifters in fevers unaccompanied by local
affections. We have feen numerous. initances in which
large blitters had been applied between the fhoulders in .
the early periods of fever: but we never witneffed any
marked effe&, either good or bad, in thofe cafes. Like
the local blood-letting, however, they are decidedly bene-
ficial in relieving local pains and congeftions; and every
practitioner has experienced their utility, when the brainy.
ftomach, lungs, &c. have been thus affe&ted. Sir John’
Pringle obferves, that blifters were only of fervice in the
gaol fever, when the patient was threatened with.an inflam-
mation of the brain. ‘ Blifters, before u/e/e/s, became then
of fervice:’? and in the fynocha, or inflammatory fever, he
was led by experience to confine their ufe to thofe cafes
where the head-ache was confiderable, which they feldom
failed to relieve. In fevers attended with coma or delirium
they are often employed with advantage, being applied over
the fhaven fcalp ; forthe nearer they are applied to the part
affected, they are the more powerful in giving relief, like all:
other local remedies. '

Dr. Cullen was likewife a {trong advocate for the ufe of
blifters in fevers ; but he confidered them as moft beneficial’
in the advanced periods of the difeafe, “when the re-aGtion
being weaker, all ambiguity from the ftimulant power of
bliitering is. removed.”? We are difpofed. to believe, -how=

every

FEVER.’

ever, that the ftimulus of a blifter is produGtive rather of
irritation, than of fupport to the finking fyftem ; and the
inflammation thus occafioned, when the vital powers are
low, is liable to terminate in gangrene. Rubefacients are
fafer than blifters in this ftate of the fyttem, but do not
feem to be of much benefit where there is no local affeétion.
Sinapifms, or muftard poultices, are fometimes applied to
the feet, efpecially where there is coma, or great failure of
the vis vite: this, like the old practice of bleeding from
the feet, 1 robably originated in the obfolete doctrine of ire:
vulfion, Haienight be more efficacious, if the finapiims
were applied to the region of the ftomach, or to the
head.

The fecond indication is, ** to increafe the actions that are
defeGive.” It has been feen, in tracing the hiftory of the
progrefs of fever, that the fymptoms, which occur in the
latter ftages of the difeafe, are principally the refult of a
eeneral failure of the vital power, or nervous energy: and
that fuch a failure is the neceffary refult of the previous
Over-excitement, and the privation of the ordinary means of
fupport, from aliment, fleep, &c. Hence, then, the means
of preventing this e of life coufilt partly in fulfilling
the firft indication, minifhing the over-excitement, and
partly in ufing thofe remedies which tend to fupport and
increafe the vital aétions, when the f{ymptoms of their fail-
ure appear. It mult be obvious, therefore, that the early
employment of ftimulants, cordials, and tonics, (which was
reforted to by the humoral pathologilts, in order to accele-
rate the concodion of the morbid matter ; by the difeiples of
Brown, with a view to obviate debility, and by others to
prevent putrefaction,) muft be extremely pernicious. It is
a practice founded on the fame grounds as the vulgar error
of the people in forcing food upon a perfon in fever. They
forget that, in order to nourifh the body, the food mutt be
digelted, converted into chyle, and aflimilated; but that,
while the fy{tem is incapable of performing thefe fun¢tions,
the food introduced tends but to increafe the weaknefs, by
increafing its caufe, the febrile ftate. In like manner,
thefe praétitioners no fooner hear the name of fever, than
they immediately ply the patient with wine, Peruvian bark,
and various cordials, regardlefs of the period and circum-
ftances of the difeafe, and thus accelerate the debility, the
confequences of which they are moft anxious to avoid.
This treatment cannot be too {trongly reprobated ; efpeci-
ally as itis {till adopted by many in the profeffion, who
practife by rote, notwithitanding the proofs of its injurious
confequences, which experience has amply afcertained, And
it is moft particularly to be condemned, when there are
fymptoms of confiderable local congettion, efpecially in the
head. :

When, however, the means of moderating the excite-
ment, in the former itages of the fever, have been omitted,
or have failed to terminate the difeafe, and the fymptoms
of exhaultion and defective action begin to appear, it then
becomes requifite to adminifter thofe remedies which pof-
fefs a ftimulant power overthe actions of the arterial and
nervous fyftems. . Of the medicines which fupport and
increafe the actions of the animal body, thofe which are
poffeffed of ftrong fenfible qualities, and excite an obvious
and immediate aétion, are denominated /limu/ants ;, and thofe
which’ flowly, and by repeated exhibition, increafe the power
and force of thefe actions, or the tone of the moving parts,
have been called fonics. Of the former clafs are wine,
{pirits, volatile alkali, the wthers, &e. ; of the latter are
she bark of cinchona, cafcarilla, and other vegetable bit-
ters, the metallic falts, and oxyds of iron and zinc, &c.
Now, as the operation of the latter is comparatively flow,

they are lefs ufeful in the late ftages of continued fever

than the articles of the former clafs. The principal tonic

medicine that has been employed in continued fever is the

cinchona, or Peruvian bark ; which has probably been given

in thefe fevers, in confequence of its fuccefs when admi-

niftered in the intervals between the paroxyf{ms of intermit-

tents. Between this operation, ho» ever, and the cure of a

continued febrile flate, it is obvious that there is not muck

analogy ; and experience has evinced accordingly, that the

practice is-not beneficial; but that, on the contrary, it

more frequently increafes the fymptoms of continued fever,

and that its ufe is moft likely to be detrimental, efpecially

when the tongue remains foul, the pulfe frequent, and the

fkin not yet become ‘foft, ‘cool, and moift. Dr. Fordyce

has accurately defcribed the confequences which we have
oceafionally witneffed from the exhibition of the bark,

even when the favourable remiffion of the fymptoms feemed
to jutlify its ule. « The relaxations which began to take
place in the difeafe have been much diminifhed, the pulfe
has become more frequent in the morning, the head-aci e
more confiderable, the {kin drier, the tongue covered with a
thicker fur, the coftivenefs greater, if the patient was not
thrown into a purging, the oppreffion upon the precordia
greater, and likewife the difficulty of refpiration greater.

On the following evening the head has been alfo: much
more affeGted, that is, the confufien and delirium have been
much more confiderable, and the patient altogether worfe
than he probably would have been, if no remedy whatever
had been exhibited, and there has been lefs chance of crifis
in the fever, and it has been longer of being worn out.??”
(Third Differt. part ii. p. 148.) Where there are marks
of congeition in the head, lungs, or other vifcera, the ad-
miniftration of bark is at all times to be deprecated.. Ina
word, the moft accurate experience has taught us, that the
cinchona, efpecially in fubftance, is feldom beneficial, and
often injurious, in continued fever of any kind; and that it
is moft ufeful in reftoring the ftrength in the convalefcent
ftate, when the fymptoms of fever have altogether difap-
peared. The only cafes in which we have feen any advan-
tage from it, are thofe in which there is an obvious remiflion
and exacerbation, efpecially at tertian periods ; a form which
we have fometimes obferved the continued fever of this
country to affume.

A great variety of ftimulant remedies have been employed
for the purpofe of obviating debility in the late periods of
continued fever; of thefe cvine is generally the moft crate-
ful, and not lefs efficacious than moft of thofe which have
been recommended. But this, we believe with Dr. Gregory,
has been often given in too large quantities, to the amount
of two or three bottles in the day. We have certainly feen
the ftrength rovfed by powerful {timuli in great quantity ;
bnt we have alfo feen this new excitement immediately fol-
lowed by a fatal inflammatory coudition of the brain.
Perhaps a pint in the day may be generally fufficient.
When wine cannot be precured, cyder, porter, or {pirits
diluted with water, fweetened and acidulated, are tolerable
fubftitutes. Dr. Cullen was of: opinion that the laft men-
tioned ‘compound and opium produced all the efiecis of.
wine : but opium does not appear to fupport the pulie like
wine, With refpe& to opium, itis geuerally inadiiffible
while any confiderable excitement exilts, and efpecially when
the fkin is hot and dry, the tongue very foul, the bowels
bound, and marks of congeftion in the head, or elfewhere, ap-
pear :. under thefe circumitances itneither diminithes reftleil-
nefs, nor tends to induce fléep'; but, on the contrary; it ins
creafes the watchfulnefs, and difturbs the mind with exceilive
and frightful dreaming, increafes the delirium, and the febrile

2: heat.

FREY

heat and thirft. When the fin is moift and cool, and the head
but flightly affeGted ; when the tremors, fubfultus of the ten-
dons, or other fpaf{modic affeGtions manifeft themfelves ;
when the bowels are exceflively relaxed, and the evacuations
watery; opium may be ufefully employed. Under the
fame circumftances camphor is frequently adminiftered as a
ftimulant : but it may be juftly doubted, as Dr. Fordyce
has obferved, whether the very {mall dofe contained in
what is called the camphor mixture, ufually given, produces
any decided efle&: fince much larger quantities have been
given without av fenfible operation. Mufk, caftor, and
other fubftances of powerful odour, have been often given
in the lait flage of fever: but the effects have been differ-
ently reprefented by different practitioners, fome believing
them to be very effectual ftimulants, while others have
deemed them almoft inert. Dr. Gregory confiders them as
no farther active, than by theirftrong impreflion on the fenfes,
and much, lefs efficacious antifpafmodics than wine and
opium. The ferpentaria, or {nake-root, contrayerva, and other
cordial and aromatic vegetable fubftances are often admi-
niftered with advantage. It muft be remembered, however,
that where there are marks of confiderable congeftion of
the brain, all powerful {timulants, which will tend to aug-
ment that condition, will ultimately fail to produce ftrength ;
but, on the contrary, will increafe the moft dangerous fymp-
toms)of the difeafe.

Much has been faid relative to the prevention of putrefac-
tion in the lait {tages of infectious fevers. ‘This, however,
as chiefly the refult of extreme proftration of ftrength, is
principally obviated by the means of fupport already
pointed out. Thefe marks of putrefactive changes exiit
principally in the excretions of the patient ; whichit is im-
portant to remove, as their prefeuce feems to augment the
depretfion of the vital powers: hence the utmoit attention
to cleanlinefs is vequifite, and clean air, if we may fo fpeak,
or air free from the noxious exhalations, admitted by a
conftant ventilation, contributes to fupport the patient.
The putrid fordes contained in the {tomach or bowels are
often evacuated with great advantage, where that can be
effected by gentle means, which do not contribute to farther
exhauftion. Witha view to correé the putrefcency of thele
contents of the alimentary canal, various antifeptics have
been recommended, efpecially the mineral acids. ‘That thefe
acids, efpecially the vitriolic or fulphuric, which has been
principally employed, are fometimes ufeful, cannot perhaps
be queftioned ; but it is probable that their admimiftration
was fuggefted upon the principle of being chemically
antifeptic to dead animal matter. A chemical explanation
of the operation of a medicine on the /iving body is fome-
what fufpicious; aud Dr. Fordyce has remarked, that no
antifeptic can be applied in that proportion to the living
folid, as wold be requifite to prevent putrefaétion in dead
animal matter. (Loe. cit. part ii. page 172.) Thefe acids,
however, tend to quench thirft, and to fettle the ftomach,
and are grateful to the patient.

Dr. Gregory is in the habit of concluding his le€tures on
the fubje& of fever by ftrongly cautioning his pupils not to
do too much to patients labouring under the difeafe ; for he
juttly averred that, in many cafes, little more would be re-
quifite, after the proper evacuations at the commencement,
than cool drink, and the antiphlogiftic regimen already
pointed out. And this is unquetlioanably true of fevers
not occafioned by a virulent contagion, and where no con-
fiderable local congeftion occurs; in which cafe it becomes
us to watch rather than to be a@tive. This, however, will
feldom fatisty a patient, or his friends; and hence the
buftling mifchievous empiric is often preferred to the expe-

E R.

rienced obferver, as Sydenham, who attributes fome of
the worlt fymptoms occafionally to the ‘* nimia medicorum
diligentia,”’ feelingly laments. ‘.Sed, quod dolendum
omnino eit, zgrorum quamplurimi, haud fatis gnari, quod
perinde fit medici perite quandoque nihil agere, atque alio
tempore efficaciflima adhibere remedia, probitatis atque Ader
fruétum hunc capere nolunt, fed vel negligentia vel ignoran-
tie id imputant, cum empiricorum in{ulfiffimus quilibct
medicamenta medicamentis adjicere zque noyit, ac folet
magis quam medicorum prudentiffimus.’? (Sydenham,
Opera, fect. v. cap. 6.) sat

Divifion of Fevers —Having difcuffed the nature, caufes,
and cure of fever in general, it remains for us to notice the
various forms of the difeafe, which have been diftinguifhed
by particular appellations. From the earlieft periods of
medical hiftory, a great number of names have been applied
to the varieties of febrile difeafe, which, as they were often
deduced from hypothetical notions, refpeéting the nature
and caufe of the fever, often mere indications of the violence
or abfence of particular fymptoms, and often very vague in
their fignification, have tended to introduce much confu-
fion into the writings of phyficians on this fubjeét. The
majority of the names, which have been thus invented, are
applicable to the fame fever ; at leaft to a fever arifing from
one and the fame fource; whence, it has been juitly re<
marked by Dr. Lind, that phyficians, who have had the
moft frequent opportunities of feeing numerous patients in
fevers, have always found great difficulty in arranging their
cafes under the common appellations, and that the attempt
has frequently led them into abfurdities. (On Fevers and
Infeétions, chap. ii. fet. 2.) For to the fame fever the
terms putrid, petechial, malignant, miliary, nervous, bilious,
typhous, verminous, &c. are often equally applicable. It
is obvious, however, that accidental fymptoms of local
affeGtion, or the accidental violence or mildnefs of any par-
ticular fymptom, do not mark a fundamental change in the
nature of the difeafe, and are therefore not the proper
grounds for multiplying names, which tend to eonfound
diforders that are effentially the fame, and therefore to mif-
lead us in our practice.

The leaft ambiguous divifion, which is now generally
adopted, is into three orders, of intermitting, remitting, and
continued fevers; which are again diitinguifhed by their
leading fymptoms. The intermitting fevere are thofe
which occur in diftin&t paroxy{ms, or fits, in the intervals
between which there is a complete apyrexia, ov abfence of
all febrile fymptoms ; this is termed an intermiffion. lu the
remitting fevers, which alfo confift of repeated paroxy{ms,
there is no entire intermiffion between the paroxy{ms, but
only a confiderable abatement or remiffion of their violence ;
the return of a new paroxyfm, however, being generally
marked by chillinefs, and fome other fymptoms of a cold
ftage. By continued fever is underilood, a fever which goes
on day after day, without any intermiflion or deciled re-
miffion of the fymptoms ; not in an uniform progrefs, how-
ever, but with an obvious aggravation or exacerbation of
the fymptoms of a hot ftage, once in the twenty-four
hours, and generally in the evening. Modt of the ancient
and modern writers, indeed, down to the time ef De Haen
and Cullen, have defcribed a continued fever, proceeding “in
one uniform and unvarying tenor, without exacerbation or
abatement of any fymptom, in a word, confilling of one
lengthened paroxy{m: this they denominated a. continent
fever, in contradiftin@tion from the continued fever, jutt de-
{cribed. By the Latin writers the former is called febris
continens, the latter febris continua ; by the Greeks the
former was denominated qvesr95-cbvox05 fynochus ; the latter

6 TUgETeS

FEVER.”

mierros curtysess fynechees. By fome writets, again, the
continent fever is called continued, and what we now
underftand by continued fever is called continued-remittent.
Our countryman, Morton, whether through miftake or
defign is not evident, has reverfed the common acceptation
of the, terms, (as has been juftly remarked by Burferius,
Inft. vol. i. § 194. and by Selle, in his Rudim. Pyreto-
logiz,) and defcribes the continent fevers, or ovisxzec, as
remittent. (See Morton, Pyretologia.) De Haen, how-
ever, and Cullen, denied altogether the exiftence of a
continent fever, without periodical exacerbation, as it never
occurred to them in the courfe of a long experience; and
their opinion is now generally admitted as correét. Burfe-
rius and Selle maintain the ancient do@rine.

The confufion which has enveloped this fubje& does
not, however, end here. For Dr. Cullen, Burferius, and
others, who have ftill farther reduced the orders of fevers
to two only, viz. intermittent, and continued, (deeming
the remitient fevers different only in degree,) lave never-
thelefs widely difagreed in their arrangement of the latter.
Cullen has claffed the, remittents with the intermittent
fevers, confidering the remiffion as a leffer intermiffion ;
while Burferius has placed them with the continued fevers,
confidering it as a greater exacerbation and abatement: fo
that we find the fame identical difeafes among the continued
fevers. in the writings of Burferius, whieh are placed among
the intermittents of Dr. Cullen. The arrangement of Dr.
Cullen, however, would feem to be the meft corre& ; firft,

_becaufe the intermiffion and remiffion more nearly accord in
their phenomena ; and, fecondly, becaufe both thefe fevers
arife in general fromthe influence of marfh efiluvia.

We fhall now proceed to enumerate the principal appel-
lations. of fever which are to be found in the writings of
phyficians; referring for the full explanation of the majority
of them to their places in the alphabet, as more contiftent
with the nature of a diftionary. See alfo Fenris; where
the Latin and Greek names, for which we have no corre-

- {ponding Englifh terms, are enumerated.

Fever, Acute, a term of indefinite application; fome-
times ufed to denote idiopathic fever, and fometimes indi-
cating a fever with violent fymptoms, whether idiopathic,
or fymptomatic of local inflammation.

Bever, Ardent, Febris ardens of the Latins, the fame
with the cau/us, xxizec, of the Greeks, fignifies thofe
forms of fever in which the heat in the early ttage is excef-
five. The words are from ardeo, and xa», J burn. The
terms have been varioufly applied to intermittent, remittent,
and continued fevers, in which this fymptom prevailed.
The yellow fever of hot climates is the moft ardent fever
with which we are acquainted. (See Fever, yellow.) The
word ardent is nearly fynonymous with inflammatory, See
Sennertus de Febribus, lib. ii. cap. 12.

Fsver, Bilious, a term applied to the autumnal fevers,
whether idiopathic, as the remitting fever, and thofe con-
tinued fevers in which there is a confiderable difcharge
of bile, or to cholera, and dyfentery. (See Pringle on
Difeafes of the Army, part ii. chap. 1. and part iii.
chap. 4.) Hippocrates confidered all autumnal epidemics
as.originating from a corruption of the bile, and the term
has been often ufed, perhaps, upon his authority, without
any evidence of a morbid ftate of this fluid. In hot
climates and feafons, however, there is generally a tendency
to fuperabundance of the bilious fecretion ; and the yellow
fever, which is fo named on account of the bilious tinge of
the furface, may be confidered as an example of bilious
fever in its moft violent form.

_ Fever, Catarrhal. See CaTarru.

Frvenr, Contagious, is a term applicable to any febrile
difeafe which is propagated by contagious effluvia, as
meafles, fcarlet-fever, &c.; but when the term is ufed alone,
by modern writers, it is generally underftood as applying
to typhus, or the common contagious fever of temperate
climates. See Tyruus.

Fever, Continent, and continued ; thefe terms have been
explained above. See Divifion of Fevers.

Fever, Depuratory. See Derugarory.

Fever, Diary. See Diaria, and Epoemera.

Fever, Dy/fenteric, fometimes ufed as fynonymous with
dyfentery ; but Sydenham {peaks of a dyfenteric fever
which prevailed during and after the continuance of an
epidemic dyfentery in the year 1669, in which the true
fymptoms of dyfentery, the frequent dejeGtions and tenef-
mus, did not appear ; the term, therefore, is almoft a fole-”
cifm. (See his works, feé&. iv. cap. 5.)

Frver, Ephemeral. See EpHEemera.

Fever, Epidemic. See Epipsmic.

Fever, £yrratic, a variety of intermittent fever, coniti-
tuting the fourth genus, of the third order, of the clafs of
fevers, in the nofology of Sauvages; and defined as confilt-
ing of fevers, ‘¢ which occur in fimilar paroxy{ms at a longer
interval than four days, or altogether of an uncertain
type :’” the intervals mentioned are guintan, or of five days;
Jeptan, or of feven; o@an, nonan, and deciman. But Dr.
Cullen confiders all thefe as modifications of tertian or
quartan intermittents. (See Sauvages, clafs ii. genus 12.
Cullen Synopf. Nofol. clafs i. genus 1.) The latt fpecies
of Sauvages is erratica vaza, the paroxy{ms of which
occur at uncertain and irregular intervals. See Exraric.

Fever, E£ruptive, any fever accompanied by an erupe.
tion on the fkin ; it is the fame with exanthema ; which fee.

Fever, Ery/fipelatous. See Erysipevas.

Fever, Hedic. See Hecric.

Frver, Hofpital, is the tvphus, or contagious fever, fo
named, becaufe it frequently occurs in crowded hefpitals.
See Typuus.

Fever, Goal, the fame. fever occurring in crowded
prifons.

Fever, Jnflammatory, aterm fometimes ufed to denote
that fpecies of febrile difeafe which is fecoudary, or fympzo-
matic of local inflammation ; fuch as pleurnify, enteritis, or
inflammation of the bowels, &e. In this fenfe fir John
Pringle employs it, when, {peaking of the difeafes of an
army, he fays, ‘¢ upon firft taking the field, as well as during
the winter, pleurifies and peripneumonies are the moft com-
mon forms of the inflammatory fever.’” (Part 1ii. chap. 1.)
But more commonly the term is ufed to denote that form of
idiopathic fever in which the fymptoms of the hot {tage are
fevere, and are not fucceeded by the fymptoms of extreme
debility, which chara&t-rize typhus. In this fenfe, the
epithet inflammatory is put in oppolition to the term nervous,
which applies to the varieties of the latter. ‘ Sometimes
we can perceive no part more affected than another,”’ fays
fir John Pringle, ‘¢and only fome general inflammatory
fymptoms: the diftemper is then called fimply an infam-
matory fever, though probably fome of the more. indolent
parts may at this time be affected with in flammation.”’ (Loc.
cit.) Dr. Cullen has applied the term /} to this modi-
fication of fever, not anxious to employ the appellation ac-
cording te the ancient acceptation of the term, but relying
on his definition for conveying a clear notion of tic difeafe.
The {ynocha is that fpecies of fever in which “ the h at of
the body is greatly augmented ;. the pulfe frequent, iteong,
and hard; the urine high-coloured ; 1 the rial

and ¢
functions little difturbed.” (Cullen, Syaepf. } Meth,

FEVER.

clafs i. gen. 4.) Under this definition it correfponds
with the /ynceha non putris, and continua nn putrida, of feve-
ral authors, and the (abfurdly named) Pea plurium die-
rum, or diary fever of feveral cays, of others. (See Sen-
nert. De Febrib. lib. i. cap. 6. Boerhaave, 728.) Such
divifions, however, cannot be regarded as accurate, or as
diferiminating forms of fever effentially different in their na-
ture; for, in fat, a pure /ynocha, or fever with no other
but inflammatory fymptoms, is fcarcely ever met with, as
we have already remarked; nor is a purely .oppofite, or
typhous fever, which is characterized only by fymptoms of
proftration of ftrength ; almoft every continued fever being
infammatory, or marked by fome degree of excitement in
the beginning, and nervous or typhoid, i. 2. marked by de-
bility in the latter ftages. This conftitutes an intermediate
genus, which Dr. Cullen has called /ynochus. Thus the
caufus, or febris ardens of the ancients, and the yellow fever:
of modern times, is chara&terized by the higheit excitement
in its firft ftage, but is perfe@ly typhoid in the lait.

The fymptoms of the /ynocha, or inflammatory fever, as
it is commonly defcribed, are as follows. The depreffion of
ftrength, which precedes and accompanies the-attack, is not
fo great as in contagious fever, and the cold {tage is more
frequently abfent, and lefs marked. The pulfe, even in the
cold flage, is feldom {mall or very frequent ; after the heat
commences it becomes full, rapid, and, as it hasbeen
termed, vibrating; ftill, however, its frequency is lefs than
in thofe fevers in which debility prevails. The refpiration
is frequent,, hurried, generally oppreffed, and attended with
adrycough. ‘lhe heat is greater than in other continued
fevers, and although burning to the feeling of a by-
ftander, it does not excite that pungent er acrid fenfation
which is obferved in the fevere cafes of typhus. Dr. Moore
remarks, {peaking of the latter, “ on. prefling the fkin of
the patient a fenfation of a peculiar penetrating heat re-
mains on the hand for fome minutes after ; whereas, the heat
communicated by the fkin of a. patient in the inflammatory
fever is more traifient.”’
Huxham, as well as Pringle.avd others, has remarked the
** peculiar biting heat’? in malignant fevers, and obferves
that Quefnay calls it «la chaleur @’acrimonie,” and very juftly
diflinguifhes it from la chaleur inflammation. E
tion in trathis as different as touching a very hot piece of
dry wood, and dipping your finger into tepid {pint of hart{-
horn. The head-ache in inflammatory fever is generally
confiderable, accompanied with throbbing of the temples,
and noife inthe ears: the face is full-and florid, and the
eyes inflamed, and incajable-of bearing the light. The de-
pravation of the fenfes, however, is lefs frequent than in
fevers with debility, nor is delirium a common fymptom ;
but when it does occur in fynocha, it rifes to a degree
which, from the debilitated ftate of the fyftem, we fcarce-
ly ever meet with in typhus: the patient becomes frantic,
and is with difficulty retained in bed. This conftitutes the
delirium ferox of authors, (See DELir1um.) When the de-
lirium is obftinate in fynocha, we have reafon to fufpeét an
inflammatory affeCtion of the brain, which there is {till more
reafon to dread, if the patient be oppreffed with coma. In
truth, between this form of difeafe, and inflammation of
the brain, the diagnofis is difficult, if there be any effential
difference. The fecreting powers are more completely
fufpended than in moft cafes of typhus; the fkin, mouth,
and throat are dry, andthe mticus covering the tongue be-
«comes foul and vifcid; the urine is high-coloured, and the
bowels coftive. Ina word, it is obvious that the inflam-
matory fever is chiefly characterized by a higher degree of
‘the fymptoms of the hot ftage of fever.

(See his Medical Sketches.) Dr.

The fenfa--

When fynocha proves fatal within a few days ofits com.
mencement, (which, if it ever happens, is a rare occurrence,)
the pulfe, it is faid, does not become weak or intermitting
before death ; the patient feems to be carried off by the yio-
lence of the excitement. When the difeafe continues for a
longer time, thowever, and the remiffions are at all evident,
the pulfe during thefe (although the fever has not yet affum-
ed the form of typhus) becomes weak and languid, Sen
tient appearing to beexhaufted by the foregoing paroxyfm ;
which is renewed, howeyer, ina fhort time, with all its
former'violence, or even ttronger marks of excitement. The
hemarrlagies, which frequently occur in inflammatory fe-
ver, are generally from the nofe, ears, lungs, reétum, (if
the patient be fubjeét to the heemorrhoids,) or from the ute-
rus, and are almoil always favourable ; the blood difcharged

has the healthy appearance, except that the coagulum is

frequently covered with the buffy coat. Hemorrhagies
from the upper parts of the inteftines, kidnies, urethra,
fkin, eyes, &c. are rarely, from the two lait perhaps never,
obferved in inflammatory fever.

Such arethe {ymptoms of well-marked fynocha; they
vary in different cafes from thofe juft enumerated, tothe mild
febrile fymptoms attending a common catarrh or ephemera.
After they have continued for fome time, if they do not ter-
minate the patient’s life, they always, at leaft in this coun-
try, begin to be changed to thofe of typhus; fo that the
whole difeafe is afynochus. The proportional duration, as
well as violence of thefe refpective ftages of the difeafe, is
different indifferent cafes; and proves an endlefs fource of
variety: but the fymptoms which follow the ftate of in-
creafed excitement are the moft dangerous as well as the
matt varied part of the fever.

The principal indication.in the cure of inflammatory fever,
it mutt be evident, is that which we have ftated above as
the fir/? indication, in the general cure of fever, (fee Fever,’
Method of Cures) viz. “to diminith exeeffive aGiion.”” The
means of fulfilling this indication, by the antipblogiftic re-
gimen, and evacuant medicines, inorher words, by remov-
ing or diminithing all fources cfd4rritation, and by diminifh-
ing the quantity of the circulating fluids, have been detailed
af: length, and need not here be repeated. he higher the
degree of inflammatory diathefis, the more requifite will it’
be to employ aétive evacuation, at an early period of the
fever, and there will be the lefs hazard of carrying it to an
injurious degree.
already flated, fach a degree of fynocha is feldom feen, as
requires, or is benefited by general blood-letting. In the!
ardent, or yellow fever of tropical climates, the inflammatory:
excitement is more rapid and more fevere, and the aétivity
of the antiphlogiftic praétice matt be neceflarily greater.’
(See Wilfon on Febrile Difeafes.) See Pever, yellow.

Tever, /ntercurrent; a denomination given by Syden-
ham and others to thofe forms of fever which conttantly

occur /poradically, that is, independent of the particular’

epidemic feafon, or of the reigning contagion. :
Fever, /ntermittent, a fever which occurs in diftin® fits
or paroxy{ms, with an interval of health, or complete ab--
fence of fever, between them: from the shivering which’
commences the fit, the difeafe has been called ague, which’
fee; and according as the fit recurs, every day, every al-
ternate day, or ence in three days, it has been termed a guo-
aioe a fertiany or a guartanague. See thele words be’
ow. :
Fever, Jntefinal, aterm applied by fome writers to:
thofe varieties of continued fever in which there is much!
diarrhoea, with fetid ftools, &c. pain of the belly, diften--
fion, or other fymptoms of abdominal diforder. a
thora

In this country, however, as we have »

FEVER.

quick, weak, and uneqzial, fometimes fluttering, and fome-°
times for a few minutes flow, nay, interjnitting 5 and then,’
with a fudden flufh in the face, immediately very quick,’

thors have ufed the epithets ga/ric and mefenteric with the
fame intention: and the febres /lercorates and excremen-
zofe of others are the fame. This multiplication of names
is altogether ufelefs, fincethey do not imply any difference
in the effential nature of'the fevers, and it
great confufion in medical langnage. i
*Pever, Lenticular, the fame with petechial. See be-
low. ; :
Fever, Malignant, a vague and improper term generally
applied to fevers of a contagious origin, with fymptoms of
extreme proitration of ftrength, petechiz, hemerrhagies,
feetid difcharges, &c.; in a word to typhus, in its worlt
forms; and alfo to fearlet fever in its moit fevere modilica-
tions, the plague, and other dangerous epidemics.

Fever, Miliary, a modification of common fever, ac-
companied with an eruption of {pots not larger than millet
feeds. See Mitrary eruption. ,

Fever, Milk, a fever afleGting puerperal women, and
accompanied with diitenfion of the mamme. See Mirx-
Fever.

Faver, Morbillous, Febris morbillofa, aterm given by

Sydenham, perhaps with the fame impropriety as in the:

cafe of dyfenteric fever, (fee above, ) to a fever occurring dur-
ing the prevalence of epidemic meafles, but without the erup-
tion, or with very little of it. Sec Measvers.

» Fever, Nervous, a name given by fome writers to all
the varieties of fever, accompanied with debility, in contra-
diilinétion to thofe which are characterized by arterial
ftrength, which they call inflammatory. But Dr. Huxham,
aud after him many other phyficians, have appropriated the
‘term nervous to a particular form of fever with debility,
which goes through a long and flow courfe, unattended by
the exceffive excitement of inflammatory fever, on the one
hand, or by the extreme proftration of typhus on the other.
At the fame time, as it is accompanied by great lofs of
muicular powers and mental inaCtivity, without the marks
of putrefcency in the fluids difcharged, it was fuppofed to
be a difeafe of the ‘animal fpirits,’? or nervous fluid, and
not of the blood ; whence the term nervous was adopted.
Dr. Huxham’s defcription is confidered as a very matterly
example of medical hiftory, and we fhall give the outline
nearly in his own words.

The patient at firft grows fomewhat liftlefs, and feels flight
chills and fhudders, with uncertain fudden fluthes of heat,
and a kind of wearinefs all over, like what is felt after great
fatigue. This is always attended with a fort of heavinefs
and dejeétion of f{pirit, and more or lefs of a load, pain, or
giddinefs of the head; a naufea and dif-relifh of every thing
foon follows, without any confiderable thirlt, but frequently
with urging to vomit, though little but infipid phlegm is
brought up. Though a kind of lucid interval of feveral
hours fometimes intervenes, yct the fymptoms return with
aggravation, efpecially towards night. The head grows
more heavy or giddy, the heats greater, the pulfe quicker
but weak, with an oppreffive kind of breathing. A great
torpor, or obtufe pain and coldnefs, affeéts the hinder part
of the head frequently, and oftentimes a heavy pain is felt
onthe top, along the coronary future ; this, and that of the
back part of the head, generally attend nervous fevers, and
are commonly fucceeded by fome degree of delirium.

In this condition the patient often continues for'five or fix
days, with a heavy, pale, funk countenance, feeming not
very fick, and yet far from being well; reftlefs, anxious,
and commonly quite void of fleep, though fometimes very
drowfy and heavy ; but although he appears to thofe about
him a@tually to fleep, he is utterly infenfible of it, and de-

nies that he doth fo. ‘The pulfe, during all this time, is.

Vor. XIV.

gives rife to”

and perhaps foon after furprifingly calm and equal ; and
thus alternately.
unequal, fometimes a {udden colour and glow appear in the

The heats and chills are as uncertain and’

cheeks, while the tip of the nofe -and ears is cold, and the’
forehead at the fame time in a cold dewy fweat. Nay, it is-

very common, that a high colour and heat appear in the
face, when the extremities are quite cold.
commonly pale, and often limpid, frequently of a whey
colour, or like vapid {mall beer, in which-there is either no
manner of fediment, or a kind of loofe matter, like bran,
irregularly feattered up and down in it. The tongue at the
beginning is feldom or never dry or difcoloured, tut fome-
times covered with a thin whitifh mucus; at length indeed
it often appears:dry, red, and chapped, or of the colour of
pomegranate rind; but this moftly at the clofe of the
difeafe ; yet, however dry the tongue and lips feem, the
patient fcarcely ever complains of thirft, though fometimes
of a heat in the tongue.

About the feventh or eighth day, the giddinefs, pain, or
heavine!s of the head become much greater, with aconftant
noife in it, or finnitus curium, which is very dilturbing to
the fick, and frequently briags on a delirium. The loadon
the precordia, anxiety, and faintnefs grow much more

* urgent, and the patient often falls into an a€tual deliquium

The urine is’

or fainting ; efpecially if he attempts to fit up; coldith-

{weats fuddenly come on in the forehead, and on the backs
of the hands, {though at the fame time there is too much
heat in the cheeks and the palms,) and as fuddenly go off,
If the urine now grows more pale and limpid, a delirium is
ertainly to be expeéted, with univerfal tremors and fubful-
tus tendinim. The delirium is feldom violent, but as it
were a confufion of thought and aétion, the fick muttering
continually to themfelves, and faultering in their fpeech ;
fometimes they awake only in a hurry and confufion, and
prefently recolle& themfelves, but forthwith fall into a
muttering dozy ftate again.
The tongue grows ofteu very dry at the height of the
fever, efpecially in its middle part, with a yellowifh lift on

each fide, and it trembles greatly when the fick attempt to°

put it out. When the tongue at this time grows more
moift, and a copious {pitting comes on, it is always a very
good fign; buat where difficulty of fwallowing, continual
gulping, or choaking WM the throat fupervene, it is a very
dangerous fymptom, efpecially if attended with any degree
of hiccup. Frequently profufe fweats pour forth all at
once about the ninth, tenth, or twelfth day, commonly cold-
ifh or clammy on the extremities ; ofcentimes very thin ftools
are difcharged, both the one and the other are generally
colliquative and very weakening. However, a warm
moiiture of the {kin is generally falutary, and a gentle diar-
thoea frequently carries off the delirium and comatofe dif-
pofition.

Now nature finks apace, the extremities grow cold, the
nails pale or livid, the pulfe may be faid to tremble and
flutter, rather than to beat, the vibrations being fo exceed-
ing weak and quick, that they can fcarcely be diftinguithed ;
though fometimes they creep on furprifingly flow, and very
frequently intermit. ‘The fick become quite infenfible and
ttupid, fcarcely affected by the loudeft noife or the flrongeit
light; though at the beginning ftrangely fufceptible of
the impreflions of either. The delirium now ends in a pro-
found coma, and that foon in eternal fleep. The itools,
urine, and.tears run off iavoluntarily, and denounce .a
{peedy diffolution, as the vait tremblings and twitching “0g

e

--

FEVER.

the nerves and tendons are prelude’ to a general convulfion,
which at once fnaps off the thread of life. In one or other
@f thefe ways are the fick carried off, after having languifh-
ed for fourteen, eighteen, or twenty days, nay fometimes
much longer.

_ All perfons grow deaf and ftupid towards the end of
the difeafe, fome extremely deaf, though too quick and
apprehenfive in the beginuing, infomuch that the lealt
noife or light greatly offended them. Many, from their im-
moderate fears, feem to hurry themfelves out of life, where
little danger was apparent at the beginning : nays feveral
will not fuffer themfelves to fleep, from avain fear of dozing
quite away ; and others from the vaft hurry, anxiety. and
confufion which they ave fenfible of in it, or at awaking.
Where the deafnefs ends in an impofthume of the ear, itis
geiterally a good fymptom ; and fo it is when a parotis fup-
purates, or a large puftular angry eruption breaks out
about the lips and nole.

The nervous fever attacks perfons of delicate conftitu-
tion, who have fuffered great evacuations, a long dejection
of {pirits, immoderate watching, ftudy, or fatigue, as
well as thofe who have ufed much crude unwholefome food
and drink, or have been long confined in damp foul air, or
expofed to other caufes of debility.

It is obvious that, in this {pecies of fever, there is no
opportunity of ufing {trong meafures, efpecially great eva-
cuations, either by bleeding, or aétive purging. nor is the
cold affufion admiffible, where the heats are moderate, par-
tial, and tranfient. A very mild emetic or gentle laxative
may be advifeable in the early {tage of the fever; asa little
rhubarb, Epfom falt, manna, &c. But Dr. Huxhain af-
fums, “ if you give any thing dra/lic, be affured your
patient will rue for it, and you will repent it.” ‘ Moderate
diaphoretic medicines, with a well regulated diluent, but
nutritious regimen, are the remedies principally applicable
to this form of fever. This regimen itfelf, judicioufly ma-
naged, Dr. H. remarks, “ will go a great way in the cure,
aflifted by well timed and well applied blifters, anda due
care to keep the patient as quiet as poffible both in body
and mind.”? Te rejeéts ftrong opiates, as commonly per-
nicious ; but where the lownefs and dejeCtion are very con-
fiderable, allows of a little more ftimulating plan; as the
ufe of camphor, caftor, and faffron, with thin wine whey,
or gruel with a little wine ; and as the difeafe advances, a
little chicken broth, fago and wine, &c.; the wine being
efpecially ferviceable where profufe cOlliquative {weats oc-
cur. As no violent meafures can be adopted in this fever,
-avith a view to halten its termination, the principal treat-
ment neceflarily confilts in fupporting the ftrength, without
adding much to the excitement ; for which purpofe a gen-
tle cordial diaphoretic regimen is requifite, efpecially to-
wards the decline of the difeafe. There is feldom any
very marked crifis; and time only feems, in general, to
wear off the fever. A gentle diarrhoea is fometimes of
manifeft fervice, indeed, towards the end of the complaint,
and the patient is always moit eafy, when in a gentle per-
{piration; but when thefe difcharges are great, they are
never cdvantageous ; but on the contrary fink the ftrength
of the patient extremely. There is no evacuation of a
more favourable portent, than a pretty free falivation with-
out aphihe ; where this happens, Dr. Huxham obferves,
‘with a kindly moifture of the fkin, I never defpair of my
patient, however weak and ftupid he may feem; indeed,
the deatnefs many times makes the fick at the clofe of the
diftemper appear much lefs fenfible than they really are ;
not but that many, under thefe circumftances, efcaping
the grave, degenerate into mere idiots.” (See Huxham

on Fevers, chap vii. Manningham on the Febricula.) The
difeafe, above deferibed, is the typhus mitior of Dr. Cullea’s
claffiication. © é

Fever, Peffilential, a fever which fpreads rapidly and ex-
tenfively, and is deftruétive to numbers, whether typhus,
the plague, fcarlet fever, &c, See Epipemic, and Pracue.

Fever, Petechial, called alfo peticular, punGicular, and
lenticular, is a term applied to typhus, or other fevers, in
which the purple fpots, refembling flea- bites, and denominated
petechia, peticule, &c. appear upon the fkin. Thefe {pots
are confidered as marks of malignancy and putrefcency, as
above mentioned, in the defcription of the fymptoms of the
advanced {tage of continued fever. See Perecut, and
Purpura.

Fever, Puerperal, or child-bed fever, a fever which occurs
within a few days after parturition, and is conne&ted with
an inflammation of the peritoneum, ar membrane lining the
cavity of the abdomen; hence its nofological name of
Prrivonitis pucrperarum, which fee: allo Pusrperat

fever.

Vever, Purple, the fame with petechial, (fee abov&) fo
denominated from the ordinary colour of the petechix,
which, in the language of the nurfes, are called the purples.
See Purrura, and Perecniz.

Fever, Puirid, a term applied to all the forms of fever,
whether typhus, remitteat fever, fearlet fever, the plague,
yellow fever, Sc. in which there is extreme proftration of
ftrength, with black and offenfive difcharges, hemorrhages,
and purple fpots; with what propriety will be difcufled
under the head Putrip difeafes, which fee.

Fever, Quartan, and quotidian, appellations of inter-
mittent fever, when the fit occurs every third day, or every
day in fucceffion. The word guartan, lignifying fourth,might
appear to be erroncoufly applied; but phyticiars reckon
the day on «which a difeafe commences the fiz, and con-
fequeatly the third day after this is the fourth of the difeafe;
in continuing the calculation, therefore, the day of every fuc-
ccflive paroxyfm is twice reckoned, viz. as the fourth of
the preceding period, or cycle, and the firlt of the fucceed-
ing cycle. In like manner, the intermittent, which occurs
on the alternate days, is denominated a ¢ertian. The com-
mon people, however, denominate the guartan a third day
ague, and the tertian a /econd day ague, not being acquainted
with the more complicated medical calculation. See
AGUE.

Fever, Remittent, a fever confifting of periodical increafe *
and abatement, but without an interval of freedom from
the fymptoms, as in the intermittent. See RemitrenT.

Fever, Rheumatic, a term applied to rheumatifm, when
accompanied by a general febrile condition, and which is then
more commonly and correCily termed acute RutumMATisMy
which fee.

Fever, Semi-tertian, that form of remittent fever in
which there is daily exacerbation and remiffion, (fee Feris
amphemerina,) but on alternate days the exacerbation com-
mences with rigors, or great chillinefs and fhivering ; as if
a tertian were joined with an amphemerine fever. This is
the hemitriteus of the Greek writers: and the Amphimerina
hemitriteus of Sauvages. (Nofol. Method, clafs. ii. geans 6.
{pecies 7.)

Fever, Ship, is the typhus occurring in crowded veflels.
See Typuus.

Fever, Scarlet, a fever of the exanthematous or eruptive
clafs, which, like the {mall-pox, meafles, &c. is propagated ©
by.a {pecific contagion, aud occurs but once during the life
of the individual. It is chara¢terized by a clofe effloref-—
cence, of a fcarlet colour, appearing on the furface of the -

bedy,

‘FEV ER.

" body, or withia the mouth and fauces, ufually on the fecond

- day of fever, and terminating in about fiye days, but without
certainty of a crilis to the fever. Being a difeafe, obferved
only by the moderns, we have no claffical appeilation for it ;

-and the nofologiits have adopted a barbarous term, firlt
applied to it by Britifh writers, namely, /car/atina, from
the fearlet colour of the rafh which accompanies it. Dr.
Heberden calis it Febris rubra.

The fearlet fever occurs wider three different forms, or
varieties : there is alfo a fourth form of difeafe, originating
from the fame contagion, namely, the ulcerated fore throat,
which, being unaccompanied by the fearlet rafh, cannot with
propriety receive the fame denomination. ‘The three

_Warieties, firft mentioned, are rt. The fever, with the efloref-

cence only, and no affection of the throat, which is com-
morly a mild difeafe, and has been termed fearlatina_/im-
plex: 2. The fever and effiorefcence with an accompanying
fore throat, or angina, a more fevere diforder, which has
been denominated fcarlatina anginofa: aud, 3. The fame
combination, in which the fever affumes a typhoid type,
i.e. 1s marked by great proftration of ftrength, a gangre-
nous difpofition in the ulcerations, fectid difcharges, &c, and
has been called’ f{carlatina maligna. The fourth modifica-
‘tion of the difeafe has been called the putrid fore throat,
the malignant ulcerated fore throat, angina maligna, cy-
nanche maligna, &c. We hall briefly deferibe the con-
-courfe of fymptoms under cach of thefe modifications of
this difeafe, which, in its malignant forms, has at different
times raged like a plague, and carried off multitudes.

I. The fearlatina fmplex. This form of the difeafe con-
fills merely of the rafh, and a moderate degree of fever for
three or four days, not being, like the other f{pecies, at-

tended with any local fwelling, inflammation, or ulcer.
The firll fymptoms are general debility, naufea, and flight
fucceflive fhiverings, terminated at lenpth by confiderable
heat and thirtt. On the fecond day numerous fpecks, or
minute patches of a vivid red colour, appear about the face
and neck ; within twenty-four hours a fimilar efliorefcence
is diffufed over the furface of the body, likewife in the nof-
trils, on the iufide of the lips, cheeks, and eye-lids, over the
tongue, palate, and the whole fauces. ‘Mhefe internal parts
beiug red, the effects of the difeafe upon them do not per-
haps attract attention, till the high fearlet fluth be produced.
The eruption on the fkin is at firlt compofed of innumerable
red points, which {pread into a diffufe rednefs on the third
day, and the efflorefcence becomes almoft continuous on the
limbs and cheeks. Several papule, or pimples, are {cat-
tered on the back of the hand, brealt, arms, and lower ex-
tremities, producing a roughnefs, like the cu/is an/erina.
On the trunk of the body the efflorefcence is feldom uni-
verfal, but in patches, or forming a fort of net-work, like
veffels injeéted with wax. On the loins and nates, and
within the flexures of the joints, the fearlet colour is moit
ftrong and general; and in thofe fituations it alfo remains
the longett. The rath is always lefs florid in the morning
than at night, its colour being higheft on the third and
fourth evening. On the fifth day it begins to decline ia
colour; on the fixth its appearance is very indillin@, and
it is wholly gone by the end of the feventh. Between the
fourth and fifth day there is often a feattered eruption of
milia velicles on the temples, neck, breaft, and
fhoulders. On the fifth day a flight fcurfinefs fometimes
appears on the fame parts ; but a more general feparation of
the cuticle takes place on the eighth and ninth days, large
pieces of the cuticle fometimes coming offentire, efpecially
rom the hands, fingers, and fect, a new cuticle having been
previoufly formed underneath,

The pulfe, during the eruptive flage of fimple fearlatina, is
ufually very quick and feeble. The tongue exhibits on its
upper furface a whitifh fur, through which the elongated
papillz extend their fearlet points; the fides of the tongue
are of a darker red colour. The urixe is clear, and of 2
bright flraw colonr. The face is confiderably tumeficd,
There is ufually great reitleffiels, with a feafe of itching or
tingling in the fin, and often flight delirium. "Thefe {yinp-
toms continue with more or lefs violence from three to
{even days. A few patients efcape without fever, pain, or
any particular uneafinefs.

This difeafe, although now known to arife from a diftin@
fpecies of contagion, has been confidered by many authors
as a variety of the meafles, and, as the two dileafes refemble
each other, foas to be occafionally miftaken, we (half reca-
pitulate the diagnoftic charatters, as pointed out by Dr.
Willan.

1. The efflorefcence in {carlet fever generally appears on
the fecond day ; in the meafles it is feldom vilible til the
fourth. 2. It is much more full and fpreading in the for-
mer than in the latter difeafe, and confifts of ingumerable
points and fpecks under the cuticle, intermixed with minute
pimples, in feme cafes forming continuous, irrecular
patches, in others coalefcing into aa uniform fluth Secs a
confiderable extent of furface. In the meafles the rafh is
compofed of circular dots, partly diftin@, partly fet in {mall
clufters or patches, and a little elevated, fo as.to give the
feniation of roughnels when a finger is paffed over them ;
thefe patches are feldom confluent, but form a number of
crefcents, or fegments of circles, with large intervening por-
tious of cuticle, which retain their ufual appearance. The
colour of the rath is alfo different in the two difeafes, being
a vivid red in the fcarlatina, like thac of a builed lobfter’s
fhell; but in the meafles a cark red, with nearly the hue of
arafpberry. 3. During their febrile ftage, the meafles are
diftinguifhed by an cbftinate harfh cough, with expe@ora-
tion of a tough acrimonious phlegm, by an inflammation of
the eyes and eye-lias, with great fenfiuility to light, by an
increafed difcharge from the ‘lachrymal gland, fneezing,
&c. The fearlet fever is alfo freque: tly attended with a
cough, and with reduefs of the eyes from an extenfion of
the rafh to the tunica albuginea, circumilances which rene
der the diftin@ion between this complaiit and the mezfles
particularly difficult, if other fymptoms be not clear and
decifive. On minute examination, however, it will be re-
nerally, perhaps always found, that the cough in fearlatina
is fhort and irritating, without expectoration ; that the red-
nefs of the eye is not attended with intolerance of light,
that the ciliary glands ate not affeéted ; and that, althouch
the eyes appear fhining and watery, they never Overflow,
4. When the rafh appears on the third or fourth day, being
{cattered, and of a dark thade ef colour, as fre quei tly hap.
pens in the fecond and third form of fcarlatina, the ifedte
may be diftinguifhed from meafles by the appearances in the
throat, by the rigidity of the mufcles of the neck, and other
peculiar fymptoms hereafter to be deferibed.

For the cure of {éarlatina fimplex, it feems only requifite
to keep patients in a moderately cool and equable tempera-
ture, in clean open apartments ; to preferibe licht diet,
without animal food ; and to give cooling liquors for drink,
When there is no morbid appearance or fenfation in the
throat, our chief care fhould be to prevent neediefs appli-
cations; fince, according to Sydenham’s obfervation, « pone
die of this diforder except from a ‘too great officieufnefs in
the practitioner.” It is but nominally a difeafe, he fays,
unle{s the patient is imprifoned in bed, and medicines-are
poured in “nimis doéeé et fecundum artem ;”? then “nore

Yy2 bus

CREE Wiehe.

bus flaeim intenditur, et zer non raro nulla alia de caufa,
“quam nimia medici diligentia, ad plures ee! (Seét. vi.
cap. 2.) We wifh that this were popularly underftood ;
for, we have already remarked, when concluding the article
Fever in general, that friends, and nurfes will not be con-
tent without more decifive proofs of the learning and art
of the doG&tor, whofe moft difficult taflk is, therefore, to
_prevent their active interference in fuch cafes, by feeming
to be ative himfelf.

II. Scarlatina anginofa, or fearlet fever with fore throat,
is more fevere than the preceding. In this fpecies of the
difeafe there is fuperadded to the fever and efflorefcence a
confiderable {welling of the tonfils, velum pendulum palati,
and uvula, accompanied witha florid rednefs of their whole
furface, often terminating in numerous flight ulcerations.

The primary febrile fymptoms are in this {pecies the fame
“as in the former, but more violent. The affection of the
throat fometimes begins with the fever, at other times is
not perceptible till the fcarlet eforefcence has arrived at its
height ; moft frequently it is felt when the rafh appears,
and increafes and declines with it. A fudden fenfation of
ftiffnefs in the mufcles of the neck, and lower jaw, takes
place at the beginning of the difeafe. On the fecond day
of fever the throat is rough and {ftraightened, the voice be-
comes hoarfe, and deglutition is performed with pain and
difficulty. Thefe fymptoms are attended on the fecond,
third, and fourth day, with naufea, vomiting of bile, head-
ache, delirium, reftleffuefs, and great heat, with a feeble flut-
tering pulfe, a quick refpiration, and extreme languor or
faintnefs. On examining the throat there appears a con-
fiderable enlargement of the tonfils, and a florid rednefs of
their furface, which extends over the palate and the potte-
rior part of the throat. The tongue alfo affumes a high
red colour, and the papille over its whole furface are greatly
elongated.

In fome cafes no further change is obfervable in the
fauces, neither do the appearances above-mentioned continue
beyond the fifth or fixth day: no deep or confiderable
ulcer forms in the tonfils. . Slight fuperficial ulcerations are
very frequent, and more efpecially at the latter end of the
year. ‘They occur at an early period of the difeafe, as on
the fecond or third day, fomctimes later. The formation of
them is preceded by a very quick and unequal pulfe, with
lownefs and great inquictude. Small white patches are
then vifible over the pendulous part of the palate and the
toniils; at the fame time, the red colour in thofe parts be-
comes darker in fome places than in others, fo that the whole
furface has a peculiar fpeckled appearance. Soon after-
wards, fiflures or excoriations take place at the centre of the
white patches, which are almoft immediately covered with
whitifh floughs. When thefe are numerous, the throat is
conftantly clogged with a large quantity of tough vifcid
pblegm: hence the difficulty of {wallowing is increafed, and
nuch pain is felt upon preffure externally applied. The
{loughs are in fome cafes removed about the fifth or fixth

ay, at the declitie of the efilorefcence; in other inftances
they continue to the eighth day, or even later ; and when
they feparate, partial excoriations remain, which may, how-
ever, be readily healed.

The efflorefcence, in this form of fcarlet fever, differs in
a few particulars from that defcribed under the head of {ear-
latina fimplex. ft. It does not appear fo early in the
difeafe, but is often delayed to the third day. 2dly. It does
not fo conftantly extend over the furface of the body, but
comes out in {cattered patches on the baeky fides, neck, and
breaft, or about the joints. 3dly. It fometimes wholly va-
nifhes the day after its appearance, and re-appears partially

at uncertain times. Hence, 4thly, the whole duration of
it is longer thanin fearlatina fimplex. Thefe variations are
mott frequent during the autumnal and winter months, when
the difeafe is in general moft fevere.

During the ftate of extreme debility, which ufually fuc-
ceeds the /carlatina anginofa, fome patients are affected with
anafarcous fwellings of the face and hands, but more ef-
pecially of the lower extremities. The {welling becomes
con{picuous about the eighth or tenth day from the difap-
pearance of the rafh, and continues for two or three weeks,
In cafes exhibiting a very full and vivid efflorefcence, the
anafarca takes place more frequently, and toa greater de-
gree. When the throat is much ulcerated, and the rafh not

-extenfive, and when no defquamation of the cuticle fucceeds,

dropfical fwellings rarely occur. Occafionally, though very
rarely, effufions of ferum into the abdomen, or thorax, or the
ventricles. of the brain, take place. An enlargement of the
parotid glands happens frequently in adults, and continues
a long time without fappurating. Children, at every period,
of the difeafe, are liable to tumours both of the parotid and
fub-maxillary glands, fometimes ending in tedious and pain-
ful abfceffes. With thefe they have, during the latter itage
of the complaint, ulcerations at the corner of the mouth,
{trumous ophthalmia, {welling of the upper lip, and puru-
lent difcharges from the ears, fometimes accompanied with
deafnefs: they are alfo fubje& to puttules or {mall ulcera-
tions of the tongue, which prove troublefome for fome days,
but without any ferious confequences.

During every epidemic fearlet fever many cafes occur in
which the efflorefcence is confined to the throat and mouth,
there being no appearance of a rafh on the fkin: but the
febrile fymptoms, vomiting and delirium, continue violent
for feveral days. A’ crimfon colour of the throat is per-
ceptible often before the fever commences; in the ae of
which numerous fmall fpecks of ulceration are formed on
the tonfils, &c. and become, inmany places, confluent, when
the increafed fecretion of phlegm, the tumour, pain, and
difficulty of {wallowing, occafion great diltrefs. This com-
plaint feems peculiar to adults, and is evidently a {pecies of
{carlatina, becaule it affeéts fome individuals of large fami-
lies, while the reft are labouring under other forms of the
difeafe, and becaufe it is capable of communicating, by in-
fection, all the varieties of it. Perfons who have previoufly
gone through the fearlatina anginofa experience, while con-
verfant with the fick, very uneaty fenfations in the throat 5

‘they remain, however, free from fever, although the {welling

and inflammation of the tonfils be confiderable.

The cure of /carlatina anginofa requires a more attive ad-
miniftration of remedies. Although blood-letting has been
recommended by Morton, De Haen, and others, the expe-
rience of our later writers on this fubje& coincides in deem-
ing it injurious. Dr. Willan fays, wherever it had been em-
ployed great depreflion and faintnefs were the immediate
confequences, the pulfe becoming more weak and frequent,
and often irregular. And Dr. Withering difcountenances
even local bleeding. «* Sometimes, where the fiery rednefs
of the eyes, and the ftate of delirium feemed to demand the
application of leeches to the temples,”’ he obferves, “ I have

* {een them applied, but never with any good effe&.”

Lmetics ave recommended by all the beft writers on this
difeafe, among whom, indeed, there is very little diiference
of opinion on the fubje@&. In the very firft attack,” fays
Dr. Withering, “ a vomit feldom fails to remove the dif-
eafe at once: if the poifon has begun to exert its effe€ts upon
the nervous fyftem, emetics {top its further progrefs, and
the patients quickly recover. If it has proceeded {till far-
ther, and occationed that amazing action in the =

7 eewhit

SE EY VEER,

whieh exifls when the fearlet colour of the fkin takes
-place, vomiting never fails to procure a refpite tothe
‘anxiety, the faintnefs, and delirium.’ ‘In autumn,
“when the throat was more affeéted, when the tumefaGtion
‘of the fauces was fuch that the patients could not fwallow,
but with the utmoft difficulty: when the peripneumonic
fymptoms -threatened fuffocation, and bleeding was inef-
fe&tnal; an emetic opened the gullet, and unloaded the lungs,
fo that deglutition became eafy and refpiration free. But it
is neceflary to add, that a vomit only fufficiently ftrong to
evacuate the contents of the ftomach is hy no means ade-
“quate to thefe effects,. The vomit muft be powerful, and,
‘in ordinary cafes, repeated once in forty-eight hours; in
thofe with more urgeat fymptoms daily ; and in the worft
cafes twice in twenty-four hours. The patients never fail
to exprefs the relief they find after the operation, aad the

hyfician foon difcovers it in the countenance and pulfe.
‘As tothe form of the emetic, the prattitioner may vary it
ashe pleafes; but I generally combiae tartar emetic in fo--
dution with ipecacuanha powder, that I may be more certain
of their full effet on the ftomach, and avoid the danger of
‘their aGting asa purgative. I alfo give them in much larger
dofes than ufual, in order to fecure a certain violence of
aGtion upon the fyftem.” (Withering on Scarlet Fever,
page 75-8.) Dr. Ruth recommends this repetition of vo-
miting, but he alfo “ gave calomel in moderate dofes in
every ftage of the diforder.”. Dr. Willan agrees with thefe
phydicians, in the propriety of adminiitering emetics, but
has never found it necefflary to repeat them fo often as Dr.
Withering has advifed.

With velpe& to purgatives, Dr. Withering, it is obvious
from the above quotation, contidered them as dangerous ;
and Dr. Willan aflirms, that they ‘* have nearly the fame
debilitating effe&t as blood-letting. They aie indeed very
feldom neceffary ;’’ he adds, “ for though a few patients
may, onthe firlt day, be afflicted with bilious vomiting and
diarrhcea, the ftate of the bowels is more uniform than in
‘other febrile complaints.”? Nevertheleis, he thinks the oc-
‘cafional {timulus of a {mall dofe, as two or three grains, of
calomel, very ufeful. Dr. Binns exprefies an acknowledg-
‘ment to a brother pra€titioner, ‘ for his removal of a pre-
judice againit laxatives in the early ftage of the difeafe,
ambibed from various authors, and confirmed by the dread-
ful confequences | had feen when a diarrhoea came on in
this fever. By his perfuafion {mall dofes of calomel and
other laxatives were occafionally given; and fo far from
producing injury, I believe, that by evacuating the acrid
matter, which is often fwallowed, they had a tendency to
prevent excoriations of the inteftinal canal, and the con-
fequent diarvhcea which I dreaded.”? (See Willan on Cu-
‘taneous Difeafes, part iil. p. 357.) Dr. Hamilton of
Edinburgh has, however, fhewn us that fuch prejudices
were completely unfounded, and that moderate purgatives
of calomel and rhubarb, or jalap, in the early ftages of
{carlatina, are as beneficial as in fimple fever; and he even
-confiders them as fuperfeding the exhibition of emetics.
We believe that both the remedies are advantageoufly ad-
miniftered ; and that a lax ftate of the bowels, produced
by medicine in the early itage, tends to prevent the diarrhea
of the fucceeding periods, as Dr. Binns remarks, and as is
alfo probable in common fever. ‘

In cafes of {carlatina anginofa where the throat is inflamed
-and fwelled, fo as to occafion very painful deglutition, d/i/ers
applied to the external fauces, or between the fhoulders,
- afford confiderable relief.

It is proper to enjoin the fame adherence to the anti-
- plilogiftic regimen as in the fimple form of fearlatina, or

.

as mentioned under the head Fever, particularly with
regard to cool air, cool drink, and light coverings; the
cutaneous heat arifes to a higher degree in this than in any
other febrile difeafe in this country. ““* If the thermometer
be applied to the iurface of the body,”? Dr.Currie obferves,
when {peaking of this fever, “ after the fenfation of heat
has become fteady, the mereury will be found to rife to
105° and 106° even in mild cafes, and in the more violent
cafes to 108°, 109”, ad 110°. I have knownit rife as high
as 112°, the greateit heat I ever obferved in the human
body.”” (See his Reports on the Effe@s of cold Water &c.
vol. ii. p.428 ) Accordingly the experience of this ex-
cellent phylician, as well as that of profeffor Gregory of
Ediaburgh, and of feveral intelligent correfpondents, has
afcertained that the external application of cold eater to the
fkin is the moft certain and effeGtual method of removing
this difeafe. “(See Corn, effeas of, as a remedy.) In this
cafe, as in that of idiopathic fever, already defcribed,
the cold affufion aQtually terminates the difeafe, when applied
before the appearance of the efforefeence, and the cold
wafhing, at fubfequent periods of the difeafe, while the fkin
2mains hot and dry, invariably diminithes all the febrile
fymptoms, and gives great relief to the feelings of the
patient, as we have witneffed in numerous cafes. Dr.
Stanger, when {peaking of the fame general wathing of the
body, among the children of the Foundling Hofpital, 71

of whom went through the fearlet fever, remarks, that
“its effects in cooling the fkin, diminifhing the frequency
of the pulfe, abating thirit, and difpofing to fleep, were
very remarkable. Finding this application fo highly bene-
ficial,” he adds, I employed it at every period of the
fever, provided the {kin were hot and dry.” (See Dr.
Willan’s treatife,. above quoted, p. 360.) With what
fuccefs the cold affufion was employed by Drs. Currie and
Gregory, in completely annihilating fearlet fever in its
commencement, in their own children, will be remarked
with pleafure by the readers of Dr. Currie’s fecond volume,
P- 442, aud 435. While this remedy is ufed, Dr. C. ob-
ferves, cold water and lemonade fhould be ufed as drinks

and the howels opened, if neceflary, by calomel. « If left
to myfelf I ufe no other means.? We can add, that we
have feen feveral cafes, in which the patients fpeedily reco-
vered from a {mart attack of the difeafe, in which the cold
wathing, by means of a {ponze, repeated from time to time
as the heat was great, and a dofe of calomel, were the only
remedies employed.

We have before ftated, that the effe&s of cold, applied
to the fkin, when there is exceffive heat, and a@ion of the
cutaneous capillaries, is the moft effe&tual mode of inducine
Sweating, (fee Coun,) which, whether as a caufe ora con.
fequence and fign of the reduétion of fever, has been gene-
rally an object of the practice of phyficians. Many of them
endeavour, in the firft fix days of fearlet fever, to excite
perfpiration by antimonials, camphor, aromatics, dulcifed
fpirits, and volatile alkali faturated with vinegar oy juice ét
lemons. But Dr. Willan juitly remarks, that before the
decline of the efllorefcence, fuch remedies and oppreffive
coverings, for the’ moit part, fail to produce their ufual
effe&ts, and often increafe the heat, anxiety, and reftlefinefs,
which they were intended to relieve ; and that before that
decline he never fucceeded in the endeavour to excite per-
{piration, yet perfpiration is the almoit certain refult of the
external ufe of cold water, properly employed.

The mineral acids have been found ferviceable in {carla.
tina anginofa, and acidulated gargles are generally ufefd,

where the throat is much afleted, and feem to carry off
the virus with pe faliva is tainted, and thus to pre-
Yeat

BLE, VeEi R.

vent the irritation of the bowels, which it occafions when
{wallowed. The ufe of bark in the firft days of fearlatina
anginofa is now given up by the majority of practitioners
as detrimental ; but it is generally admitted that, at the
decline of the eflorefcence, if the fever alfo declines, and is
not fucceeded by a cough, the bark, mineral acids, wine,
and nutritious diet, obviate the debility and opprefiive
languor, which remain after the difeafe, and contribute to
prevent the acceflion of dropfy. (See Willan, loc. cit.)

III. The fymptoms of the Jcarlatina maligna on the firft
day, according to the author juft quoted, are nearly the
fame as in the fcarlatina anginofa ; but fome of the tollow-
ing peculiarities are afterwards obfervable ; 1. A {mall, in-
diftinét, and nregular pulle, a brown or black incrutiation
of the tongue, teeth, and lips; 2. A dull rednefs of the
eyes, a dark red flufhing of the checks, deafnefs, delirium,
or coma alternating with fretfulnefs and violence : 3. Breath
extremely fetid ; a rattling and laborious relpiration,
partly occafioned by a thick tough phlegm clogging the
fauces ; a conttriGtion of the jaws, and painful deglutition 5
afulnefs and livid colour of the neck, with retraétion of
the head: 4. Ulcerations on the tonfils and adjoining parts,
covered with dark floughs, and furrounded by a livid bafe :
5 Anacrid difcharge from the naitrils, cauting forenefs, or
chops, and even blilters, about the nofe and lips, the fluid
being at firft thin, but afterwards thick and yellowith:
6. The rath is ufually faint, excepting in a few irregular
patches; and <ll of it prefently changes to a dark or livid
red colour; it appears late, is very uncertain in its duration,
and often intermixed with purple fpots, or petechie. In
fome inftances the rath fuddeuly difappears a few hours after
it is formed, and comes out again at the expiration of a
week, continuing two or three days.

Patients who withitand the violence of the firft attack of
malignant {carlatiwa have neverthelefs to ftruggle through
a feries of moft untoward circumi{tances, continued far be-
yond the ufual febrile period. The ulcerations gradually
{pread from the throat to the gullet, laryns, and wind-pipe.
Violent pains of the bowels, and excoriations about the
nates fucceed ; alfo hetical paroxy{ms, with fuppurations
of the glands, a teizing couzh, great difficulty of breathing,
pains in the fide, anda remarkable alieration in the found of
the voice. A few recover after having been harafled, almott
inceflantly, for fix or eight weeks. In the year 1756,
when the fearlatina maligna was epidemic in London, more
than two-thirds of thofe affeéted with it died between the
{eventh and nineteenth day of the fever. The fymptoms
portending danger are, continued coma, dulneis of the
eyes, laborious breathing, diarrheea, petechiw, vibices, and
hemorrhagy. The degree of danger in the complaint does
not depend on the greater or lefs extent of the rafh on the
fkin; the filleft rednefs affords no decided fecurity, nor is
the total ebfence of it incompatible with a mild dileafe.
Many patierts fink under this difeafe, unexvectedly, at a
wery early period, as on the fecond, third, or fourth day,
no fymptoms having preceded, which could excite an ap-
prekention of immediate danger. It has been thoughi that
fo fudden a mortality is owing to a gangrenous {tate of the
throat, gullet, ftomach, inteitines, or lungs ; and this opi-
nien feems to be confirmed by diffections.

In the treatment of /carlatina maligna, a bold and perfe-
vering courfe of emetics, as recommended by Dr. Withering,
is confidered by Dr. Willan and others as the moit effec-
tual mode of obviating. the fingular malignity of this
diftemper. When adminiftered in due time, fays the lalt-
mentioned author, they very generally prevent the tranfition
from the milder to the more virulent forms of f{carlatina,

an

and remove the febrile {ymptoms at the earlieft poffible
period. Indubious cafes, if powertul dofes of ipecacuanha,
either alone, or combined with tartayized antimony, entirely
fail to produce their ufual effects, it may be concluded that
the moft unfavourable itate of the difeafe has begun, amd
that the patient’s fituation is extremely dangerous: lifters
are feldom ufeful in this form of fcarlet fever, and fome-
times prove injurious. Bleeding and purging are always
hurtful, according to Dr. Fothergill, Dr. Willan, and others;
a itrong cathartic, or even the application of a few leeches
to the’ throat, fays the latter, has been known to produce
an immediate finking, and fometimes death within a few
hours, in cafes which feemed previoufly favourable. But
from the confeffion of Dr. Binns, above noticed, we learn
than unreafonable prejudices have exifted againft purging,
in other forms of this fever ; and we cannot eafily reconcile
the encomiums on ftrong and reiterated vomiting, with the
extreme fears of moderate purging, at leaft in the commence-
ment of the difeafe.

Fumigation of the throat with nitrous acid is recommend-
ed by Dr. Willan as ufeful in keeping the throat clean, and
often fuperfeding the neceflity of gargles ; but he admits
that gaigles remove the vifcid and offenfive matter from
the throat, and thus preferve the fomach and bowels from
its dilagreeable action. Thofe prepared with contrayerva,
according to the diretions of Dr. Fothergill, (Treatife on
the Ulcerous Sore-throat, p. 64.) are the moft grateful
and advantageous: and gargles of a more ltimulating qua-
lity have been ufed with benefit. In the Weft Indies the
favourite gargle is made with capficum or Cayenne pepper,
which, though produ€tive of much pain, is faidto be very
cflicacious. Occafional immertions in warm water are re=
commended in this form of {carlatina by fome praétitioners,
Dr. Currie remarks that the affufion of cold water is fearee-
ly applicable to the f{carlatina purpurata, and that the tepid
affufion makes little impreffion- upon it. Dr. Willan has
obferved confiderable advantage from the application of
warm vinegar and brandy to the limbs, and to the greater
part of the body.

When emetics have not been exhibited at a proper period,
it becomes neceffary, as the difeafe advances, to direét cor-
dials, wine, opium, Peruvian bark, miueral acids, &e. aecord-
ing to the cireumftances of the cafe. In this point, al-
molt all authorities, foreign and Britifh, coincide, The dif-
eafe i; then to be treated as other fevers of extreme debility,
or malignancy, asit has been termed, which the gangrenous
tendency of the ulcerations, as well as the other fymptoms,
manifeftly indicate. pts

IV. In the ulcerated fore throat, which affe&s adults
without any efllorefcence on the fkin, emetics, given early,
according to Dr. Willan, prove of great advantage, and
the treatment recommended in the fcarlatina anginofa will
be found effectual. Gargles, whether acid or detergenr,
if very fharp, or if injeéted forcibly enough to remove the
floughs, oceafion much pain, and often protraét the difeafe.
Dr. Wall, Dr. Johnftone, Dr. Ruth, and. others, reeom-
mend the inhalation of the vapour of myrrh and vinegar.
Dr. Willan is of opinion, that Dr. J. Carmichael Smythe
mode of fumigation, by pouring heated oil of vitriol on
powdered nitre in a proper veffel, is intitled to a preferemce,
The refrefhing antifeptic vapour, he fays, detached by this
procefs, and circulated through the room, prefently clears
the patient’s throat, and at the fame time removes the fector
both of the breath and perfpiration. oc. cit. p. 368.)

It is truly fiagular, that the signet of all eruptive
fevers, and the mott violent, the moft fatal difeafe known in
this country, fhould rank together and {pring from the.fame

4 origing

FEV

origim, Experienee, however, has decided, that the fimple
{earlet fever, the {carlatina anginofa, the fcarlatina (or angina)
maligna, and the fcarlet ulcerating fore-throat without the
eflorefcence on the {kin, are merely varieties of one dileafe.
‘Phat all of them proceed from the fame fource of conta-
gion is evident ; becaufe under the fame roof, in large fa-
milies, fome individuals have the difeafe in one form, fome
in another, about the fame period. According to the flate
of the air, the foil, climate, or feafon of the year, one form
predominates over all the reft, and gives the general cha-
racter to every epidemic fcarlatina. Hence arife the various
accounts and opinions refpeéting it, which are to be found
in medical writers. Dr. Currie, however, remarks, “ that
the varieties of fcarlatina are, in fa&, not greater than the
varieties of the {mall-pox, to which they bear a very {tri
analogy.” (Reports, vol. ii. p. 422.) It isnow underituod,
that the fecarlet fever is lable to attack the fame individual
but once ia his life; an oceafional exception only occurring
in this, as in the fmall-pox, meafles, and other eruptive fe-
vers. (See Dr. Binns’ account, in Dr. Willan’s Treatife,
p- 283.) Dr. Withering fays, “ I have never yet feen an
inftance of the fame perfon having the fcarlet fever twice,
and I believe it tobe as great an improbability as a repetition
of the f{mall-pox.” (p. 53.)
The fearlet fever {preads rapidly by contagion, efpecially
among children, (adults are uot very fufceptible of its in-
fluence, ) and the fymptoms often commence on the third or
fourth day, and the eruption appears on the fifth cr fixth,
after expofure to the contagion. Net ouly does the conta-
gion extend itfelf rapidly, but when it once finds its way
into large families, fchools, &c. it is with great difficulty
arrefted in its progrefs, even by keeping the infeed fepa-
rate from the reft, by ftri€& attention to ventilation, and to
cleanlinefs throughout the houfe. (See Conracion.)
This was ftrongly exemplified in the year 1803, in the
feminary founded by the quakers at Ackworth, in which,
notwithftanding the ative adoption of thele meafures,
under the judicious management of Dr. Binns, 171 perfons
were affected with {carlatina, and the difeafe continued there
upwards of four months. (See the whole account in Dr.
Willan’s Treatife before quoted, p. 380, et fig.) Neverthe-
lefs, thefe meafures of prevention are advifeable in all fimilar
inftances, and in fmaller academics than that of Ackworth
they have been found effectual, when carefully purfued.
Dr. Haygarth relstes an inftance, in which thirty-feven
boarders in the family of a clergyman at Chefter were pre-
ferved from the infection, brought to the [chool by one boy,
by immediate feparation of the latter. ** My patient’s
chamber was fituated in the middle of the houfe,”’ Dr. Hay-
arth obferves, “‘at the landing of the firlt pair of ftairs.
All the feholars went clofe patt this door feveral times a
day. The rules of prevention were placed on the door, and
rigid attention to their faithful obfervance was required.
The event fully juftified my hopes. Though all the thirty-
feyen {cholars remained in the fame houfe and family during
the whole difeafe, yet not one of them was infeed.” At
this time Winchefter, and feveral other large fchools in
England, fent home and difperfed their {cholars, on account
of this difeafe, which had alarmingly fpread among them.
(See Dr. Haygarth’s letter to Dr. Percival, p. 81. | See alfo
Dr. Withering on Scarlet Fever, p. 67. and Dr. Black-
burne on the fame, p. 23.) All thefe writers give a caution
ainft the ufual practice, on the appearance of the difeafe,
of haftily dilperfing the {cholars, who may, after returning
home, diffufe contagion in their refpe&tive families and
neighbourhoods. As we deem this fubject of high public
importanee, we fhall make noapology for tranferibing the

‘

De

active meafures which were adopted, under the fuperintend-
ance of Dr, Blackburne, with fuccefs in a large academy.

«Ina numerous fchool, near town, where the f{carlet
fever had infeéted feveral young gentlemen, in coufequence
of one of them being fuffered to affociate with his {choo]-
fellows, in a few days after his recovery from the complaint,
which he had bronght with him from home, it was effeétu-
ally extinguifhed, and was attended with no unpleafant
confequences, by adopting the following means. When
it became evident that the convalefcent had infefted the
{chool, he was withdrawn, and apartments allotted to him
completely feparated both trom the healthy and the fick:
to which apartments, it will be feen, the fick were removed
after a certain period of convalefcence. The infeéted were
then conveyed to an adjoining houfe, and the doors, which
communicate between it and the bed rooms of the fchool,
were clofed up, to preclude the poffibility of any mtercourfe.
The fick were there attended by uurfes, the regular fervants
of the family being kept entirely from them ; and to prevent
efiz€tually the progrefs of any farther mifchief, not auly
their linen, but even their knives and forks, and plates, &c.
were appropriated folely to their ufe; and nothing belonging
to them was fuffered to enter the houfe, wiere the healthy
ftill remained. One of the family, who was neceflarily
called to fuperintend the management of the fick, went at
no time during the illnefs near the {chool, from an apprehen-
fion of conveying the infeétion, but confined herfelf to the
care of the invalids. The fchool-room, dining-hall, and ail
the bed-rooms, fuppofed to be infected, were immediately
cleared out, and nothing but the bare wails left; they were
then white wathed and diftempered ; the young geatlemen in
the mean time occupying apartments, which were known not
to be infected, and which were afterwards alfo diftempered
with the fame colour for the fake of uniformity. Ail the
blankets, counterpanes, &c. throughout the houfe were
feowered: the rooms ard ftaircafes were fpriak!ed with
vinegar; the bedfteads were taken down, well ferubbed, and
{punged with vinegar ; and for fome time the feather-beds
were expofed to the open air, and alfo fprinkled with
vinegar. During this period, however, and for feveral days,
fome, who had originally takea the infeGtion, but had not
fhewn the fymptoms fo early as the others, were facceflively
taken ill. They were of courfe removed from the f{choob,
and their beddivg, clothes, &c. fent with them to the fick
houfe. Thus, it being generally imagiued, that no infeétion
is communiceted in the firlt age of the complaint, it was
concluded, that fuch young gentlemen as had efcaped in the
iirft inftance were, by the afore-mentioned precautions, now
fecured from all poffible danger ; and the event fatisfaétorily
proved, that norie of thofe who fell ill in the fchool had, at
the time, infeGtive influence. ‘Phe young gentleman, who
was laft taken ill, fhewed the fymptoms on the eleventh day
in the midit of the fchool, and with him it ftopped’” (See
Faé&s and Obfervations concerning the Prevention and
Cure of Scarlet Fever, &c. by W. Blackburne, M. D. 1803,
p- 21. et feq.)

The origin of the difeafe in this fchool, namely, from a
convalefcent boy, leads us to an important qnettion refpeét-
ing the period after the ceflation of the fever, when the
patient ceafes to carry infe€tion about his perfor ; as well
as to the confideration of the means of diminifhing his infec-
tious power. Dr. Willan remarks, that * in making the
feparation here recommended, we may fafely a& on the
fuppolition, that perfons under the influence of contagion
do not communicate it till they are aGually affected with
the fever and efflorefcence’—He adds, “ it is to be res
marked, that. convalefcents from fcarlatina, notwithftand-

ing

FE VE &.

ing a minute attention to cleanlinefs and change of apparel,
remain, for favo or three weeks, capable of infecting perfons
fulceptible, efpecially children, with whom they have inter-
courfe. ‘hefe periods I have been able to afcertain in
feveral inftances.”? (Loc. cit. page 387—8.) He therefore
recommends the procefles adopted by Dr. Binns, for puri-
fying convalefcents previous to their intercourfe with the
healthy, as not sore than fufficient for the purpofe.
« When the’ fever and floughs in the throat were wholly
removed,” fays Dr. Binns, “the patients ftayed a few
days in the convalefeent rooms, and had an opportunity of
walking in the garden, at the front of the houfe, to clear
themfelves from infelion by repeated expofure to the open
air. After this they went acrofs the garden to a wafh-
houfe, about equally diltant from the fever-houfe and the
{chool, where they were entirely ftripped, aad wafhed with
foft-foap, particular attention being paid to cleanfing their
hair. “They then put on freth clothing, and went up to
the rooms in the fchool; being, however, kept apart for
{ome time longer. Their bed and body. linen was frequently
changed on their return, as it before had keen tv the fick-
rooms. When they had continued thus about a week, and
appeared to have recovered their flreneth, the general ab-
lution was repeated ; and after rambling in the fields for
fome hours, they were permitted to mix with the other
children.’ (See Dr. Willan’s Treatife, p. 383 —4.)

From thefe details, the principles upon which the pre-
vention of the fpreading of the active contagion cf {carlet
fever may be accomplifhed will be obvious ; and in order
to be effectual, they mutt be purfued in the ftricteft and
mott rigid manner ; for, as we have already pointed ont, the
extent to which infection is communicated through the air
is extremely limited ; (fee Conracion,) and therefore a
perfect feparation and interruption of intercourfe by per-
fons, clothes, utenfils, or other things, will infallibly pre-
vent its communication, And as all the forms of the
difeafe may be produced in the fame family, from any one
fource of the contagion: the precautions above f{pecified
fhould be obferved on the appearance of the fimple fcarla-
tina, as well as when our attention is called to the more
dangerous forms.of the diftemper.

With refpe& to the hiftory of /carlet fever, our limits
will not allow us to;enlarge greatly on this curious and in-
terefling part of the fubjeét: we muit content ourfelves
with a brief {ketch, and refer the reader, who may be de-
firous of amore comprehenfive view of the progrefs of the
difeafe, to Dr. Willan’s elaborate detail of the faéts, im his
treatife on Cutaneous Difeafes, to which we are indebted
for much of the information contained in this article.

The fearlet fever does not feem to have been known in
this couutry more than 150 years; for Sydenham and Mor-
ton are the firft Englth writers who mention it. Sir
Robert Sibbald, phyfician to king Charles II., for Scot-
land, fays, in the year 1680, this difeafe had appeared fo
lately at Edinburgh, and was fo little underitood, that he
could not venture to give any obfervations refpeCting it.
Sydenham only mentioned the fimple form; but Morton
has defcribed the fymptoms of fearlatina anginofa, and fome
cafes of the malignant form, which he confidered as a
variety of meafles. (See his treatife De Morbillis et Febre
Scarlatina, cap. iv—v.) During the 18th century the
difeafe was frequently epidemic in Britain, and has been
amply deferibed by- Huxham in 1734; Fothergill in 17.48;
Cotton at the fame time ; and fubfequently by feveral other
authors. On the continent of Europe, however, from a
much earlier period, it has frequently raged, and ravaged,
towns and diftricts, with all_the virulence and fatality of a

true plague. It has been defcribed again and again, by

fuceeflive obfervers in different fituations, as-a new and-

unknown difeafe, and under a great variety of denomina-
tions.

The firft account of fearlatina on record is that of In-
graffia, a Neapolitan phytician, about the year 1500; it was
then known by the name of Roffalia at Naples.

next find the difeafe epidemic in Holland in 1517, in its
malignant form, as deferibed by Foreftus; and through

Lower Germany in 1565 and 6, as defcribed by Wierus, as ©

a peftilential fore-throat. A few years afterwards the

fame diforder was epidemic at Paris, and called by Ballo-.
nius rubiole, which he carefully dittinguifhes from the :
meafles, merbilli: the mortality of the diftemper in the °
autumn of 1575 was dreadful, cfpecially among children. :
The fearlet fever and fore-throat is to be traced again in the ©

garrotilla of the Spaniards, which occurred after the influ-

enza of 1580, and remained among them forty years, :

{preading to all the fea-ports of Italy, Sicily, and Malta,
and reaching Naples in 1618, where, as in Spain, it was
deferibed asa new difeafe, under a variety of new appella-
tions, and is faid to have deftroyed 500,000 perfons within
two years : it was particularly fatal to children, This itate-
ment, however, is doubtlefs exaggerated. During this

period, we find, from the writings of Sennertus, Doringius, °

and others, that the milder forms of {carlet fever prevailed
in different parts of Germany ; and were deferibed under
the utles of morbilli ignei, roffalia, ery fipelata, and univerfal
eryfipelas. It was again defcribed as a new difeafe under
the title of © febris miliaris rubra,’? which is laid to have
appeared at Leipfick about the middle of the feventeenth
century. It was alfo called “ febris coccinea,” and “ febris
purpurea,” by other writers at Leiplick. The fcarlatina
{pread through Poland in the year 1665, and has been well
deferibed by Schultzius under the denomination of “ pur-
pura epidemia maligna.’ (SeeAG. Acad. Natur. Cur. dec. 1,
ann. 6, 7. p. 206.) It was extremely fatal among infants and
children. A few years after this 1t was noticed by various
authors in Denmark, Holland, Switzerland, Lombardy,
Bavaria, Auftria, England, and Scotland. It raged at
Berlin, under the form of f{earlatina anginofa, from 1694 to
1701, and has been well deicribed by its proper title, in the
Agta Med. Berolin. decad. i. vol. 2, and dec. ii. vul. 5. § 3.
Its f{ubfequent appearances in different parts of Germany

and Italy, until the middle of the lait century, are noticed

by feveral writers on the febris miliaris, purpura miliaris,
purpura rubra, purpura febrilis, morbilli maligni, &e. And
Dr. Willan has, in another part of his work, fated reafons
for believing the “ putrid meafles,”’ deferibed by fir Wil-

liam Watfon, as in fat a malignant fearlatina. (See Dr.-

Willan’s Treatife on Cutaneous Difeafes, pp. 284—350.

p i.)

& Fever, Spotted, the fame with petcchial, and purple fever.

See above. :
Fever, Zertian, an intermittent fever, the paroxy{ms of

which occur on alternate days, as explained above. See

Fever, Quartan. :

Fever, Zyphoid, or typhous, or fubftantively typhus,»

febris typhodes, mugizds ruQadns, of the Greeks, the oppofite

of inflammatory fever, or fever with debility, including the

nervous, contagious, malignant, and putrid fever of authors; —

as well as the varieties denominated, from the Tocal circum:
{tances of its origin, gaol, hofpital, and {hip-fever ; or, from
the predominancy of particular fymptoms, brain-fever, .
inteftinal, gaftric, and mefenteric fever, purple, {potted,
petechial fever, &c. It is the ordinary fever of temperate :
climates,

(See his”
Treatife de Tumor. preter naturam, tract 1. cap,.1.) We

FEVER.

, e .
climates, and its fymptoms, caufes, nature, and treatment,
may be confidered as having been difcufled above, under the

eneral head of Fever. See Tyruus.

Fever, Veficular, aterm applied to-a febrile difeafe, of
the exanthematous clafs, which is principally characterized
by an eruption of large watery veficles ; -it is more com-
monly denominated Pemphigus, which fee.

Fever, Worm, an appellation given by fome writers to
the febrile diforders of children, conneGted, or fuppofed to
be conneéted, with the irritation of worms in the inteftines.
See Inranrs, Difea/es of, and Worms. — :

Fever, Yellow, a name given to the endemic fever of
hot climates, from the yellownefs of the ‘kin, which com-
monly occurs in the latter ftage of tie difeafe.

his fever, which has rendered the Wett-Indian iflands,

at different periods the grave of Europeans, and has ravaged
the cities of America, has been the fubjeét of great difference
of opinion among thofe writers who have had an opportu-
nity of witneffing its phenomena : it were therefore not eafy
to decide, at a diftance, upon the points which they have
left in difpute. We fhall endeavour to give a fuccinét view
of thofe fa&ts which appear to be moft fatisfaCtorily afcer-
tained ; beginning with the fymptoms of the fever.

The approach of the yellow fever is often announced by

a feeling of laffitude, heavinefs, oppreffion, lofs of appetite,

and flight head-ache, which in a few hours, or on the fol-_
lowing day, is fucceeded by the violent fymptoms of the,
Sometimes, however, the attack is fudden and .

difeafe.
violent from the firft; the patient is feized with a faintnefs

and giddinefs of the head, with a flight degree of chillinefs
and horror, but never with a complete rigor or fhivering ;
thefe feelings are immediately followed by a high de-
gree of fever, an arid and fcorching heat of the fkin,
accompanied by acute darting pains in the head- and back,
and often down the thighs and legs, and a ftrong beating of
the arteries, particularly of the carotid and temporal arte-
ries; the face and neck are flufhed and tumid, the eyes red
and protruding, with a fenfe of burning heat in the eye-
balls, and the countenance is prim; great anxiety and op-
reflion are felt at the precordia, with an intenfe burning
in at the ftomach, and almoft continual ficknefs, which
increafes as the difeafe advances, with violent reachings, in
which bilious matter is brought up, afterwards a dark co-
loured, and fometimes a bloody fluid. There is extreme
reftleffnefs, and a heavy refpiration, with much fiching ;
the pulfe is quick, generally full and ftroug, but foft ; in
fome cafes quick, low, and vacillating. The urine is deep
coloured, and in fmall quantily., Thefe fymptoms con-
tinually increafe ; the reaching and vomiting become almoft
inceffant, the anxiety exceffive, the fighing frequent, and
the reftleffnefs fuch that there is a continual toffing, and no
eafe in any pofture, little or no fleep, and that difturbed,
unealy, and without refrefhment to the fick. Thefe fymp-
toms generally continue to the third day, but fometimes

not longer than the firft, or fecond day, or even a few |

hours, and in others to the end of the fourth day, and
may be confidered as conftituting the fix? fage of the
difeafe. / :

The fecond flage begins with an abatement of many of
the preceding fymptoms, often with a deceitful appearance
of a general remiflion of the fever. The vomiting, head-
ache, and burning heat, greatly abate or nearly, difappear ;
the pulfe lofes its ftrength, and falls to nearly the ufual fre-
quency of health in many inftances, but is always low and
feeble. “* Sometimes,” fays Dr. Mofeley, * in this period
of the difeafe, the fymptoms are fo mild, and the patient
fo tranquil, that the difeafe is fuppofed at an end, and all

"Vou. XIV.

means negleéted, or thought unneceflary, until the form
appears that fucceeds this fatal calm, arrayed in thofe
dreadful forms, which are charaCteriftic of the concluding
flage, and completes the cataftrophe.” (Treatife on Tro-
pical Difeafes, page 411.) This interval, however, is often
extremely fhort, fo that the difeafe paffes at once from the
inflammatory {tage to the black vomiting. At all events,
either a repetition of fimilar viclent fymptoms foon takes
place, accompanied with marks of greatly diminifhed ency-
gy, or the patient finks at once into a comatofe flate, only
iaterrupted by vomiting of a dark coloured, porraceous
fluid. ‘The ftomach rejeéts every thing ; the thirft, which
in fome is exceffive, in others is moderate; and the {kin is
moiftened with partial clammy fweats. The eyes, which
were before red and inflamed, now become tinged with
yellow : and this yellownefs begins to appear round the
mouth, eyes, temples, and neck, and foon afterward difiufes
itfelf over the whole fkin, varying in intenfity from a fallow
hue to a deeper orange tint: in many cafes, however, it is
altogether abfent. The yellownefs feems to ufher in the
concluding and moft fatal fymptoms of the difeafe ; and
growing deeper coloured, as the other fymptoms become ag

ravated, is the immediate forerunner of death. The lait
fritters are a deep coma, with a heavy refpiration or
convulfive kind of fighing, a low, creeping, and intermit-
ting pulfe, delirium, and confiant reitleffuefs and ftruggling,
faultering fpeech, trembling, ftarting of the tendons, vo-
miting of a black, bloody cruor, and ftools of a fimilar
nature, hamorrhagies or oozing of blood from the mouth
and noftrils, fometimes from the corners of the eyes and
ears, black urine, livid fpots or blotchcs about the fkin,
great coldaefs of the extreme parts, muttering,—and death,
either in a convulfive itruggle, a ftate of terpid apathy,
or fometimes in a calm and colleGed refignation of life. (See
Hillary on the Difeafes of Barbadoes, 2d edit. p. 150.
Mofeley, loc. cit. Lining, inthe Edinburgh Phyf. and
Literary Effays, vol. ii. art. 29.)

The preceding defcription correfponds, with the general
order and manner of the difeafe, when the patient dies
from the third or fourth to the feventh day. But many pa-
tients do not experience all the fymptoms above mentioned.
Some have no chillinéfs at firft, nor faintnefs, nor flufhings
in the face, and the pulfe is fometimes deeply depreffed, and
not quick ; and there are grofs habits of body, which have
been attacked in damp fituations in very fultry weather, in
whom the inflammatory period has been only of a few hours
duration, and the tranfition fo rapid, that the black vomit-
ing, and the gangrenous condition have unexpectedly ap-
peared, and terminated the life of the patient in twenty-
four, or thirty-fix hours. And, on the contrary, there are
fome inftances where the difeafe has been protracted to the
eighth, ninth, or tenth day; and others where it has never
pafled from the inflammatory ftage; but being checked,
though not extinguifhed, it has been lengthened out, and
at lait converted into a remittent of great duration, of moft
difficult cure, and t-dious recovery. (Moieley.) In other
cafes, it does not pads through thofe ftages, nor put on the
moft characteriftic fymptoms of the difeafe. Speaking of
the yellow fever, in December, Dr. Pinckard fays, ** Many
of the fick now fall into a ftate of coma, and without ex-
hibiting any other ftriking mark of illnefs, without uttering

~a complaint or a groan, fink very rapfdly into the arms of

death. The countenance becomes pale; the {kin afumes
t :

a clay or lead-colonred hue; a ttupor dupéreenes ; th

tient lies ina ftate of tranquil infenfibility ; and without

yellownefs, or the other common marks of the fever, and

in the courfe of a few ‘days he fleeps to wake no more!
Searctimes

© pa-
© pa

Zz

BokoViyEoRey

Sometimes only a few hours complete the courfe of the
Giteafe.”? (Notes on the Welt Indies, vol. iii. p. 198.)
‘Thete various anomalies in the-fever arife from the different
feafon in which it occurs, the difference of conflitution,
and habits of life of the patients, as well as of the pre-
difpofing and oceafional caufes, the early treatment, &c.
The greateft diftrefs, it would appear, during all the
periods of the yellow fever, arifes from the flate of the pre-
cordia ; the burning heat, the anxiety and oppreffion, the
conftant vomiting, the extreme forenefs and uneafinefs,
complained of from the leaft preflure at the pit of the tto-
mach, all point to that region, which, ia the words of
Warren, “feems from the beginning to be the chief feat
and throne of the furious conqueror.” (Ina treatife on
this fever addrefled to Dr. Mead.) Hillary aferibed this
particular and uniform fuffering about the precordia to
the vicinity of the liver and gall-bladder ; but it feems to
be attributed with more correéinefs to the ftate of the fto-
mach by others. For as Dr. Mofeley obferves, ‘“ this
vilcus feems to bear the chief burden. of the difeafe, while
life remains, and the priucipal internal vettiges of its effects
after death.” He obferves, in another place, ‘¢ oninfpeét-
ing many dead bodies, I have always found fome part or
other of the ftomach, and frequently the fuperior part of
the duodenum in a gangrenous ftate, and never without
evident marks of injury from inflammation, let the difeafe
have been of ever fo fhort duration. Thefe appearances
are univerfally produced by a mortal yellow fever; but
from the appearance of the liver, and gall-bladder, though
both muft be materially affeCted in this difeafe, there is no
inference to be drawn that can be depended on.”? (Loc.
cit. p. 414.) Dr. Pinckard’s obfervations aceord with the
preceding ftatement ; he fays ‘ the appearances were not
precifely fuch, as from converfing with other pra¢titioners,
and reading a variety of authors, we had been led to expe&t.
The ftomach was found to be the organ which exhibited
the ftrongeft’ marks of derangement. The inner coat was
furcharged with blood, appearing very red, and at one fpot
near the upper orifice it was of a livid hue, and its texture
fo weakened, that the finger was paffed through it by only
a flight preffure.? (Loc. cit. vol. ii, p. 226.) This author
flates in other parts of his book, that fimilar appearances
were obferved in other cafes, which were examined by dif-
feGtion. (Ibid. p. 322, &c.) Dr. Ruth, however, affirms,
and from what we know of other fevers, we believe truly,
that the morbid appearances of the internal parts of the
body, as they appear by diffeétion after death, from the
yellow fever, are different in diflerent countries, and in the
fame countries in different years; as the fame difeafe during
different epidemic feafons aflumes very different afpeds.
Lroin the obfervations of feveral phyficians, quoted by Dr.
Rufh, it appears that the liver and gall-bladder have been
often difeafed in the yellow fever, marks of inflammation
and gangrene, and a morbid colour and confiftency of the
bile, having been dete&ted. The difleGions of Dr. Mit-
chell, Dr. Mackiltrick, Dr. Phyfick, and others, coincide
in the difcovery of inflammatory difeafe in the ftomach.
«The ftomach was inflamed both on its outfide aud in-
fide ;” fays the firft of thefe phyficians, < its villous coat,
like that of the duodenum, was covered with fuzzy and
flimy matter.’ The fecond, after ftating that the liver
was differently affeGted in different cafes, fays ‘the ftomach,
the duodenum, and ilinm were remarkably inflamed in all
cafes.” The two laft mentioned gentlemen remark, ‘¢ that
the ftomach, and beginning of the duodenum, are the parts
that appear moft difeafed,” and inflammation of the villous
membrane at the pyloric end of the ftomach extending into

the duodenum, was the difeafe in fome ; extravafations of
blood in others; the former in thofe who died early in
difeafe, the latter in thofe who died at a more protracted
period. In thofe cafes in which the brain was examined by
Dr. Mitchell, * it was not affef&ted,’? and the two latt-
mentioned phyficians affirm, ‘that the brain in all parts
has been found in a natural condition.” (See Dr. Ruth’s
Account of the Bilious Remitting Yellow Fever of Philae
delphia, in 1793, 2d edit. pp. 114—122.) We may re-
mark, by the way, that thefe fa&s are fomewhat adverfe to’
the do€trine of fever, lately promulgated by Dr. Clutter-
buck, on which we have animadverted above, when treating
of the doétrines refpeCting the nature of fever in general.

The yellow fever has been aflerted by fome writers to be
a new difeafe, the produét of modern times, and even un-
known till within a very recent period. We believe, how-
ever, with Dr. Mofeley, Dr. Miller of New York, and
others, that it is a modification of that difeafe which was
familiar to Hippocrates, Areteus, Galen, and other phy-
ficians of antiquity, the charaéteriftic fymptoms of which
have been defcribed by them, and the prognoitic indica-
tions well peinted out. It is, in fact, the xztr0:, can/usy
and febris ardens of the ancients, aggravated by the ex-
ceeding heat of climate. Hippocrates obferves, in the
ninth feé&tion of his book of Crifes, ‘ in burning fevers
(the cau/us,) a yellowne/s of fkin appearing on the fifth day,
and accompanied by hiccup, is a fatal fymptom.” The
terrible fymptom of black vomiting is alfo frequently men-
tioned by Hippocrates, and reprefented as being of fatal
import. Inthe twelfth fe@ion of his prognoffics, he aflerts, °
that if the matter yomited be of a livid or black colour, it
betokens ill. In the firft feGion of book i. of his Caan
prognoftics, he enumerates black vomiting in a catalogue of
the molt fatal fymptoms. And alfo in the fourth fection of
the fame book, he confiders porraceous, livid, or black
vomitings, as indications of great malignancy. ‘Thefe max
ims imply the familiarity of their great author with thofe
fymptoms which are not known except as belonging to
the yellow fever. (See a Paper by Dr. Miller of New .
York, in the Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, for
July, 1807.)

This deftru€tive fever has never been known to appear,
except either in tropical climates, or in thofe feafons, in
the more temperate climates, in which the atmofpheric
heat has for fome length of time been equal to the tropical
heat, that is, at er above 80° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, »
This fa@, Dr. Blane afferts, is inconcrovertibly eftablithed
by obfervation ; for there is no inftance, either in North
America or Europe, of the yellow fever appearing, except
at thefe degrees of heat, nor of its furviving after the at-
mofphere had fallen to a lower degree of temperature.
This is lefs to be wondered at in North America, where
the winters are extremely fevere, but it holds equally true
at Cadiz, Malaga, Gibraltar, and other parts of Spain,
where the winters are warm, and where this difeafe fpon-
taneoufly difappeared, in degrees of heat equal to the ufual
fummer heats in the noith of Europe. (See Dr. Blane’s
Letter to Baron Jacobi, refpe@ting the Prevention of the
Yellow Fever, in the Edinburgh Journal, for O&ober,
1807.)

1 feems to be well afcertained, then, that the yellow fee
ver is an endemic of hot climates, or an epidemic of hot —
feafonsin other climates ; and this fa& willenable us to ex-
plain the hiftory of the difeafe, as well as to difpel our fears,
that it may ever be brought to this country. By Dr.
Mofeley it is called the * endemial caufus” of the Welt
Indies, e ;

i

FEVER.

Tt isa well known fa, that when Europeans firll take
up their refidence in tropical climates, it is ufual for them,
fooner or later after their arrival, to undergo an attack of
the endemic fever ofthe country. This fever of the vifitors

of the Welt Indies, in times of tranquillity, when the “ new
comers” are few, istermed a * /ea/oning fever ;?? but Dr.
Pinckard obferves, <‘in times of war, when, from great
multitudes arriving at the fame time, its deftrutive effects
are more ftriking, it is baptized with the terrific name of
yellow fever”? "This circumftance ferves to explain the
can of the opinion that this fatal fever is the produét of
modern times ; when the fyftem of colonial war has only
multiplied the victims whom it might facrifice. (See Notes
on the Weft Indies, vol. iii. p. 416and 445.) The ordinary
yellow fever feems to be juftly confidered by the moft accu-
rate obfervers as an aggravated form of the ‘ bilious re-
mitting fever,’? common to hot climates, efpecially where
aparticular condition of the foil, or fome other fource of
Avia, co-operates with the heat. The natives, or old
refidents in thofe fituations, become habituated to the in-
fluence of thefe cates, and are lefs liable to be affeted by
this fever; and when they do fuffer it, it is in a lefs fevere
degree. Creoles atid negroes, Dr. Pinckard remarks, are
not often affeéted with the difeafe, and are not {ubject to it
in its continued or moft malignant form, but when it does
invade them, it nore commonly affumes an intermittent or
remittent type. Europeans, who have refided during a
period of feveral years in the Weft Indies, have become in a
great meafure habituated to the climate, and have acquired
a ftate of conftitution approaching to that of the natives ;
they are feldom attacked by the fever in its continued form ;
it commonly affeéts them in a remittent type. It is almoft
exclufively in ftrangers, and in thofe from a northern climate,
that the difeafe afflumes the malignant and continued form.

North America, the inhabitants, who conftantly refide
in the moft fouthern ftates, are feldom attacked with the
fever in its more violent or continued form; while thofe of
the north-eaft ftates are deftroyed by it in great numbers.
Ina word, it appears that perfons fuffer the fever of hot
climates in the different degrees of violence and feverity of
form, according as they are more or lefs feafoned or habi-
tuatec to the temperature under which it occurs. Hence it
has been properly fuggefted, that, in order to preferve our
troops fent on fervice to the Welt Indies, they fhould be
Pepeue for the climate gradually ; for example, by firft
etting them ferve for atime at Gibraltar, and afterwards
employing them for a year or two in the more windward
iflands, as Barbadoes and Antigua, before they were fent to
the other celonies.

Among the Europeans attacked with the ardent fever of
the Weft Indies, the difeafe varies according to the ftate of
the conftitution. ‘hus the ftrong and plethoric, thofe of
rigid fibre and rich blood, are the moft liable to be attacked,
and fuffer the difeafe moft violently and fatally. Hence,
thofe who perfevere in their accuftomed ftrong and ftimu-
Jating diet fuffer in like manner more feverely than thofe
whole vigour of habit is fomewhat reduced by extreme tem-
perance. Itis obferved that perfons are moft frequently
attacked during or after expofure to great heat or fatigue,
and to the night air, when it becomes cold and moift. Hence,
on the one hand, thofe employed as cooks and black{miths
Samar ety liable to be feized, and fentinels, men occu-
pied in fifhing, and boat parties, on the other, We have

before mentioned,, when {peaking of the caufes of fever, a
fact related by Dr. Lind, that a-boat’s crew was three times
deftroyed and replaced, after going on fhore for provisions

yellow fever.

in the night, the whole being as often feized with remittiag
fever, on the coaft ef Africa,

This cndemic cau/usy like the remittents or northera
climates, is more particularly prevalent in feafons when
moift and marfh exhalations co-operate with great heats, or
cold and damp nights alternate with hot days. Hence, in
more northern climates they have occurred only in the au-
tumnal feafons, as at Cadiz in 1800, and at Malaga in 1803,
and commonly at fimilar periods in New York and Phila-
delphia. After inveftigating the caufe of an exceflive pre-
valence of yellow fever in Demarara, in the month of
July, Dr. Pinckard concluded that it was ‘‘ probably the
mere effe&t of the feafon, refulting from the increafed heat
of the days, the damp chillinefs of the evenings, and the
offenfive miafmata exhaled from half-expofed mud.”?—* The
quantity of rain that now falls is not fuflicient to cover the
feculent fediment of the numerous ditches, nor to prevent
their unwholefome vapours from rifing into. the atmofphere ;
and the partial fhowers, which occur during the evening and
night, by foftening the half-dried furface, favour the exha-
Jation, while they produce a chilling dampnefs, which per-
haps contributes to render the body more than ufually fuf-
ceptible of impreffion. The evenings are now fo much
colder to our feelings than we have found them during the
preceding months, that we have lately been able‘to fit with
the door fhut, and have even thought that a blanket, during
the night, might have been fupportable.” (Notes, vol. ii.
Pp. 52.) Writing again from Demarara, in the enfuing
month, (\uguft,) Dr. Pinckard fays, ‘¢ the prefeut mo-
ment may be faid tobe the high feafon of the pe/loaw fever.
It now rages in its utmeft violence, and with forrow I re-
mark that great numbers perifh from its malignity. Until
the partial rains of the prefent period have ceafed,.and the
dry feafon be weil f{etin, it is faid that we are to expeGa
continuance of. ficknefs, &c.”? (Ibid. p. 83.) In this
refpe@ the difeafe is altogether analogous to the autumnal
remittents of our temperate climates, or of the warmer extra-
tropical countries, when moitture fucceeds or alternates with
warmth, as we have already mentioned, when treating of the
caufes of fever. Webkave there feen that moift weather,
after heat, generally produces a remittent fever, in conn
tries where the foil is favourable to the formation of miaf-
mata, and this is milder in its fymptoms in the more northern
and more violent in the fouthern degrees of latitude ; thus
it is an ague, er a remittent of moderate feverity in England
and Holland, but afevere and fatal ardent fever on the
banks of the Nile and the Euphrates, after inundations have
left the ground moift and flimy. On the fhores of the Me-
diterranean, where Hippocrates praétifed, and frequently
faw the yellow fkin and black vomit of the ardent fever,
Dr. Cleghorn found that the common tertian fever, when
it attacked Englifhmen, put on the ufual fymptoms of the
(On the Difeafes of Minorca, p. 176.) Dr.
Ruth, and other phyficians of Philadelphia, and alfo thofe
of New York, Dr. Miller, &c. are fatisfied that the yelfoew
fever, which has appeared im thofe cities in the autumnal
feafons of hot years, originated in thole cities, and was but
an aggravation of the ordinary remitting fever, In Phila-
delphia the origin of the fever has been traced to the
{treets adjoining the docks and wharfs; in 1793, it was
more particularly attributed to. the putrefaGion of a large
quantity of damaged coffee, which was expofed in July or
a wharf ia the dock, inthe vicinity of which the fever com-
menced. In New York, in 1805, Dr. Miller fays, “on
the whole, the low grounds on the margin of the two rivers
certainly produce a ehief part of the cafes.’? The different

422 degrees,

FEVER.

degrees, then, of fever originating from miafmata, accord.
ing tothe heat of the climate or feafon in which they oecur,
appear to bein the following f{eale ; 1. Common mild inter-
mitting fever, 2. Common remitting, or-bilious remitting
fever, and, 3. The yellow fever. Ttiefe feem to bear the
fame relation to each other, as, 1. The fimple continued fever.
2. The contagious typhus, or gaol-fever; and, 3. The
plague. (See Dr. Ruth onthe Feverof 1793, in Philadel-
phia, 2d edit. p. 178. Dr. Pinckard, loc. cit. vol. iii. p. 417.
Dr. Miller, Report to the Governor of tlie State of New
York, in the Edin. Med. and Surg. Journal, ~ before
quoted.) Dr. Miller puts the identity of the ordinary re-
mittent fever and the yellow fever ina ftrong light; “ as
the materials of putrefaGtion, and the degrees of heatin a
large city,’ he obferves, “ greatly exceed what is found in
the adjacent country ; fo the difeafe arifing under fuch cir-
cufnftances muft be proportionably more malignant. ‘The
pettilential fevers of our city differ only in grade from the
bilious and remittent fevers of the country. They prevail
in the fame climates; they come on at the fame feafon of
the year; they are chiefly difpofed to attack perfons of the
fame cenftitution ; they commit their ravages on the fame
organs of the body, and produce fymptoms rae only
in degree, and they decline and difappear at the fame feafon,
and under the fame circumftances. In the city we often
fee in the fame family, and under equal circumitances of ex-
pofure, the malignant forms of peftilence, and the mild
forms of remittent fever; and in the country, while the
great mafs of cafes are ufually mild, we occafionally meet
with fome, which exhibit the violent attack, the intenfe
malignity, and the rapid diffolution, which more frequently
mark the peftilential fevers of the city.’? The identity of
the yellow and bilious remitting fevers is maintained, in
equally ftrong terms, by Dr. Ruth, and twelve other phy-
ficians, who prefented a memorial to the governor of Penn-
fylvaniaon the fabje@. Their reafons for this opinion are
the following: 1. The famenefs of their origin ; both be-
ing the offspring of putrefaction. 2. The yellow fever
makes its appearance in thofe months chiefly in which the
bilious fever prevails, and-is uniformly checked by the fame
caufes, viz. heavy rains and frofts. 3. The fymptoms of
the bilious and yellow fever are the fame im their nature.
4<« The common bilious and yellow fever often run into each
ether; andthe improper ufe of remedies will mutually con-
vert them. 5. The common bilious and yellow fevers are
alike contagious, under certain circumftances of the weather,
&c. 6. They mutually propagate each other. 7. And,
laitly, the yellow fever affects the fyftem more than once,
jn common with the bilious fever. (Ruth. loc. cit. vol. v.
P» 455 et feqg.) Thele reafons are fatisfa€torily dluitrated
at fome length.

Ts the yellow fever contagious ? Jt might appear rather
extraordinary to the general reader, that the eye-witnefles
of fo fatala peftilence thould be at variance with refpecé to
the exiftence or non-exiftence of contagion connected with
it 5 were it not recolleéted that a fimiar difagreement and
difeuffion have oceurred with regard to the contagious na-
ture of the plague itfelf, and more particularly among the
phyficians of the 16th and 17th centuries, who had the
moft frequent opportunities of witnefling its devaitations.
Some of the writers who contend for the identity of the
yellow and remittent fevers deny the exiftence of conta-
gion‘in both: while others maintain that thefe two fevers’
are eflentially diltin@, the latter being void of contagion,
and the yellow fever being propagated by contagion only.
Moft of the Weft Indian phyficians deny the contagion of

yellow fever; while Dr, Chifholm, and feveral of the
Americans, confider the difeafe as generally imported and
extremely contagious. We commonly find truth between
the extremes. It has been well underftood, at leaft fince
the time of Dr. Lind, that the effluvia of human bodies,
even in health, when accumulated in clofe and crowded fitu-
ations, become capable of exciting fever, or, in other words,
become infedious ; and that thofe which arife from the bodies
of perfons labouring under febrile difeafes {till more readi-
ly become infectious, and propagate the original difeafe,
whether idiopathic fever, dyfentery, eryfipclas, &c. (See
Contraction.) Upon thefe grounds, it would feem, Dr.
Rufh and his colleagues maintain the occafional contagious
influence of both the vellow and bilious remittent fever. ‘* In,
a Welt India climate,’’ he fays, ‘¢ where the accumulation.
of the effluvia from tick people is prevented by open doors
and windows, it is eafy to conceive this (yellow) fever cannot
be often propagated by contagion. Even in our own
country, (Pennfylvania,) it has rarely been obferved to be,
contagious in the months of July and Auguft. But after.
cool weather renders it neceflary to exclude the frefh air
from fick rooms, it is as eafy to conceive the fame effluvia
may be fo accumulated and concentrated, as to produce the
difeafe in other people. In this way it was propagated in
fome inftances during the year 1797, but by no means fo.
often as in 1793, under equal circumitances.”” (Med. Ing.
and Obf. vol. v. p. 37.)

The teftimony of many other writers might be adduced,
in corroboration of the fact, that yellow fever. been
often propagated by contagion, efpecially under the cir-
cumftances juft alluded to; we fhall content ourfelves with.
ftating the following faéts and obfervations. ** Some.
late authors,’””? fays the veteran Dr. Wright, “ who have
written on Welt India difeafes, have roundly afferted, that,
in tropical countries fevers are not contagious ; but whoever
has had the care of crowded hofpitals, of gaols, of thips of
war, or of tranfports full of troops, muft have feen 1 rous.
and fatal inftances of contagion in the Welt Indies; more.
efpecially where cleanlinefy and free ventilation have been
negleéted. From caufes of this fort a moft fatal and deltruc-
tive diforder broke out in the Weit Indies in 1793, and foon
after in Philadelphia, viz. the yellow fever. From Dr..
Rufh’s book, and from the numerous letters of my corre-
fpondents, there remains not a doubt in my mind of the
yellow fever being typhus, exalted to a great degree of viru-
lence from climate, fituation, and other adventitious circum-
ftances.”? (See Practical Obfervations on the Treatment of
Acute Difeafes, particularly thofe of the Weft Indies, by
Wm. Wright, M.D., &c. in the Med.. Fa&ts and Obt.
vol. vii. p. 6.) Dr. Chifholm.has advanced fome ftrong evi-
cence to prove, that the malignant yellow fever, which Dr.
Wright alludes to, was generated on board a fhip on the
coait of Africa (at Bulama or Boulam), aud the contagion
imported to Grenada ; whence it was afterwards carried to
the other leeward iflands, and to Philadelphia, We
cannot here follow out the whole detail of circumftances as.
given by Dr. Chitholm; the following are fome of the
leading facts. The fhip Hankey failed from England,
laden with ftores, and upwards of 200 adventurers, for the
projected colony at Boulam. The project failed, and they
all lived on board during nine months on this coaft. In this _
crowded veffel a malignant fever broke out, and deftroyed
three-fourths of the crew, leaving only the mate and two
feamen to navigate the fhip when fhe failed. Four men
were put on board from fhips of war at St. Jago to aid in
navigating her to the Welt Indies. On the third day after

leaving

FEVER.

leaving St. Jago, the men they procured from the fhips of
war were feized with the fever, and two of the four died ;
the remaining two were put on fhore at Grenada and St.
Vincent in a wretched ftate. No method was taken to pu-
rify or ventilate the fhip, or the clothes, bedding, &c.
From the period at which the Hankey arrived at Grenada,
viz. the 13th of February, 1793, Dr. Chifholm dates the
commencement of the deftruGtiive yellow fever, the progrefs
of which he defcribes in the following manner. A captain
Remington was the firft perfon who vifited the Hankey
after her arrival in St. George’s bay. He went on board
the evening after fhe anchored, and remained tiree days, at
the end of which time he left St. George’s, and proceeded-in
a coafting veffel to Grenville bay, where his own hip lay.
He was feized with the malignant fever on the paflage ;
and the violence of the fymptoms increafed fo rapidly, as on
the third day to put an end to his exiftence. The crew of
the Defiance were the next who fuffered by viliting this
fhip ; the mate, boat{wain, and four failors went on board
the day after her arrival; the mate remained either on deck
orin the cabin, but the reft went below, and ftayed all night
there. All of them were immediately feized with the
fever, and died in three days. The mate was alfo taken ill,
‘but, probably from his having been lefs expofed to the vi-
rulence of the infection, he recovered. The crew of the thip
Baillies, from the fame imprudent civility or curiofity, were
thennext who fuffered. ‘hefe communicated the infeGtion
tothe fhips neareft them ; and it gradually {pread from thofe
neareft the mouth of the Carenage, where the Hankey for
fome time lay, to thofe at the bottom of it ; not one efcaping
in fucceffion, whatever means the captains took to prevent
it. Had the difeafe arifen from the exhalations from the
Lagoon, or the mangroves around that piece of water, it
mutt have originated of courle among the fhips in the inner
part of the harbour, Dr. Chifholm remarks, and its pro-
grefs would have been outward towards the mouth of the
Carenage, and not inward towards the bottom of the har-
bour. In the thort {pace of time from the beginning of
March to the end of May, 200 of about 500 failors, who man-
ned the fhips of the regular trade, died of this fever. About
the middle of April the difeafe began to appear on fhore.
The firft houfe in which it thewed itfelf was fituated clofe to
the wharf, and the infe@tion was evidently introduced, Dr.
C. fays, by a negro wench, who took in failors’ clothes to
wath; it extended to every individual of the family, a few
negroes excepted. Among the troops, it firlt appeared in
that part of the garrifon quartered neareft to where the
Hankey lay. One of the officers vilited the fhip, and with
two or three foldiers who rowed his boat, remained on board
fome time. The confequence of this imprudence was fatal
to himfelf almoit immediately after ; and ina little time to
many of the men;. the officers and men were fucceffively
feized, but it proved fatal only to recruits who had lately
joined. (See an Effay on the Malignant Peftilential Fever,
introduced into the Weft Indian Iflands from Boulam, on the
coaft of Guinea, as it appeared in 1793, 4, 5, and 6, inter-
fperfed with obfervations and facts, tendiug to prove that
the epidemic exifting at Philadelphia, New York, &c. was
the fame fever introduced by infeétion from the Weit
India iflands, &c. by C. Chifholm, M.D., &c. vol. i.)
How far the latter part of the itatement in the title page is
proved, we cannot pretend to decide.
Dr. Blane has ftated a circumi{tance, very clearly fhewing
_ the propagation of yel/ow fever by contagion, ‘* The pre=
valence of yellow fever being limited by a determinate range
of atmofpheric heat,” he fays, “and alfo by a certain
degree of purity of air, many people of the beft under-

ftandings, who either did not know, or had not maturely
confidered the whole facts, have contended that itis not of
an infeétious nature. The doubts refpecting this are founded
on arguments fimilar to what have been employed in fup-
port of the paradoxical opinion entertained by fome au-
thors, even of our own times, that the plague itfelf isnot
contagious. ‘The infeétion of both may be aptly compared
to the feeds of vegetables, or the eggs of animals, which
require a nice concurrence of certain degrees of heat, moif-
ture, reft, nutriment, &c. to animate them. Infeétious
matter has, by a very appropriate metaphor, been termed
the feeds of the difeafe; and by a fimilar propriety of ex-
preffion, it has been faid, that acertain nidus is neceflary to
give iteffect. The nidus of the yellow fever isa given
range of atmofpheric heat, and a certaia concentration and
corruption of animal efHluvia, but equally indifpenfable.
It would be too tedious to enumerate the various proofs,
derived from my own obfervation, and the teltimony of
others, in proof of the infectious nature of yellow fever; 1
fhall content myfelf with citing one, taken from my letter
to Mr. King, minifter of the {tates of America to this court,
who applied to me on this fubjeét in the year 1798- On
the 16th of May, 1795, the Thetis and Huflar frigates cap-
tured two Trench armed fhips from;Guadaloupe, on the coaft
of America. One of thefe had on board fome men ill of the
yellow fever ; and out of fourteen hands fent from the Huf-
far to navigate and take care of her, nine died of this fever
before fhe reached. Halifax, on the 28th of the fame month,
and the five furvivors were fent to the hofpital fiek of the
fame diftemper. Part of the prifoners were fent on board
the Huffar; and though care was taken to fele& thofe
feemingly in perfe&t health, the difeate {pread rapidly in that
fhip, fo that near one-third of the whole crew was more or
lefs affeGted with it.’”? (Letter to Baren Jacobi, before
quoted.)

Thefe faéts, and many others that might be adduced;
leave no doubt, we apprehend, that a contagious yellow fever
often exilts; which may be, in fome initances, the remitting
bilious fever rendered infectious by the clofe, crowded, and
unventilated fituation of the patients; and, in others, the
ordinary ¢yphus, fhip’or hofpital fever, aggravated by the in~
fluence ot a hot climate on the European conftitution, or at
leaft on a conftitution habituated to cold in the winter, as
in the inhabitants of North America. At the fame time, it
cannot be queftioned, that the bilious remitting fever, which
is endemic in hot climates, is not ordinarily a contagious
difeafe. (See Lind on Fevers and Infeétion, chap, ii.
feet. 5.) The advocates for the univerfally infeGious na-
ture of the yellow fever, when it has appeared as an epi-
demic and pettilential difeafe, have attempted to lay down
the diagnoftics of the remittent and the epidemic, but, it ap-
pears to us, with little fuccefs. ‘They admit of the yellow-
ne{s in both, of the black vomit, and of petechiz in both ;
(fee Chifholm, loc. cit. vol. i. chap. 6, 7. Dr. Currie of
Philadelphia, quoted by Dr. Ruth, loc. cit.) but an occa-
fional difference in the degrees of feverity can. fcarcely be
confidered as marking an effential difference in. the two.
difeafes. The name of yellow fever has, indeed, led fome
phyficians to fuppofe that a yellow colour of the {kin was
effential to this fever; but this miftake has been pointed out
by Drs. Mofeley, Ruth, Pinckard, and others. ‘* The yel-
lownefs of the flan,”? Dr. Mofeley obferves, ‘like the black
vomiting, is not an invariable fymptom of this fever ; thofe
who are fortunate enough to recover feldom have it; and
many die without its appearance.. Betides, the yellownefs
alone leads to nothing certain; it may arife from an inoffen-
five fuffusion of bile.’® (Qn Tropical Diltales, p. 399-

5 See

rs

FEVER.

See alfo: Dri Pinckard’s notes, &e. vol. ii, p. 224. Dr.
Ruhh, loc. cit. p. 238.) As thofe who have been daily
occupied in the mid{t of the devaftation of the yellow fever
have difagreed as to the mode of its propagation, it is im-
poflible to decide, at a diftance, in what inftances it was
eombined with contagion, or when it was the refult of the
feafon and miafmata only. It would feem, however, that
while the probability of infe€tion arifing in the clofe and
crowded parts of a large city, when a fever is by any means
introduced, is very great ; the a¢tual progrefs of the fever
of Philadelphia, for inftance, appears to favour the notion
of an exifting contagion. (See an Account of the Fever of
Philadelphia, in 1793, by Matthew Carey. )

The violence and rapidity of the fymptoms of yellow
fever render the prognofis extremely difficult and uncertain :
no particular fymptom affords any accnrate prognoltic ; and
it is only from attention to the general {tate of the patient,
or the refult of a combination of all the figns, that any idea
of what the event may be is to be obtained. The ftate of
the eyes, the change of voice, the general afpeét of the
countenance, and the degree of torpor or infenfibility of the
fyitem, afford the moft important information. Dr. Chif-
holm remarked, ‘that the longer the fymptoms of the in-
flammatory diathefis continued, provided their violence was
net progreflive, the event became more favourable; and, on
the contrary, that when the fudden difappearance of thefe
was immediately fucceeded bya feeming ftate of apyrexia, the
worlt fymptoms, fuch as coma, delirium, clammy cold
{weats, vibices, and death, might be foon expeéted. In
the firft cafe, the patient was gradually thrown into an agree-
ably warm and univerfal diaphorefis ; irritability of ftomach
eeafed ; the eyes became more lively ; and, in a little while
after, the figns of returning health were evident.”? (Chif-
holm, loc. cit..chap. v.)

Dr. Ruth prefents us with the following combinations of
fymptoms, as indicating a more or lefs favourable iffue of the
difeafe.

Signs of moderate danger —1. A chilly fit accompanying
the attack of the fever. The longer this chill continues, the
mmore favourable. 2. The recurrence of chills every day, or
twice a day, or every other day, with the return of the exa-
cerbations of the fever. A coldnefs of the whole at the
above periods without chills, a coldnefs with a profufe
fweat, cold feet and hands with febrile heat in other parts
of the body, and a profufe {weat without chills, or coldnefs,
are all lefs favourable fymptoms than a regular chilly fit,
buvthey jndicate lefs danger than their total abfence during
the courfe of their fever. 3. A puking of green or yellow
bile on the firft day of the difeafe is favourable. A dif.
charge of black bile, if it oceur on the fir# day of the
fever, is not unfavourable. 4. A difcharge of green and
yellow ftools, It is more favourable if the ftools are
of a dark or black colour, and of a fetid and acrid na-
ture, onthe firft or fecond day of the fever. 5. A foft-
nefs and moifture on the fkin, in the beginning of the
fever. 6. A fenfe of pain in the-head, or a fudden tranfla-
tion of pain from internal to external parts of the body,
particularly to the back. An increafe of pain after bleed-
ing. 7. A fore mouth, 8. A white or a yellow tongue.
9. Anearly difpofition te fpit freely, whether excited by na-
ture, or the ufeofmercury. ro. Blood becoming fizy, after
having exhibited the ufual marks of great morbid a@ion in
the blood-veffels. 11. Great and exquifite fenfibility in the
fenfe of feeling coming ow near the clofe of the fever.

Signs of great danger—1. An attack of the fever, fud-
denly fucceeding great terror, anger, or the intemperate ufe
of venery. 2, The firlt paroxy{m coming on without any
premonitory fymptoms, ora chilly fit. 3. A-coldnefs over

the whole body, without chills for two or three days:
4. A fleepinefs on the firt and fecond days of the fever.
5. Uncommon palenefs of the face, not induced by blood
letting. 6. Conftant or violent vomiting without any dif-
charge of bile. 7. Obftinate coftivenefs, or a difcharge of
natural or white ftools. 8. A diarrhcea towards the clofe
of the fever. go. A fuppreflion of urine. It is moit alarm
ing when without pain. vo. A difcharge of dark-coloured
and bloody urine. 11, A cold, cool, dry, fmooth, or fhining
{kin, 12. The appearance of a yellow colour in the face on
the firlt or fecond day of the fever. 13. The abfence of
pain, or a fudden ceffation of it, with the common fymp-
tyms of great danger. 14. A difpofition to faint upon a
little motion, and fainting after lofing but a few ounces of
blood. 15. A watery, glafly, or brilliant eye. A’red eye
on the fourth or fifth day of the difeafe: it is more alarm-
ing if it become fo after having been previoufly yellow.
16. Imperfe& vifion, and blindnefs in the clofe of the dif
eafe. 17. Deafnefs. 18. A preternatural appetite, more
efpecially in the laft ftage of the fever. 19. A flow, inter=
mitting, and fhattered pulfe. 20. Great reftleffnefs, deli-
rium, and long contitiued coma, 21. A difcharge of cof
fee-coloured or black bile from the ftomach after the fourth
day ef the fever. (Ruth. Med. Ing. &c. vol. v. p. 129—
133.)

she methods of cure adopted in the yellow fever have
been very diflimilar, and not very fuccefsful, on the whole.
That the praétice purfued in different countries, and in the
fame country at different times, muft be diffimilar, if ju-
dicioufly chofen, cannot be doubted; for the fame difeafe,
when epidemic at different periods, and under different cir-
cumftances of climate, conttitution of the people, feafons,
&c. is wont to affume very different charalers, and to de-
mand a correfponding difference of treatment. It has been
too much the practice with medical men to preferibe’ for
the name of a difeafe, negle€tiig the varieties of type and
charaéter which it puts on; but it is fufficient to mention
the modifications of {mall-pox and fcarlet fever, to prove
the error of fuch fweeping rules of treatment. Between
the mild diftin@ fmall-pox, ard the virulent confluent fmall-
pox, there is hardly any analogy (in a practical view): and
between the fimple fearlet fever, which is fearcely a difeafe,
if the bufy hand of art does not interfere with it, and the
pettilential {carlet fever with the malignant ulcerated fore
throat, the practical difference is as wide as poffible: yet
they are the fame difeafe, originating from the fame poifon.
In like manner, the yellow fever, when it occurs as a remite
tent among the natives or long inhabitants of hot climates;
as a more fevere remittent or continued fever, among the
emigrants from northern latitudes, or the people of coun-
tries where a tropical degree of heat is only cafual; or as
combined with a typhoid contagion: in all thefe cafes’ it
affumes a form varied in point of feverity and fatality; not
to mention the varieties of the fame form, according to the
different epidemic conftitution, as the phrafe is, the caufe of
which we cannot explain. Thus, in one epidemic’ feafon
the inflammatory fymptoms, or morbid excitement may run
high; in another the fucceeding failure of the vital powers
may be more prevalent, &c. Perhaps a confideration of
thefe cireumftances, and of the different hypothetical no-
tions which individuals adopt, may enable us to explain
both the diffimilarity, and the general want of fuccefs, in
the treatment of yellow fever, unlefs the cathartic and mer-
curial treatment may be excepted.

Two oppofite modes of praétice have been purfued- ih
this fever; the one diGated by an opinion that the difeafe™
was highly putrid, and the other that it was of ahighly
inflammatory nature. Other practitioners again have, to

7 a certain

FEVER.

avcertain degree, combined thefe plans, inftituting moderate
€vacuations in the firft ftage, as on the firft or fecond day of
the fever, and afterwards fupporting the vital powers by
bark, wine, laudanum, and aromatic tonics; not to mention
the exhibition of mercury, fo as to excite falivation, which
others have employed. The practice fuggefted by the no-
tion that yellow fever is of a highly putrid nature, viz. the
ule of bark, wine, and other cordials, from the moment
the difeafe was feen, fhall be Arft briefly noticed, and dif
miffed as a baneful mode of treatment, which has been hap-
pily exploded by practitioners in general.

Dr. Chisholm remarks, that, “ from the hiftory of the
difeafe it will not appear extraordinary that pra¢titioners
fhould have recourfe to bark very early in it; and before
they become fufficiently acquainted with its true nature and
peculiarities, The fuddennefs of the changes, and the ap-
parent finking of the vital powers, a few hours after the ac-
ceffion of the fever, naturally incline us to confider it as a
difeafe wherein tonics and antifeptics, with the whole tribe
of cordials, could alone be ufeful. But no indication can be
more fallacious than this ; and innumerable inftances occur-
red of the fatal confequences of adopting it. The ufe of
the bark in the violent cafes of the malignant peftilential
fever; immediately after the operation of the evacuating
medicines, was hurtful in the extreme, &c.”? (Loc. cit.
vol. i. p. 365.) Dr. Ruth affirms, that, “« had the whole
materia medica been ranfacked, there could not have been
found any three medicines more oppofite to the diforder
than bark, wine, and laudanum. In every cafe in which I
prefcribed bark it was offenfive to the ftomach. Wine was
neatly as difagreeable as the bark to the ftomach, and equally
hurtful. TI tried it in every form, and of every quality, but
without fuccefs: it was either rejected by the ftomach, or

woduced in it a burning fenfation. Laudanum has been
called by Dr. Mofeley ‘a fatal medicine” in the yellow
fever. In one of my patients, who took only fifteen drops
ofit, without my advice, to eafe a pain in his bowels, it pro-
Guced a delirium, and death in a few hours.’’? (Med. Inq.
and Obf. vol. iii p. 298, e# feg.) At the commencement
of the deftruétive epidemic of 1793 in Philadelphia, Dr.
Ruth ufed this plan fully, until his want of fuccefs compel-
led him to turn his attention to other meafures. ‘ I had
recourfe to a gentle vomit of ipecacuanha on the firft day
of the fever, and to the ufual remedies for exciting the a&tion
‘of the fanguiferous fyitem: I gave bark in all its ufual
forms, of infufion; powder, and tin€ture. I joined wine,
brandy, and aromatics withit. Finding them all ineffectual,
Lattempted to roufe the fytem by wrapping the whole
body, agreeably to Dr. Hume’s practice, in blankets dip-
pedin warm vinegar. None of thefe remedies appeared to
be of any fervice ; for although three out of thirteen reco-
vered of thofe to whom they were applied, yet I have rea-
fon to believe that they would have recovered much fooner,
had the cure been trufted to nature.” (Ibid. p. 193.) Dr.
Ruhh, having requefted the advice of a Weit Indian phy-
fician, accidentally at Philadelphia, was recommended to add
the cold affufion to the large adminiftration of bark; but
the bark was offenfive to the ftomach, or reje&ted by it in
every inftance. The affufion of buckets full of cold water
frequently upon the fick was grateful, and produced relief
in feveral cafes, by inducing a moifture on the fkin, But
three out of four of the patients thus treated died: fome
cass loit ‘all their patients, and whole families were
weptioff, where thefe medicines were ufed.

TIn.a word, this early ufe of {timulant medicines is in this,

as we Gelieve ia all other fevers, degidedly prejudicial.

And, although feafon and climate vary all difeafes, we are
difpofed to apply ftill more generally Dr. Rufh’s obferva-
tion, when he fays, ** without feat of being refuted, I will
notwithftanding affert, that the proper remedies for this
fever, at all times,.and in all places, in its firff flage, mu/? be
evacuations.”” (Ibid. p. 335.)

The fuccefs which Dr. Ruth, and many others upon his
fuggeftion, experienced from commencing the cure by eva-
cuations, efpecially purging, was remarkable ; and we can-
not but enter into the heartfelt gratification of this diftin-
guifhed phyfician, when, in the forlorn ftate of ignorance as
to the means of alleviating the diftrefles of his fellow citizens,
in the commencement of a raging peitilence of unexampled
fatality in that city, he was accidentally dire€ted to an ufe-
ful remedy; and in his note-book of the 1oth of Septem-
ber wrote the following : ** Thank God! out of one hus-
dred patients whom I have vifited, or prefcribed for this
day, J have loft none.?? This remedy confiited of a com~
bination of calomel and jalap, employed as a fpeedy purga-
tive, in the dofe of ten grains of the former with fifteen of
the latter: ‘* even this dofe was flow and uncertain in its
operation. I then iffued three dofes, each confifting of fif-
teen grains of jalap and ten of calomel; one to be given
every fix hours until they procured four or five large eva-
cuations. The effe&ts of this powder nct only anfwered,
but far exceeded my expettations. It perfe&ly cured four
out of the firft fve patients to whom I gave it, notwith-
ftanding fome of them were advanced feveral days in the
diforder.”? (Ibid. p. 201.) The fuccefs of this remedy
was communicated to the College of Phyficians, and the
plan was immediately adopted by feveral’ phyficians with
a great and decided fuperiority over all other means hitherto
employed, Large families were altogether recovered by it.
From this moment Dr. Rufh gained a great acceffion of
bufinefs, and the demand for the purging powders became
greater than could be eafily fupplied. Together with this
evacuation, Dr. Rufh employed other means of abktrating
excefs of ftimulus from the fyftem: thefe were blood-let-
ting, cool air, cool drinks, low diet, and applications of cold
water to the bedy. By thefe meafures Dr. Rufh publicly
afferted that a greater proportion than ninety-nine out of a
hundred of all who applied to him on the firft day of the
diforder, before the 15th day of September, were cured,
And others were ina fimilar manner fuccefsful. ‘* Dr. Pen-
nington affured me,” he fays, ‘* on his death bed, that he
had not loft one out of forty-eizht patients whom he had
treated agreeably to the principles and practice I had recom-
mended. Dr. Griffiths triumphed over the difeafe in every
part of the city, by the ufe of what were called the new
remedies. My former pupils fpread, by their fuccefs, the
reputation of purging and eed wherever they were
called”? Not only is the general fuccels of this plan of
treatment thus fhewn; but it is farther evinced by the
great confidence which was excited in it. * Twenty men,”
fays Dr. Rufh, “ employed conftantly in putting up this
medicine, would not have been fufficient to have complied
with all the demands which were made on me for it. Hun-
dreds who were ia health called or fent for it, as well as the
fick, in order to have it in readinefs, in cafe they fhould be
furprifed by the diforder in the night, or at a diftance from
a phylician.”

It is fufficient here to have ftated thefe fa@s; we muft
leave the reader, who is anxious to learn the objections,
which were urged againit this pratice, and the confutation
of them, whish Dr. Rufh has added, to refer to his

book,
‘ With

FEVER.

Vith refpe& to the propriety of clearing the bowcla at
the commencement of yellow fever, by cathartics, the mott
experienced and intelligent practitioners agree, although
they differ as to the extent to which this evacuation fhould
be carried. Dr. Hillary is fatisfied with the ufe of a glyfter,
or very gentle laxative; and Dr. Chifholm is of opinion,
that ic is never neceffary to excite a larger difeharge by flool,
than is barely fufficient to remove the acrid and offeafive
jumours from the ftomach and bowels; * and from the
wonderful aptitude of the perfons of the fick, in the ma-
lignant peftilential fever, to fink into an irremediable ftate
ae debility, under alvine evacuation carried beyond this, I
have confidered it unjuftifiable, in every refpect, to adopt
fuch practice.”” I
the epidemic in the Weft Indies was fuch as to bear
fevere evacuation, even in its commencement; with lefs
fafety than the epidemic of Philadelphia. * Some practi-
tioners in the Weft Indies I finds”? fays Dr.Chifielm,
<< have adopted the plan of Dr. Ruth, but by no means with
the wonderful fuccefs he has attributedtoit. The hofpitals
have afforded, I fear, but too many proofs of its difaitrous
confequences in a hot climate. In the year 1796, at Fort
Royal, where the malignant peftilential fever was epidemic,
many of the praCtitioners gave calomel and jalap in the
manner recommended by Dr. Rufh, and confequently ex-
cited a moft profufe difcharge. ‘The event was, however,
very different from the ftatement of Dr. Rufh; for the
mortality among the inhabitants was very great ; fome fhips
were entirely flripped of their crews, and many loft more
than one half. I am well affured, that five out of fix
perifhed on this occafion of the whole feized with this
dreadful malady. A hypercatharfis was induced, under
which the fick immediately funk.’? (Vol. i. p. 169.)
Although the plan, which was fuccefsful in North America,
might be too violent within the tropics, when carried to the
fame extent, it would feem, however, that the principle
was ufefu'ly applied, and that Dr. Chifholm himfelf, not-
withftanding his favourite object of exciting mercurial
aétion in the fyilem, adopted A principle in a preat mea-
fure. His firlt practice gonfifted of clearing the bowels by
neutral falts and antimony; on the re-appearance of ‘the
difeafe, in 1794, he gave calomel alone, «* repeating it till
the inteftinal canal was cleared of its contents ;’? and he
afterwards increafed its a€tivity by the addition of jalap, or
any other purgative medicine of quick operative effect.
“ The great rule, in fhort,”’ “he affirms, ‘ is to empty the
inteflinal canal as {peedily and as completely as poffible, fo as
to prepare it for the reception and abforption of mercury.”

Whatever be the mode of rea/oning on the fubject, it is.

obvious that, in point of fad, this practice is eflentially the
fame, except in degree and extent, with that of Dr. Ruth;
and we may therefore conclude, that purging, iy the attack
of yellow fever, has been found the moft efficient remedy
that has hitherto been employed.

Dr. Chifholm, however, adminifters the calomel with a
view to its influence on the conftitution as a mercurial, not
merely as an evacuant ; but it is obvious that, in the quan-
tity in which he employs it, it muit produce confiderable
evacuation in general. ‘ My mode of ufing the calomel,”
he fays, “ after the re-appearance of the malignant pettilen-

tial fever in 1794, was to give fen grains, either alone, or,

with an equal or a double quantity of ja/ap; to an adult
patient as foon as poffible after I faw him. This generally
acts as an evacuant in the degree required, about an hour or
two after itisgiven, Atthe end of three hours I repeated
the dofe of calomel. At the end of three hours more, the

It is probable, indeed, that the nature of

fame quantity is given, adding opium or mot, as the preced~
ing dofes have acted, In this manner ten grains of calomel’
were given every three hours, till the falivary glands became
affected, which generally happened in lefs than twenty-four’
hours from the commencement of the treatment, if it was
faithfully conduéted. The effe& of the medicine, given in
this manner, may be perceived after the third dofe in general;
the patient becoming calmer, lefs reftlefs, lefs anxious ; his
fkin being fofter, and poffeffed of an agreeable heat; the
ftomach being perfeély retentive, however irritable it might
have been before ; and the eyes recovering their former lultre
and fenfibility. When at length falivation takes place, the
patient is left free from difeafe, with a- moderate warm
moifture on his fkin; and very foon after figns of returning
health are indicated by calls for food, &c. The recovery of:
itrength is proportionally rapid to that from difeafe; nor is
it at all neceflary to have recourfe to bark, or any other
mediciie whatever; a circumftance truly gratifying oth to:
the patient and the phyficiaa, ina difeafe wherein nature’
revolts at the very idea of it. ‘Chere are circumflances;
however,”? Dr. Chifholm candidly adds, “in which the
utmolt difficulty is experienced in obtaining this effe& from
calomel; and others in which the candid praCtitioner muft
acknowledge its infufficiency.’”? (Loc. cit. vol. 1. p. 253-)
Dr.Chifholm declares, that the fuccefs attending this practice
exceeded his moft fanguine expectation ; ‘ to great, indeed,’
was it, that I did not lofe a fingle patieut in whofe cafe it
was pufhed to the full extent :”? (ibid. p. 352.)

In the fubfequent occurrences of the epidemic in Phila-.
delphia, viz. in 1794, 5, and 7, Dr. Ruth employed the
mercurial remedies, fo as to produce /alivation, with great
advantage. He endeavoured to excite it early in all thofe
cafes which did not yicld immediately to bleeding and
purging, ‘I was. delighted,” he fays, ‘* with its effects’
in every cafe in which I ufed it. Thefe effeéts were as
follow: 1. It immediately attraéted and concentrated in the
mouth all the fcattered pains of every part of the body. '
2. It checked a naufea and vomiting. 3. It gradually,
when it was copious, reduced the pulfe, and thereby pre-:
vented the neceflity of further bleeding or purging. I with
it were poffible to render the ufe of this remedy univerfal in
the treatment of malignant fevers. It is a rare occurrence
for a patient, that has been fufliciently bled and purged, to
die after a falivation takes place.’’ ¢* [ loft but two patients
in our late epidemic in whom the mercury excited a faliva-
tion. One of them died from the want of nurfing; the
other by the late application of the remedy.” (See Rufh’s
Medical Inquiries and Obf. vol. iv. p. 93, and vol. v

Be a) °
The good effeéts of purging and of /alivation, fpeedily
excited in the yel/ow fever, appear, then, to reft upon ftrong
evidence ; for befides their perfonal experience, both Dr.
Rufh and Dr. Chifholm have adduced the teftimony of
feveral other practitioners, in whofe hands the adminiftration
of thefe remedies was attended with a iimilar fuccefs.

The evidence, with refpeét to the advantages of J/ood-
letting, is fomewhat more contradiftory: Dr. Ruth, and»
feveral other phyficians of Philadelphia, conjoined bleed-
ing with the purging plan, and their fuccefs is {tated
to have been generally great. Dr. Rufh affirms that “blood-
letting, when ufed early on the firft day, frequently ftrangled
the difcafe in its birth, and generally rendered it more
light, and the convalefcence more {peedy and perfe@.” But
he admits that where it * had been omitted for three
days, in acute cafes, it was feldom ufeful ;” nay, he éven
fays, ‘ I am not fure that it ever fhortened the duration of

the

BREA VVESR:

the fever, where it was not ufed within a few hours from the
time of its attack.2? (Med. Ing. and Obf. vol. iii.
p- 266 & 7.) Yethe mentions numerous iaftances in which the
benefit was moit decided, and has defcribed at length the ob-
viousadvantageswhich generally refulted fromit. He doesnot
however recommend it indifcriminately ; the repetition of
the operation, and the quantity of the blood to be drawn,
muft be regulated by the obfervation of the phyfician. Dr.
Chifholm confidered the evacuation as invariably perniciaus
in the yellow fever of the Welt Indies in his firft publica-
tion. In his fecond, he fays, ‘‘ with a trifling modification,
it is the opinion I now hold, after again fecing the difeafe,
and after becoming acquainted with the fentiments on it of
the moft judicious Welt India practitioners, I am fatisfied,
that when it is poffible to fee the fick in this difeafe at the
period of its acceffion; that when thefe are young robutt
men, immediately from England, or any other country pof-
feffing a fimilar climate ; that when the temperature of the
weather is fuch as feems moft to favour the propagation of
the difeafe ; and that, when the predifpofing cauies have
been fuch as have a tendency to accelerate the motion of the
fluids and to give rife to other unequivocal figns of an in-
flammatory difpofition; then one plentiful bleeding may,
undoubtedly, be of infinite fervice. Gut when moft of
thefe circumitances are abfent ; and when, confequently, no
juft indication for the employment of this remedy can be
formed, I confider the ufe cf it as a wanton abufe of con-
fidence, and as inevitable deftru€tion to the patient. This
obfervation may be extended to the yellow remittent fever
without limitation; for in it the means of unqualified
depletion are fully as pernicious as thofe of repletion, or
thofe which feryve to maintain oy augment the vigour and
tone of the body.’? He attributes the freedom of Dr.
Rufh’s practice to the difference of climate, the greater ten-
deney to local inflammations, and the other circumftances
above mentioned. But the teltimony of Dr. Jackfon, Dr.
Mofeley, Dr. Pinckard, and others, tends to prove the
falutary effeAs of carly bleeding, even in the yellow fever
of the Weft Indies. (See Dr. Robert Jackfon on the
Fevers of Jamaica, Drs. Mofeley and Pinckard, as before
quoted.) It cannot be queflioned, however, that, generally
{peaking, this remedy is principally beneficial at the very
onfet of the difeafe : and that when its vigour is abating
the practice muft be mifchievous, and accelerate the malig-
nant {vmptoms. © Dr. Ruth admits, that even an active pur-
*gative, given after the fift/ day, has been hurtful.
- Onthe whole, it feems to be demonttrable, that the
treatment of the yellow fever has been moft fuccefsfully
conducted upon the principles which we have laid down for
the cure of fever in general ; namely, by a fteady fy{ftem of
withdrawing all ftimuli, internal and external, at ay com-
mencement, i. e. by the antiphlogiftic plan, purfued with a
vigour proportionate to the violence and fatality of the
difeafe : and that {timulants and cordials are pernicious, if
given early, and nearly unneceflary at the later periods,
where the proper evacuations have been adopted in the
beginning.
Forthe fame reafon which fuggelts the propriety of di-
‘minifhing internal ftimuli by evacuations, the diet mult be
light aud liquid, and the drink cold and diluent, All felid
animal food is to be forbidden for many days after the intire
cure of ‘the fever ; as the indulgence of the appetite too
fuddenly in that way is the caufe of numerous relapfes. A
weak vegetable diet, with fruits, fhould be ttri@ly adhered
to. The drink fheuld be thin and diluent; fuch as cold
- “water, toait and water, lemonade, tamarind or raw apple-
water, or weak balm and camomile tea, where the flomach
Vou. XIV.

iseffeQed with ficknefs. The fubacid drinks were prefers
red in moft cafes, Dr, Ruth fays, as being not only moi
agreeable to the tafte, but becaufe they tended to correct,
by mixture, the acrid qualities of the bile. All thefe drinks
may be taken in the early ftage of the diforder. In the
convalefcent {tage of the fever, and in fuch of its remiffions,
or intermiflions, as are accompanied by great laogour in the
pulfe, wine whey, porter and water, and brandy and water,
may be taken with advantage.

Upon the fame principle of withdrawing ftimulus and
irritation, cool fre/o air, and cleanlinefs, are very beneficial.
Coel air is equally proper, Dr. Ruth obferves, whether the
arterial fyftem is deprefied, or whether it fhewed in the
pulfe a high degeee of morbid excitement ; and is only im-
proper where a chillinefs attends the difeafe.

Cold bathing, or afiulion of cold water upon the fkin in
the hot ttage of the yellow fever, has been found extremely
beneficial ; Dr. Rufh found its employment advantageous
under the fame circumftances as Dr. Currie recommended it.
(See Corp, and Fever above.) Dr. Chifholm and Dr.
Jackfon affirm that the cold affufion is moft effe€tnally uficd
in-a manner fomewhat fimilar to the practice of the Ameri-
can Indians, and of the Ruffians, viz. by a fucceflion of
alternate warm and cold bathing. ‘lhe patient being frit
immerfed in a warm bath, and then removed, while the fen-
fation of the heat is flill upon him, a bucket of cold water
is thrown over his naked body. Dr. Jackfon recommends
this praCtice after evacuation by blood-letting. has been em-
ployed, and Dr. Chifholm affirms that evacuating medicines
are adyantageoufly ufed at the fame time. The local ap-
plications of cold have been often very fuccefsful in remov-
ing local fymptoms, fuch as head-ache, delirium, irritability
of ftomach, &c. Cold water, or a folution of falts, fuch as.
the muriate of ammonia, or of foda, applied by means of
cloths repeatedly foaked in them to the head, and pit of the
ftomach, have often quieted exceflive a€tion in thofe parts,
and thus afforded material relief. Cold water injected into
the bowels by way of clyfter has produced fimilar refults ;
and bathing the feet in cold water has frequently had the
agreeable effe@t of relieving the head, the opprefiion at the
precordia, and the general heat. Dr. Ruth affirms that cold
water thus applied to the feet very certainly diminifhes the

“frequency of the pulfe, and mentions an experiment, in

which the pulfe, in the courfe of a few minutes, was reduced
24 itrokes, and became fo weak as hardly to be perceptible.
(Loc. cit. vol. iii. p. 288.—Chifholm, vol. i, p. 399.

With regard to the employment of d/jfers in the yellow
fever there is the fame contradiction of fentiment, as to their
ufe, among the phyficians of our climate in fevers in general,
Dr. Chifholm, both upon his own obfervation and the telfti-
mony of others, affirms that blifters were never of any ufe,
at any period of the difeafe, or to whatever part of the body
they were applied, not even in relieving head-ache, or
other local fymptoms; while Dr. Rufh, like Dr. Lind,
conliders them of great fervice, when applied to any part of
the body, but particularly to the crown of the head, In
his fubfequent publications, however, he exprefles himfelf
rather lefs favourably of their utility, and limits their good
effets to a particular junture, which he calls the dfi/ering
point, and which, in bilious fevers, hg fays, is generally cir
cum{cribed within eight and forty hours; for “ when ap-
plied ina itate of great arterial ation, they do harm ; whea
applied after that ation has nearly ceafed, they do liutle or
no fervice.”? (See Med. Ing. and Obf. vol. iii, p, 2gt.
iv. g5.and vy. 122.) Weare very {ceptical as to the operation
of blifters in fever, except in relieving local congeftion.

After the reduction of the morbid aétion of the blood-

3A veilelsy

EVESVWEGRS

veffels, by means of the remedics which have been mentioned,
no other tonic is neceflary than & nourifhing and gently
ftimulating diet, and change of air, The beft authors
éoincide in Mating that, contrary to what occurs in moft
febrile difeales, bark and wine were not only ufelefs or ab-
folutely hurtful, but were generally loathed and rejected by
the convalefcents. The diet which is generally molt agree-
able to the palate, as well as the lighteft and mof nourifhing,
confifts of fago, panada, and arrow root, ptepared with
Madeira wine, and fpice, with oyfters, eggs, and malt li-
quors, which the patients relifh greatly. ‘The convalefcence
from the yellow fever is generally rapid, but ia fome cafes
it is very flow. As long as the patient remained in the
infeed room or houfe, Dr. Chifholm remarks, although all
the fymptoms of the difeafe had difappeared, the progrefs of
his recovery was remarkably flow, and more efpecially when
bark had been employed in the treatment, without the
previous ufe of deobftruents, and the appropriate antiphlo-
giftic. A change of airand fituation became advifeable from
the moment that figns of convalefcence appeared ; and the
purer the atmofphere, and the more elevate: the fituation to
which, the patient. was removed, the more rapid was: his
acquifition of ftrength. :

Prevention of Yellow Fever.—As thofe perfons, who were
in the higheit ftrength and vigour of health, and who were
not relaxed and énfeebled by long refidence in hot climates,
or by a low diet, were the moft frequently attacked by the
yellow fever, when it was epidemic, both in the Welt Indies
and in America; fo a fy{tem of diet and regimen, which was
conducive to a diminution of plethora, was the molt effec-
tual means, of preferving individuals from being attacked by
the difeafe. Dr. Ruth recommended his fellow citizens
to reduce their diet during the prevalence of the epidemic.
He lived fparingly himfelf upon tea, coffee, milk, and the
common fruits, and garden vegetables of the feafon, with a
{mall quantity of falted meat and {moaked herring. His
drinks were milk and water, weak claret and water, and
weak porter and water. ‘ I fheltered myfelf,’’ he fays,
as much as poflible from the rays of the fun, and frova the
ation of the evening air, and accommodated my drefs to
the changes in the temperature of the atmofphere. By
Similar means, I have reafon to believe many hundreds efcaped
the difeafe who were conftantly expofed to it. ‘There ap-
pears to be no combination of climate and miafmata that
can refit the good effe&ts of abftinence or depleting medi-
cines, in preventing or modefating an attack of this fever.”?
(Med. Ing. and Obf. vol. v. p. 39-) He recommended
alfo to the people, befides a diet of milk and vegetables,
cooling purges to be taken once or twice a week, and mo-
derate blood-letting to all fuch as were of a plethoric habit :
and he advifed them to avoid heat, cold, labour, and every
thing elfe that could excite the contagion (which he knew
to be prefent in all their bodies) into a€tion, (Ibid. voll iii.
p- 295:-297.) The advice of Celfus, during the prevalence
of peltilence, is very comprehenfive ; ‘¢ vitare fatigationem,
cruditatem, frigus, calorem, libidinem, multoque magis fe
continere.”? But it is a mortifying confideration, Dr.
Chifholm remarks, that few of our countrymen can be pre-
vailed upon.to fubmit to the deprivation of any gratification 5
which, if within their ability to purchafe, 1s very generally
and very pertinacioufly reforted to. I'he comparative feeurity
from, and lefs mortality of, the yellow fever in the French
and Spanifh thay in the Englifh iflands in the Welt Indies,
have been juftly attributed to the more temperate habit of
the people. When the peftilential fever raged at Grenada,
Dr. Chifholm obferves that the French inhabitants remained
almoft totally exempt from it. Among them, animal food

‘

and flrong liquors were very moderately ufed; their die”
being chiefly compofed of vegetables, and fmall acid red
wine. The fame author, indeed, remarks, ¢ during the
prevalence of pellilence, I am inclined to think, froma
variety of facts, that abftinence from every Species of ftrong
liquor, wine itfelf not excepted, is more conducive to the
maintenance of health, than any other dietetic regulation
whatever. It is an eflablifhed fa, that water-drinkers
either efeaped the malignant peftilential fever altogether, or
had the difeafe in a remarkably mild degree. On the other
hard, many inflances occurred of free livers receiving the
infection in the morning, and having the attack of the fever
after a plentiful repaft of animal food and wine in the fol-
lowing night.”? (Chifholm, loc. cit. vol. iis p.49.). In
fhort, the fact, that extreme temperance, and even evacua--
tions inthofe that are plethoric, when in hot climates, is the
mott certain to efcape the difeafes peculiar to thofe countries, .
and efpecially the /ea/oning, or yellow fever, is now afcertain-
ed beyond all queftion. Dr. Moteley fays, ‘the Englifh drinks.
more wine and fpirits than the French: the French more
than the Spaniards ; and we calculate the mortality of each
by this rule. The Spaniards live to great ages in the
plains of St. Jacques, &c. in St. Domingo, partly from the-
falubrity of the air, but chiefly from their fobriety.”* (Oa
Tropical Difeafes, p. 53.) And he affirms, that, while the
inflammatory diathefis of the body remains, (as it will with.
fome people, who migrate to hot climates, for many years,)
*‘thofe who ufe water for their common drink, will never be~
fubje& to troublefome nor dangerous difeafes.”? (Ibid.

hope
The queftion relative to the contagious or non-contagious
nature of the yellow fever, above noticed, is not a matter of:
mere curiofity and {peculation, but of the greateft praQicalim—
portance, with a view both:to individual and to public fafety. -
The means to be adopted tor the prevention of the {pread-
ing of the epidemic mutt neceflarily be very different; if it -
arife from imported contagion, and if it be of domeftic
origin. Thofe means which afford feeurity in either cafe
muit be ufelefs, and therefore virtually detrimental in the-
other. Should the fever be the refult of imported conta--
gion in its origin, the ufual methods of quarantine, and
fumigation, &c. of goods, fhips, and perfons, mult be-
reforted to. (See Conracion, Pracue, and Quarans
TINE.) But the beft writers attribute the ye//ow fever to »
the miafmata and putrid exhalations from various domettic
fources ; and we have underftood that by diminithing thefe.
fources of the peftilence, Philadelphia has been much le{s
fubje& to its occurrence in the ufual feafon. In the
memoir of the thirteen phyficians above alluded to, the ~
governor of Pennfylvania is informed, and the information -
is fupported by accompanying documents, that the epi-
demic tever was derived from the following circumftancess: .
which are ftated more in detail by Dr. Caldwell, Thefe
are, 1. Putrid exhalations from the docks and wharfs, the -
ftreets, fewers, gutters, cellars, privies, dirty yards and-
alleys, ponds, and collections of filth in the seighbourhood
of the city ; and alfo 2, The foul and noxious air emitted -
from the holds of fhips. Of the origin of thefe fevers from
the putrid exhalations, arifing within and around Phila-
delphia, Dr. Caldwell and others have {tated much: evis
dence ; (fee Med. & Phyf. Memoirs, containiie, among-
other fubjeéts, a particular Inquiry into the Origin and
Nature of the late Peftilential Epidemics of the United
States. By C. Caldwell, M.D. Philadelgtia, 1801,) and
the correctnefs of attributing the origin of thefe fevers to
fuch caufes, is farther {lrengthened by our kuowle of
the conne¢tion of remittent and peftilental. fevers in Le
. VIZ _odon,

FEVER.

don, and the other large cities of Europe, in fimilar feafons,
with a filthy condition of the ftreets and houfes, and a bad
arrangement of the fewers, gutters, &c. See Epipemic.
(See allo Dr. Heberden, jun. on the Increafe and Decreafe
of Dif. Lond. 1801, and the Annual Med. Regifter,
‘vol. i. for 1808.) With refpeét to the fecond fource of
fevers, wiz. the foul air of fhips, Dr. Ruth has adduced
fome ftrong evidence of its occurrence in fhips, containing
efpecially vegetable matters in a ftate of putrefaétion. In
1797 the yellow fever firfl appeared on board a veffel at one
of the wharfs, and in the: neighbourhood, affeGing a great
number of perfons at the fame time: this fhip had in her
hold a quantity of prunes, almonds, olives, capers, &c., in
a putrid flate, and emitted a molt offenfive imell, after
fhe had difceharged her cargo, which was perceived by

perfons feveral hundred yards from the wharf where the |

avas moored. At Tortola, Dr. Ruth itates, a fever was pro-
duced, in June 1737, from noxious air generated from a few
bufhels of potatoes, which deltroyed the captain, mate, and
moft of the crew in a few days. Some retted bags of pep-
per onboard a French Indiaman produced the yellow fever,
in June 1793, at Budgetown: ‘all the white men, and
moft of the negroes, employed in removing this pepper,
perifhed with the yellow fever, and the foul atmofphere
aifeGted the town,” where it proved fatal to many of the in-
habitants. Several other facts, of a fimilar nature, are
mentioned, and Dr. Rufh adds, that this fource of yellow
devyer in warm climates is fo well known, and ‘Yo generally
admitted, that Dr. Shannon, a late. writer, in enumerating
its various caufes, exprefily mentions “ the putrid effluvia
of a fhip’s hold.”’ Thefe faéts not only lead to the certain
means of preventing one of the fources of the yellow fever,
but ferve to explain the reafons why failors are fo often its
firft victims, aud why, from this circumftance, the origin of
the difeafe has been fo hattily afcribed folely to impor-
tation.
Under thefe impreffions as to the origin of the yellow
fever, Dr. Ruth, Dr. Caldwell, and the others who ad-
drefled the governor of Pennfylvania, recommended the
following means of prevention, 1. A continuance of the
laws for preventing the importation of the difeafe from the
Weft Indies, and other parts of the world where it ufually
prevails. 2. A removal of all thofe matters from the
fireets, gutters, cellars, gardens, yards, ftores, vaults,
sponds, &c. which, by putrefaction in warm weather, afford
the mot frequent remote caule of the difeafe in America.
_3- “ We molt earneftly recommend the frequent wathing
of all impure parts of the city in warm and dry weather; a
meafure wvhich we conceive promifes to our citizens the
moitt durable exemption from bilious fevers of all kinds, of
domettic orig. 4. To guard againit the frequent fource
of yellow fever from the noxious air of the holds of fhips,
. ave recommend the unladiag all fhips, with cargoes liable to
putrefaétion, at a diftance from the city, during the months
of June, July, Auguft, September, and OGober. To pre-
yent the generation of noxious air in the fhips, we conceive
every veflel fhould be obliged by law to carry and ufe a
ventilator, &c.’? They add, ‘ It has been by adopting
~ meafures, fimilar to thofe we have delivered for preventing
peltilential difeafes, that moft of the cities in Europe, which
are fituated in warm latitudes, have become healthy in
warm feafons, and amidit the clofeft commercial intercourfe
with nations and iflands, con{tantly affli€ted with thofe
difeafes. The extraordinary cleanlinefs of the Hollanders
awas originally impofed upon them, by the frequency of
ypettilential fevers in their cities. This habit of cleanlinefs
ented to characterize thofe people, after the caufes

which produced it have probably ceafed to be known.’?
(Ruth, Med. Ing: & Obf. vol. v. p. 54, ef feg. Caldwell,
loc. cit. Chifholm, vol. ii. chap. 1.)

Befides the denominations’ of fever above explained,
feveral others are to be found, efpecially among the older
medical writers, which, however, require no notice here, as
they are improperly applied, and are not ufed at prefent.
Such are arthritic, afthmatic, hyfteric, chlorotic, fcorbutic,
sever, &c. See Arrueritis, Astum4, Hysteria, &e.

Fever ward, Fever-houfe, or Fever-hofpital, wards or
houfes fet epart for the receptica of typhus, ur contagious
fever. 7

The country is indebted to Dr. Haygarth, formerly of
Chefter, now of Bath, (1809;) for the fuggeftion of thefe
admirable inftitutions. Jt had been obferved by Dr. Lind
of the Haflar hofpital, that the infeCtious diftance of com-
mon contagious fever was {mall; or, in other words, that
the effluvia from the bodies of perfons labouring under
typhus were incapable ‘of infeGiing thefe in health, ata
greater dillance than a few feet, and that in a pure atmo-
{phere, or well ventilated room, the efluvia were fo much
diluted and weakened, 2s to be no longer capable of com-
municating the difeafe. Hence the inference, which Dr.
Haygarth proved by the teft of experiment, that by fepa-
ratmg thofe perfons, labouring under contagious feyer, om
others in the fame hofpital, or by appropriating wards: to
this difeafe, the contagion might be prevented from fpread-
ing in thefe crowded receptacles of the fick: and fecondly,
that by having fuch wards, or feparate hofpitals, for the
reception of fever, conitantly open for the admiffion of
patients, efpecially in crowded towns, or in epidemic
feafons, whole families might be at once preferved from the
contagion by the removal of the firft perfon infe@ed inte
them; and that thus the contagion of typhus might be ex-
terminated. Upon this. principle, fuch fever-wards were
opened in the hofpital at Chelter, and in that of Liverpool,
and fubfequently feparate hofpitals have been eftablifhed in
many of the large towns in England and Treland ; firft at
Mauchefter, then at Cork, Waterford, Dublin, Leeds,
London, &c. Thefe were happily named, we believe by
Dr. Ferriar of Manchefter, ** Houfes of Recovery ;” 2
denomination conveying lefs alarm to the prejudiced and
ignorant, than that of peft-houfe, or fever-houle, and by
which they are now generally defignated. Thefe imititu-
tions are not only calculated to preferve the crowded popu-
lation of large tewns from the fatal effets of epidemic fevers,
but to diffufe the maxims of ‘cleanlinefs and ventilation,
which are inculcated in the habitations of the poor, whence
patients are removed ; and alfo to difprove thofe falfe and
pernicious notions, relpeCting the general diffufion of conta-.
gion in the air, which are too widely prevalent even among
the unlearned part, 7. ¢. the majority of the profeffios.
See House of Recovery ; under which head we {hall ftate
more fully the principles upon which thefe inftitutions have
been eftablifhed, as well as the fuccefsful refult of their
praGtice, and the regulations under which they-are’ con-
ducted. (See alfo Contacion.) Haygarth on the fmall-
pox, and his Letter to Dr. Percival refpecting the fup-
preffion of contagion—An excellent Collection of Papers on
the fubject of a fimilar eftablifhment at Newcaitle. Alfo
Dr. Ferriar’s Med. Hiltories and RefleGions. The Re-
ports of the Houfe of Recovery at Dublin, Cork,
London, &c.

Fever, in the Veterivary Science, is a diforder to which
horfes are very fubject from a variety of caufes. The fymp-
toms which denote the horfe to be affi@ted with a fever are
great reftleffnefs, by reafon of which he ranges from one

3A2 end

; FEVER.

end of the rack to another, beating of the flanks, rednefs
and inflammation of the eyes, a parched and dry tongue ;
his breath is hot, and of a ftrong fmell; he lofes his ap-
petite, and nibbles his hay without chewing it, and is fre-
quently finelling to the ground; he dungs often, but little
at a time; and his dung is ufually hard, and in {mall pieces;
he fometimes ftales with difficulty, and his urine is highly
coloured; Le is always craving for water, and drinks often,
but little at a time; and his pulfe beats full and hard,
fifty itrokes and more ina minute. The firft part of the
cure is bleeding; and the quantity, if the eae is {trong
and in good condition, fhould be two or three quarts: then
give him four times a day a pint of the following infufion ;
take baum, fage, and camomile flowers, each a handful ;
an ounce of liquorice root, fliced, and three ounces of nitre ;
and pour on thefe ingredients two quarts of boiling water ;
when cold, ftrain it off, and {queeze into it the juice of
two or three lemons, and fweeten it with honey ; or an
ounce of nitre mixed into a ball with honey may be given
thrice a day inftead of the drink, and wathed down with
any {mall liquor. he horfe’s diet fhould be fcalded bran
in {mall quantities, or dry bran {fprinkled with water, or a
handful of picked hay may be put into his rack. His wa-
ter fhould be a little warmed, and given to him often and
in {mall quantities ; his covering fhould be moderate. If
the horfe refufes to feed, in a day or two more blood fhould
be taken away, and the drinks continued, to which may be
added two or three drams of faffron. If his dung con-
tinues hard and knotty, a clyfter may be given, prepared
by boiling two handfuls of marfhmallows, one of eamo-
mile flowers, and an ounce of fennel-feed, in three quarts
of water, till it be reduced to two, and adding to the
ftrained liquor four ounces of treacle and a pint of linfeed
oil or any common oil. This clyfter fhould be repeated
every other day; and on the intermediate day the follow-
ing drink may be given: take of cream of tartar and of
Glauber’s falts, of each four ounces ; diffolve them in bar-
hey-water, and add an ounce or two of lenitive eleétuary, or
a dram or two of powder of jalap. By purfuing this treat-
ment the horfe will begin to recover; and nothing more
will be found neceffary than to give him gentle exercife in
the air, and plenty of clean litter in the {table.

There is another fever to which horles are fubjeét, more -

dangerous than the former: this isa flow fever attended with
great depreflion ; the horfe is fometimes inwardly hot and
outwardly cold, and at other times hot all over; his eyes
appear moift and languid; his mouth is continually moitt,
fo'that he has no inclination to drink, and he is fatisfied
with very little. He eats little, moves his jaws in a feeble
loofe manner, and grates his teeth ; his body is commonly
open, his dung foft and moilt ; his ftaling irregular, fome-
times little, and at other times profufe, and his urine pale,
with little or no fediment. ‘Thefe fevers are attended with
a running at the nafe, and the matter difcharged is of a
reddifh or greenifh dufky colour, and of a confiftence like
glue. About three pints of blood fhould be firft taken
away, and bleeding repeated according to the ftrength and
fulnefs of the horfe, the degree of his cough, or any ten-
dency to inflammation. After this the nitre drink already
prefcribed may be. given, with the addition of an ounce
of fnake-root, and three,drams of faffron and camphor dif-
folved in a little {pirit of wine.

The horfe’s diet fhould be f{calded or fprinkled bran, and
the beft hay, with which he fhould be fed by hand, as he
fometimes cannot lift up his head to tke rack, Drinking
plentifully will greatly contribute to dilute the blood ; but
af the fever fhould increafe, balls of contrayerva root,

8

myrrh, and {nake-root, pewdered, of each two dramsy
faffron, one dram; mithridate or Venice treacle, half an
ounce, mixed with honey, fhould be immediately given,
twice or thrice a day, with two or three horns of infufion
of fnake reot fweeteued with honey; to g pint and a
half of which may be added half a pint of treacle water
or vinegar; if thefe balls produce no fenfible effe&, let a
dram of camphor or caftor be added to each of them; or
the following drink may be fubftituted in their ftead for
fome days: take a dram of camphor diffolved in one ounce
of rectified {pirit of wine; then gradually pour on a pint of
diftilled vinegar warmed, and give it at two dofes. If the
horfe fhould be coltive, recourfe mult be had to clyfters or
the opening driik ; and if he purges to a confiderable de-
gree, diafcordium may be added to his drinks inftead of the
mithridate. The operation of medicines in this difeafe is
much promoted by plentiful drinking ; the horfe’s falmg
fhould be reltrained when it is confiderable and weakening,
by proper aftringents, or by mixing lime-water with his
drinks ; and when he is remifs in this refpe&, and ftales fo
little as to occafion a {welling of his body and legs, two or
three of the following balls may be given at proper inter-
vals, with a deco€tion of marfhmallows fweetened with
honey: take of fal prunella or nitre, one ounce ; juniper-
berries and Venice turpentine, of each half an ounce ; and
make thefe ingredients into a ball with oil of amber. If
with this treatment the horfe’s fkin feels kindly, his ears
and feet are moderately warm, his eyes brifk and lively, his
nofe becomes clean and dry, his appetite increafes, he lies
down well, and {tales and dungs regularly, there is a fair
profpect of a fpeedy recovery ; but he fhould be fed
{paringly, and his diet fhould be light, and increafed by
degrees as he gains ftrength.

If the fever fhould intermit, giye an ounce of Jefuit’s
bark in the interval of the fits, and repeat it every fix
hours till the horfe has taken four or fix ounces. (Bartlet’s
Farriery, and Farmer’s Dictionary.) mn

Mr. White, in his ‘* Compendium of the Veterinary
Art,” diftinguifkes only two kinds of fever, the one, an
idiopathic or original difeafe, and termed /imple ; the other
dependent upon external inflammation, and juftly denomi-
nated /ymptomatic fever. The former does not occur fo fre-
quently as the latter, nor is it by any means.fo formidable
in its appearance. The fymptoms are fhivering, fucceeded
by lofs of appetite, dejected appearance, qice pulfe, hot
mouth, and fome degree of debility; the horfe is generall
coftive, and voids his urine with difficulty. The difeafe is
alfo often accompanied with quicknefs of breathing, and in
a few cafes with pain in the bowels, or fymptoms of colic.
As foon as a horfe is attacked with this difeafe, Mr. White
adyifes, that he fhould be bled freely ; and in cafe of cof-
tivenefs, to give a pint of caftor oil, Or the oil of olives,
and to injeét a clyfter of warm water-gruel. The following
drink he has found to be avery ufeful laxative; take of
Barbadoes aloes powdered, 3 drams, prepared kali 14 dram,
caitor oil 4 0z. to 6 oz. fimple mint-water and pure water, of
each, 4 0z.; thefe ingredients fhould be mixed and will ferve
for one dofe. After the operation of the laxative, the
fever powder is to be given once in twelve hours, and con-
tinued until it has produced confiderable diuretic. effeét.
Mr. White has given’ feveral formule for preparing this
powder, e. g. 1. Powdered nitre, 1 oz. and camphor, and
tartarized antimony, of each, 2 drams; or, 2. Powdered
nitre, 1 oz. and unwafhed calx of antimony, 2 drams; or,
3. Antimonial powder, 3 drams, and camphor, 1 dram ;
either of thefe to be mixed for one dofe. Warm water and
mathes are to be adminiftered frequently in {mall quantities,

warm

FEVE R.

warm cloathing, frequent hand-rubbing, and a liberal al-
lawance of litter are alfo neceffary. And when the fever
runs high, it is advifeable to infert rowels about the cheft
and belly, in order to prevent the recurrence of internal in-
flammation. When the difeafe appears to be going off,
the horfe looking more lively, and his appetite returning, let
him be led out for a fhort time in fome warm fituation, and
give now and then a malt mafh for recovering his ftrength.
_ The /ymptomatic fever is generally occafioned by high
feeding, clofe ftables, and want of proper exercife ; in fome
cafes it is caufed by a fudden tranfition from a cold toa
hot temperature. This kind of fever is not preceded by
fhivering, like the fimple fever ; nor isit fo fudden in its
attacks, except when it is occafioned by preat and long
continued exertion. In this cafe the complaint affumes a
very dangerous appearance in its earlteft ftaze. The lymp-
toms which this fever has in common with the fimple fever,
are lofs of appetite, quick pulfe, dejetted appearance, hot
mouth, and debility ; and if tothefe be joined difficulty of
breathing, and quick working of the flanks, with coldnefs
of the legsand ears, the caufe of it may be concluded to
be an inflammation of the lungs. If the horfe hang down
his head in the manger, or lean back upon his collar with the
appearance of drowlinefs, the eyes appearing watery and in-
flamed, it is probable that the fever depends upon an accu-
mulation of blood in the veffels of the brain, and that the
flaggers are approaching ; in this cafe, however, the pulfe
is not always quickened, but fometimes has been found un-
ufually flow. When the fymptoms of fever are joined with
a yellownefs of the eyes and mouth, an inflammation of the
liver isindicated. If an inflammation of the bowels be the
caufe, the horfe is violently griped. An inflammation of the
kidnies will alfo produce fever, and is diftinguifhed by a
Tuppreffion of urine, and an inability to bear preflure upon
the loins. When the fever arifes from inflammation of the
bladder, the horfe is frequently flaling, voiding only very
{mall quantities of urine, with confiderable pain. Exten-
five wounds, and particularly thofe of joints, willalfo pro-
duce fymptomatic fever. In all cafes of this kind, the
effential remedies are copious and early bleeding, with
rowels and blifters. (See InrLAmMarion.) In cafes of
fymptomatic fever it will generally be neceflary to take
away four or five quarts of blood at the firft bleeding ; aud
even fix quarts have been taken away with manifeit advan-
tage.
ne modern writers on farriery have defcribed ancther
kind of fever, termed putrid or typhus, in which bleeding
is extremely injurious. On this fubjeét Mr. White makes
the following obfervations. The grand characteriltic of
fever he conceives to be an unufually quick pulfe, i.e. from
feventy to one hundred ina minute; a peculiar kind of
fenfation which it gives to the finger, as if it were ftruck
fharply by the vibration of a cord; and at the fame time a
feeblenefs, or fmallnefs, quite different from the gradual
{well of the healthy pulfe. When a horfe labours under
confiderable debility, either from hard work, want of fufii-
cient food, or other caufes, except fever, the pulfe is more
or Jefs languid or weak, fometimes flower, and fometimes a
Tittle pace than ulual ; neverthelefs, it {wells gradually,
and does not give that fenfation which phyficians term
« hardnefs,”’ and whieh has been already defcribed. Simple
debility, or weaknefs, is diftinguifhed from fever by other
circumftances: the mouth and tongue are in their natural
ftate; the horfe readily {weats; and when the weaknels
is confiderable, the ears and hind legs will feel rather cold,
and his flanks generally move quicker than ufual. Ifblood
be drawn, it will be found very different fiom that of ahorfe

labouring under fever or inflammation. Though bleeding
in fuch cafes is extremely injurious, a mild laxative is
ufeful, unlefs the dung be fofter, and is more copious than
natural; and if there be a deficiency of urine, or any diffi-
culty in voiding it, a diuretic, compofed of camphor and
nitre, fhould be given. After the laxative, tonics, with a
nutritious diet, and good grooming or nurfing, generally
reftore the animal in a fhort time to health. This difeafe
is fometimes miltaken for fever, and treated improperly. Se-
veral cafes have occurred where debility fucceeded the in-
flammatory commencement, and rendered bleeding, and fome-
times purging alfo, highly improper: and perhaps, fays Mr.
White, fuch cafes have been miftaken by fome writers for
the typhus, or low putrid fever; or others may have copied
their defcription of it from that given by authors on human
difeafes. In cafes of fimple debility, the following medicines
have been found very beneficial, giving the laxative in the
firtt place, if the horfe be coitive, or even if the bowels be
in a natural ftate; during its operation, however, it is_ad-
vifeable to give ftrong gruel inftead of bran mafhes. The
laxative is prepared by mixing, for one draught, Barbadoes
alces, 3 dr.; powdered canella, 14 dr.; prepared kali,
1 dr.; and mint-water, 8 oz. The tonic is compofed of
yellow Peruvian bark, 6 dr.; cafcarilla, 1 dr.; powdered
opium, 4 dr. ; prepared kali, 1 fer. ; with fyrup enough to
form a ball fora dofe. It is often found neceffary to in-
ereafe the proportion of bark, and fometimes of the other
ingredients ; but when the horfe becomes coftive, the opium
mutt be omitted, the moft proper food on thefe occafions is
good {weet oats, and the beft hay, given frequently in {mall
quantities. The horfe fhould be allowed to drink frequently,
and his -exercife fhould be very moderate. If he become
cottive, a cly{ter, or even a mild laxative, may be given.

Tever, Epidemic, or Diftemper of Horfes, generally ap-
pears in the form of a violent catarrh, or cold; the firlt
fymptems are cough, heavinefs of the head, the eyes
often watery, or a little inflamed; fometimes there is a
quicknefs of breathing : and the inflammation of the mem--
brane which lines the nofe, throat, and windpipe, is often
fo confiderable as to caufe a difficulty in fwallowing ; and
the pulfe is generally quicker than ufval. Without -recur-
ring to the proper remedies, wealkmels enfues, and confider-
able fever takes place; the appetite goes off; the cough
and quicknefs of breathing increafe, and debility is fo great,
that the animal flaggers in his-walk.. The nofe difcharges
offenfive matter; and after lingering for fome time, the
horfe dies from a confumption-

When an epidemic. happens, horfes fhould be carefully
watched ; and on the firft appearance of any fF 3
the difeafe, the animal” fhould be bled moderately, u
is in low condition, or previoufly exhaufted by
work,. old age,. or unwholefome food.

} hard
After bleeding,
give the following laxative, viz. Barbadoes aloes, 2 dr. 3
tartarized antimony, 1 dr. ; firft mixed with about four oz.
of’ warm water, and then add 4 oz. of caftor oil; the

whole to be given asa dofe: let the horfe’s diet confit of
bran mafhes, {weet hay, and a very {mall quantity of oats.
A velapfe fhould be prevented by good nurling, and giving
every day a dofe of fome antimonial preparation, of which,
that which refembles Dr. James’s fever powder is the bet.
But when the inflammatory fymptoms are at frit violent,
when there is-a quicknefs of breathing, forenefs of the
throat, and diftrefling cough, a blifter tothe throatis ne-
ceflary ; and unlefs weaknefs forbids, bleeding even to three
quarts is proper. A laxative is always beneficial at firlt, if
the bowels be not too open; after which, the antimonial
with nitre isto be given daily. Warm cloathing, and fre-
quent.

FEV

quent hand-rubbing to the legs, are ufeful; but a cloie
{table is injurious. The horfe fhould be turned loofe into a
large ftall; and if a difcharge from the nofe appear, let it
be encouraged by caufing the vapour of warm water to pafs
through the noftrils, and cloathing the head and ears.
When the difeafe, from being negleéted, or improperly
treated at firlt, becomes alarming, and the weaknefs is con-
fiderable, nothing but tonic medicines and a nutritious diet
can do any good.

Fever, in AZythology, one of the Roman divinities, who
had a temple on Mount Palatine, mentioned by Cicero.
Valerius Maximus fays that fhe had others, into which they
catried the remedies ufed in difeafes. On one monument
fhe is called the *¢ Holy Fever.”

Frver-Root, in Botany. See TriostEuM.

Fever-Weed. See Eryncoium.

FEVERFEW. See Marraicaria.

Feverrew, Baflard. See ParruEentum.

Feverrew, inthe Materia Medica, the parthenium of
Diofcorides, has been very generally employed fince his
time for medical purpofes. In natural affinity it ranks
with camomile and tanfy, and its fenfible qualities fhew it to
be nearly allied to them in its medicinal character. Accord-
Ing to Bergius its virtues are tonic, ftomachic, refolvent, and
emmenagogue. It has been given fuccefsfully as a vermi-
fuge, and for the cure of intermittents ; but its ufe is moft
celebrated in female diforders, efpecially in hyfteria: whence
it is fuppofed to have derived the name -‘* Matricaria.””
Its fmell, tafte, and analyfis prove it to be a.medicine of
confiderable aétivity: fo that we may fay with Murray,
«¢ Rarius hodie pree{cribitur quam debetur.””

The leaves and flowers communicate by infufion.their
{trong {mell and bitter tafte to water and rectified {pinit.

“The watery infufions, infpiflated, leave an extract of con-
fiderable bitternefs, and which alfo difeovers a faline matter
both to the tafte and by throwing up to the furface {mall
ery {talline efilorefcences in keeping :, the peculiar favour of
the matricaria exhales in the evaporation, and impregnates
the diftilled water, on which alfo a quantity of effential oil is
found floating. The quantity of {pirituous extract, accord-
ing to Cartheufer’sexperiments, 1s only about {th the weight
of the dry leaves, whereas the watery extraét amounts. to
near one-half, Lewis. Woodville.

FEVERSHAM, in Geography. See FaversHam.

FEUGEROLLES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhdne and Loire; 5 miles S. of St. Etienne.

FEUILLANS, in Ecchfiaftical Hiftory, an order of
religious clothed in white, and going bare-foot, wha live
under the {triét obfervance of the rule of St. Bernard.

“The name was occafioned by.a reform of the order of

Bernardius, firft made in the abbey of Feuillans, a village
in France, five leagues diftant from Thouloufe, by the fieur
Barriere, who eftablifhed it about the year 1580.
» It was approved of by pope Sixtus V. and the popes
Clement VIII. and Paul V. granted it its particular fupe-
riors. King Henry II. founded a convent of Feuillans in
the Fauxbourgh St. Honoré at Paris in 1587.

There are alfo convents of nuns who follow the fame re-
form, called Feuillantes; the firft of which was eftablifhed
near Thouloufe in 1590.

FEUILLE de Scie, in Heraldry, expreffes that an
ordinary, asa feffe, pale, or the like, is indented only on
one fide ; becaufe it then looks like the leaf of a faw, as the
French -phrafe imports.

FEUILLEA, in Botany, named by Linneus in honour
of Father Louis Feullée; fee Feuinits. Linn. Gen. 523.
Schreb. 690. Jul 397. (Nhandiroba ; Plum. Gen. t. 27.)

FEV

Clafs and order, Divecia Fentandria. “Nat. Ord. Cucure
bitacea ? Sul. S

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
rounded at thebafe, fpreading in the upper part, cut half way
down into five fezments, Cor. of one petal, wheel-fhapeds
limb cut half way down into five convex, rounded feg-
ments; the centre clofed with a double ftar, whofe rays
are alternately longer and fhorter, regarding the courfe of
the fun. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped; anthers twa-
lobed, roundifh. ‘There are five compreffed incurved fila-
ments, ranged alternately with the {tamens.

Female, Ca/. Perianth as in the male, but with the ger-
men at its bafe. Cor. asin the male; the central ftar fur-
nifhed with five heart-fhaped plates. Pi/?. Germen inferior;
ityles five, thread-fhaped; ‘tigmas heart-fhaped. Peric. Berry
every large, ovate, obtufe, flefhy, three-celled, with a woody
coat, encompafled by the calyx. Seeds feveral, orbicular,
compreffed, oblique.

Ef. Ch. Male, Calyx five-cleft. Corolla five-cleft.
Stamens five, with five alternate barren filaments. ’

Female, Cal. and Cor. as in the male. Styles three.
Berry hard, three-celled. Seeds orbicular.

Obf. The above charaéters, copied from Linnzus, ap-
pear to have been taken by him entirely from Plumier’s
figure, except that the defcription of the fruit was partly
borrowed from Marcgrave. We have feen the feeds, fent
from Jamaica by the name of Antidote Cocoon, which ap-
pellation is mentioned in Browne’s Jamaica, p. 374.5 and as
they agree with Plumier’s figure above quoted, we are fo
far right as to the genus.

With regard to the {pecies, whether one or two, they are
to be known from Plumier and Marcgrave only, :

1. F. cordifolia. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 1013. Plum. Ic,
t. 209. ‘ Leaves heart-fhaped, angular.” iNhandiroba
fcandens, foliis hederaceis angulofis; Plum. Gen. 20.)
Native of the Weft Indies, or South America. Stem
climbing, furrowed. Leaves alternate, ftalked, heart-
fhaped, acute, with three or five flight angles, entire,
{mooth on both fides, reticulated with numerous veins,
dark green above, rather paler beneath. S¥ipulas none.
Tendrils axillary, folitary, fimple, about as long as the
leaves. H/ower-/lalks axillary, either with refpeét to the
leaves or the tendrils, compound, alternately branched,
many-flowered. Our defcription is taken from: Plumier’s
figure, aflifted by a leaf gathered by himielf.

2. F. trilobata. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 1014. Plum. Ie.
t. 210. ‘ Leaves with three (or five) lobes.?? (Ghandi-
roba, vel Nhandiroba Brafilienfibus; Maregr. Brafil. 46, cum
ic. Sloane Jam. v. 1. 200.) Native of Brafil and Jamaica,
in woods and hedges. This appears to differ from the
former chiefly in-the form of its /aves, which are deeply
three-lobed, the lateral lobes being moreover generally
elongated at the bafe into two other fhorter more obtul
lobes. In colour, texture, and habit, they appear, by an
original fpecimen, to agree precifely withthe former. “The
inflore/cence is fo different in Plumier’s, t. 210, that we ap-
prehend fome miftake. It there confilts of a few folita
flowers, from the bofoms of {mall leaves on a Jateral branch.
Yet this is not altogether diffimilar to Marcerave’s figure. ~

Linneus feems tohave been led by Browne to unite the

-two in Sp. Pl. ed. 2, by the name of J. /canders ; but he
ragain feparated them in his Syft. Veg. He very errone-

oufly confounded with the latter his own Trichofanthes
pundata, Sp. Pl. 1432, as well -as the Trichofanthes of
Browne’s Jamaica, 354, two plants as unlike each other as
they are to either of the Feuillee. As great a miltake exifts
in_his fon’s herbarium, where, under the name of F, 17#oba,

4s

a,

REV

is found the Modékka of Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 8. 39.
t.20. This belongs to a genus hitherto not defined by
fyftematic botanifts, though mentioned by Juflieu, for
future confideration, under Pafifora. Linneus in his
fecond Mantiffa, 336, ftrangely confounds it with Convol-
vulus paniculatus. We have a fpecies or variety of
Modékka {rom Sierra Leone, gathered and afcertained by
Dr. Atzelius, which flowered in September 1793, in the
flove of the late Lady Amelia Hume, where we gathered
and fully defcribedit.. This very plant, which was a male,
bore fome fimple heart-fhaped leaves, like thofe of O're/a-
modékka, Hort.Malab. t. 23, with others that were varioufly
lobed, moftly three-lobed, like t. 20. See alfot. 23. Such
a variation, ina plant fo much allied in natural affinity to
Freuillea, may jultifythe union of its two fuppofed fpecies
into one. S. '

EFEUILLE'E, Lous, in Biography, a Francifcan friar,
of the order of minims, celebrated as a botanift and natural
philofopher, was born at Mane in Provence, in 1¢6c. He
travelled to the weftern coail of South America, invettigat-
ing the natural produétions of New Spain and the neigh-
bouring iflands, from the year 1707 to 1712. He had
previoufly vifited Carthagena, and the ifland of Martinico,
in 1703 and 1704.. Thefe, with feveral other voyages, the
number and courle of which are not exattly recorded,
he accomplifhed under the patronage of Louis XIV. by
whom he was penfioned and greatly encouraged. The
king caufed an cbfervatory to be built for him at Marfeilles,
in which town Feuillée, worn out with his labours, died in
1732, aged 72. He is faid to have been of that modett
frmple character, which belt becomes an ecclefiaftic anda
true philofopher. Neverthelefs, he was excited to a con-
fiderable deoree of refentment againft Monficur Frezier, a
rival phil fopher and naturalift, fent out likewife by Louis
XIV., whom he criticifes at fome length, in a rather con-
temptuous ftyle, in the preface to the Journal of one of his
voyages.

Feuillée publifhed “ Journal des Obfervations phy fiques,
mathematiques, & botaniques, faites par Vordre du Roi,
fur les cétes oricntales (occidentales)° de Amerique meri-
dionale, & dans les Indes occidentales, depuis l’année 1707
jafqnes en 1712,” Paris: 1714, in two vols 4to. with nu-
merous plates. This is a circumftantial and exa& work,
written with no elegance of ftyle, but valuable for folid
information upon all the fubjects announced in its title, with
Various incidental matter befides. What relates to Peru
makes a principal part of thefe volumes. The defcriptions
of plants occupy 62 pages at the end of the fecond, accom-
panied by 50 very tolerable plates, in which Linneus con-
fided for his definitions of feveral fpecies, without feeing
fpecimens, a meafure he rarely adopted. But it does not
appear that Feuillée was one of thofe writers who, having
heen found to have mifled him, caufed him, in the preface
to his Species Plantarum, to declare againit that practice in
future, ** non vifas plantas heic omifi, toties elufus ab
auctoribus.”? The repnted medical virtues of the plants
met with laudable attention from Feuillce, and are always
added to his botanical defcriptions. Haller remarks that
he firft eftablifhed the genus Lpipadis in this work, and he
certainly deferibes fome fpecies {till unknown to us, not
only of that genus, but feveral others. (See Errpacris.)
The niagnificent FYori-pondio (Datura arborea) was here
firlk made known to botanitts.

He publithed another quarto volume, with a fimilar title,
in.1725, in the preface to which he cenfures Frezier, as
above-mentioned. The appendix, of 71 pages, with 50
plates; defcribes many extremely interefting plants of Chili,

PEL

among which are the firft defcribed Calceoluriz, the Sweet
Potatoe, Convolvulus Batatas, whofe flower is fearcely
known but from this figure, the Buddlea globofa, now fo
common, as well as the equally common, but tranfcendently
elegant, Puchfia coccinea.

Thefe 100 botanical plates were, according to Haller,
republifhed at Nuremberg in 1756 and 1757, in two vols
4to., with a German tranflation of their defcriptions.

The original drawings of Feuillée, many of which were
never publifhed, remain in the Bibliothéque Nationale at
Paris. ‘They are very rudely coloured, end without any
pretenfions to the fkill of a painter. Whatever merit of
that kind, flight as it is, can be difcerned in his plates, is
entirely owing to the engraver. S.

Feuixce'e, La, in Geography, atown of France, in
the department of the Lower Seine; eight miles W. of
Gournay.

FEULEN, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach ; fix miles S.E. of Culmbach.

FEUQUIERES, Anruony vet Pas, Marguis of, in
Biography, was defcended from a family diftinguifhed in
arms, and born in 1648. He, following the fteps of his
anceftors, became noted for aéts of heroifm and military
prowefs. His condué& in the campaign in Germany, in
1688, obtained for him the rank of marechal-de-camp. For
the part which he took in feveral a€tions in Piedmont, he
rofe, in 1693, to the rank of lieutenant-general. This was
the higheft promotion he obtained ;-and he felt moit feverely
the flight put on him, as he thought, in paffing himover when
others were appointed marfhals of France. He became the
euemy of all contemporary commanders, whofe conduct was
rigidly ferutinized by Feuquieres. He difcovered, and
enumerated, twelve capital blunders which the French gene-
rals had committed at Blenheim. He publifhed the refuit
of his enquiries and criticifms on the generals employed by
Lewis XIV., ina work entitled ** Memoirs.”? This vos
lume has a good reputation for clearnefs of ftyle ; for the
freedom of its reprefentations, and for the depth and faga-
city of itsremarks. He died in 1711, having a few hours
before his death written a letter to the king, in which, with
great feeling, he recommended to his majefty’s faveur his
only fon, a3 innocent of what had made him unfortunate,
and born of a race which had always faithfully ferved their
king. Gen. Biog.

Feuguielres, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Oife; eight miles W. of Gran-
villiers. ’

FEURBON, Justus, in Biography, who fiourifhed in
the 17th century, was brought up to-the profeffion of the
law, which he foon relinguiihed for the ftudy of theology
and the belles lettres. He obtained feveral retpeftable fitu-
ations, till at length, on the death of Helvicus, in 1617, he
was made profeflor of divinity at Gieffen, of which town he
was already the paftor of the church. In 1649 he was
nominated preacher to the court by the Landgrave George ;
and in the following year he received {till higher preferment
at Gieffen. Afterthis, his high reputation obtained for him
invitations from other places, but he preferred {pending the
remainder of his days at Gieflen, where he died in the year
1656. He was author of many theological works which are
enumerated by Moreri and others.

FEVRE, Goy ve, was born, in 1541, at the family feat
of La Boderie, in Lower Normandy, whence he obtained the
title of “ Sieur de la Boderie.” It has been fuppofed, from
the bent of his ftudies, that he was intended for the ecclefi-
a{tical profeflion. He was a diligent ftudent in the oriental
Janguages, and had, in after life, a large fhare in the cempo-

Tien

FVEAV

fition of the Polyglott of Antwerp, of which Arias Mon-
tanus was the chief direétor. We complains that neither
himfelf, nor his brother Nicholas, who had likewitfe a fhare
in the fame work, was properly remunerated fortheir labour.
On his return to France he was made fecretary and
linguift to the duke of Alengon, who was likewife deticient
in the principle of gratitude. He died on his eftate at La
Boderie in 1598, leaving behind him various works relative
to the Syriac, Chaldaic, and other oriental languages. He
tranflated a treatife on baptifm, written by Severus, patri-
arch of Alexandria; and wrote fome poetical pieces, by
which he acquired confiderable reputation among his con-
temporaries. His brother Anthony, born about 1555, was
fome time Charge des affairs for Henry IV. at the court of
Rome, and afterwards ambaflador extraordinary in England ;
and when he left this country. he received fingular marks of
friendfhip from king James and feveral of the nobility. An
account of his negociations, in letters written by him to the
minifters, and their replies, were publifhed in 5 vols. 12mo.
amder the. title of « Ambaflades de M. de la Boderie en
Angleterre fous le Regne de Henry IV. et la minorité de
Louis XIIT.”? More.

Frevre, or Fasrt, James pe, who flourifhed in the
16th and 17th centuries, was born at Etaples. ewas of
low extraction, but pollefled vigorous mental powers,
which he improved by a diligent application to the different
branches of ufeful and ornamental learning. He purfued
his ftudics in the univerdity of Paris, where he afterwards
took the degree of doctor, and delivered le€tures to nume-
rous pupils in the belles lettres and philofophy. The fyf-
tem which he taught, or rather his oppofition to old and
long eftablithed theories, expofed him to the jealoufy of ig-
narant zealots, by whom he was accufed of being friendly
to Lutheranifm. He was obliged to leave Paris, and, on the
invitation of William Briconnet, bifhop of Meaux, he took
sefuge in the family of that worthy ecclefialtic, who was
obliged, in a fhort time, for the fake of his own peace, and
that of his family, to withdraw the proteétion of which Fevre
fo much {tood in need. He was now abandoned to the wide
world, and firft went to Blois, thence toGuieune, about which
time he was degraded from the doétor’s degree, by the
faculty of the Sorbonne. Not content with this, his enemies
induced the parliament of Paris to order a procefs to be
carried on againft him; from the effeéts of which he was
timely delivered by an order from the fovereign Francis I.,
who forbade them to come to any refolution againft Le
Fevre without his injunction. Margaret, filter to the
king, and herfelf queen of Navarre, took the perfecuted
man under her proteétion, and honoured him with her
confidence and efteem during the remainder of his life. _ By
her authority he went to Strafburg to confer with Bucer
and Capito, refpe€ting a reformation in the church ; it does
not, however, appear that he was prepared to go far into the
bufinefs of reform.. He continued, by profeffion at leatt,
attached to the church of Rome till his death in 1537. But
towards the clofe of life he felt uneafinefs at not having
been more bold in the caufe of truth. While at dinner with
his patronefs, the queen of Navarre, and in a company of
Jearned men, he was obferved, in the mid{t of the entertain-
ment, to burftinto tears, and, in explanation, he declared that
his confcience accufed him of being highly criminal, in
having known the truth, and taught it to others, who had
fealed it with their blood, aud yet thrunk from his duty in
vowing it, and timidly taken refuge in a place of fecurity,
far from the fcenes where the crowns of martyrdom were
diftributed. The queen endeavoured to confole him, but
probably without much effect ; he felt that he had not

FEV

done all that he might and ought to have done, and was
come to that point of time in which felf-deception could no
longer avail, ‘This declaration feemed to give eafe to his
labouring mind ; he made fome arrangements with regard to
his property, and almoft immediately expired. Le Fevre
publifhed various works that difplay much folid erudition,
and great critical fill; and if the opinion of Simon be of
weight, he is to be ranked with the beft commentators of his
age. Fis tranflation of the New Teftament into French is
highly efteemed, and is now very fearce. Je Fevre once
involved himfclf ina conteft with Erafmus, by treating his
notes on the New Teftament with undue feverity, and even
charging the author with mtentionally corrupting the ferip-
tures, and advancing impieties. Erafmus vindicated his
conduét in the mott fatisfa€tory manner, and freely forgave
his antagonift, affuring him that he fhould, notwithftanding
what had happened, continue to refpeét him. . Such liberal
conduét on the part of Erafmus produced the happieft
effect on Le Fevre, who fincerely repented of his having
attacked Erafmus; and “ they continued,’ fays the learned
and candid Jortin, “to {peak of each other with great re-
{pect and efleem ;” hence, he infers, that “it would be
happy if wrangling geniufes would. copy from their
example, and confider a little how all men of fenfe and man-
ners applaud fuch moderation, and how they abhor and de-
{pife thofe, who having begun to quarrel, perhaps upon
mere baubles, never end their contefts and animofities, tilt
death comes and puts them to filence.” Bayle, Moreri.
Jortin.
Feyre, Tannecui Le, was born at Caen in the year
16 5: He received a private education, and then finifhed
his {tudies at the college of La Fleche, where he diftinguifhed
himfelf. At Paris he obtained the patronage of cardinal
Richlien, who procured him a penfion of 2000 livres, as in-
{fpetor of the works printed at the Louvre. At the death
of Richlieu he went to Langres, where he avowed himfelf a
Proteftant, and was invited to Saumur to the profefforfhip of
clafflical literature. His mode of inftrution was fo excellent
that he had pupils from all parts. Voltaire, in fpeaking of
him, afferts, that he defpifed thofe of his feét, and lived
among them more as a philofopher than a huguenot. He
died in 1672, as he was preparing to quit Saumur for
Heidelberg, whither he had been invited by the prince
palatine. His works were tranflations of, and comments on,
Greek and Latin authors; he publifhed two volumes of
« Letters,’”? and Greek and Latin poems. He wrote Latin
elegantly, though not without fome Gallicifms. He was
a man of ftriét probity and integrity, of which he 'gave
proof by dedicating a work to Peliffon while a ftate pri-
foner. Moreri. ’
Fevre, Craupe Le,apainter, a native of France, horn
in 1633. He principally painted portraits, but he like-
wife attempted flowers, and even hiftorical fubje&s, but
not with fo great fuccefs. He came to London, where he
met with much encouragement for feveral years, and there
he died in 1675. ° Lagi
FEURS, Forum Secustanorum, in Geogra Ay, a
town of France, in the department of the Loire, and chief
place of acanton in the diltri& of Montbrifon ; 25 miles W.
of Lyons. The place contains 1,796, and the canton 14,016
inhabitants, on a territory of 250 kiliometres, in 18 com-
munes. About a league from this town, at the foot of a
ay called Dinzy, isa mineral {pring, of a fulphureous qua-
ity. :
FEUTSKING, Joun Henry, in Biography, was
born in the duchy of Holftein in the year 1672. Having
acquired a good {lock of elementary knowledge, he went te
Roftock

Rey
Roftock to ftudy philofophy and theology, and from

thence he removed to Wittemberg, where he was created
doéor in philofophy, in the year 1692. Here he acquired
much reputation, and was appointed paftor and fuperintend-
ant of the diocefe of Jeffen in the year 1697. In the fol-
Jowing year he was admitted to the degree of doétor in di-
vinity. He obtained feveral offices, and at length became
paitor of the church of St. Bartholomew at Zerbit, preacher
to the court, confeffor and ecclefiaftical counfellor, and fu-
perintendant of the diocefe of Zerbit, in Anhalt, by the
prince of that name. In the year 1709 he undertook the
offices of profeffor of divinity, and afleffor of the ecclefiatti-
cal confiftory of that city. At the fame time he preached
once a week before the electrefs of Saxony, and was
honoured with the poft of ecclefiaftical counfellor to the
duke of Saxe-Gotha. His laft appointment was that of con-
feffor to the eleGtrefs of Saxony, in 1712, an office that he
enjoyed but a few months, as he died in 1713, when only
41 yearsof age. His works, which are very numerous, are
chiefly on theological fubjeéts. "They are enumerated by
Moreri, who may be referred to by the curious.

FEWEL. See Fueu.

FEWMET. See Fumer.

FEWS, in Geography, a barony of the county of Ar-
magh, Ireland, with a village of the fame name. The
fouth and weft parts of this barony are full of mountains.
The foil of thefe mountains is much inclined to grafs, which
as lefs coarfe than that ufually met with on mountain ground,
fo that the cattle have always full pafture, except in time of
continued fnow. The grafs-farms are large and exteniive ;
-and there is alfo much tillage in this.diftri@. The Fews
abound with whins or gorfe (ulex Europeus), ferns, and
‘thofe plants which flourifh ina warm foil. There is no
limeftone in the diftriG, but either a brittle and decayed free-
ftone with a ferruginous tinge, or a hard {tone found in large
blocks, which is called whinftone, but which differs from
other ftones called by thatname. Cooite’s Armagh.

FEY, in Rural Economy, is aterm which fignifes the
winnowing or cleaning of grain by means of the natural
wind. It likewife fignifies the bed or ftratum of earthy ma-
terials by which chalk, marle, and other fimilar fubftances
are covered, and which muft be removed before the workmen
an come at them. This fort of labour is confequently
termed feying, aud is ufually paid for by meafure, accord-
ing to the difference indepth. In both chalk and marle pits
they are confidered the more valuable the lefsithe fey.

Fey is alfo in fome diftritts applied to the cleaning and
digging out of ponds and wells.

FEYDANY, in Geography, a town of Samogitia ; 16
miles 5.S.W. of Miedniki.

FEYDEAU, Marruew, in Biography, was born at
Paris inthe year 1616. He purfued his tludies in the col-
lege of the Sorbonne, and fo conducted himfelf in that place
as to obtain the efteem of perfons of all ranks. In the year
1645, he wasengaged by M.de Bellegarde, archbifhop. of
Sens, to deliver a courfe of inftructions to the candidates for
holy orders in his diocefe. He obtained fome preferment
in thechurch, and compofed feveral ufeful books, among
which was one entitled “ A Catechifm on Grace,’? which
was afterwards reprinted with the title of « Tlluftrations of
certain Difficulties refpeGting Grace.”? This work was con-
demned by a decree of the inquifition at Rome, which M.
Fougqnet, attorney-general of the parliament at Paris, would
not permit to be promulgated in that city, In 1656, M. Fey-
deau was one of the feventy-two doctors who wereexpelled by
the faculty of the Sorbonne, for refufing to fubferibe to the
.condemnation of M, Arnauld, and on this account he was

Vou, XIV.

FE Z

obliged to relinquifh his church preferment. After this, for
feveral years, he lived chiefly in retirement, and produced
his * Refleétions on the Hiftory and Harmony of the Gof-
pels,” in 2 vols. 12mo.; a work which has gone through
feveral editions. In 1665, he was prefented by the bifhop
of Aleth with aprebend in his diocefe ; this he reficned
in 1668, in order to undertake the cure of Vitrile Frangdis,
in Champagne. Here he officiated feven years, and was
then obliged to give up his charge in coniequence of the
perfecutions-with which-his party was harafled. He was
banifhed by a lettre de cachet to Bourges in 1677: and by
another procefs he was fent to Annonai in the Vivares,
where he died in July 1694, in the 79th year of his age.
He publifhed many works, and left behind him maay others
that have not yet appeared. A long Latin epitaph was en-
graved on histomb, whichis preferved by Moreri.

FEY-HIANG, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Pe-tchéli; 12 miles S.E. of Quang-ping.

FEYJOO, Benepict Jerom, in Biography, a \earned
phyfician of the order of St. Benedi&, born in Spain, who
died in the year 1765. By his writings many have thought
that he contributed as much towards curing the mental dif-
eafes of his compatriots, and reforming the vitiated tafte of
his countrymen, by introducing liberal notions in medicine
and philofophy ; as the great Michel Cervantes had done thofe
of a preceding age, by writing his immortal work, the in-
comparable hiftory of Don Quixotte. In the Teatro Criti-
tico, publifhed in fourteen volumes, are many fevere and
cutting refletions againft the ignorance of the monks, the
licentioufnefs of the clergy, ridiculous privileges, abufe of
pilgrimages, exorcifms, pretended miracles, &c. &c. 3; by
which he made a formidable hoft of enemies. The confef-
for of truth, he would certainly have been alfo a martyr,
had the numerous calls of vengeance been liftened to by thofe
in power. In a fuperflitious country like Spain, it was
fufficient only to have praifed fuch men as a Bacon, a Def-
cartes, a Newton, &c. to incur the charge of herefy.
learned part of the nation, however, undertcok his defence,
and he efcaped the grafp of the inquifition, And although
in his writings he has demonftrated the uncertainty of the
healing art, and the charlatancy of many among irs practi-
tioners ; yet the medical college at Seville conferred on him
the degree of doctor, and honoured him witha feat at their
board. Mr. Bourgoing obferves, that Dr. Feyjoo,.or Fe 1}005
was one of thofe writers who. treated.this conjectural art in
the moit rational manner... Tableau de l’ Efpagne.

FEYOE’, in Geography, a {mall ifland of Denmark, a
little to the north of Laaland. N. lat..54° 57’. E. long.
et P25

FEYREGG, a town of Auttria ; 8 miles W.S.W. of
Steyr.

FEYSTRIZ, atown of Auftria; 15 miles S.S.W. of
Ebinfurth.

FEZ, a province of the empire of Morocco, in Africa,
fituated to the north ef Tedlaand Shavoya, and having to
the weit the provinces of Benihaffen and Garb, and mount
Atlas to the eaft, and ftretching to the north as far as the
provinces of Shaus, Rif, and Garet. This was formerly a
kingdom of very great extent, and itill its dependencies are
numerous and extentive, including feveral mountains, abound-
ing in inhabitants, and weil cultivated. According te Jack-
fon, the diftri& of Fez, exclufive of the cities or towns,
contains 1,280,000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Fez
has. been united to Morocco, fiuce it firit became aa
independent fovereignty in the 13th century. Although a
confiderable part of this country lies walte, and a traét to
the weit of Olé Fez ahounds with marthes, which render the

3 B air

The

FEZ

ai unwholefome, and the people unhealthy ; the foil is elfe-
where fertile, and produces, in the greateft abundance, corn,
fruit, flax, falt, gum, wax, &c. and alfo oranges, lemons,
figs, and olives. The mountains abound with game, and the
forefts with wild beafts. The lions of Fez are the moft dar-
ing and:f{avage of any in Africa; horfes, camels, kine,
fhvep, goats, and hares, are very numerous, | The princi-
al exports from this province are hides and leather of all
Pitas particularly that denominated Morocco, fins, furs,
wool, dates, almonds, figs, raifins, olives,,honey, wax,
filk, cotton, flax, horfes, oftrich-feathers, gold-duit, &c.
The imports chiefly confift in {picery, cochineal, vermilion,
iron, brafs, {teel, wire, arms, ammunition, drugs, watches,
{mall looking-glaffes, quickfilver, tartar, opium, alum,
aloes, ;Englifh and other linen and woollen cloths, muflins,
calicoes, fuftians, gold wire, filk of all kinds, brocades,
damafks, velvets, and woollen caps, toys and trinkets of
all forts, Guinea cowries, combs, paper, and a great variety

of earthen ware. f
Fez, a city of Africa, and capital of the province of
that name, was built, about the end of the eighth century,
-by Edris, the defcendant of Mahomet and Ali, whole
father, flying from Medina to avoid the proferiptions of the
caliph Abdallah, retired to the, extremity of Africa, and
was proclaimed foyereigi of the Moors. Sidy Edris, fuc-
ceeding to the crown of his father, founded the city of Fez,
in 793, and built the mofque in which he is buried, From
that time the city of Fez has been confidered by the Moors
asa facred afylum, and an objeét of devotion, In the firlt
moments of that zeal which every veligious novelty infpires,
a {till larger mofque was built at Fez, and called ‘* Carubin,”
becaufe it was founded by the Arabs of Cairoan. This is
one of the fineft edifices in the whole empire. , Many other
mofques were fucceflively built at Fez, to which were an-
nexed, according to the cuitom of the Mahometans,, col-
leges and hofpitals ; and this city was held in fo high a degree
of veneration, that when the pilgrimage to Mecca was
interrupted, in the fourth ceatury of the Hegira, the
weftern Mahometans, as a fubftitute, repaired to Fez, while
the ealtern journeyed to Jerufalem. When the Arabs had
extended themfelves in Afia, Africa, and Europe, they
brought to Fez the knowledge they had acquired in the
arts and fciences ; and, to its religious fchools, this capital
added academies for philofophy, phyfic, and aitronomy.
Fez, reforted to from almof all Africa, and the object of
the devout pilgrimages of the Mahometans, foon became the
rendezvous of the neighbouring provinces. The increafe
of wealth produced the love of pleafure, and every {pecies
of luxury; licentioufnefs quickly followed ; and -as its
‘progrefs in hot countries is always mott rapid, Fez; the
{chool of {ciences and manners, foon became the fink of
every vice. ‘The public baths, which health, cleanlinefs,
and cuftom rendered neceflary, became the receptacles of
the moft infamous debauchery, The, Mahometans of An-
dalufia, Grenada, and Cordova, during the revolutions of
Spain, pafled over to Fez, whither they brought. new
manners, knowledge, and, perhaps, fome degrees of
civilization.. They taught the Spanifh method of dreff-
ing and dyeing red aud yellow goat,and fheep {kins, * thea
called Cordova leather, now Morocco, from the city of
that name, where, however, the dye is leaft in perfection.
At Fez, likewife, ;they, eltablifhed the manufaéture of
milled, woollen caps, worn by the; Moers and _eattern
nations. Gauzes, filks, ftuffs, and beautiful fafhes, wrought
in gold and filver, are manufactured at lez ; and the little
they do proves how much might be done, if induftry were,
encouraged,.. Some love of learning ,is fhill preferyed at,

FEZ

Fez, where Arabic is better fpoken than in the other parts
of the empire. The rich Moors fend their children to the
{chools at Fez, where they gain more inftruétion than they
could do elfewhere.

The city ef Fez contains fome tolerably convenient inns 5”

the ftreets are ill-paved, and fo narrow that in many places
two horfemen cannot ride abreait. Fez, though in times
pait it attraéted the attention of travellers, is in no refpeé&
preferable to the other cities of the empire, except by its
fituation, {chools, induttry, and fomewhat greater urbanity 5
yet, though more polifhed than their countrymen, the Moors
of Fez are vain, {uperltitious, and intolerant. The faints,
whom they pretend to have buried in that city, furnifh a
pretext for prohibiting Jews and Chriftians to enter it; and,
an order from the emperor is neceflary to gain admiffion.
The local fituation of Fez is fomewhat fingular. It is feated
at the bottom of a valley, and furrounded by hills in the

form of a funnel, flattened at the narrow end. The uppe
part.of the yalley is divided into gardens, planted with high
trees, orange groves, and orchards. A river, called Ra-
falema, ani along the valley, waterig it in various) direc-
tious, turning by its ftreams a number of mills, and fupply-
ing water in abundance to all the gardens and moft of the
houfes., On the height of Old Fez is a plain capable of
great cultivation. Jacob-Ben-Abdallah, of the race of Beni-
Merins, built, in the 13th century, New Fez, :contigyous to
the Old, and, by its fituation, keepiag the latter myavwe,
The high town, which is faiubrioufly fituated, contains:
fome old palaces, in which the fons of the,emperor liye.
The new town is inhabited by fome Moorifh, families, but,
by a greater number of Jews, who trade with Old Fez, not-
withitanding the contempt with which they are treated by
the inhabitants; their gains, however, reconcile them to
this contempt. Fez is about 200. miles) N.N.E, of
Morocco. Fez is faid to have about 3000 inhabitants. N.
lat, 33° 50!. W.. long. 5° 20’. ‘Chenier’s Morocco, vol. i.) ;
TFEZZAN, a country of Africa, fituated to the fouth
of Tripoli, and 60 journies welt of Cairo, Me. Horneman,
a late traveller, fent out at the expence o African,
aflociation, informs us, that the greateft lengt the cul-
tivated part of this country is about 300 Englith miles from,
north te fouth, and the greateft width 200 miles from eaft
to welt; but the mountainous region of Harutfch, to the
ealt and other deferts to the fouth and weft are reckoned
within its territory. The borderers on the north are Avabs,
nominally dependent on Tripoli. , y
bounded by the Harutfch and line of deferts ; to the fouth
and fouth-eaft is the country of the Tibboos, to the fouths
welt that ef the nomadic Tuaricks; on the weft are Arabs.
The kingdom contains 101 towns, and villagesy, of which,
Mourzouk is the capital. Che principal towns next in
order to the imperial refidence are Sockna, Sebba, Huns,
Wadon to the north, Gatron (or Kattrou) to the fouth,:
Yerma (or Jerma) to the weft, and Zucla to the eaft.,
The climate is at no feafon temperate or agreeable. . During
the fummer the heat is intesfe, and when the wind, blows
from the fouth is fearcely {upportable, even by the natives.;
The winter might be moderate, were it not for the preva~:
Tence of a bleak and penetrating north wind during that.
feafon of the year, and which,chilled and drove to the fire,
not unly the people of the place, but even myfelf, the native,
of a northern country. It rains at Fezzan {feldom, and.
then but little. in quantity. In, January 1799, there were
fome faint lightnings without thuader. Tempetts of wind,
are frequent both from the north and fouth. There is no,
river or even rivulet deferving notice, throughout the ve
country. ‘The toil is a deep fand covering calcareous rock
or

a

Fezzan, to the ealt, is.

FEZ :
er earth, fofmetimes a ftratum of argillaceous fubftance.
Dates may be termed the natural and ftaple produce of
Fezzan. In the weltern parts fome fenna is grown, of a
quality fuperior to that imported from the country of the
Tibboos. Pot-herbs and garden vegetables are plentiful.
Wheat and barley are fuited to the foil and climate ; but,
from inexperience, or want of fkill, and from the indolence
of the people and oppreffions of government, corn is not
raifed fuflicient for the inhabitants, and they rely for fubfitt-
ence on importation from countries bordering on the north.
Very little attention is beftowed in rearing beafts: horned
cattle are to be found only in the moft fertile diltriéts, and
even there few in number; they are employed in drawing
water from the wells, and flaughtered only in cafes of ex-
treme neceflity. The ordinary domettic animal is the goat.
Sheep are bred in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, but
the general fupply is furnithed by the bordermg Arabs.
‘The wool is manufactured into abbes, or coarfe woollen
cloths, the general clothing throughout the country ; with
the meat the {kins are roafted while frefh, andeaten. The
horfes are few: alles are the beafts of general ufe, whether
for burthen, draught, or carriage. Camels are exceflively
dear, and kept only: by the chief people, or richer merchants.
All thefe animals are fed with dates, or date kernels. The
commerce of Fezzan is conliderable, but confifts merely of
foreign merchandize.. From O@ober to Vebruary Mour-
zouk is the great market and place of refert for various
-earavans from Cairo, Bengali, Gadames, Twat, and Sou-
dan; and for other imallcer troops ef traders, Tibboos,
Tuaricks, and Arabs. “Phe caravans from the fouth bring
flayes of both fexes, oftrich feathers, zibette, tiger fkins,
and gold... From Bornou copper is imported in great quan-
tities. Cairo lends lilks, melayes, ({triped blue and white
calicoes,) woollen cloths, glafs, imitations of coral, beads
for bracelets, and Eaft-India goods. ‘The merchants of
Bengafi, who ufually join the caravan from Cairo at Au-
gela, import tobacco, fouff, and fundry wares fabricated in
‘Turkey. The caravan from Tripoli chiefly deals in paper,
falfe corals, fire-arms, fabres, knives, cloths called abbes,
and red worlted caps. . Thole trading from Gadames bring
nearly the fame articles. The {maller caravans of Tuaricks
and Arabs import butter, oil, falt, and corn; and thofe
coming from the more fouthern diftriéts bring fenna, oftrich
feathers, and camels for the flaughter houte. _Fezzan is
governed, by a fultan, defeended from the family of the
Shereefs.. "The tradition is, that the anceftors of the reign-
ing prince coming from weltern Africa, invaded and con-
quered Fezzan about 500 yeavs paft. The fultan reigns
over his dominions with unlimited power; but he ho'ds
them tributary to the bafhaw of Tripoli. The amount of
the tribute was formerly 6000 dollars; it is now reduced to
4000, aud an officer of the bafhaw comes‘annually to Mour-
zouk to receive this fum, or its value, in gold, fenna, or
flaves. On his journey she takes travelling merchants under
his protection. The throne is hereditary in the eldeit
prince of the royal family, whether nephev? or fon, The
revenues are produced from a tax on gardens and cultivated
- Jands, fines and requifitions, with a further income from
duties on foreign trade; from domains of the clown, falt
pools, natron lakes, &c. ~The public expenditure confills
in the’ maintenance of the fultan, his court, and palace.
The:cadiyand department of juitice, the religious, and the
reat officers of government, are fupported from the pro-
Sige ‘of date tree woods, and gardens fet apart for ‘that
purpofe, The dignity of cadi or judge, who is alfo chief
of the clergy, is hereditary in a certain family. The po-
pulation of Fezzan is loofely eftimated at 70,000 or 5,000,

*

‘account for the abjeG ftate of the inhabitants.

FIA

all of whom, without exception, profefs the Mahometaf#
religion. The colour or complexion of the people varies ;
thole of the northern parts have a complexion and features
fimilar to thofe of the Arabs. In the fouthern diftri@s
they have mixed with the natives of the great nations
bordering on that quarter, and bear a refemblance to the
Tibboos and the Tuaricks. ‘The genuine and indigenous
race of Vezzaners may be defcribed as a people of but
ordinary ftature, and their limbs by no means mufcular or
ftrong ; their colour a deep brown, their hair black and
fhort, their form of face fuch as in Europe we fhould term
regular, and their nofe lefs flattened than that of the negro.
Their mien, wabk, and every gefture, denote a want of
energy either of mind or body. The tyrannic government,
the general poverty of the country, and their only food
confilting of dates, or a kind of farinaceous pap, with no
meat, and rarely with a little rancid oil or fat, fufficiently.,»
Through
out Mourzouk Mr. H. could not find one artificer fkilful in
any trade or work; indeed there are no other tradefmen but
fhoemakersand {miths. The latter work every meta! with-
out diftinétion ; and the fame man who forges fhoes for the
fultan’s horfe, makes rings for his princefles. The women
fabricate woollen cloths folely by hand, as the weaver’s
fhuttle is unknown, The dreis confilts of a fhirt or frock,
made of coarfe linen or cotton cloth} brought from Cairo,
and the abbe. The middling clafles wear frocks made in
Soudan of dyed biue cloth. ‘The richer pgople, and the
Mamelukes of the fultan, are clothed in the Tripolitan
habit, over which they wear a Soudan fhirt of variegated
pattern and colours, and likewife theabbe. The ornaments
are chiefly confined to the head drefs, and rings on the
arms and legs. ‘The women are foad of dancing, and are
wanton in their manners. The men aré much addi&ed to
drunkennefs. Their beverage is the frefh juice of the date
tree, called lugibi, or a drink called bufa, prepared likewife
from dates. ‘The houfes are miferably conitruéted with
ftones,or bricks of a calcareous earth mixed with clay, and
dried in the fun. They are low, and the light enters by
the door only. As to diet, fays Mr. Horneman, I never
knew a more abitemious eople than thofe of Fezzan.
Meat indeed is a food they can at no time abitain from,
when fet before them; but meat is not an article of food
with the people in general. To indicate a rich man at
Mourzouk, the ufual expreflion is, * that he eats bread and
meat every day.”

FEZZARA,. a town of Egypt, on the W. branch of
the Nile ; 13 miles S. S.E. of Rofetta.

FI, a fyllable in French folmifation, with which fome
mulicians exprefs PX, ma, bb. See SormisaTion.

FIACONE, in Geography, a town of Genoa, on the
confines of the Milanefe, between Genoa and Tortona. >

FIALLSIO, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Angermannland ; 83 4miles N. N. W. of Hernofand.

FLIANO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra: nine
miles S. of Teramo.— Alo, a town of Italy, on the Tiber;
15 miles N. of Rome.

FIANONA, a feaport town of Iftria, with a good
harbour; 36 miles S. E. of Triefte. N. lat. 45° 49. E.
long. 14° 18'.

FIANTS, or Fuants, the dung of a badger, fox, and
other vermin. f

FIAR, in Rural Economy, a term applied, in the north-
ern parts of the kingdom, to certain averaged returns of
the prices of different forts of grain, &c. In Eatt Lo-
thian, according to the agricultural furvey of that diftri@y
from time immemorial, it has been the practice of it and

3B2 fome

el AR.

fome others to fix, by public authority, fiar or average prices
of each kind of grain fold within the county for ready
money. In it the average is taken only of wheat, barley,
oats, and peas, as thefe were formerly the ftaple produce
of the country; but though at prefent a large quantity of
beans are grown, no fiar prices of them have ever been
ftruck. In performing the bufinefs, the fheriff of the
county, who ftrikes the fiars, calls before him, fome time in
the lait week in February, or firft week in March, anum-
ber of refpeétable tenants, and other perfons who deal in
corn; when he requires of them an account of the quantity
and price of the grain bought or fold within the county, for
yeady money, from the time that the preceding crop came
firft into the market, until the dayof the proof. Having
procured an account of this, he ftrikes a general average
for each of the four fpecies of corn; he then finds the
number of bolls that have brought a price above that ave-
rage, of thefe he likewife takes an average 5 and he pro-
ceeds in the fame manner with what has been fold below
the general average. To each of thefe rates he adds two
and a half per cent., and they then form what are called
the firft, fecond, and third fiars. ‘Che addition of two
anda half per cent. to the real prices mult appear a fin-
gularity to {lrangers, who may not ealily perceive either
the object or propriety of it. It is explained in the fol-
lowing ingenious and feemingly juft manner. Upon look-
ing into the extract from the fecond of the fiars it will be
found, that from the year 1627 down to 1647, the fiars
were {truck only once in the year, and as the record is
filent as to the date for the firft thirteen years, it is im-
poffible now to fay at what period of the year thefe fiars
were ftruck; but in the year 1648 the record fhews that fiars
were {truck twice for that year, namely, at Candlemas and
Lammas. In the following year, 1649, the fiars were ftruck
only once; but in the year 1650, and for every year down
to 1675 inclufive, with the exception of the year 1665, the
fiars were {truck twice, namely, at Candlemas and Lammas ;
but in the year 1676 they were again {truck only once,
mamely, at Candlemas; and this praétice has continued
uniformly down to the prefent time.

It is confequently extremely probable, that the two and
ahalf per cent. was firft cllablithed by being added to the
Candlemas fiars for the year 1676, and was continued to be
added to them for every year from that period downwards.

Upon examining the fiars for the twenty-fix years, during
which they were ftruck at Candlemas and Lammas, and
taking the average of beth, which feems to be the fair
medium price, it will be found that, in point of faé&, the Can-
dlemas, with the addition of two and a half per cent., is
fomewhat below the above medium of the double fiars.
This appears to account in a fatisfactory manner for the
origin of the two and a half per cent. ; and fhews, that
they who firft introduced it had paid confiderable attention
to the fubje&. Itis evident, indeed, that fiars taken at
Candlemas cannot fhew the average price of grain through
the year, becaufe, in the early part of the feafon it has
not reached its full value. Whitfuntide would, perhaps,
be the moft proper time for finding a juft average, and the
addition made to the fiars taken at Candlemas may amount
neily to the fame thing.

It may, however, be obferved, that there is one ob-
jection to the manner of ftriking the fiars in this pounty,
which is deferviug of attention. The firft price taken is the
true average, the higheft and lowelt are only the averages of
the higheft and loweft market days, whereas they fhould
exprefs the average of the beft’ and worft prain. A perfon
who makes a payment according tg the higheft fiars, may

in fa&t pay confiderably more than the averdge price of the
beft grain fold throughout the feafon. he fales of a few
high market days, in which prices rife much above the
level of the feafon, threivn into the general mafs, may
caufe the highelt fiars to be much above the current value of
the beft grain. It would feem to be a fairer mode to ftrike
the fiars from the weekly prices in the Haddington markets
the averages of all the market days would give the general
average, while the higheft prices on each market day,
thrown into one mafs, and the loweft into another, would
furnifh the true average of the beit and of the worlt grain.
The fiars in this county are, however, faid to be taken with
greater correétnefs than in moit other parts of Scotland.

In the more northern’ parts of Scotland, as in Perthfhire,
they are annually fettled, in the fame manner as in other
counties, by a jury of traders in grain; a method which
would feem to be improper, as the perfons examined in rea
f{pe& to the prices of the grain may all have an intereft pre-
ponderating in the fame way, being themfelves dealers’ in
the article of which they fix the price ; whereas, were only
one-third of that jury corn merchants, another third ac-
tually farming gentlemen, and the other third farmers,
who pay one hundred pounds or upwards of yearly rent,
every clafs of the community would be reprefented in thofe
meetings, every intereft would be attended to, and every
objection ftated and contidered ; fo that there would be every
chance, that the judgment given would reft on the broad
bafis of the general good of the whole county. The fheriff
fhould continue,’ as at prefent, to be the chairman of the
jury, the umpire in cafe of an equality of votes, and have
the power of judging of any objeCtion that may be brought
forward againit any of the members, as a dealer in grain,
which might difqualify him for holding a feat at the meet-
ing. The time of fettling thefe average prices is feemingly
capable of being changed for the better, as Candlemas fis
too early a period ; as but a {mall proportion of the corn is
by that time brought forward to be fold, and even that fmall
portion of the crop which is threfhed out, and fo brought,
is in a green ftate, and confequently difpofed of at an under-
value. A fair eftimate can, perhaps, hardly be made of
any crop before the end of March, or perhaps a later pe-
riod. As frequent decifions in courts of law are given in
refpect to the prices of grain, many contraéts entered into,
and much corn and meal fold with a reference to the fiars,
as well as the rents of land, and the ftipends of the clergy
in various cafes, received according to them; there can
hardly be a retrofpe¢tive rule or regulation of equal pub-
licity, or of equal authority deviled, or more properly
calculated for directing fuch tranfaGions ; confequently,
too much care and circumfpeétion cannot be employed in
the mode of eltablifhing them, as the medium prices of all
forts of grain, for the ref{pective years to which they may
have a reference.

However, in order to afford a better idea of what has
been the average prices of grain in the firft of the diftriés
noticed above, for feveral years paft, according to the me+
thod of forming them juit deferibed, it may not be im-
proper to introduce a lilt of fiars, from 1794 to 1804 in-
clufive.

Fiars of Grain.
Crop of 1794.
rit.

_Firft ‘ Second. Third.

fea ertae AC sod. Pie Syl
Wheat - 1 5 63 p Sy £ 2 3%
Barley - 1 2 13 Tiga Ue 9 og 84
Oats 3 TO Aine Mee © 14 10 yo Spay 3
Peas = ee Tote ate oy of -

7 Crop

FIA
Crop of 1795.

Firft. Second. Third.
1S OSCE RE OB ees. 0.
Wheat - 2 6 9 24 45 Ze OnaAs
Barley - 3 5 2% r 3 50t Potony
Oats Sole Tay = 3 O19 5+ O18) 2/5
Peas et EO) A: o18 9 O 17 OF
Crop of 1796.
Wheat - 1 7 23 I 5 108 Tha, us
Barleye =) te. 5, OF Te 2578 TenOrsOn
Oats - 016 14 o 14 11 O14 0
Peas = OnTA Q 013 53 o12 8%
Crop of 1797
Wheat - 1 4 Qf I 3 ck ute ea ely]
Barley .= O19 4% 0 17 ot O Es 5
Oats <p On Winn O13 o§ ©) PAWS
Peas Sie ol aD O42) As Ol As
Crop of 1798
Wheat. ta 8 Linen 18 12. 6
Barley - O19 5% o18 6 ©17 gf
Oats =i 0 1G: +04 o 114. 8 oa 14 of
Peas - 012 io O12 15 ope au
Crop of 1799.
Wheat - 2 3 9 Ze, OF 114 8
Batley ak pro iA. oS Pama eB BAO ie 2
Oats Revew Te Tita Ae De Om gee BST Or
Peas Si) Bit ALS bres pies ie ie ie Do) (Gs
Crop of 1800.
Wheat - 3 7 38 eke ian 3 215 3%
Barley - 212 6 PANT eel rc ae sai
Oats eee ents yes Nid asaiieits) TLOmiG=
Peas sie G1 24 Zane a0 116 8f
Crop of 1801.
Wheat - 1137 Si 3115.1 an
Barley - 1 8 5 TING ns «2s PANT:
Oats - o18 7 ory 4t © 15 11
Peas =) 0 17 105 © 16 10% 016 of
Crop of 1802.
Wheat - 112: 13 1 8 83 1 6 ri
Batley e-eet ‘o 8s “om 2 oOo 17 12
Oats - 016 63 Onis 142") TOVIO) “4
Peas - 016 1 o15 6 Ons, 0
Crop of 1803.
‘Wheat - 1 7 5k I 5 11% Lay) yd
Barley - O19 2 of 10% o16 63
Oats - o18 6 o 16 11h ong 7
Peas - O17 10 © 16 10 © 15 rok
Crop of 1804.
‘Wheat - 2 6 I} 2 2 4t Totty
Wanleye) @ 1 T 3% “Bx r rr 6 9 "5
Oats = sein) gaa! SES ot § Q18 5
Peas SerOvrgn 12+ o 17 14 0 16 113

Thefe records of the returns of grain are highly ufeful
and interefting, in fhewing the different prices of corn in
different years, fora confiderable period, in the northern
parts of the kingdom, and afford perhaps the beft views of
the fubject that can be given,

TISB

FIARRA, in Geography, one of the {maller weftern
iflands of Scotland. N. lat. 57° 4/. W. long. 7° 277/.

‘ FIARSING, in Ichthyology, a name given by the

Swedes and Danes to the fish generally called the draco ma-
rinus and araneus marinus, the fea-dragon, ‘and the fea-fpi-
der. See Tracuinus Draco.

FIAT, in Law, is ufed for a fhort order or warrant of
fome judge, for making out and allowing certain procefles,
&c. Thu», if a certiorari be taken out in vacation, and
tefted of the precedent term, the fiat for it muft be figned
by a judge of the court, fome time before the effoin day of
the fubfequent term, otherwife it will be irregular. ‘There
is no need for the judge to figa the writ of certiorari itfelf,
but only where it is required by ftatute. 1 Salk. 150.

Friar juflitia, is an order granted on a petition to the
king, for his warrant to bring a writ of error in parliament,
in which cafe he writes on the top of the petition fiat ja/-
titia, and then the writ of error is made out, &c.

FIATO, Jtal. aterm, in Mufic, equivalent with vo/fz.
Time, not meafure, put at the end of a {train when there
are different leading notes to the firft and fecond part of an
air. Primo fiato, or prima volta, the firft time, Secondo
fiato, the fecond time; but the words fiato and volta are
more frequently underftood than exprefled, as 1™* 2%
mean the fame thing.

FIATOLA, in Zoology, a name given by the Italian
fifhermen to the {tromateus.

FIBER, or filer caflor of Linnzus, the beaver.
Castor Fiber.

Fiser, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Pelecanus, which fee.

FIBRARTA, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a clafs
of foffile bodies, the greateft part of which have been very
improperly called by the writers on foffils, fibrofe talcs,
they being of a very different fubftance and ftru@ure of
parts from the talcs, and having none of their diftinguifhing
characters.

The word is derived from the Latin fibra, a fibre or fila-
ment, thefe bodies being all compofed of arrangements of
parallel filaments or fibres. The fibrariz in general are
foffils compofed of parallel filaments, ufually remaining fo
diftin& as to preferve in the whole maffes a thread-like tex-
ture, but fometimes uniting fo as. to form plates or flakes
refembling thofe of the tales in external figure. They are
bright, and in fome degree tran{parent, not giving fire with
fteel, nor fermenting with, or foluble in, acid menftrua.
Hill’s Hilt. of Foff. p. 88.

OF this clafs of bodies there are two diftin@ orders, and
under thefe four genera. To this clafs belong the amiane
thus, afbeftos, lachnides, and tricheriz.

FIBRAUREA, in Botany, fromthe golden hue of the
congeries of woody fibres which compofe the ftem. Loureir,
Cochinch. 626. Clafsand order, Diecia Hexandria. Nat.
Ord. Aleni/perma, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. none. Cor. Petals fix, very fmall,
roundifh, fpreading. Stam. Filaments {carcely any ; anthers
fix, oblong, two-celled.

Female, in a feparate plant, Ca/. none. Cor. Petals fix,
roundifh, concave, fpreading. Pi/?. Germens three, fupe-
rior, ovate, conne&ted together, and angular, at the baie ;
ftyle none; ftigmas three, cloven. eric. Berries three,
ovate, fomewhat comprefled, fmooth, each of one cell.
Seed folitary, ovate, rugged.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx none. Petals fix. Female, Calyx
none. Petals fix, Stigmas three. Berries three, fingle-
feeded.

1, F. tinGorta. Cay Vang ding of the Cochinchinefes
Tien fien tan of ‘the Chinefe. Found in the ~— of

j hina

See

er 415
China and Cochinchina. Stem fhrubby, climbing, without
tendrils, long, woody, branched, as thick as the arm, com-
pofed of large pliant fibres, of a golden yellow, ranged in
concentric circles, with perforations between. Leaves al-
ternate, ovate, acute, entire, {mooth, unequally ribbed,
veiny. Foot/lalks long, round, {welling at the bafe. Flowers
white, minute, in long lateral clufters. Berry fmall, yellow,
not eatable. The flavour of the whole plant is bitter.
The.roots and lower part of the ftem are efteemed re-
folvent, deobftruent, and diuretic. The bruifed ftems af-
ford, by boiling, a yellow dye, which is not very vivid, but
lafting, and ferves as a batfis for ‘Purmerick and Safflower,
which, though more beautiful, are not fo durable.
‘Loureiro, from whom the above account is taken, fup-
pofes the Zuba fava, Rumph. Amboin. book 7. chap. 20.
t. 24. to be nearly allied to this plant, as well as the Abuta of
Aublet. t. 250,251. Jufl. 284. In the latter he feems to
be right, as far as the natural order is concerned,and in the
former at leaft equally fo. ‘That they are all one fpecies, as
he fufpects, is manifeftly not the cafe. Aublet gives his
Abute, which have downy leaves, as the Pareira Brava of
the Portuguefe. ‘
FIBRE, in Anatomy and Phyfology, is generally under-
ftood to denote the elementary component parts of the ani-
mal body: the molt {imple form of organized matter, to
which the more complicated organs of the frame can be
reduced by the various methods of examination employed
by the anatomift. In this fenfe, it is to the phyfiologift
what the /ine is to the geometrician, that from which all
other figures are produced. Haller has devoted the firlt
fection of his great phyfiological work to the confideration
ef this fubje&. He obferves that all the folid parts of the
frame are compofed of fibres, and that thefe are refolvable
into earth, water, oil, iron, and air. The fimple fibre is in-
vifible, and cannot even be brought under obfervation by
the affitance of microfcopes: fince the fmalleit animals,
which are ouly difcernible by very great magnifying powers,
are themfelves compofed of fuch elementary parts. He
proceeds to explain that thefe primary qnd_invifible fibres
unite together to. conftitute vifible fibres aud plates of ani-
mal fubitance, from the aflemblage and connection of which
our organs are compofed. Our refpeé for fo great an au-
thority muft not induce us to repofe any great confidence
sn fuch flatements as the foregoing: they appear, on the
very firll examination, to be in great meafure hypothetical.
The confeffion that thefe fuppofed elementary fibres are
jnvifible, mut lead us to receive with great caution accounts
of their phylica: and vital properties. And the obvious
differences in the compofition and texture of our organs will
natuyally give-rife. to an inference, that the, elementary con-
itituents of thefe are probably diffimilar.. We do not {peak
here of the chemical elements into which parts may be re-
folved; but of the primary animal fibre refulting from them.
Without troubling ourfelyes with.defcriptions of an objeG,
the very exiflence of which is not yet proved, we thall pro,
eved to explain fhartly the compolition of the bedy,:as far
asit can be afcertained by our fenfes. In this inveitigation
we fhall fjud ftru&tures of very different appearance ex-
hibited in the different organs of our frame ; fo that the ima-
giuary fibre will not be found to affilt the phyfiologift much,
whatever benefit the /ine may afford to the relearches of the
geometrician. ‘The following account is derived from the
ingenious work of Bichat, entitled « Anatomie Generale.”
An animal body is an affemblage of various organs, each
of which, exercifing fome funGtion, concurs in its own man-
ner in the prefervation of the whole. Thefe organs may
be regarded as fo many particular machines contained in the

4

FIB

general machine of the individual. - But the latter are made.
up of. feyeral ftruétures or tiffues of very different natures,
which form the trae elements of the organs. Chemiftry has
its fimple bodies, which form compounds by the various
combinations of which they are fufceptible. In the fame
way, azatomy has its fimple tiffues, which, when combined
in numbers of four or more, make up the animal organs.
They are, 1, the cellular; 2, nervous of thé animal life ;
3, nervous of the organic life; 4, the arterial; 5, the venous;
6, that of the exhalants; 7, that of the abforbents and
their glands ; 8, the offeous; 9, the medullary; 10,.the
cartilaginous; 11, the fibrous; £2, fibro-cartilaginous ;
13, mufcular of the animal life; 14, mufcular of the or-
ganic hfe; 15, the mucous; 16, the ferous; 17, the fy-
novial ; 18, the glandular; 19, the dermoid; 20, the epi-
dermoid: 21, the hairy. Such are the organized elements
of our parts: they poflefs the fame nature in all fituations ;
as the fimple bodies in chemiftry are the fame, whatever
combinations they may enter into. The advantage of con-
fideving the ftruéture of the body under this point of view
is, that it is not imaginary, but refts on the real foundation
of obfervation. The lines of demarcation between the. va~
rious tiflues are drawn by nature, and not produced by me~
taphyfical ab{traCtions. :

The forms are every where different; here flattened,
there rounded. The fimple tiflues may be arranged in mem-
branes, tubes, or fibrous bundles. But thefe differences of
form are merely acceflory. The nervous tiffue forms a pulp
in the retina, and cords or threads in the nerves. The .
fibrous conftitutes fafciculi or bundles in the ligaments, and
membranes in the aponeurofes. The organization and pro-
perties are the fources of the effential diftin@tions.

None of the fimple tiffues are analogous in their organiza-
tion, that is, made up of common and of proper parts;
and the former are very differently arranged in each cafe.
Tn one inftance cellular tiffue, blood-veffels, and nerves, ma
exift in abundance; while in another one or two of thefe
may be found very {paringly, or may be ‘entirely deficient.
Here we have an abundance of capillary veffels; there this
fyftem can hardly be demonilrated. ~The proper or ‘cha-
ra¢teriltic parts are decidedly different. Their colour,
thicknefs, hardnefs, denfity, &c. are all various. Simple ob-
fervation is fufficient to fhew numerous charaéteriftic attri-
butes: but further properties are difcoverable by the appli-
cation of heat, air, water, acids, &c.

At the fame time that nature beftowed on each fyitem 2
different organic arrangement, fhe endowed it alfo with dif-
fereat properties.
ticular f-{tems.)

buted over the whole body, and prefent everywhere, concur
not only in the formation of all the organs, but allo ia that
of the other fyftems, and conititute a commons and uniform
bafis toevery organized part: thefe are the cellular, artesial,

venous, exhalant, abforbent, and nervous fyftems, The
others, placed in certain determined apparatufes, and foreign
to the reft of the economy, have a lefs general exiftence, and
are often almoit ifolated. Such are the offeous, cartilagi-
nous, fibrous, mufcular fyftems, &c. &e. Bichat ealls the
former the generating fyftems. All organized parts are
not neceflarily provided with all the fix. Some haye no”
arteries

Fa

arteries nor veins ; fome no nerves, &c,, but they meet to-
gether in moft of the organs, and there are always fome
prefent, although others may be wanting. Thus tendons‘and
cartilages, which have no blood, poflefs exhalants, abforb-
ents, &c. The two laft-mentioned fyftems are the mott
univerially found. Nutrition fuppofes their exiftence: that
funétion, in fa&t, refulcs from a double motion, of compo-
fition which brings nutritive matter to the organs, and of
decompofition which remoyes it. The exhalants are the
agents in the firft of thefe motions ; the abferbents in the
Second. Since every organ is nourifhed, and the mechanifm
of nutrition is uniform, it follows that thefe two fyftems mutt
belong to allorgans. Thecellular exifts the mott generally
after thefe. It is fometimes found where there are no
blood-veffels, and it always exifts where thefe are found.
The arteries and veins. come the next in order: often there
are no nerves where thefe penetrate, as in the aponeurofes,
the fibrous membranes, &c. The nervous is that of all the
generating fyftems, which can be traced into the fewett or-
gans. The ferous membranes, the fibrous, fibro-cartila-
ginous, and bony iyftems, &c. appear to want it.

_ The generating fyftems, befides entering into the Qruc-
ture of other organs, alfo belong reciprocally to each other.
Thus, cellular fubitance.is found in the nerves, arteries, and
Veins; the latter ramify in the cellular fubitance, &c.

_ It will be expected, from the preceding obfervations, that
the generating fyftems, confidered as the common bafis of
all the organs, ought to,be developed more early than the
others ; and we find this in the foetus. The nerves, with
their centre, the. brain; and the arteries and veins, with
their central organ, the heart ; the cellular tiffue, the ex-
halants and abforbents all prefent this phenomenon. With
refpectito the two latter, it is fuflicieutly clear from the
great activity of abforption and exhalation at this period.
Thefe general fyftems mult perform the moft important
part in the office of nutrition. They conftitute the nutri-
tive parenchyma of every organ: this is the cellular, vafcular,
and nervous matter, into which the nutritive fubfance of
the organ is depofited. The latter, different in every inftance,
conttitutes the differerice of the variousorgans. It is phof-
phate of lime and gelatine in the bones; gelatine only in
the cartilages, tendons, &c.; fibrine in the mufcles; albus
men inother organs. If, therefore, the nutritive parenchy-
ma of a bone was filled with fibrine, it would conititute a
mufcle in the form of a bone, and under the oppofite circum-
ftances, we fhould haye a bone in the form of a mulcle. The
nutritive fubftances are hitherto for the moft part unknown
to us: but as the parenchyma is greatly analogous in all
cafes, if the former were removed, the only differences would
be in form, volume, arrangement of cellular lamine, and of
veflels and nerves; without any effential variation in nature
and compolition. F
~The mucous mafs of the fetus, in the early periods of
conception, feems to be merely an affemblage of general
fyftems. The organs exit only in their nutritive pareachy-
mas. Asthele grow, and become developed, the nutritive
matters penetrate them ; and then each organ, hitherto
_ fimilar in its nature to others, begins to be diftinguithed, and
to poflefs an ifolated exiltence ; each derives its appro-
riate fubftance from the blood.

- The fyftems of the. fecond kind belong only to fome_par-
ticular apparatufes of the animal economy : thus, the offeous,
mufcular of animal life, cartilaginous and fibrous are. pecu-
liarly fet apart for the: locomotive organs: the ferous, mu-
cous, mufcular of organic life, &c. belong to the digettive,
refpiratory, and circulating apparatufes, &c, All thefe,
therefore, are much more Molated, and performa lefs exten-

wee,

5B R E. £e

five part in the animal fabric. ~ Concentrated in peculiar’ or-
gqns, they are foreign to others, and have an independent
life ; while the vitality of the primitive f5{temsis blended
with that of the organs, into the compolition ef which they
enter. The different parts of thefe fyitems are not con-
nected together ; and this is exemplified in the bones, mufcles,
cartilages, glands, &c. : various organs of different nzturesy
and belunging therefore to other fyitems, are interpoied be-
tween them. The primitive fyftems, onthe contrary, are every
where continuous, and uninterrupted. The cellular, arte-
rial, venous, abforbing, and nervous fyftems, are fo difpofed,
that, if it were poffible to remove all the organs, which
they penetrate, and leave them only, there would fill bea -
whole continuous fabric left behind. If, on the contrary,
the organs, intermediate to the bones, cartilages, fibro-carti-
lages, &c, were removed, the various pieces of thefe fyitems’
would be immediately ifolated. The particular account of
the different fyltems wiil be found under their refpective arti-
cles in the Cyclopedia.

Fisre, Animal, fibrins mufcular fibre, in Ch
The mufcle or flefh of animals is compofed of au
number of cylindrical, foft, nearly inelaftic, femi-traufparent
fibres; thefe, when examined by the microfcope, are fen
to be ftill further fubdivided into bundies of parallel ubrils,
bound together by very fine cellular membrane. The liv-
ing mufcle is moreover penetrated by arteries, veins, nervons
fibres, and lymphatics with their contents ; and thus a con=
fiderable quantity of extraneous matter is mingled with the
pure £bre of the muicle, fo as to throw a certain degree of
ambiguity on the chemical analyfis of this latter fubitaice-
By means, however, of maceration with co'd and hot water,
and mechanical preflure, much of the foreign matter may be
got rid of, after which the fibre exhibits the following pro-

perties.

Its colour ia greyifh-white, tothe tafte it is infipid, its
texture is ftringy; it hardens rather than foftens by the
long-continued aétion of hot water. . When dried flowly ia
a) warm air, it becomes femi-tranfparent like horn, and very
brittle. .

Fibre, prepared as mentioned above, is entirely infoluble
in water, in moft of the acids it diffolves readily ; with the
dilute nitric acid it gives out a large portion of azotic gas of
great purity, but if flronger nitric acid is made-uie of, a
more complicated aGtion takes place, by which, according >
to Berthollet, one portion of the fibre is changed ito a kind
of fuetty fat, which floats on the {urface of the liquor, while
the reft is converted into oxalic acid.

Mr., Hatchett’s valuable experiments on this fubitance
throw great light @n the compolition of mufcular fibre, and-
point ont a variety of before unnoticed points of refemblance
between fibre and condenfed albumen. OF thefe, the princ}-
pal are the following: mufcular fibre (previoufly exhautt-
ed by long maceration in cold and hot waterof every thing
foluble in this Avid) was iteeped fora fortnight in nitric acid,
diluted with three parts of water ; at the end of:that period
the acid was become yellow, and had dequired . ail the pro-,
perties of a nitric folution of albumen. The undiffolved re-
fidue, which confifted of by far the greater) portion.of the
fibre, being thoroughly penetrated by the acid, was digetted
in boiling. water, in which it diffolved, and by evaporation,
afforded agelatinous mafs, which, after being rediflolved in
water, was precipitated by infufion of tan,,and nitromuriat of
tin, precifely with the fame phenomena as auy of the common
folutions of albumen. Tibre, penetrated as above-mentioned
by nitvic acid, is for the molt part foluble in ammonia, form-,
ing a liquor of a brownifh orange colour. By digettion with ;

_ potath the ammonia is given out, and a faponaceous mafsigy
. produced,

A

EAs

produced, refembling the other albuminous foaps, The re-
fidue left undiffolved after the action of ammonia confilts
chiefly of fat,

If wafhed fibre, however, is treated with Joil/ing nitric
acid, the folution ftill more refembles that of albumen in the
fame menftruum, but with this additional circumftance, that,
on fuperfaturation with ammonia, a copious white precipi-
tate falls down, confifting of the phofphat and oxalat of
lime, the former of which pre-exilted in the fibre, while the
acid of the latter was produced by the action of the nitric
acid on fome portion of the fibre, and then united with the
lime which naturally exilts in fibre, in the {tate of carbonat.
Lime, therefore, is found in mufcular fibre in two ftates 3 as
a phofphat, which is chieAy feparable by long boiling, and
in fome other ftatein which it is not foluble in water, but
remains ready to combine with the oxalic acid as foon as
formed ; this ftate is probably the carbonat, and the quanti-
ty of lime thus combined is fuch as to afford 17 grains of
dry oxalat from 200 grains of dry fibre.

The proportion, however, of earthy falts contained in
fibre varies greatly, according to the age of the animal ; for
it appears from Mr. Hatchett’s experiments, that though
beef contains both phofphat and carbonat of lime, veal
gives hardly any indication of the latter, anda much {maller
proportion of the former.

The analyfis by fire fhews the following very notable dif-
ference between gelatine, fibre, and albumen, (the three great
conftituents of the foft parts of animals, ) in their proportions
both of carbon and earthy refidue.

500 grains of ifinglafs, being gelatine in its pureft form,
diftilled with a ftrong heat in clofe veffels, left 56 grains of
refidue, of which 54.5 difappeared by fubfequent calcination
inthe open air, and therefore were carbon, the remainder,
amounting to 1.5 gr. appeared to be phofphat of foda, with
a trace of phofphat of lime.

500 grains of dry albumen, treated in the fame manner,
gave 63.25 grs. of carbon, and 11.25 grs. of refiduum, con-
fitting of foda in a femi-cauttic ftate, together with phofphat
of foda, and-a very {mall portion of phofphat of lime.

500 grains of mulcle of beef, well wafhed and dried, gave
82.4 grs. of carbon, and 25.6 of refidue, the greatelt part of
which was carbonat of lime, mixed with fome cauttic lime
and a little phofphat: it is to be obferved, however, that
this is by no means the whole earthy contents of the mufcle,
as by its previous digeftion in boiling water nearly the whole
of the phofphat of lime would be diffolved out.

The general inference from thefe experiments, and from
others that have been mentioned under the article ALBUMEN
is, that the principal conitituent of mufcular fibre is a fub-
ftance which, from its habitudes with the principal chemi-
calreagents, may be confidered as nearly identical with
infpiffated albumen.

A few mifcellaneous circun:ftances concerning mufcular
fibre may be added. When thoroughly .wafhed and freed
from all that can be extraGted from it by cold water, it does
not readily putrefy; but in its natural ftate it foon under-
goes this change, the texture becoming flabby and loofe, the
colour pale, and the odour exceffively feetid. The flefh of
young animals putrefies fooner than that of old ones in fimi-
-lar_circumftances. Wher immerfed in running water, or
buried under ground in large mafles, it changes to that fin-
gular {permaceti-like matter already defcribed in the article
-Aprrocire. When flowly and thoroughly dried, and kept
ima dry air, it will remain long without undergoing any
«change. Alcohol deprives it of colour, hardens its texture,
and effectually prevents the accefs of putrefa@tion ; and it
-may be obferved that antiféptics in general are more -eflicas

Strahan and Prefton,
Neowclreet Sanare. London;

EES

cious in preferving mufcular fibre than any other of the
foft parts of the body.

The moft important of the volatile produdts of the! dry
diftillation of fibre is ammonia, which alfo indicates the pre-
fence of much azotin the fibre itfelf. An acid alfo is given
out at the fame time, which is acrid, uncryttallizable, and has
the peeuliar odour of roafted meat. It was firft defcribed by
Berthollet as a peculiar acid, and was named by him the
xoonic 3 the general opinion of chemifts however at prefent
concerning this fubftance is, that it confilts of acetous acid,
fouled and rendered empyreumatic by the ation of heat
on the fubitances from which it is procured.

Finre, Vegetad/e. Almott ali plants contain a fbrous
matter, which is diftinguifhed from the other vegetable prin-
ciples by its comparative infolubility in chemicel menftrua, its
indeftructibility by fpontaneous decompofition, anda certain
toughnefs and elatticity occafioned by its minutely fibrous
texture. In fome plants thefe fibres are remarkably flexible
and tough, as in the flax, the hemp, the aloe, and the
inner bark of the lime, the birch, and other trees that fur-
nifh the materials of Ruffia matting; in the cane and bamboo
thefe fibres, though {till confiderably flexible and elaftic,
are inferior to thofe produced by the preceding plants; and
in the ligneous fibre or wood of the larger trees they exhi-
bit {till greater denfity and diminifhed flexibility. The chemf&
cal charaéteriftic of vegetable fibre is, that it prefents on analy-
fis a greater proportion of carbon and earthy matter than
any other vegetable fub{tance ; as will be detailed at length
under the article Woon.

FIBRILLA, alittle fibre, or capillament.

FIBRO-CARTILAGE, in Anatomy, a tiffue of the
animal body, partaking of the charaéters both of ligament and
cartilage. An ingenious French anatomift diftinguifhed it
by this name; and he has included, under the expreffion
fibro-cartilaginous fyftem, all thofe parts of the body which
exhibit this kind of itru€ture. From the mixed nature of
their properties, the fibro-cartilaginous organs have been
partly arranged among the ligaments, and partly among the
cartilages. ‘They may be conveniently arranged under three
divifions. 1. The membranous fibro-cartilages; as thofe
of the ear, nofe, trachea, eye-lide, &c. Thefe are very thin,
difpofed in an uniform plane, or convoluted in various
direGtions. 2. Articular fibro-cartilages ; of very variable
forms, but in general thick ; interpofed between the oppo-
fite ends of bones, in fome inftances unconneéted by their
furfaces, and moveable, in others clofely attached, as in the
vertebre. 3. Fibro-cartilages of tendinous fheaths; con-
filting of a thick layer covering the bone in fome inftances,
where the tendon paffes over it. The ftruéture and vital
properties are not exaétly the fame in all thefe organs.

The peculiar tiffue of this fy{tem is compofed, as its name:
indicates, of a fibrous fubftance, with the addition of a true
cartilage. The former feems to be the bafis of the organ.
It is very diiltin& in the maffles which connect the bodies of
the vertebre, but much lefs fo in the membranous fibro-car=
tilages. The fibres are fometimes parallel, and fometimes
interwoven. This fibre is exadily of the fame nature, as in
the fibrous fyftem, compat, hard and ftrong; and hence
arifes the ftrength of the different organs belonging to this
fyftem. The folidity of the union which conne&s together
the bodies of the vertebra, and the difficulty of rupturing
the fibro-cartilages of the knee, jaw,-or clavicle, fufliciently
exemplify this. Thefe orgaus bend in every. direétion,
whereas the true cartilages, if powerfully bent, would break.
The cartilaginous fubftance is iaterpofed between the fibres,
and is particularly difcernible in the articular fibro-carti-
Jages; which owe to it their elafticity, white colour, ea

the

te

FIB

the inorganic appearance exhibited by a feGtion, Thefe
are rendered yellow and tranfparent by boiling, and are con-
verted into jelly, although not quite fo readily as the true
cartilages. The fibro-cartilages of the organs of fenfe,
which we have already adverted to in the article Cartt-
LAGE, are not refolved into gelatine by boiling; they are
foftened, but remain whitifh. After ie time their fur-
rounding membrane is detached, and the fubftance itfelf
breaks in feveral places. After macerating for fome days
they become red. Deficcation renders them hard and
brittle, without imparting the yellow colour which tendons
or aponeurofes receive on fuch treatment. I'he inter-verte-
bral fabftances have, when dyed, a remarkable tranfparency,
without any yellow tint. They {well when detached, and
placed in water. ,

The fibro-cartilages in general have no perichondrium.
Thofe of the tendinous fheaths are in contact on one fide
with the bone, and by the other with the fynovial mem-
brane. ‘The articular ones are covered by the fynovial mem-
branes of the joints, and thofe of the vertebre are covered
only by the anteribr and pofterior vertebral ligaments. A
very diftin® and clofely adhering fibrous tiffue covers thofe
of the organs of fenfe; and is rendered white by mace-
ration. »

The cellular texture is difficultly feen in thefe organs;
but maceration brings it into view. Very little blood -cir-
culates through therm in the ordinary ftate; but they be-
come vafcular when inflamed. No nerves can be traced into
them.

This fyftem is diftinguifhed moft particularly by its
elafticity. The fibro-cartilages of the organs of fenfe and
of the trachea, when bent, immediately reflore themfelves ;
and thofe between the vertebra, being compreffed by the
motions of the bones, refume their former ftate, as foon as
the compreffing force ceafes to aét. (See Cartitace.)
They have the power alfo of bending in every direCtion,
without any rifk of being broken. They poflefs extenf{ibi-
lity, and contraétility.

Their vital properties are very obfeurely marked. They
have no animal fenfibility or contractility in the natural
ftate ; but the former appears under inflammation. Or-
ganic fenfibility, and infenfible contractility, exift in thefe
organs as far as they are neceffary for the purpofes of nu-
‘trition. This obfcurity of the vital properties renders all
the vital phenomena very fluw. If the ear of a dog be cut,
‘and the fides of the incilion brought together, the flcin
quickly unites; but the cartilage is not agglutinated until
long after. From the fame caufe we muft explain the rare
occurrence of difeafe in thefe organs. No parts in the
body are fo feldom difeafed as the fibro-cartilages of the
nofe, ear, trachea, &c. Gangrene produces hardly any
alteration in them, and it is almoft doubtful whether they
ever fuppurate.

This fyltem is developed at an early period ; the ends of
the bones are large in the foetus, and the articular fibro-
cartilages are dom egoactly confiderable. Thofe of the ten-
dinous fheaths are not to be diftinguifhed from the cartila-
ginous epiphyfes which in the foetus form the ends of the
bones. The gelatinous portion exceeds the fibrous part in the
foetus ; particularly in the inter-vertebral maffes ; and its pro-

ortion is here always in an inverfe ratio to the age of the
fubje&. The niembranous fibro-cartilages are developed
“very early inthe foetus.

The parts become ftronger and more denfe as the age

‘advances; and in the old fubjeét they take a hard form.
“Hence: the ftiffnefs and inflexibility of the vertebral co-
“Jump.

Vor. XIV.

Strahan and Prefton,
WNew-ftrect-Square, London,

EIS

The fibro-cartilages are much lefs prone to offification
than the cartilages. This change has never been obferved
in the membranous ones. Thofe of the vertebrz are almoft
the only ones in which offific matter is fometimes depofited,
and this is very rare. Bichat, Anatomie Generale 5
tom. ili.

FIBROLITE, in Mineralogy, afubftance firft noticed by
the count De Bournon, and found by him amongft the matriz
of Corundum, from India and China. It is of a whitifh, or
dirty whitifh-grey colour; it occurs in mafles of an indetermi-
nate form and fibrous texture. The count De Bournon has
only once feen a fpecimen that had a tendency to a regular
for’n, which was that of a rhomboidal prifm of about ‘02°
and 0°. Longitudinal fra@ture fine fibrous, the fibres in
fome {pecimens interwoven in all direétions ; crefs fracture
compact, with a vitreous iuftre. Tranflucent at the edges.
Hardnefs about the fame as quartz, when tried ina diréGtion
perpendicular to or acrofs the fibres. Gives fparks with
iteel, and a deep reddith phofphorefcent light when rubbed
agatn{t an hard body. Not eleétric by fri€tion. Specific gra-
vity about 3.2, being, like all {ubftances not found ina cryf-
tallized flate, of different degrees of denfity. Infufible per
Je by the blow-pipe. Analyfis by Mr. Chenevix of fibro-

lite from the peninfula of India and China.
Silica - 38. 38.
Alumina 58.25 46.
Tron, a trace. 13.
Lofs =) 3.75 3.
109.C0 Co.

The remarkable cireumftance of the fibrolite from India
yielding nothing ‘but filica and alumina, and its always oc-
curring in amorphous maifes of a Sbrous texture, induced
the dilcoverer to give it the above name. See the interefting
paper on Corundum, by the Hon. Mr. Greville and the
count De Bournon, printed in the Phil. Tranf. for 1802.

FIBROUS System, in Anatomy. This includes a great
many organs of the body, compofed of the fame elementary
parts, but differing widely in their forms. This va-
Tiety,- together with the differences of funétion and, pofi-
tion, occafions them to be diftinguifhed by the x 2
tendon, aponeurefis, ligament, &c.

tas, ort
mes of

ea ,
For there is not here

any general term, like’that of mufcle or nerve in the muf-
cular or nervous fyftems, to denote the orgavization, what-

ever the form of the organ may be. There are two leading
diftinétions of form, under which all the fibrous organs may
be arranged, viz. the membranous, which, :thin and broad ;
and that of chords, which is thick and elon a:

:

ult Divifion. Fibrous organs of th n form ;—
including fibrous membranes, fibrous cap tendinous
fheaths, and aponeurofes. Th fibrous membranes are the

perioftewm, dura mater, fclerotica, albuginea, and capfiles
of the kidney, fpleen, &c. Phey generally envelope certain
orgaus, and enter into their texture. Tbe fibrous capfules
are cylindrical bags, furrounding certain articulations, par-
ticularly thofe of the humerus and femur, which they con

nect very clofely to the feapula and os innominatum. The
fheaths confine the tendons paffing over bones, where-they
are refle€ted—wherever, in fhort, they are fubjeét to dif-
placement from the mu{cular contraétion ; imicht, in
confequence, tranfmit imperfeétly to the bones the motion
imparted by the mufcles. They may be arran in two
divifions; 1. Such ds are common to the tendon feveral

one tendon only, ortwo, asin the fingers‘and toes. Apo
neurofes.confilt of large fheets of fibrous texture, belonging
3C to

mufcles, as at the wrift and tarfus; 2. Such as belong te

FIBROUS.

tothe locomotive organs, and difpofed in fome inftances fo
asto form coverings of parts; while in others they afford
points of attachment to mufcles. Hence they are-diftin-
guifhed into aponeurofes for enveloping, and aponeurofes
for infertion. The former either furround the mufcles of a
limb, forming for it a general fheath, as in the thigh and
fore-arnv: or elfe they inveft and confine fome particular
mufcles, as that which extends between the two pofterior
ferrati, that which is placed in front of the foleus, &c.
The aponeurofes of infertion either form broader or narrower
furfaces, asat the attachment of the triceps femoris, re€tus
eruris, gallrocnemius, &c.; or they confilt of feparate
fibres, giving diftinét attachments to the mufcular fibresy as
at the origin of the iliacus internus, tibialis anticus, &c.,

({ Fibrous membranes,
Fibrous capfules,

peereetinny

Fibrous fheaths,

os

3, In the membranous form, 4

Ss

— 4 Aponeurofes,
6 |

8

5 L

7 Tendons,

Tn the form of chords,
Ligaments,

Although the numerous organs included in this table
belong to parts of very different ftructures ; although they
feem difpofed irregularly in the animal economy, without
mutual conneétion, and apparently ifolated; they are in
fa&t nearly all continuous. The common centre of this
fyftem is the periofteum, with which all its parts are clofely
connected, excepting the albuginea, the coats of the kidney
and {pleen, and the perichondrium of the larynx.

Organization of the fibrous [y/em.—T hiss nearly the fame,
under all the variety of forms which have been jutt parti-
cularized: and confilts of a peculiar tiflue, with vafcular,
cellular, and other textures.

All fibrous organs have for their bafis hard, inelattic,
and infenfible fibres; incapable of contraction ; fometimes
parallel to each other, as in the tendons and ligaments,
fometimes varioufly interwoyen, as in the capfules, mem-
branes, and fheaths; of a white or grey colour, and great
powers of refiftance.

The latter property enables all thefe organs to fuftain
great efforts; and they are employed in offices which re-
quire fuch a power. ‘The ligaments firmly hold the articu-
Jar furfaces in conta&t. ‘The aponeurofes confine the mufeles
and refift their difplacement. The tendons are placed be-
tween two powers ; viz. the powerful energy of mufcular
contraction, and the greater or lefs refifting force, which
that aétion is defigned to move. The refifting power of the
tendons is in many inftances fuperior to that of the bones :
thus, the patella, the olecranon, and the os calcis may be
broken by mufcular contraétion, The difficulty of pro-
ducing luxations in the dead fubjeét, and the great force re-
quired in the former barbarous punifhment, of fixing four
hories to the four limbs of a crimiual, in order to. tear them
afunder, fufficiently exemplifythe great ftrength of this tiflue.
A tendon requires an enormous weight {ufpended from it to
break it. Yet this refiitance, however great, is fometimes
overpowered in the living body; and we fee the ftrongeft ten-
dons, as that of the calf, ruptured by mufcular contraction.
We cannot help being furprifed, on thefe occafions, that the

or they form arches, which both give attachment to muf,
cular fibres, and at the fame time allow the pailage of
veffels, as at the diaphragm and*calf of the leg.

2d Divifion. Ji:brous organs in the form of chords ;—
conftituting tendons and hgaments. The formenare placed
at either of the attachments, or in the middle of mufcles,
They are generally fimple, confifting of elongated chords ;
but in fome cafes they are more complicated, being divided
into feveral {maller chords. Ligaments tie together the
articnlar furfaces of bones. They may form either con-
ftant and regular fafciculi, as at the elbow, knee, &c. or
irregular ones, as at the pelvis.

The following table exhibits the fibrous orgass according
to the preceding arrangement,

Partial,
General.
i Partial,
f For envelopement, Conesela

< In a broad furface,
[ Bee infertion, .In the form of anarchy
In feparate fibres.
Simple,
f Complicated.
With regular fafciculi,

With irregular fafcicyli.

foft tifflue of the mufecles fhould not yield rather than the
tendons.

Some anatomifts have fancied that the fibrous and mufcu-
lar fyftems were analogous, and have affirmed that a tendon
is formed by the condenfation of the mufcular fibres. This
notion-is altogether abfurd. The fibrous membranes and
aponeurofes are expanded, but they refemble mufcular fibres
in norefpe&t. The chemical compofition, the vital proper-
tics, and the apparent texture are widely different. Their
funétions have not the leaft analogy. In faét, there is lefs
refemblance between the mufcular fibres and the tendon, in
which they are inferted, than between the latter and the
bone, to which it is attached.

What then is the nature of the fibrous tiffue ? This we
cannot determine, as we cannot recognize in it any very de-
cided chara€ters. Its properties are rather negative. It
has not the contraétility of the mufcular, nor the fenfi-
bility of the nervous tiffue. It is always paflive, and obeys
the motion impreffed on it, without having any of its own.

The parts, in which this is found, are very different from
the fkin, the cellular texture, cartilage, &c. ; and hence the
referring of all thefe toa common cla{fs of white organs is a
premature generalization, refting entirely on external ap-
pearances, and imperfect analytis, in which the texture,
vital properties, and functions of the organs are difregarded.

The fibrous tiffue, expofed to maceration at a moderate
temperature, does not experience any change for fome tima
Its denfity gradually diminifhes, and its cae foftens,
but it does not fwell. The fibres may now be drawn afun-
der, fo as to expofe the connecting celluiar texture. After
a very long period they are reduced into a foft whitith pulp,
of homogeneous appearance. Tendons are the fooneit
acted on ; then aponeurofes of infertion ; afterwards thofe
of envelopement ; then the fibrous membranes, capfules, and
fheaths ; and laftly ligaments.

Any fibrous organ plunged into boiling water, or expofed

to confiderable heat, curls up, and becomes contracted, like

moit other animal tiffues: its volume is diminifbed, it be-
comes

FIBROUS.

¢omes more folid, and aequires an elafticity, which it had
not in the natural ftate, and which it lofes again, whea
foftened. The force with, which the fibres contract on
expofure to heat is very confiderable.

It is fufficient, when bones are boiled for a long time, to
produce rupture and detachment of the periofteum ; and,
when the bones, furrounded by their lizameuts, are expofed
to the aétion of boiling water, to lock the articular furfaces
fo clofely together, that they cannot be moved,

The fibrous tiffue foftens in boiling water, becomes yel-
low and femi-tranfparent, and at lait is partly diffolved.
Thefe changes take place moft quickly in the tendons,
then in the aponeurofes, the membranes, the capfules, and
fibrous fheaths, and laftly in the ligaments. But all liga-
ments do not refift equally. Thofe which connect the
f{pinous proceffes of the vertebre, at their roots, do not
undergo the fame changes, but remain white and cona-
ceous.

The evaporation confequent on expofure to the air
deftroys the whitenefs of the fibrous fyitem ; it contracts,
becomes yellow and tranfparent, aud is ealily broken. By
immerfion- in water, in a few days after being dried, the
whitenefs and foftneis are recovered, and the part regains
nearly its origisal appearance. This is particularly the
-eafe with the tendons. Nitrous and fulphuric acids foften
the fibrous tiffue very quickly, and reduce it into a black-
ith pulp in the latter, and yellowish one in the former cafe.
It curls up and centraéts when firft plunged into the acid,
as it does on expofure to boiling water.

It refitts putrefa&tion for a confiderable length of time,
and remains unaltered, when fkin, mufcles, nerves, &c. are
completely diforganized. But it yields in the end.

Cellular texture exifts in all fibrous organs; being more
or lefs abundant, in proportion as the fibres are more or lefs
approximated. Maceration renders it obvious enough in all
cafes. As the cellular tiffite itfelf can hardly be perceived,
no fat can be diftinguifhed in it. But an adipous exndation
has been noticed, in fome inftances, after fibrous organs,
carefully cleaned from all furroundmg fubftance, have been
dried. effels are found in very different ftates in different
parts of the fibrous fyltem. They are numerous in the
dura mater and’ periofteum, very few in the aponeurofes,
and not difcernible at all in the tendons. The former
organs are the moft liable to inflammation and. fwelling.
Abforbents have not been detected in the fibrous fyftem nor
nerves.

Properties of the fibrous fy/tem.—lts elafticity is very
trifling ; bat becomes confiderable, when parts are removed
from the body, and dried. Thus tendons, and {trips of
aponeurofis, which are infufceptible of vibration in their
frefh ftate, produce found whem very dry.

The extenfibility and contractility of thefe organs is not
‘econfiderable; and it always takes place flowly. The
Sac is exemphified in hydrocephalus, fwellings of the bones,
tumefacGtion of the limbs, diftenfion of the abdomen, &c.
Tf the foree be applied faddenly,, and the -refiftance of the
fibrous organ be too great, various fymptoms arife. Pref-
{ure of the molt painful kiad, and dangerous confequences,
is produced ow the contained parts, as in inflammatory
tumefaion of the limbs, inflammation of the. teftis, eye-
ball, &c. When the power is too great, the organ is tora,
asin the rupture of the tendo Achillis, of the ligaments
an luxations, &c. The contractility correfponds in its: kind
‘and degree to the extenfibility: asno fibrous organ can befud-
denly extended, fo it cannot recover fuddenly after diftenfion.
‘Hence, when a tendon or aponeurofis is divided in the living
Mate, there is fearcely any {eparation of the margins, The

feparation confequent~on rupture of a tendon arifes from
mufcular contration, or from the pofition of the limb
Indeed, if the mufcle be in a itate of aétion, the end of the
divided tendon attached to the mufcle is drawn away from
the other a little; but that portion of the tendon which is
fixed to the bone undergoes :i.o change. When a tendon
is divided, while the mufcle is relaxed, no feparation enfues.

he vital properties of thefe organs have been a fubjeét
of great controverfy among phyfiologifts. Numerous ex-
periments have been inflituted, and many works publifhed
on the queftion, Whether er no they poffefs fenfibility.
Haller and his followers maintain the negative, and their
publications contain a vaft fiore of experiments. here is
little doubt that they poffefs feeling, or, what Bichat calls
animal fenfibility ; although this does not fhew itfelf by the
ufual phenomena. The different mechanical and chemicak
flimuli produce no pain, unlefs the organ be inflamed.
This is the cafe with the tendons, the aponeurofes, the
fibrous membranes, and the ligaments, when expofed and
cut in operations, or irritated chemically in living animals.
But, if thefe parts are fuddenly expofed to violent diftenfion
or twilting, acute pain is produced. Bichat appeals, for
the proof of this ftatement, to experiments on living animals.
And he confiders that this mode of fenfibility is appropri-
ate to the fun@tions of the organs. They have no concern
with exterior fources of excitation; but, in performmg
their offices, they are liable to be drawn, twifted, -and
ttretched in the motions of the limbs. The fenfation,
which they tranfmit in thefe cafes, is a warning of the
danger, by which its further progrefs is prevented. The
great pain of luxations, and of the extenfion employed for
their reduction, and of ftrains, feems to confirm the preced-
ing ftatement.

Thefe organs poffefs no animal contraGility. They have
organic fenfibility, and organic infenhble contraGtility in
common with all other organs.

The vital powers are more developed in this than in the
bony and cartilaginous fyftems. The peculiar kind of feel-
ing, which we have juft explained, is a proof of this. » It
is mach: more frequently the feat of pain aad inflammation,
and the pain is much more acute. This is exemplified in
rheumatifm, which affects the fibrous organs abeut the
articulations. It feems that this fyftem, hardly in any
initance, forms pus.

In the gelatinous fubftance, of which the embryo con-
fits, the fibrous organs can hardly be diltmguifhed ; and
they ‘cannot be recognized until feveral other parts are
formed. The fibres are not perceptible until towards the
feventh month; and, as they increafe, the ergans be-
come more hard and refiiting. They poffefs at this time
a pearly whitenefs. It is only by degrees that they acquire
the firmnefs which particularly charaéterizes their tiffue.
The comparative foftnefs of thefe organs in the firft years
of life wilkexplain many circumftances both of natural phe-
nomena and difeafe. As the fubject grows up, the fibrous
fyitem- becomes denfe and hard; and it remains ftationary
inthe'adult. It is {till more compact in old perfons ; yield-
ing lefs eafily to putrefa@ion and maceration, Hence the
ftiffnefs in the articulation at this period. All the parts
now become yellow.

The fibrous membranes will be confidered under the
article Memsrans. The capfules are defcribed in the
account of the articulations to which they belong, See
ExTreMITins.

The fibrous fheaths belonging to one tendon form a
canal, in which the:tendon runs. There is a channel in the
bone, completed intoa canal by the fibrous organ, and lined

3C a internally

FIBROUS. ,

internally by a clofely adhering fynovial membrane, which

is refleGed to the retained tendons at the extremities of the

canal. Thefe theaths are conneted externally to the fur-*
rounding parts by a loofe cellular texture. They are

extremely denfe in their texture, and {trong in proportion

to the efforts which they have to fuftain. The particular

fheaths will be defcribed in the account of the muicles to

which they belong. The larger ones of the hand and

foot, common to feveral mufcles, are defcribed in the article

Fascia. .

The aponeurofes of envelopement are confidered under the
article Fascia. Thofe of infertion, belonging fo effertially
tothe mufcles, will be treated, as well as the tendons, under
Muscve.

The ligaments will be fpoken of in the account of the
ftru&ture of Joints. This article is drawn entirely from
the Anatomie Generale of Bichat, vol. iii.

Fisrous Amethyff, or thick fibrous amethyft. It is
generally of a dark violet blue colour, fometimes of a pale
and light one, which borders on grey, from which it pafles
to blueifh and yellowifh-white. It occurs only maffive and
in rolled pieces. Internally its luitre is gliftening, fometimes
fhining, and is vitreous. The principal fracture is thick
fibrous, and is ftraight and diverging fibrcus ; the fraéture
in fome inftances is intermediate between thin fibrous and
{plintery ; the crofs fraéture is generally imperfectly con-
choidal, approaching to uneven and fplintery. Commonly
tranflucent, but varies from that to tranfparent. Hard,
rather more fo than rock cry{tal; gives {parks with fteel.
Not very difficultly frangible. Specific gravity 2.750.
According to Karten it is compofed of

Silica 97-5
Alumina 00.25 x,
Tron 09.50

A trace of Manganefe

98.25

Infufible per /e in the ftrongeft heat of a wind furnace,

but melts upon charcoal when expofed to a ftream of oxygen
aS:

: It is found in agate veins, and is generally accompanied

by common amethyft.. When both kinds occur together the

fibrous is fuppofed to be the oldeit, as it adheres to the fides

of the vein. 5

Its geographic fituations are very numerous ; it is found in
abundance in various places in Saxony, in the Ea{t Indies,
Spain, the Uralian mountains, &e. The mott beautiful {peci-
mens are brought from Catherineburg, in Ruffia.

The lofs of its colour by heat indicates either that the
colouring matter is very volatile or very little in quantity ;
and it has been doubted, by fome philofophers of great re-
putation, whether this and many other highly coloured
ttones owe their colours to metallic oxyds, or to fome un-
known modification or affeétion of light ; and it is well
known that fluor and other phofphorefcent ftones lofe
their power of emitting lighi with the lofs of their colour.

Fisrous Gypfum. SeeGyrsum.

Fisrous Limeffone. This fub{pecies is ufually divided
into two kinds: 1. Common fibrous limeftone. 2. Fibrous
limeftone, ftalactite, kalkfinter of Werner.

1. Common Fibrous Limefione.—Its colours are white,
greyifh, or yellowifh-white, and fometimes reddifh-white.
It oceurs maffive. Luflre gliftening, often fhining, and is
pearly and chatoyant, particularly when cut and polifned.
Fracture from coarfely to extremely delicately fibrous. The
fibres itraight, undulating, or contorted, and are gene-

rally parallel, fomctimes diverging. Splits eafily in the di-
reCtion of the fibres. Fragment priftuatic; crofs fracture
perpendicular to the former. Moderately tranflucent.
Rather harder than cryftallized carbonate of lime, whieh it
{cratches. Specific gravity 2.7. The beautiful variety
calied fattin {par was firft difcovered, in 1798, by Mr. Mawe,
in {mall veins, lying between pyrites in a calcareo-argilla-
ceous {chiftus, in the county of Cumberland.

It is faid, in fome late treatifes on mineralogy, to be found
in Derbyfhire ; but this miftake has perhaps arifen from the
circumitance of its having been wrought intoa great variety
of beautiful ornaments, as necklaces, lockets, rings, &e.
at the manufactory of Brown and Mawe of Derby and
Matlock. A variety, but of inferior quality, for the
above purpofes, has been very lately found at Afhover, in
Derbythire, in cutting a road to the lime works. through
the upper bed of toad-ftone, where it was very abundant an
{mali veins and nodules; and it is a remarkable cireum-
flance, that all the carbonate of lime found in this toad-
{tone is fibrous; that of the nodules radiating from a
centre. It has « confiderable refemblance to fibrous gyp-
fum, but may be diftinguifhed from it by its great hardnefs,
and by its’ being generally traverfed by veins of greenifh
pyrites. It may be diitinguifhed from zeolite by its greater
{pecific gravity and inferior luftre, and from both thefe and
fibrous gypfum, by its effervefcing with acid. Sattin {par is
now very rare, the vein being long fince exhautted. Analyfis
by Mr. Pepys:

Lime 50.8
Carbonic acid 47.

98 4

2. Stala®ite, Kalkfinter of Werner.—Its common coleur
is white, from which it pafles into greyifh, greenifh, and
yellowifh-white ; from thefe it pafles into the various
degrees of yellow, brown, green, blue, &c. deriving its
colour from the mineral fub{tances by which it is accom-
panied.

Dr. Kidd, in his mineralogy, fays, that thesgreenifh-
white ftalagmite of Derby fhire. owes its colour and peculiar
opacity to oxyd of zinc. It occurs moft cominonly
maffive, alfo in a variety of external fhapes, but moft often
ftalaGtitic. Its furface is generally rough and droily, and
the ftala&tites are frequently terminated either by a fingle ~
cryttal, or group of cryltals, fometimes having the appear-
ance of a cauliflower. Its internal luftre varies from glim-

mering to glittening, and is generally pearly. Fracture

itraight, and ftellularly diverging fibrous. Fragments

moitly indeterminately angular, fcaetitud {plintery and

wedge-fhaped. It occurs moft commonly in concentrie

lamellar concretions, which are bent in the dire&tion

of the external furface. The ftalaétitic and tuberofe

varieties are often hollow. It is confiderably tranflucent,

in fome cafes even femi-tranfparent. Its hardnefs, frangibili-

ty, and {pecific gravity, nearly the fame as cryftallized

carbonate of lime. j : :

It is found in all countries where limettone, particularly of
the older formation, abounds. Its localities are too numerous
to mention, but in England the moft beautiful {pecimens
are found in Cumberland, Durham, Yorkfhire, and parti-
cularly Derbyfhire, where it is wrought into Various orna-
ments. It is alfo ufed for purpofes where very pure lime is

_ wanted, as it is free from many impurities that contaminate

common limettone. :
The alabaiter of the ancients is faid to be ftalaGtitic ear-
bonate of lime, brought from Arabia, and ufed for the
: draperies:

F LB

draperies of ftatues. Andit is employed at prefent in. Italy
for the fame, and other architeftoxic purpofes, under the
name of Marmo alabaftrino.. The ramified or coralloid va-
riety, conimonly, though improperly, called Flos ferri, as it
contains no iron, and on which the count De Bournon has
ublifhed his obfervations in the 93d vol. of Philofophical
Fcanfadtions, uncer the name of hard carbonate of lime,
is brought principally from the iron mines of Stiria, where
it is found in veins of {parry iron ore. From the numerous
and contorted branches of waich it is formed, fome have been
induced to think it rather the predué of {ublimation than
2queous depofition ; and this idea receives fome confirmation
from the circumftance of this {pecies of carbonate of lime
having been found i: ue lavas, Its luftre is very {plendent
_ and pearly, aiifing from the minute cryitals that cover the
branches, and are fo inclined to the axes as to reflect the
Light very abundantly. Thefe cryftals are figured and de-
{cribed in the paper above mentioned, and in the mineralogy
ef count De Bournon, lately publithed. Its fracture is
vitreous, inclining to {mall conchoidal; hardnefs fufficiently
great to fcratch fluor. Specific gravity 2.912. Although
chemical analyfis does not- difcover the lea{t difference be-
tween this and common carbonate of lime, yet the external
characters differ fo widely, that it is impoflible not to ren-
der them as different {pecies; in many refpeéts it agrees
with arragonite, yet in others it differs fo much from it, that
it is at leaft doubtful whether it ought to be confidered as
being a variety of this laft fubftance.

Fiszovs Root, in Vegetable Phyfiology, confitts entirely

of fibres, without any tuberous or bulbous part, except fuch
a common bafis, or point of conneétion, as is neceffary to
hold them together. The fibres, or radicule, are the only
effertial part of a root, being what immediately abforbs
nourifhment from the foil. They are produced afrefh every
year, when vegetation firft awakes from the torpor of winter,
and it is only before they fhoot forth that plants can be re-
moved, or kept for fome time out of the ground, in perfec
fafety. he radical tibres of fuch graffes as grow in loofe
fand, are ufually very downy, probably to attach them more
firmly to fo flippery a fupport, or to multiply the furface,
or points of abforption, in fo meagre a foil.
_ Graffes and annual plants, in general, have fibrous roots.
Such have a natural direétion downwards, and penetrate
with facility through the fofteft parts of the foil, their ex-
tremities chiefly being elongated, or rather formed, as they
go. If they w in water, or a perfectly homogeneous
oil, where the refiftance is every where equal, the fibres
are quite flraight ; but this being fcarcely ever the cafe in
ordinary ground, they affume that contorted and divaricated
fhape we ufually obferve in all roots.

Some parafitical plants have a peculiar kind of fibrous
roots, which attach them to the branches or ftems of trees,
and therefore are bare on one fide. They may abforb moif-
ture by that fide from the air, perhaps in as great abundance
as they derive nourifhment on the other from the tree. See

OOoT. | r .
_ Fisrowus-rooted Plants, in Agriculture, are all thofe
which have fine thread-like roots which fpread out laterally
near the furface of the ground, without ftriking very deeply

into it. They are diltinguifhed into feveral different forts

the nature of the roots and the manner im which they

ow, See Fisrovus Roots and Roor.

~ -Fisrous Roots, in Gardening, all fuch as confit prin-

cipally of {mall filaments or fibres. ‘There are great num-
rs of plants which have roots of this kind, both of the
wer and other defcriptions. They are likewife diitin-

eae

FIB

guithed into different forts from the nature of the roots:
when the rocts penetrate downwards in a Gire& man er,
they are denominated perpendicular ; where they creep uncer
the furface, horizcatal, and creeping ; when they are rather
thick, fe/by ; when extremely thin, capillary 5 whe 1
run all the way undivided, /imple ; when they are div
fend off {maller roots, branched; and when covered
very fine fhort fibres on the furface, hairy. See Roor.

Fisrous Shells, in Natural Hiffary, is a vame which cer-
tain fofiil fhells have acquired, on account of their break-
ing abruptly acrofs, and fhewing a fibrous or tranfyer y
ftriated texture, which occafions their thus breaking fhort,
and being fo brittle, that very few indeed of the fhells can be
obtained whole. A very fingular kind of thefé fibrous thells
abounds in certain beds of the chalk ftrata, moftly in fquare
{mall fragments; and the flints which interlay the chalk
beds have often, in thefe cafes, their fragments fet or im-
bedded in their folid fubftance. Often when thefe flints are
found among alluvial matter, and broken, the picces of
fibrous fhells are decompofed and gone, and a fingular nar-
row and deep cavity, like a {niall mortife-hole, is Ieft 5 a cir-
cumftance which moft obfervers, in or to the weit of chalk
diftri@s, cannot fail to havé noticed. In the great allavial
mafles of Bedfordfhire, at ten or fifteen miles from the edge
or ending of the chalk ftrata, thefe flints, with fibrous theils
in them, and fometimes large and nearly perfe& fibrous fhells,
are found among the flints and other ruins or fpolia (as
Woodward calls it) of the chalk ftrata, which 1s mixed
with the clay of the ftrata, fuperior to the chalk, as fhould
feem from the large Ludus Helmontii and others of its pro-
duéts, which are found mixed in the greateft coniufion,
through the fubftance of hills, many miles long, one or two
wide, and eighty or one hundred feet high, which are there
found, of thefe diftant alluvial matters, coyering the regu-
lar fand and other ftrata of the diftri@ ; and wherein frag-
ments of grey-weathers, the produce of the uppermott faud
{trata above the chalk, are found, fome of them weighing
a ton or more,

Fizsrovs Spar, in Mineralogy, is a variety of calcareous
fpar, (carbonate of lime,) found in Derbyfhire and elfe-
where, which is often mamielated on the iurface, owing pro=
bably to hollows ia the furface of the fiffure or crack which
it once filled; the fibres or ftria of this {par crofs it trani-
verfely, and occafion its fudden and ealy fraéture, like the
fibrous fhell above defcribed. _ Fibrous {par is very common
inthe fiffures near the top of the firft or upper toaditone,
as in the entrance cut to Hockley lime-quarry, near Ath-
over town, a quarter of a mile N.E. of Bonfal church, in
Longitone-edge mine in Longitone, Weltedge mine im
Afhover, &c,

Another kind of fibrous calcareous {par (fulphate of
lime or gypfum,) is dug at Elvafton, Chelhaiton, ‘Tutbury,
and other places, in or near Derbyshire ; it lies in thin ftrata,
the fibres or ftria of which crofs it vertically, and occafon
nearly a fimilar frafture in that dire€tion to thofe of the
fpar and fhell above defcribed

FIBULA, in® Anatomy, the {mall bone of the leg.

Fisuva, in Natural Hiffory, a name given to a clafs af
the echinodermata, which have their mouth in the middle of
the bafe, and the aperture of the anuson one edge. ‘Thefe
are found principally among the foffil kinds, and feem to
have had their fhells of the affulated kind, or compofed of
{mall plates joined tranfverfeley to one another. “Of this
clafs there are two genera, the cenu/us and di/coides.

Fisuxa, in Surgery, an inftrument in ufe among the ane
cients, for the clofing of gaping wounds.

i
dor

Celfus

wee
Celfus fpeaks of the fibula, as to be ufed when the

wound was fo patent as not eafily to admit of being fewed.
Op. lib. vii. cap. 25. apud fin.

Authors are fomewhat at a lofs as to the form of the
ancient fibula. Guido fays there were iron circles, or fe-
micircles, bent backwards both ways; the hooks whereof,
being faftened on both fides to the wound, an{wered exaly
to each other; but as this muit have been an infupport-
able pain to the patient, this defcription is generally fet
afide. ;

Fallopius, Sanétorius, and others, take the werd fibula
to have fignified, in reality, no more than the fewing up
of4he wound with a needle and thread, as ufed at this
day.

RET Luxation of. See Luxarion.

FICARIA, in Botany, Pilewort, fo called by Brunfel-
fius and other old writers, on account of the fig-like tuber-
cles of the root, which refembling the difeafe called the
piles, the plant was ingenioufly fuppofed to be a remedy
for that complaint. The next ftep was to affirm it to be
fo, as we find in fuch writers, ‘ either applied outwardly,
or taken internally,”? As it is very acrid, and even cauftic,
we cannot recommend a trial.

Hudfon eftablifhed the /icaria as a feparate genus from
Ranunculus, {ee Fl. Angl. 244, on account of the fmaller
number of its calyx-leaves, and greater number of its pe-
tals ; but he has not been followed. Ranunculus is too na-
tural a genus to admit of fuch a feparation on artificial
principles alone.

FICEDULA, in Ornithology, a name given to feveral

“fpecies of Motacilla, (which fee.) See alio Turpvs ¢ri-
shas, Muscieara Atricapilla, and Parus Americanus.

FICHANT, Iicens, a French term ufed in Fortifica-
tions thus, a flank fichant, ora line of defence fichant, is
a place, whence the {hots made do not only rafe the oppo-
fite face to be defended, but alfo enter within it.

The word isformed of ficher, to flick a thing in.

FICHE!,’in Heraldry. See Fircuse.

FICHERUOLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the department of the Lower Po, on the Po; 13 miles
W.N.W. of Ferrara.

FICHTELBERG, a mountain of Franconia, which
extends from the vicinity of Bareuth to Eger in Bohemia.
Tt is one of the higheft mountains in Germany, and con.
tains in it many deferts, rocks, bogs, and morafles. It takes
its name from the great number of pines, with which it is
covered ; it has alfo many oaks, beech, elm, and other kinds
of trees. The extent in length is 22 Englifh miles, and
16 miles in breadth. The fummits have various names : the
Ochfenhopf being reckoned the higheft. The lake, called
*« Fichtellee,’’ is a cavity of this mountain, called the See
ich, and is remarkable merely as the fource of the White
Mayn. Other parts of this mountain give rife to the Eger,
which runs to the E., and the Sala and Nab flowing to the
N. and S.

FICINUS, Marsixtus, in Biography, a celebrated
phyfician, divine, and philofopher, was born at Florence
A. D. 1433. His father being phyfician to Cofmo de Me-
dicis, the fon was noticed by that liberaliprince ; and on, the
death of his father, Marfilius obtained the fame honourable
diftinétion. He ftudied not only medicine and divinity, but
acquired the knowledge of both vocal and inftrumental mu-
fic and could perform upon feveral inftruments. He was
profoundly fiilled in the Latin, Greek, and other learned
languages. Under the patronage of the houfe of the Medici,

I

FPF C

he might have acquired not only fame, but wealth; more
efpecially after he had, by taking holy orders, rendered him-
felt capable of holding the valuable preferments in the
church, belonging to that illuftrious family. But, a total
ftranger both to covetoufnefs and ambition, Ficinus was
content with the appointment of a canonry in the great
church of St. Laureatius, in his native city, and fome
{mall eftates in the vicinity, beftewed upon him by his pa-
tron. Although now an ecclefiaftic, who exercifed the
duties- of his profeffion, yet he continued to praétife phyfic ;
the profits from which latter profeflion he devoted to the
ufe of his nephews and nieces, and other collateral poor
branches of his family. The cardinal John de Medicis,
having been raifed to the fovereign pontificate, under the
name of Leo X. Ficinus received an acquifition to his
fortune. He was appointed profeffor of philofophy, he
became exceeding popular, and his leftures were crowded
with ftudents from every country; many of whom, be-
coming in their turn celebrated, enhanced {till higher the
profeffor’s fame. He certainly appears to have poffeffed
great merit in the didaétic chair, although in his illuftrations.
he adopted the reveries of judicial aftrology ; but in this he
was not fingular; it was a mania that feized moft of his
cotemporaries among the philofophers. He {pent much of
his time at his country houfe, Corregio, near Florence, at
which agreeable retreat he was vifited by numerous friends,
who, like him, could relifh the refined pleafures of ra-
tional retirement, and the charms of philofophical conver=
fation. So refpe€ted was he, that Ficinus could number
among his friends fome of the ableft of mankind, and the
mott éxalted in rank: doétors, philofophers, bifhops, car-
dinals, and even princes; the celebrated patron of every
thing great and good, Lorenzo the magnificent, efteemed
it an honour to be claffed in the number. The folitude
that he adopted arefe from motives of inclination and nes
ceffity. Habitually contemplative, retirement was pleafing ;
and naturally exceeding delicate, repofe from the buftle and
cares of public life at times became effential to his exift-
ence on earth. Senfible of his infirmity, he endeavoured
to preferve his health by means bordering upon ridiculous
fuperftition. He would, it has been oblerved, change his
calotte, or under cap, fix or feven times an hour. “All me-
thods, however, proved unavailing, fo that he at length fell a
victim to a weak con‘titution, at theage of fixty-fix, A.D.
1499. Sweetnefs of temper, moderation in difputation,
and modefty of manners, were features eminently conf{picu-
ous in his character; and he was no lefs diltinguifhed by his
extenfive learning, than his genuine piety, lave that the
former perhaps was too much tin&tured with the Grecian
philofophy, and the latter too ftrongly fhaded with’ the
gloom of fuperftition.

His works are numerous and diverfified; they contain
obfervations upon phyfical, metaphyfical, moral, and re-
ligious fubje&s. Opufcula de Sole & Luna, various tranf=
lations from the works of Plato, Plotinus, Jamblichus,
Proclus, and other Platonifts ; and the Platonic fy{ftem thus.
became fafhionable in Italy, The tranflations are not always
accurate, and through all a bias is evident in favour of that
philofophy. He would feign perfuade his readers, the
writers of that fchool mnft have been believers in divine re-
velation. His Theologia Platonica was printed at Florence
in 1482; his Epiftole, in twelve books, at Venice, 1495 3:
and his whole works were colle€ted and publifhed in two
volumes, folio, at Bafle, in 1576. Moreri, Grand’ Di&tion-
naire Hiftorique.

FICK, in Rural. Economy, a term fignifying to frugal
wi

Fic

with the legs, as a cow in the tie, or a horfe in the fetfers,
&e. :

FICKLETOW, in Agriculture, isa term which is fome-
times applied to the fore-tackle, or carriage which fupports
the plough-team.

YICOIDEA, in Botany. See Arzoon, fpecies 2d.

FICOIDE&, the 87th natural orderin Juffieu’s fyitem,
or the 5th of his fourteenth clafs. The name is taken from
‘Ficoides, applied by Tournefort to the Mesembryanthemum
of Lineeus, which is one of this order. ‘Phe definition of
this clafs is, Cotyledonstwo. Flowers polypetalous. Stamens
inferted into the calyx, which is of one leaf, fuperior. or in-
ferior, divided more or lefs deeply. Corolla nferted into
the calyx, generally polypetalous, fometimes wanting, rarely
‘monopetalous, by a concretion, as it were, of feveral petals
into one. Stamens definite or indefinite in number, often
diftinét, fometimes united by their filaments. Germen fupe-
rior, fimple or manifold, or rarely inferior and fimple.
Styles one or many to each germen, fometimes none; fligma
entire or divided. #ruit fometimes fimple, fuperior or infe-
rior, of one or many cells; fometimes, but rarely, manifold,
fuperior, each pericarp being of one cell. Sometimes, by
abortion, the fexes become {eparate in different flowers.

The Ficoidee are thus characterized. Calyx of one leaf,
inferior or fuperior, definitely divided: Peta/s mottly inde-
finite, inferted into the upper part cf the calyx ; fometimes
wanting, in which cafe the calyx is coloured withia. Sta-
mens more than twelve, often numerous, inferted into the
fame part; anthers oblong, incumbent. Germen fimple,
fuperior or inferior ; ftyles feveral; ftiginasas many. Fruit
either a capfule or berry, with as many cells as there are
ityles, each containing feveral feeds attached to their inner
angle. £mbryo incurved, furrounding a farinaceous albu-
men. Svem herbaceous or fomewhat fhrubby. Leaves op-
pofite or alternate, generally fucculent, moftly various in
fhape. The firft fe€tion, which has a fuperior germen, con-
tains Reaumuria, Nitraria, Sefuvium, dizoon, and Glinus,
with Orygia of Forfkall; the fecond, with an inferior germen,
has Mefembryanthemum and Tetragonia. ‘The plants of this
natural order are alkalefcent, {ecreting of themfelves /oda, or
foffil alkali, independently of foil or fituation, though they
naturally grow for the moft part in maritime places.

FICOIDES. See MesempryanTHEMUM.

FICORONI, Francisco pi, in Biography, a learned

and celebrated Roman antiquary, author of an excellent
treatife on the theatrical mafques of the ancient Ro-
‘mans, with engravings from ancient gems, cameos, marbles,
-and bronzes, upon nearly 100 plates well executed, and firlt
publithed at Rome in 1736, 4to, ‘This work is replete with
erudition onthe fubjeét, and is at once curious, amufing,
and initructive. It 1s peculiarly cornected with dancing,
faltation, comic f{cenes, and the mufical declamation aad
melody of the ancients. The wide mouth in the form of a
fhell, fays Ficoroni, fo common in the ancient matfks, ferved
_to augment the power of the voice, upon the principle of a
{peaking-trumpet. ‘ Quella bocca a conchiglia, che &
vede in altre mafchere, ferviva per ingrandire la voce, come
fuccede nelle trombe a proporzione.””’ See Masaues.

FICTA, Lat. feigned; as Mufica fetay mnfic tranfpofed
out of the hexachords to keys that require flats and fharps,

_ufed in old times to be thus called.. Fa fictum, f2x.

FICTION. See Fase.

Fiction ofa perfonin Rhetoric. Sce Prosoreia.

Frorion of Law, Fidio Juris. Fictions are allowed of
inlaw, in feveral cafes, but mutt be framed according to the
_rules of law, not what is imaginable in the conceptions of
_man; and there ought to be equity and poffibility in every

FIC

legal fition, There are many of thefe fiGtions in the civil
law and by fome civilians it is faid to be an affumption of law
upon an untruth for atruth, in fomething poflible to be
done, but not done. (Godolphin and Bartol.) The feifin
of the conufee in a fine is but a fiétion in our law; it being
an inverted form of conveyance only, (1 Lill. Abr. 610.)
And a common recovery is fais juris, a formal 2& or de«
vice by confent, where a man is defirous to cut off an eftate
tail, remainders, Kc. (10 Rep. 42.) ‘The proceedings in
ejectments are alfo grounded on a fiction of law. By fidtiow
of law, a bond made beyond fea may be pleaded to be made
in the place where made, viz. in [flington, in the county of
Middlefex, &c. in order to try the fazie here; witliout
which it cannot be done. (Co. Litt. 261.) And thus italfo
is in fome other cafes; but the law onght not to be fatisfied
with fiGions, where it may be etherwife realiy fatisfied ; and
fictions in law fhall not be carried further than the reafors
which introduce them neceflavily require. 1 Lill. Abr. 610.
2 Hawk, 320.

FICTITIOUS Pcaintirr, denotes one not in being at
all, or one who is ignorant of the fuit. The ofence of fuing
another in the name of fuch a plaintiff, if committed in any
of the king’s fuperior courts, is left, asa hich contempt, to
be punifhed at their diferetion. But in courts of a lower
degree, where the crime is equally pernicious, but the au-
therity of the judges not equally extenfive, it is direfted by
ftat. § Eliz. c. 2. to be punifhed by fix months’ imprifon-
ment, and treble damages to the party injured.

FICUS, in Botany, an ancient Latin word of uncertain
derivation. ‘he Fig-tree. Linn. Gen. 555. Am. Acad.
v. 1.23. Schreb. 746. Vahl, Enum. v. 2.181. Juff. 400.
Tourn. t.420. Gartn.t.g1. Mart. Mill. Di@.v.2. Clafs
and order, Diecia Triandria. Linnzeus placed it in Poly
gamia Triecia, becaufe the Caprificus, or Wild fig as it is
called, has entirely male blofiums, while the cultivated figs
have on ene tree more perfe&tly male, on another female,
flowers. The different ftructure of the partial calyx in the
two flowers, authorizes its being kept ia Diccia at leatt,
though Vahl removes it to Triandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Scabridz, Linn. Urtice, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Receptacle fomewhat globular,
flefhy, concave, clofed with feveral fcales within the ori«
fice. Its infide is lined eniirely with numerous florets; the
uppermoft, or thofe neareft the orifice, being males; the reft,
more numerous, females; all feparately flalked.—Male,
Cal. Perianth deeply three-cleft, rarely more, ere&; its feg-
ments lanceolate, erect, equal. Cor. none. Siam. Fila-
ments three, briftle-fhaped, the length of the calyx ; anthers
two-lobed. Pi/?, a deciduous twilted rudiment orly.—
Female, Ca/. Perianth inferior, in five deep, lanceolate,
pointed, ftraight, nearly equal fegments. Qzi-._ none.
Pif!, Germen oval, filling the perianth; ftyle awl-fhaped,
inflexed, lateral; ftigmas two, pointed,, reflexed, unequal.
Peric.. nene, except the perianth enlarged and become
pulpy. Seed one, roundifh, compreffed.— The male florets
are commoaly abortive in all the figs of one tree, the
female ones on another. Thofe figs which are entirely
male, as above-meitioned, are confidered as mott efeetual fo
impregnation, and for confequently improving the frui
the female trees. Hence the curious hiltery of Capz
Sce that article. .

Eff. Ch. Common receptacle roundith, Aethy, clofed,
Iined internally with feparated florets. Male, Calys in three
deep iegments. Corolla none. Female, Calyx in five deep
fegments. Corolla none. Piflilone. Seed one.

The {pectes of this moft matural genus are prodigioufly
more numerous than Linneus had any idea of His, lateft

edition

FICUS.

edition contains but 17. Vahl, whofe lift is the moft com-
plete of any, has 92. Even this number we have it in our
power greatly to augment.

It is neceffary briefly to enumerate all Vahl’s fpecies, in
order to contraft our new ones with them. We therefore
take this opportunity of reviewing the whole genus, as there
is much to corret, not only in what he has done, but in
what regards the original fpecies of Linnzus, the hiftory of

_which could not be cleared up, but by an examination of the
Linnzain Herbarium. Refi
SeGtion 1. Leaves undivided and entire.

1. F. religiofa. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1514. (Arealu; Rheede
Hort, Mal. v. 1. 47.t. 27.) ‘ Leaves ovate or heart-fhaped,
entire, very long-pointed. Fruit feffile.””-—Native of the
Taft Indies, where it is treated by the Hindus with fuper-
ftitious veneration, their god Vifhnu having been fuppofed
to be born under it. Chriftians civilly call it the Devil’s
tree. The /eaves are evergreen, fmooth and fhining, of a
fine green, alternate, on long ftalks, elegantly pendulous.
fruit the fize of a large pea, dry and taftelefs. This
tree grows readily in our floves. J

2. F. populifolia. Vahl. Symb. v. 1.82.t. 22.—*¢ Leates
neatly cordate, acute. Fruit ftalked, in pairs.’’——Native of
Arabia, miftaken by Forfkall for the preceding. ruit-

alks.an inch long. Whole plant very {mooth.

3. F. Pilafbii—teaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped,
pointed, very fmooth, finely veined. 'ruit folitary, feffile,
globofe.—Gathered by Dr. Buchanan at Narain hetty in
Nepal, in Dec. 1802. The Nawars call it Pilafbi. . It is.a
tree, generally parafitical. Leaves about three inches long,
on ftalks one-third their length, refembling the leaves of a
Poplar. J*ruit f{mooth, the fize of a black currant.

4. F. umbellata. Vahl. Enum. n. 3. ‘ Leaves exa@ly
heart-fhaped, long-pointed, fmooth. Fruitftalks three to
five in an umbel.’”’—Found by Thonning in Guinea. Tree
very tall and {preading. Fruit the fize of a plum.

5. Fs nympheifolia. Linn. Mant. 305.—** Leaves heart-
fhaped, roundifh, pointed, f{mooth, glaucous beneath,’”’—
‘Native of the Eaft Indies. Leaves like thofe of i te
alba in fize and figure, but very glaucous beneath. //. Linn.

6. F. cordata, Thunb. Diff. 8. fig. 1.—** Leaves ovate,
fomewhat heart-fhaped, acute, fmooth, leathery. Stem
fhrubby, ereét.’’—Cape of Good Hope. Thunb. A fmooth

forub, of a moderate fize. Jruit feflile about the upper
part of the branches, the fize of a fmall pea.

7. ¥. polita. Vahl. Enum, n. 7.—‘* Leaves ovate, in-
clining to heart-fhaped, pointed, fmooth, even, entire.’’—
Found in Guinea by Ifert. Zeaves two inches or more in
length, veiny. Jrwit flalked, fmooth, globofe, the fize of
a hazel-nut.

8. F. Chanas. Forfk. Arab. 219.—“ Leaves heart-fhaped,
rough.’’——Native of mountains in Arabia, where it is called
Chanas. It refembles F. Sycomorus, n. 85, except in the
afperity of its leaves, and like that has an eatable fruit. We
have {pecimens gathered by the late fir George Staunton in
the ifland of St. Jago, under the name of Sycomorus, which
appear to be the Chanas.

9. F. cofata. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 452.—“* Leaves ovate,
heart-fhaped, avith a deep narrow finus; entire, fmooth,
acute, green on both fides.’’— Eatt Indies.

10. F. /evigata. Vahl. Enum. n. g.—‘¢ Leaves heart-
fhaped, ovate, pointed, veiny, very fmooth. Fruit ftalked,
globofe, {mooth.””—Weft Indies. eaves three or four
inches long, very finely veined. Fruit fize of acherry, three-
lobed at the orifice. Vahl.

11. F /entiginofa. Vahl. En. n. 10,.—* Leaves ovate-
sblong, fomewhat heart-fhaped, pointed. Fruit lateral and

4

axillary, ftalked, in pairs.”’—-Gathered by Mr. Ryan in the
ifland of Montferrat. Leaves thin, three or four inches
long, veiny. Fruit the fize of-a pea, with a minute calyx
under it.

12. F. feabra. Forft. Prod. 76.—* Leaves ovate, fome-
what heart-fhaped, oblique, rough beneath. Fruit top-

‘fhaped, without a calyx.’?—Found by Forfter at Tanna and

Namoka. Leaves half a foot long, remotely toothed;
roughifh above; rough, paler, flightly downy beneath,
Pahl.

13. F. citrifolia. Lamarck, Di&. v. 2.494. (Plum. Ic.
t.131.f.2.)--* Leaves oval, fomewhat heart-fhaped, fharpifh,
entire; ribbed, fmooth on both fides. Fruit globofe, foli-
tary, ftalked, axillary.””—Weft Indies. Cultivated in the
Paris‘ garden. Leaves more heart-fhaped at the bafe than
Plumier reprefents them. Figs bigger than a walnut,
green, white within, almoft taftelefs. Lamarck.

14. F. lucida. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 451.—*¢ Leaves
ovate, heart-fhaped, entire, {mooth, obtufe, three-ribbed at
the bafe. ‘Branches ereét.””>—Imported in 1772, from the
Eaft Indies, by Mr. W. Malcolm. eaves about a foot
long, nearly elliptical, ftalked, of ‘a fine green, fhining,
veiny« rs)

15. F. feandens. Lamarck. Di&. v. 2. 498. (F. ftipula-
ta; Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 452.) Leaves heart-fhaped, un-
equal at the bafe, fmooth, reticulated with veins beneath.
Stipulas acute. Branches thread-fhaped, creeping.—This
is {uppofed to be a native of the warmer parts of America.
It is common in thé European ftoves. The ffems creep
up the walls, and throw out numerous, alternate, fubdivi-
ded, flender, leafy, downy branches, making an elegant
evergreen tapeftry. Leaves alternate, on very fhort downy
ftalks, heart-fhaped, obtufe, entire, unequal at the bafe, dark
fhining green, {mooth, reticulated with palifh veins beneath.
Stipulas intrafoliaceous, in pairs, as long or longer than the
footitalk, brown, membranous, ovate, pointed. It has
never fruited in England or France, but we have received
from the ftoves in the royal gardens near Lifbon, by favour
of Mr. Correa, branches laden with fruit, of a top-fhaped
form, purple, nearly as big as common figs, but infipid,
which were pofitively afferted to be produced by the plant
in queftion. Thefe branches moreover are thick, firm, and
{traicht, furrowed, bearing leaves ten times as large cs
thofe above defcribed, quite coriaceous, exaétly ovate or
elliptical, equal at the bafe, exquifitely reticulated with
prominent veins beneath, and punétated between them, as
well as a little hairy. The whole, in fhort, of thefe {peci-
mens accords with F. pumila, n. 46, hereafter defcribed,
and nothing but our perfe& confidence in our correfpon-
dent’s accuracy could induce us to believe there were not
fome miftake. Lamarck mentions Mr. Correa’s informa
tion, but had feen no f{pecimens.

16. F. fipulata. Thunb. Diff. 8.—Leaves heart-fhaped,
unequal at the bafe, reticulated with hairy veins beneath.
Sipulas acute. Branches round, decumbent.—Native of
Japan. Thunb. China. Herb. Linn. The dranches are
decumbent and creeping, compound, round, minutel
downy, reddith brown, often fealy with the permanent {li-
pulas after the leaves are fallen, Leaves much like the
laft, but the veins at the back are ftronger, more crowdedg
and more curioufly reticulated, as well as roughifh or hairy.
Stipalas like the former. Fruit unknown. We are inclined

“to think, if this be diftin& from the laft, of which there
is fome queftion, that F. pumila may be this in a perfegh

flate.—We have other fpecimens of creeping kinds, whicly
perhaps undergo a fimilar metamorphofis when they fructify,
and

~

Fl € US.

and which onght to teach botanifts caution in defining the
fpecies of this genus. :

17. EF. fagittata. Vahl. En, n. 16,— Leaves heart-
fhaped, oblong, acute, rough on both fides. Stem creep-
ing.’’—Native of Java, where it runs up trees. Herb. Linn.
Stem creeping, by roots oppolite to each leaf, downy when
young. Leaves alternate, two or three inches long, heart-
fhaped, equal at the bale, entire, acute, roughifh to the
touch, dotted beneath. J vorflalks downy, near half an
inch long. Stipulas lanceolate. Our deicription will be
found to differ a little from Vahl’s, but not materially.

18. FP. pedunculata: Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 450. (F. arbor
americana, &c. Pluk. Alm. t. 178. f. 4.) “ Leaves ovate-
oblong, heart-fhaped, acute, fmooth. Fruit glebofe, on
long twin ftalks.”’—Native of America and the Welt
Indies. Jacquin firft feut it to Europe from Martinico,
and it was long kept in the gardens fer I. indica. Leaves
from three to fix inches leng, and one or twe broad,
fmooth ; paler and opaque beneath. fruit the fize of
‘a pea.

a F wenofa. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3 451. (Tsjakela;
Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 87. t. 64.)— Leaves ovate, fome-
what heart-fhaped, acute, fmooth, with imprefled dots
above. Fruit feffile, cluttered, globofe.””— Native of the
Katt Indies. The /eaves are a {pan long, two or three
inches broad, on long ftalks. Frwit the fize of pepper-
corns.

29. F. radicalis. Leaves lanceolate, acute, fimooth.
Fruit in radical clufters.— Gathered by Dr. Buchanan in the
Eaft Indies, probably in the Myfore country. Stem fhrubby,
branched, fmooth. Leaves crowded, three or four inches
long, {carcely one broad, pointed, paler beneath, minutely
dotted, but notrough tothe touch. /oot/la/ks {carccly an
inch long. Stipulas longer, lanceolate, deciduous. fruit
in cluflers from the root. j

zt. ¥. neriifolia. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, pointed,
{mooth, with parallel veins. Fruit top-fhaped, feffile,
flightly furrowed.— Gathered in Feb. 1803, at Narain hetty
in Nepal, by Dr. Buchanan. It is called there Dud Cu/hi.
Stem arborefcent. Branches furrowed, {mooth. eaves
yellowifh green, about three inches long, with narrow
linear points, and numerous parallel, tranfverfe veins. J’aot-
talks furrowed, hardly an inch long. /ywit folitary or in
‘pairs, fize ofa hazel-nut, or perhaps larger when ripe.

22. F. /utea. Vahl. En. n. 19.—‘* Leaves oval-oblong,
pointed, fomewhat emarginate at the bafe, fmooth. Fruit
in pairs, globofe, feffile. Calyx four-cleft.”’—Native of
Guinea. Thonning.—A tall tree. Leaves from four to
eight inches long, coriaceous, with white ribs, and fine reti-
culations. Fruit axillary, fcarcely fo big as « cherry, yel-
low, chefnut-coloured when mpe.

23. FE. owata. Ibid. n. 20.—* Leaves ovate-oblong.
‘Fruit feffile, in pairs. Common calyx hood-fhaped, deci-
‘duous; that of the fruit torn into two parts.”’— Gathered
by Thonning in Guinea. A tall tree, with fomewhat whorl-
ed branches, often rooting. Leaves from five to eight
inches long, rather leathery, with white ribs. Young fruit
covered with a flefhy veil, cut round at the bafe as the
fruit fwells, and deciduous. igs the fize of plums, in-
clining to ovate. §

24. F. calyptrata. Ibid. n. 21.—* Leaves ovate, rather
oblong. Fruit in pairs. Common calyx, and that of the
fruit, hood-like, deciduous.”’——Gathered by Thonning in
Guinea—A tall {preading tree. Leaves rather pointed,
fomewhat coriaceous, with white ribs and fine veins, five
inches lone. Fruit {eflile, globofe, orange-coloured, {maller

Vou, XLV.

than a cherry, with a double. eap-likesdeciduous cover-
ing.

25. F. Granatum. Fork. Pl. Efcul. 37.—* Leaves ovate,
entires Fruitftalks terminal, in pairs, horizontally divari-
cated. Fruit globofe, with acalyx.’’—Native of the ifle of
Tanna, where it is alfo cultivated for the fake of the fruit,
which is fweetifh, but watery and rather infipid, larger than
common figs, red with yellow fpots, and flizhtly downy ;
internally purple, foft and pulpy. The ree is tall, with an
angular rugged trunk, and long afcending branches. Leaves
afpan long, {mooth, dark green above, witha few yellow
veins ; brighter underneath. ruit on fhort thick flalks,
from the bofoms of the uppermott leaves. Buds terminal,
fharp-pointed, clothed with brown hairs. Lorfler.

26. F. feptica. Burm. Ind. 226. Rumph. Amb. v. 3.
153.t. 9€. (Handur-alu; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 77. t. 59.)
— Leaves ovate, pointed. Stem ereé&t. Fruit folitary, axil-
lary, top-fhaped, on fhort curved ftalks—Native of the
Kat Indies. <¢ Branches round and fmooth. Leaves
fix or fevyen inches long, broad-oblong, membranous, very
{mooth, glaucous beneath, veiny, tipped with a fharp point
an inch in length. — Stipulas lanceolate. Fvotfalts round,
tivo inches long, coloured at the top and bettom. Rheede’s
figure wants the point of the leaf.” Vahl from Juffieu’s
herbarium.

27. F.Taab. Forfk. Arab. 219.—“ Leaves in pairs,
flalked, ovate, entire.’’—Gathered by Forfkall at Zebid in
Arabia, where it is called Z2ab. The deaves are four inches
long. No other botanift appears to have feen this fpe-
cies,

28. F. Ampelos. Burm. Ind. 226. Lam. Did. v. 2. 496.
(Folium politorium, Ampelaas; Rumph. Amb. v. 4. 128.
t. 63. Teregam; Rheede H. Mab. v. 3. 79. t 60 2)—
sc Leaves ovate, acute, rough. Fruit folitarv, ftalked,
rough, with an open fealy mouth.’??—Native of Malabar.
The branches, footjialks and leaves are extremely rough,
with minute cartilazinous points; the latter are about a
{pan long, three-ribbed, but the lateral ribs are fhort, and
run into fine tranfverfe veins, as Rumphius deferibes them.
His fynonym appears to us more certain than that of Rheede,
whofe leaves are too fmall, and fruit unlike our fpecimens.
The latter may poflibly be F. gc/itoria of Loureiro, quoted
by Vahl under Ampelos, as that is faid to have {mall leaves.
The fruit ia our’s is likea {mall goofeberry, rough, the
mouth befet with numerous, prominent, recurved feales.
Fruitfialks axillary, folitary, recurved, very rough, half an
inch long.—The leavesare faidto be very ufeful for polifh«
ing fine cabinet work, or toys, of wood, ivory or coral.
They are not, however, fo fine a fil as Dutch rufhes,
LE quifetum hyemale. The Amboyna name, as made into
Greek by Burmann, only tends to deceive.

29. F. pyrifolia. Burm. Ind. 226. (Itty-alu; Rheede
H. Mal. v. 1. 45. t. 26, according to Vahl.)—* Leaves
ovate, pointed, fringed.”’—Native of Japan. Burm. Eait
Indies, according to Juffieu’s herbarium. /7ah/. The latter
deferibes the /eaves as quite smooth, two inches long.
Fruit globofe, rather bigger than a pea, rough with ele-
vated points. ruitflalk very thort. It feems not certain
that Vahl and Burmann mean the fame plant, and the former
copies the fery fame fynonym of Rheede, after Linnzus,
for F. benjamina in his next paragraph.

30. F. denjamina. Linn. Mant. 129. (F. arbor, den-
fioribus foliis parvis integris Amboinenfis ; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 243. t.4. Varinga parviflora ; Rumph. Amb. y. 3. 139.
t.go?) Leaves ovate, pointed, tranfveriely flriated, imooth-
edged. Fruit axillary, folitary, ftalked, Found in various

¢D parts

pw

FICUS.

parts of the Eaft Indies. It forms a tall ¢ree, with innu-
merable, flender, zig-rag, leafy branches, with a rugged
bark. Leaves an inch or inch and half long, ftalked,
exa@tly ovate, with an elongated point, entire, very fmooth
and fhining, diftinguifhed by numerous, tranfverfe, ftraight,
- parallel veins, which do not reach the edge. The fruit

is axillary, folitary, on a ftalk a quarter of an inch long,
bearing two or three fmall round fcales about the middle,
and feveral more under the fruit, which, in the very early
flate now before us, is the fize of muftard-feed, fmooth,
erowned with two or three long projecting {eales from its
mouth, fo like ftigmas, that if we had not the fan&ion of
the mot able botanifts, we fhould have great doubt of this
being a Ficus.

3t. EF. infrafoliacea. Buch. MSS.— Leaves ovate-oblong,
taper-pointed, entire, {mooth. Fruit below the leaves,
fcattered, ftalked, globofe—Gathered by Dr. Buchanan
in March 1803, by the way fide at Lohiar in Nepal.
This free has the afpeét of T°. religiofa. Leaves deciduous,
about three inches long, and above one broad, with feveral
parallel tranfverfe veins, and innumerable reticulated ones
between them. :ootfalés an inch or inch and half long,
fmooth, channelled. Svipulas downy, deciduous. Fruit
from about the top of the laft year’s fhoots, globole,
{mooth, the fize of a goofeberry, on fhortifh thick ftalks,
moftly ternate.

32. F. macrophylla. Roxb. and Buch. MSS.—Leaves
roundifh-ovate, pointed, five-ribbed at the bafe; fmooth
above; finely downy beneath.-—Native of the Eaft Indies.
Young branches, flipulas and fovialks downy, as well as
the back of the eaves, which are eight or ten inches long
and fix or eight broad, wavy at the edge, paler beneath,
reticulated with innumerable tranfverfe rectangular veins.

33. F. benghalenfis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1514. Trew,
Ehrh. t. 50. (Peralu ; Rheede H. Mal. v. 1. 49. t. 28.)—
Leaves ovate-oblong, obtufe, fmooth above ; fomewhat
downy beneath ; ribs radiating from above the bafe. Fruit
globofe, feffile, crowded.— Frequent in the Eaft: Indies.
A tall and ttout ¢ree. Leaves coriaceous, rather elliptical,
four or five inches long, minutely downy beneath, their
five ribs meeting a Mttle way above the bafe. Fruit gene-
rally in pairs or crowded, as large as a bullace plum, red,
downy, encompafled with a broad calyx, of feveral downy
leaves, at the bafe. Our fpecimen from the Hortus Clif-
fortianus agrees with one Tent by Dr. Roxburgh from
Bengal. In both the leaves are decidedly downy beneath,
though deferibed as fmooth. We have alfo from Dr. Rox-
burgh what feems a variety, with rather narrower leaves,
very downy beneath, and fruit no bigger than peas, equally
downy, generally in pairs, and very abundant.

34. Fe rubiginofa, Ventenat Jard. de la Malmaifon, t. 114.
— Leaves elliptical obtufe; fmooth above ; downy and rufty
beneath. Frait globofé, nearly feflile. Calyx downy, almott
as long as the fruit.—Native of New Holland. Cultivated in
the greenhoufe at Kew, where it fruits about midfummer.
Stem fhrubby, with thick downy braaches. Leaves three or
four inches long, and two broad, coriaceous, evergreen, tlalk-
ed, clothed beneath, efpecially when young, with foft, dark,

rufty, purplifh down, and furnifhed with numerous tran{verfe
parallel yeins, of which the lowermoft do not grow in a
radiating manner like the laft fpecies. Fruit axillary, foli-
tary, the fize of a floe, reddifh, dotted, enveloped, tili
half grown, in the brown downy calyx.

35- F. callofa. Willd: Diff. 25. t. 4. Vahl. Enum.
an. 29.— Leaves oblong, obtufe, narrower at the bale,
with two callous dots; rough beneath.”’—Native of the
Eait Indies. Leaves {mooth and thining above, paler be-

4

neath. Fruit globofe, umbilicated, the fize of a eherrty:
Willdenow. ‘

36. F. microcarpa. Vahl. En. n. 30.—* Leaves ovate,
fomewhat oblong, obtufe, fmooth. Branches wand-like.
Fruit globofe, feffile, in pairs.”,—Found by Thonning in
Guinea. A rather tall and fpreading tree, its branches
throwing out roots. eaves three to five inches longy
ftalked, finely reticulated, pale beneath. Fruit {mall.

37- FE. parafitica. Willd. Diff. 25. t. 3. Vahl. En.
n. 31.— Leaves elliptical, bluntifh; reticulated and
roughifh beneath. Fruit-ftalks in pairs. Fruit globofe,
umbilicated.’’—Grows inthe Eaft Indies. Branches round,
fmooth. Leaves fmooth and fhining above, coriaceous,
molt veiny beneath. Fruit axillary, the fize of a pea.

38. F. americana. Aubl. Guian. 952. (F. alia, foliis
lauri, fru€tu minore ; Plum. Ic. 124. t. 132. f.2.)—* Leaves
ovate-oblong, veiny. Fruit axillary, ftalked, cluftered.”? —
Native of Jamaica. Leaves fmooth, two inches long.
Fruit {mail, yellow.

39. F. racemafa. Linn. Sp. Pl. Igi5. (Atti-alu ; Rheede
H. Mal. v. 1. 43. t.25.)— Leaves elliptic-ovate, acute,
dotted on the upper fide. Fruit feflile, top-fhaped, downy,’
Vahl. Native of the Eaft Indies, in fandy foil. A tall and
{fpreading tree. Branches downy inthe upper part. Leaves
italked, remote, two or three inches long, narrowed at each
end, efpecially the upper, acute, ftriated, in a manner,
with ribs, fomewhat veiny, fmooth on both fides, dotted
on the upper whea examined with a microfcope. Fovt-
flalks vather downy. Fruit pear-fhaped, feffile, downy.
Vahi—We know this only by the above authorities, having
no authentic fpecimen. The fruit is not feffile in Hort.
Malab.

40. I. glomerata. Roxb. Corom. vy. 2. 14. t. 123.—
Leaves elliptic-ovate, acute, not dotted above ; minutely
granulated beneath. Fruit cluitered, ftalked, top-fhaped,
downy.—Generally found near villages, and about rivers and
water-courfes in Bengal, where the foil is rich and moiit.
Fruit eaten by the natives, but Dr. Roxburgh thought it
difagreeable ; purplith, the fize of a pidgeon’s egg, grow-
ing many together on the young branches, each on a fepa-
rate ftalk. Leaves four or five inches long, {mooth above;
feeling roughifh underneath.

4. F. indica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1514 &. Lamarck. Dié&.
v. 2. 494. Cluf. Exot. 1. (F. cotoneefolia; Vahl. En.
n. 34. Catu-alu; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 73. t. 57.) — Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, coriaceous, downy beneath. Fruit feffile.
Branches taking root at the extremity.”—Native of the
Fatt Indies, where it has been celebrated from the moft
remote antiquity, for its property of letting its branches
droop and take root, fo extending itfelf by that means,
that a fingle tree forms a curioufly-arched grove. We
cannot therefore approve of Profeffor Vahl’s innovation, in
transferring its ancient name to another, which Linneus
thought a variety, but which is totally diftin@. See our
n.68.—The /eaves are three or four inches long, pointed.
Fruit globofe, the fize of a large gooleberry, reddith, fweet,
but not pleafant-tatted. ,

42. IF. Toka. Forfk. Arab. 219.—** Leaves two-ranked,
rough, ovate, acute, entire, alternate, ftalked.”?— Found
by Forfkall in Arabia, where it is called Zo44, which is all
we knew concerning it. ;

43. [. pundata. Thunb. Diff. 9.—* Leaves oblong,
emarginate, fmooth, dotted beneath. Stem zig-zag, throw-
ing out roots.’’—Native of the Eaft Indies.— Svem parafiti-
cal, creeping to a great extent, round, rugged, brown,
hardly fo thick as a goofe-quill, branched ; the ultimate
divifions very fhort. Leaves obtufe, only from half an iuch

te

FICUS.

to an inch long, fpreading or reflesed, their matgin entire,
a little refexed. oot/alks very fhort. Jfruit obovate,
almoit as large as the common F’. Carica. Thunberg.—We
fufpeét this ought to be placed near fcandens, n. 15, but
we are unwilling to difturb Vahl’s arrangement. It feems
by analogy to confirm the report there given of the fruit
of that fpecies.

44. F. pertufa. Linon, Suppl. 442; excluding the fyno-
nym.—Leaves elliptical, pointed, very {mooth. © Fruit
globofe, umbilicated, ftalked, axillary, in pairs, Calyx in
two lobes.—Native of Surinam. Whole plant fmooth.
Leaves two or three inches long and one broad, taper-
poids with fine tranfverfe veins. Lootftaiks half an inch
ong. Fruit the fize of a pepper-cora, on a ftalk nearly
its own length. Ca/yx fmall, in two deep, recurved feg-
ments. Wahl defcribes the fruit in cluiters an inch long,
which is altogether unfounded. He alfo copies from the
Suppl. Plant. an erroneous fynonym of Plumier, t.132. f.2,
which he had juft before rightly applied to I. americana.

* 45. F. farmentofa. Buch. MSS.—Leaves ovate-oblong,
pointes fmooth ebove; downy and glaucous beneath.

ruit folitary, axillary, ovate, “hairy, on ftalks as long as
the footftalks. Stem trailing.— Gathered, in May 1802, by
Dr, Buchanan, in the woods of Upper Nepal, where this
and others of its genus_are called Boco/bi. —Stem trailing,
milky, as thick as the thumb, branching out, at the top of
the tree that fupports it, into many fpreading, alternate,
downy, leafy fhoots. Leaves about three inches long,
reflesed at the margin, very veiny, three-ribbed at the bafe ;
their under fide whitifh, downy, finely reticulated. Fuot-/la/ks
half an inch or more in length, hairy. LVoqwer-/laths rather
longer. Young frai! the fize of a hazel-nut, fomewhat
angular, obtule, very hairy. Calyx very {mall, anda little
remote, of three hairy leaves.

46. F. pumila. Linn, Sp. Pl. 1515, but not Syft. Veg.
ed. 14. 922. (F. fylveflris procumbens, folio fimplici ;
Kempf. Amen. 803. t. 804.)—Leaves ovate, fmooth ;
very clofely reticulated beneath. Stem jointed, creeping.
Fruit ftalked, nearly as long as the leaves. —The only certain
knowledge we have of this Fig is from Kcempfer, who
deferibes it as running up walls and rocks in Japan, the
branches being marked with annular contraétions. Leaves
ever-green, fcattered, flalked, about two or three inches
Jong, hard, rigid, exaGly ovate, but pointed; {mooth and
of a rather fhining green above; paler, opaque, and mott
beautifully reticulated with prominent veins beneath, fo
erowded that there is {carcely room for the point of a needle
between them, Fruit taftelefs, on thick, fhort, recurved,
axillary, folitary ftalks, the fize and fhape of a walnut with
its coat on, or elfe pear-fhaped, or turbinate with a taper
bafe, hardifh, rugged, generally green with a blue bloom,
{prinkled with white dots. Nothing can much better accord
with the {pecimens feut us from Portugal than the fruit of F’.
feandens, n. 15. Thunberg’s defcription is {till more pre-
cife, as he fays the leaves are obtufe, and branches furrowed.
We have feen no authentic {pecimens of F. pumila. Lin-
nus altered the {pecific character, and added a defcription,
in his Syflema Vegetabilium, from a widely different plant
in his herbarium, the ereda of Thunberg ; fee n. 59.

47. I. Cabur. Buch, MSS.—Leaves oblong-ovate, taper-
pointed, {mooth; very clofely reticulated benedth. Fruit
flalked, axillary, folitary, globofe, hairy.—Native of woods
in Nepal, where it is called Calur. Stem fhrubby, three
or four feet high. Branches downy. Leaves alternate,
four or five inches long, fomewhat revolute; very {mooth
above; whitifh and reticulated, like the lafl, beneath.
Footftalks and _fruisfalks each about half aa iach lengy

thickifh, hairy. Fruit the fizeof a moderate goolebertys
globular, painted, bairy, lightly ribbed.

48. F..reflexas Thunb. Diff. 11 —*‘ Leaves elliptical,
obtufe, fmooth. Branches recurved. Fruit globole,
feffile.”’—Native of the Eat Indies. Branches ttriated,
rugofe, afh-coloured, fmooth. Leaves fomewhat obovate,
a finger’s length, with parallel rios (or rather veins ?).
Foot/alks half as long .as the leaves. Fruit fefiile on the
branches, either {cattered or crowded, {mooth, the fize of
apea. Thunb.

49. F. trigona. Linn. Suppl. 441. (F. folio citri obtufo,
fruétu fanguineo; Plum. Ic. 123. t. 132. f. 1.) —Leaves
elliptical, {mooth, five-ribbed at the bafe; ribs hairy. Fruit
globofe, folitary, axillary, flaked; mouth with a trian-
gular border—Communicated to Linveus from Surinam.
The branches are flightly hairy about the extremities only.
Leaves alternate, three or four inches long, on very hairy
footflalks not an inch in length; both fides are fmooth and
even; the upper minutely dotted; the under fearcely pers
ceptibly reticulated with veins, but furnifhed with a itrong
mid-rib, feveral very ftraight, parallel, tranfverfe ribs, and
at leaft two radiating ones, on each fide, at the baie, all
hairy. Fruit the fize of a black currant, on a fhort thick
hairy flalk, minutely downy, with an oblique varioufly
divided calyx, externally hairy, beneath it, and a fingular
triangular elevated border round the mouth, which is clofe#.
Plumier’s figure feems to agree tolerably well, but there is
no certainty in his fynonym.

50. EF. nitida. Thunb. Diff. 10. (F.microcarpa ; Linn.
Suppl. 442. Itti-arealou ; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 69. t. 55.)
—Leaves elliptical, bluntly-pointed, fomewhat unequal,
fmooth, with numerous parailel veins. Fruit feffile, glo-
bofe, flattened at the top.—Native of the Ealt Iudies.
Whole plant fmooth. Leaves two or three inches long,
ufually oblique or inequilateral, near twa inches broad, with
a fhort bluut poi: t; tranfverfe ribs or veins very flender, ter-
minating in one uadulating vein within the margi, as in
many other {pecies. J’rui¢ the fize of a pea, enyeloped, till
half grown, in a ftrong three-cleft calyx ; its mouth is
always clofed with fcales folded ever each other—The
footftalks are {hort and thick. Vahl overlooked the Linnzan
fynonym, and Lamarck could not aicertain it.

51. T°. feabriufeula.— Leaves elliptic-rhomboid, unequal,
acute, roughiih on both fides. Fruit axillary, ftalked, in
pairs, globofe, rough.—Native of the Ea Indies, where
the leaves are ufed for polifhing ivory, being a very five file.
Every part of the plant isrough with moit minute cartilagi-
nous points, hardly perceptible but by the touch. Leaves
two or three inches long, of a light green, on talks half an
inch long. Fruit the fize of red currants, with a tumid,
flightly ‘perforated, mouth. We have fome doubt whether
Vahl’s rhomboidalis, hereafter mentioned, n. 86, be different
from this.

52. F.comofa. Roxb. Corom. v. 2. 14. t. 125,—Leaves
elliptical, pomted, {mooth, with numerous tran{verfe veins.
Truit feffile, in pairs, roundifh, with a triangular mouth —
Pound by Dr. Roxburgh on the Circar mountains. It is
called among the Telingas Pootra, or Pudda, Juvy. A
large tree, with flender, often pendulous, branches. Leaves
two or three inches long, and half as broad ; their lateral
veins ftraight and parallel, having numerous reticulations
between them. J o¢/fa/ks near an inch long, and rather
flender, very different from thofe of nitida,n. 50. Fruit
when ripe the fize of a moderate goofeberry, firit purple,
then orage.

53. F. rubra.

Vahl, En. n. 42. (F. pyrifolia; Lam,

Dist. v. 2.497. Varluga rubra; Rumph. Amb. vy. 3.
3 D2 t. S52)

FIGUS.

t: 85?)— Leaves oval, fmooth; very minutely reticulated
beneath. Fruit globofe, nearly feffile.’’—Gathered by
Commerfon in the Mauritius, from whole {pecimens Lamarck
deferibed it. Leaves two inches long, one and a Iralf broad,
ftalked. J7rwvit about the tops of the fmall branches. We
know this {pecies ouly by the above defcription.

54. F. ageregata. Vahl. Eu. n. 43. (F. punAata; Lam.
Di&. v. 2. 495.)—‘* Leaves oval, obtufe, {mooth; dotted
on the upper fide. Fruit globofe, aggregate, f{effile.’’—
Gathered by Commerfon in the Mauritius and Madagafcar.
Leaves about three inches long and half as broad, blunt or
emarginate, not coriaceous, dark green dotted with white.
Fruit {mall. Lamarck quotes H. Mal. v. 3. t. 55 as re-
fembling his plant, which we judge rather to reprefent
F, nitida.

55. F. politoria. Lam. Dit. v. 2. 500. Vahl. En. n. 44.
—Leaves elliptic-oblong, with a blunt point, rough with
hooked fpines. Truit globofe, flalked, axillary, folitary, rough.
—Gathered in Madagafcar by Commerfon, one of whofe
{pecimens is before us. Leaves about two and a half inches
long, {carcely one broad, obtufe, with a little broad obtufe
point ; paler beneath, with largely reticulated veins; both
fides, but efpecially the veins beneath and the edges, are
tough with minute white, hovked, rigid prickles, as are the
footitalks, fruitftalks, upper part of the branches, and the
fruit itfelf, which is rather larger than a black currant, and
purple. .

56. F. mollis. Vahl. Symb. p. 1.82. Willd. Diff. 26. t.5.
—‘ Leaves oblong, downy beneath. Fruit axillary, feffile,
folitary, downy.”? Vahl.—Native of the Eaft Indies.
Branches round, downy. Leaves two inches long ; {mooth
above; veiny beneath, rather foft; obtufe, on downy
footftalks, fhorter than the leaves. /*ruit very {mall. _

57- ¥. verrucofa. Wahl. En.n. 46. (F. feptica; Fortt.
Prod. 76.)— Leaves oblique, oblong-ovate, pointed.
Fruitftalks in pairs, with a {mall calyx at the top. Fruit
warty.””? Forffer. Found in the ifle of Tanna.

58. F. coriacea. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 453.—‘* Leaves
oblong, {mooth, coriaceous; attenuated and heart-fhaped
at the bale; veins funk.”,—Grows in the Ealt Indies.

59. F. ere@a. ‘Thunb. Diff. 9. (F. pumila; Linn.
Syit. Veg. ed. 14. 922, but not Sp. Pl. 1515.)—Leaves
evate-oblong, fharp-pointed, fmoothifh; reticulated be-
neath. Stem nearly decumbent, with upright branches.
Fruit top-fhaped, ftalked,° axillary, folitary, fmooth.—
Found ia Japan. Stem weak, not perfeétly decumbent,
round, ftriated, {mooth. Branches {cattered or aggregate,
ere, ftraight, leafy.” Leaves from two to four inches long,
green, and often minutely briftly, above ; pale, and reticu-
lated with numerous downy veins, beneath. Foot/lalts half
dn inch or more in length, rather downy upwards. #ruit-
fialks rather longer, ereé&t, with a three-leaved calyx at the
top. Fruit the fize of a hazel-nut, rather tapering at the
bafe, fweet and eatable.

60. F. falcata. Thunb. Diff. 8. Wahl. En. n. 49.—
“Leaves oblong, fickle-fhaped, fmooth. Stem thread-fhaped,
creeping.””— Native of Java. Leaves obtufe, with one fide
narrower than the other, about an inch long, very finely
veined, pale beneath, on very fhort footftalks. Stem and
branches fender, zig-zag, brown. This feems to be akin to
r. 15 and 16, next to which Thunberg has placed it, and
we know not why Vahl, who appears to have feen fpeci-
mens of the fa/cata at leaft, has removed it to fo great a
dattance.

61. F. drupacea. Thunb. Diff. 11.— Leaves obovate,
pointed, f{mooth. Fruit ovate, rugged, feffile.”?—Native
of the Ratt Ladies. Branches round, furrowed, fmooth,

Leaves coriaceous, four inches long, ribbed; green above ;
afh-coloured beneath, om thick ftalks about half an inch
long. Fruit towards the ends of the branches, {mooth, as
big as plums. Thunb.

62. F. retufa. Linn. Maut. 129.—Leaves oblong, obo-
vate, very obtufe, quite {mooth ; three-ribbed near the bafe.
Fruit feffile, globofe, fmooth. Calyx downy.—Native of
Java. Branches {mooth, angular. Leaves three inches
long, ftalked ; fhining above; opaque, paler and veiny be~
neath; furnifhed with a ftraight lateral rib on each fide,
which vanifhes about the middle of the leaf, and feveral
tranfverfe ribs befides. #ruit when young enveloped in
a calyx which is externally downy; when full grown the
fize of a currant, fmooth, with broad polifhed f{cales at the
mouth.

63. F. prolixa. Forft. Prod. 77. Wahl. En. 52.—
* Leaves lanceolate-oblong, pointed; dotted beneath.
Fruit moftly in pairs, globofe, axillary, fmooth, on wavy
{mooth ftalks.”.—Native of tlie Society Ifles. Branches
{mooth. Leaves ftalked, three or four inches long, an
inch or more in breadth, with very fine nerves, fcarcely
veined, membranous. Fruit the fize of a pea, on very
fhort ftalks. Vahl.

64. F. daurifolia. Lam. Di&. v. 2. 495. Wahl. En.
n. 53. (Ff. virens; Ait. H. Kew. v. 3.451. F. indica
maxima, folio oblongo, funiculis e fummis ramis demiffis
radices agentibus fe propagans, fructu minore, {phzrico,
fanguineo; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 140. t. 223.)—‘ Leaves
oblong-lanceolate, fmooth, with a few {cattered deprefled
points above. Fruit feffile, folitary, globofe, axillary.””—
Native of the Welt Indies. A very lofty ¢ree, according
tc Sleane, whofe upper branches throw out long roots.
Pidgeons of all kinds are fond of the fruit, which is the
fize of a hazel-nut, fcarlet, {weetifh and not unpleafant.
The /eaves feem to refemble thofe of the Cherry-laurel.

65. I. grifea. Wahl. Enom. a. 54.—* Smooth. Leaves
oblong, obtufe, narrowed at the bafe. Fruit feffile, nearly
folitary.””—Deferibed by Wahl from Juffieu’s herbarium.
Its native country is unknown. ‘The branches, according
to him, are grey in the upper part. Leaves ftalked, three
or four inches long, paler beneath, very fmooth. Foct/lalks
an inch long. Fruit globofe, grey, twice as big as a pea.
Stipulas lanceolate, attenuated, {mooth, as long as the nail.

66. F. pallida. bid. n. 55.—** Leaves oblong, fome-
what wedge-thaped, fmooth, even, obtufe. Fruit axillary,
in pairs, on fhort ftalks.””—Gathered by Von Rohr at St.
Martha, in South America. Branches greyith. Leaves
membranous, two or three inches long, and one broad,
bright green, minutely veined, with a yellow rib. Foot-

fialks flender, {mooth, an inch long. Fruit globular,

fmooth, the fize of black pepper. Vahl.

67. F. excel/a. Ibid. n. 56. (Atti meer alou; Rheede
H. Mal. v. 3. 75. t. 58.)—“ Leaves lanceolate, fomewhat
elliptical, acute ; narrower on one fide at the bafe. Fruit
ftalked, globofe.””—Native of the Eaft Indies. Branches
and /eaves {mooth ; the latter three or four inches long,
moft veiny beneath, on fhort ftalks. Fruit in pairs, aca
lary, fmooth and even, the fize of a pea, on italks longer
than thofe of the leaves. Fahl.

68. F. Hei (F.indica; Vahl. En. n. 57. F. indica
@; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1514. Tsjela; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 85.
t. 63.)—‘ Leaves broad-lanceolate, long-pointed, fmooth.
Fruit cluttered, globofe, f{mooth, on fhort ftalks.”?—Native
of the Eait Indies. This, according to Rheede, is a tree
of vaft dimenfions, about 70 feet high, and 18 in the cir-
cumference of the trunk, with widely-fpreading branches.
Leaves ftalked, two or three inches long, with numerous,

7 pawallel,

FICUS.

parallel, tranfverfe, flender ribs; the point fometimes an
inch long. J ruit copious, the fize of a pea, infipid, the
foed of bats, on which account the Portuguefe and Dutch
eall it the Bat-tree.

69. F. falicifolia. Vahl. Symb. p. 1.82. t. 23. (F. indica;
Forfk. Fl. Arab. 179.)—‘ Leaves lanceolate, pointed,
{mooth. Fruit axillary, ftalked, in pairs.”’—-Gathered by
Forfkall in Arabia, where it is called Thaad. Of the bark,
dried and twifted, matches for great guns are made. The
branches, though long and pendulous, do not throw out
roots. The whole plant is very fmooth. Leaves ftalked,
from three to five inches long, rounded at the bafe, dotted
beneath, not above an inch broad. J ruit larger than a
pea, {mooth.

qo. F. obliqua. Forft. Prod. 77.— Leaves lanceolate,
very fmooth, with a cartilaginous edge. T'ruit-italks in
pairs, very fhort. Calyx as long as the fruit, deciduous.”’
forfter. A native of the South Sea Iflands of Namoka
and Tanna.

SeGtion 2. Leaves undivided, ferrated, or toothed.

qi. F. femicordata. Buch. MSS.—Leaves half-heart-
fhaped, flightly ferrated, rough; rather hairy beneath-
Fruit on radical fhoots, ftalked, in pairs, downy.—Native
of woods in Upper and Lower Nepal, where it was found
by Dr. Buchanan, early in 1822. A large free, with
downy or hairy branches. Leaves above a foot in length,
oblong, fharp-pointed, very unequally heart-fhaped at the
bafe, paler and veiny beneath, on fhort, rough, or downy
footitalks, the larger lobe croffing the braach, and furnifhed
with radiating ribs. Stipulas long, narrow, fmooth, deci-
duous. Flowering branches from the bafe of the trunk, or
even from the roots under ground, drooping, panicled,
downy, fometimes leafy towards the extremity. rwit in
pairs trom each joint of thefe branches, globole, hairy, on
hairy or downy ftalks, with a pair of downy braéteas ; when
tipe as large as a common plum.—The natives eat the figs
raw, as well as fried.

72. F. auriculata. our. Cochinch. 666.—‘ Leaves
heart-fhaped, pointed, fomewhat ferrated, downy. Fruit
auricled, fmooth, in terminal clutters.’’—Cultivated, and
probably wild alfo, in Cochinchina, where the unripe figs
are fliced and eaten in falads, inftead of cucumbers, which
they refemble in flavour. The tree is large, with ample
leaves. Fruit turbinate, two inches long, red, in denfe,
upright, terminal clufters, furuifhed at its top, befides the
aufual orifice, with four diftant holes, furrounded with a
prominent cartilage, and refembling ears.

73. F. Forfkalii. Vahl. En. n. 61. (F. morifolia ; Forfk.
Arab. 179.)— Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped,
rough, ferrated, longer than their footftalks.”?—Native of
Arabia. Leaves halfa fpanlong. Stipulas linear-lanceolate.
Fruit eatable, but unpleafant. For/k.

74. EF. mauritiana. Lam. Di&. v. 2.499. Vahl. En.
n. 62.— Leaves ovate or heart-fhaped, ferrated ; downy
and rough beneath. Fruit globofe, fomewhat turbinate,
dtalked, on naked pendulous branches.”’—Gathered by Com-
merfon in the Ifle de Bourbon. Branches downy, rather
hifpid. Leaves {mooth on the upper fide, fix or feven
inches long, four or five broad, ovate, generally heart-
fhaped. at the bafe, on foor-/a/és two or three inches in
length. Fruit larger than a walnut, in pairs. Wahl fays,
the figure in Hort. Mal. v. 3. t. 61, does not ill accord
with this plant. See F /ymphytifolia, n. 80.

95+ F. lateriflora. Vahl. En. n. 63. (F. morifolia ; Lam.
Di. v. 2. 499.)—“* Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped,
acute, ferrated, {mooth.. Fruit globole, alked, below the

leaves,’’—Gathered by Commerfon in the Ifle de Bourbon,
Branches brownith. Leaves refembling thofe of a mulberry -
tree, ftalked, green on both fides fearcely at all rough,
about three inches long and two wide. Fruit fmoeth,
{cattered over the naked part of the branches. _

76. F. ulmifolia. Lam. Di&. v. 2. 499. Vabl. En.n, 64.
—*‘+ Leaves ovate, fparingly toothed, pointed, unequal at
each end, rough on both fides.’’—Native of Java, and the
Philippine iflands. Branches round, rough. Leaves two
or three inches long, ovate-oblong, very rough with little
tubercles, terminating in a point an inch long, wavy at their
edges, fometimes three-cleft, or fomewhat pinnatifid. Fruit
globofe, very rough, rather bizger than a pea, on ftalks half
the length of the leaf-ftalks. ,

77. ¥. capenfis. Thunb. Diff. 13.—* Leaves ovate,
acute, ferrated, fmooth. Fruit ftalked, {mooth, turbinate.”?
—Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope.
A very lofty, f{preading, fmooth tree. Leaves a finger’s
leagth, {preading, deeply toothed, paler and ribbed be-
neath, on foot-/fa/és an inch long. Srwit {cattered, bigger
than a hazel-nut. Dhend.

78.1". groffalarioides. Burm. Ind, 227.—* Leaves ftalked,
ovate ; entire at the bafe; ferrated at the top; yellowifh
white beneath.”’—Found by Garcia at Surat. The fruit
is yellow, refembliag a goofeberry, but poifonous. Such is
Burmann’s account, who confiders Hort. Mal. v. 3. t. 62.
as a variety of this, differing only in having fhorter foot-
fralks. See F. rufefcens, n. 122.

979. F.oexafperata. Vahl. En. n. 67. (F. fcabra; Wiild.
Diff. t. 2. Vahl.)—“ Leaves oblong-ovate, very rough,
pointed, toothed towards the end. Fruit ftalked, glo-
bofe ”’—Branches rough when young, afterwards fmooth.
Leaves three inches long, ttalked, three-ribbed, downy
beneath. fruit in pairs, rough, the fize.of 2 pea; on flalks
an inch long.

So. F.d/ymphytifolia. Lam. Dik. v. 2. 498. Vahl. En.
n. 68.—(Perin-teregam ; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 81.t. 61?)
*¢ Leaves ovate-oblong, acute, minutely toothed ; rough on
both fides. Fruit hairy, ftalked, fomewhat whorled, in long
cluiters.’—-Native of Java, and other parts of the Eail
Indies. Lamarck deferibed it from Sonnerat’s {pecimen,
and remarks, that the figure in the Hortus Malabaricus
would be tolerably exact if the leaves were reprefented
with {mall teeth. The /eaves are nine or ten inches long,
ftalked, with hairy ribs. /rwit globofe. Wahl defcribes
the fruit feffile, the fize of a cherry. Rheede’s plant is
a very large long lived tree, laden with fruit, as well as
leaves, all the year long.

81. F. maculata. “Lim. Sp. Pl. rsr5. (F. caftanez
folio, fructu globofo maculato; Plum, Ic. 122.t. rgt. f. 1.)
—Léaves oblong, pointed, ferrated. Frut globofe,
feffile, in long fpikes.—Native of America. Plumier’s
figure, whence the above charaéters are taken, is our only
authority for this fpecies. The fruit is an iach in diameter,
befprinkled with fpots or warts. Leaves a foot long, regu-
larly and fharply ferrated, with innumerable ftraight, parallel,
tranfverle veins.

82. F. hifpido. Linn. Suppl. 442. Thunb. Diff. 13.—
Leaves elliptic-oblong, pointed, obfcurely ferrated, rough
on both fides.. Fruit turbinate, ftalked, axillary, folitary,
very briftly.— Native of Java. The branches and foot/talés
are nearly fmooth, the latter aninch or au inch and quarter
long. Leaves near four inches long, rough with mioute
points, furnifhed with feveral unequal, curved, brittly, late-
ral ribs, and reticulated veins ; the edges waved, but fcarce-
ly ferrated. Frwitfatks full half an inch long, covered, like
the frwit itfelf, with numerous rigid, thining, tawny oo

“”

Ficus.

Had we not one of Thunbere’s own [pecimens, we fhould
hardly have recognized the plant by his defeription.

83. TF. oppofitifolia. Roxb. Corom. v.2. 14. t. 124. (FE.

emonum; Wehl. En. n. 71. F. feabras; Jacq. H.
Schoeubr.y. 3. 36. t.31°.— Leaves oppofite, oblong, flichtly
ferrated ; rough above ; more downy beneath, Fruit ftalked,
angular, very hairy.—Gathered by Konig and Roxburgh
in moift rich foil, about the banks of rivulets, in the Ealt
Indies. It is but a fmall /ree, with hollow jointed, hairy
branches, which fometimes take root about their extremitics.
Leaves very unequal in fize, from one to five inches long,
one or two broad, on thick, fhortifh, hairy ftalks ; the upper
fide is extremely harfh to the touch; the under hoary,
and ftrongly ‘reticulated. J¢ruit the fize of a large nut-
meg, very icaly at the mouth; axillary and folitary on the
young branches; on the older ones racemofe or cluttered 5
tawny, hoary, feldom eaten. This fpecies being, as far as
hitherto difcovered, fingular in its genus for having oppofite
leaves: we greatly prefer Roxburgh’s name to any other.
The milky juice is faid to be poifonous, as in feveral more.

84 F. montana. Burm. Ind. 226.— Leaves oblong,
with wavy ferratures. Fruit very {mall.”’—Wative of hills
in Java. Koown by Burmann’s fhort character only.

Section 3. Leaves angular or finuated.

85. F. Sycomorus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1513. (FF. Cypria;
Rauwolf. H. 57. t. 57. Sycomorus; Matth. Valgr. v.14.
259.)—Leaves oval-heartfhaped, bluntly angular, wavy,
f{mooth on both fides. Fruit from the main ftem, obovate,
flalked.—Native of Evypt, from whence we have f{peci-
mens gathered by Dr. Delile. It is rarely feen in collec-
tions, and unknown in our gardens. The /eaves and habit
fo much agree with F. Chanas, n. 8. that we fhould have
placed them next to each other, had we not for convenience
followed Vahl’s arrangement ; they differ however from that
{pecies in being {mooth. The fruit grows, either folitary or
on branched ftalks, from the main item of the tree, (which
is of very large dimenfions), and refembles common figs in
{hepe, but ave {maller, paler, fweet and delicate, but not
always well ripened. ‘The operations of an infect called
Cynips Sycomori are fuppofed neceflary to their coming

“to perfection. (See Carrirication.) The f{pecitic charac-
ter is very unjuttifiably perverted in the Syftema Vegetabi-
lium from a fynonym of Plukenet, t. 178. f. 3, which be-
longs, as Lamarck obferves, to Wibi/eus tiliaceus, a plant
with downy leaves.— By no lefs ftrange a perverfion, the
name of Sycamore has become attached to our greater
Maple, Acer Pfeudoplatanus.

86. I. rhombeidalis. Vahl. En. v. 74.— Leaves oblong,
or fomewhat rhomboid, veiny. Fruit ftalked, globofe,
rather downy.’?—Gathered by Dr. Rottler in the Eat
Indies. Branches round, thick, fubdivided, {mooth, grey.
Leaves {cattered, ftalked, pale green, entire, fmooth en both
fides; fometimes acute, fometimes obtufe, at the fummit ;
acute at the bafe ; often furnifhed with a prominent angle,
about the middle, on each fide. Fruié axillary, folitary,
umbilicated, the fize of a pea. Vahl.—This defeription
agrees, in many points, with our feabriufeula, n. 51, but
furely the roughnefs of the leaves, which are ufed as a file,
could never have been overlooked by Vahl, nor the fruit
called villofe.

87. F. reticulata. Thunb. Diff. 12.— Leaves ellipti-
eal, fomewhat angular, toothed, pointed, fmooth; reticu-
lated beneath. Fruit globofe, folitary, ftalked.’?— Found in
the Ealt Indies. Branches ereé&t, {mooth, purple. Leaves
obovate, tapering at the bafe, three or four inches long,
{preading, paler underneath, on fhortifh thick fuos/alks,

Fruit axillary, fmooth, larger than a pea, on a flalk a line in
length.

BB. F. Sur. Forfk. Fl. Arab. 180. Vahl. En. n. 76.—
«« Leaves lanceolate, waved, very fmooth, fomewhat heart-
fhaped at the bale. Fruit cluftered on the main ftem.’?—
Native of Arabia, where it is called Sur. This tree re-
fembles the Sycomorus. The young branches, /tipulas, and
under fide of the fooifalks, according to Vaht, are hairy.
Leaves rather coriaceous, broadith-lanceolate, with wavy
tectly; pale and reticulated at the back. The fruits
deferibed by Forflall as the fize of a pidgeon’s egg, and
eatakle.

89. F. afpera. Forfle. Pl. Efcul. 36.—* Leaves un-
equally heart fhaped, finuated or toothed, rough on both
fides. Calyx obfolete, united to the bafe of the turbinate
fruit.”’—Cultivated in the gardens and fhrubberies of the
ifle of Tanna, for the fake of its fruit, which is fweet- and
pleafant, as well as of the leaves, which when boiled afford
the inhabitants an agreeable difh. Zee four or five fathoms
high, with jointed leafy branches. Zeavesa {pan long, on
very fhort ftalks, rough and hairy, one fide narrower than
the other. J ruit axillary, in pairs, feffile, downy, white ;
the fize of a common fig. Forjler; who cites H. Mat.
v, 3. t. 62. as having fome refemblance to this fpecies fee
rufefcens, nN. TO2- :

go. F. finuata. Thunb. Diff. 12.—* Leaves elliptical,
finuated or toothed, pointed, fmooth. Fruit globofe,
aggreyate, feflile.”—Native of the Eaft Indies. Branches
erect, {mooth, grey. Leaves obovate, toothed, and fome-
what angular towards their points, with a reflexed margin :
entire towards the bafe; pale, ribbed and reticulated be-
neath, three or four inches long, on ttalks the length of the
nail. Jruit {cattered or aggregate upon the {mall branches,
feffile, knotty, fcarcely fo big as pepper. Such is
Thunberg’s defeription, and yet, in his fpecific charaéter, he
calls the fruit ftalked.

gt. F. fubincifa. Buch. MSS.—Leaves oblong, pointed,
harfh, naked; here and there jagged. Fruit ovate, tuber-
culated, axillary, italked, folitary—Gathered by Dr.
Buchanan on the rocks of Upper Nepal, Jan. 28, 1803. A
tree with very numerous, rigid, crooked branches, leafy at
the ends only. Leaves two inches or more in length, with
a taper point almoit an inch long, elliptic-lanceolate,
moitly entire, but often cut, toothed or wavy in the upper
part at one or both edges, veiny, rough to the touch, paler
beneath. aor/la/ks thort. Fruit towards the end of each
branch, the fize of a nutmeg, pointed, covered with promi-
nent warts, not hairy, on talks twice as long as thofe of the
leaf, thickened above the middle, where there is a {mall
three-leaved involucrum.

92. F. rofrata. Lam. Dié&. v. 2. 498. Vahl. En. n. 79.
—Leaves oblong, unequally angular and wavy, with a
linear obtufe point ; {mooth above. Fruit globofe, fmooth,
on fhort ftalks—Gathered by Commerfon in Java. Branches
flender, roughifh with minute points when young. Leaves
on {hort rough falks, two or three inches long, of a fin-
gular abrupt and irregular figure, irregularly veiny, reticu-
lated ; paler and fomewhat harfh beneath ; the point almoft
an inch long, rather broadeft towards the end. J ruit the
fize of pepper, axillary, two or three together, on very
fhort ftalks. The leaves of this {pecies fuggeft fome idea of
the fith called Chetodon Jongirofiris, figured in Bronflonet’s
Ichthyologia.

93. IV. diformis. Lam. Di&. v. 2. 500. Vahl: En. n. 80,
—* Leaves oblong, acute, rough, of various fhapes ; undi-
vided ; fomewhat angular ; finuated ; or deeply laciniated.’?
—Native of the Philippine iflands. We know nothing of

it

120) Oh CAA ORES

it but the above definition of Lamarck, who quotes a
fynonym of Ray which we would rather apply to F.
heterophylla, n. gg. if that be different from the prefent,
which we doubt. Lamarck indeed appears to have had two
diftinét plants under thefe names, but his heterophylla is not
that of Linnzus. See rufe/cens, n. 102.

Seétion 4. Leaves divided.

94. F. palmata. Vahl. Symb. v. 1. 84. t. 24. Forfk.

Fl. Arab. 179.—Leaves ovate or lobed, ferrated, acute,
rough ; heart-{haped at the bafe. Fruit pear-fhaped, {mooth,
flalked, axillary, folitary.—Native of Arabia. Branches
fmooth. Leaves from two to four inches long, fharply fer-
rated throughout, veiny ; paler, with purple veins, beneath ;
on flender foot/falks, full an inch long. rait the fize of a
hazel-nut, its {talk fhorter than that of the leaf, with a {mall
two-leaved involucrum.

95. F. birta. Vahl. En. n. 82.—* Leaves oblong, un-
divided or three-lobed, finely ferrated; fomewhat heart-
fhaped at the bafe ; f{mooth above. Fruit feffile, briflly.’’? —
Native of China. Leaves diftant, three-lobed towards the
extremity ; lobes pointed, the lateral ones fmalleft ; ribs
hairy beneath. Foot/alks hairy, an inch and a half long.
Fruit axillary, folitary, the lize of a pea. Vahl fawa Java
fpecimen with fome leaves undivided; and two or three
fruits together, twice the above fize.

96. F. truncata. Vchl. Symb. v. 1.83.— Leaves oblong,
undivided or lobed, entire, rough. Fruit flalked, oblong,
abrupt.””—Native of the Eaft Indies. Branches angular,
fmooth. Leaves above two inches long, on fhort rugyed
foot{talks, either undivided, or with three, fometimes five,
oblong lobes, the lateral ones bluateft. 2°ruit rough with
minute points, its top as it were cut off abruptly.

97- EF. ferrata, Ibid. $3. Forfk. Fl. Arab. 179.—-
« Leaves oblong, undivided or palmate, rough, with wavy
teeth. Fruit ftalked, globofe, very rough and hairy.’—
Gathered by Forfkall in various parts of Arabia, where
the leaves are ufed to clean and polifh rufty iron. Branches
and younger /eaves very rough with numerous extremely
minute points. ruiz the fize of a hazel-nut, on fhort
ftalks.

98. F. toxicaria. Linn. Mant. 305. (F. toxica; Thunb.
Dill. 14. F. Padana; Burm. Ind. 226.) —“ Leaves ovate,
or heart-fhaped, cut and lobed, fomewhat toothed; white
beneath. Fruit ftalked, ovate, downy.’’—Found near the
town of Padano in Sumatra, by Garcin, who reports it to
be extremely poifonous. The /eaves are a foot long, being
equal in fize to thofe of F. denghalenfis. Burmann. Fruit
the fize of aplum. Thunb.

gg. F. heterophyllz, Linn. Suppl. «42, (F. denticulata ;
Vahl. Symb. v. 1.83. F. indica fylveflris, indis Z/s, &c ;
Raii Hitt. y. 3. append. so. n. 12 ?)—Leaves oblong, undi-
vided, three-lobed and cut, unequally toothed; harfh on
both fides. Fruit folitary, flalked, globofe, tuberculated,
roughifh.—Gathered by Konig in the Ealt Indies, where
it is called Nir dit, water fig, from it’s inhabiting the
banks of rivulets and other watery places, fo overrun with
the prickly rattan, Calamus Rotang, as to be hardly accefli-
ble. The dranches are veddith-brown, Slender, roughifh;
angular and downy at their ends. eaves on thortifh rough
ftalks, green aad very rough to the touch, on both fides,
-with extremely minute cartilaginous points; their fhape re-
markably various, fome being oblong, undivided, acute,
partly entire, partly toothed for a confliderable {pace, but

quite irregularly ; others with a deep wide rounded entire
inus at one, or oftener both, fides, thus become two or
three-lobed, and are toothed unequally like the former,

Veins pale, forming large quadrangular reticulations. The
length of each leaf is from two to four inches. Fruit the
fize of a mufqnet-ball, pale, covered with very minute
rough points, and with feattered flightly prominent warts,
its mouth obtufe, clofed with broad flat feales. Fruitfalks
axitlary, thick, fhorter than the footftalks, rough with
little prickles, and bearing an involucrum of three fmall
obtufe concave leaves, a little below the fruit. ‘The fyno-
nyms of Linneus and Vahl are determined by authentic
{pecimens ; that of Ray we can only guefs at, but his de-
{cription anfwers exaétly to our plant. He {ays the leaves
are ufed for polifhing wooden furniture, and that the fruit
1s mawkifhly fweet, eaten by children and birds only, but
ufeful for cataplafms when boiled and bruifed- The inner
bark is given in decoétion for the gonorrhoea, and to throw
out the meafles. We cannot account for Linnzus’s de-
{cribing the fruit as fmooth, nor can we anfwer for Vahl
heterophylla being the fame as our’s, theugh it 1s very pof-
fible he might happen to fee young fruit only ; but our’s
even in an early ftate is rough.

100. F. repens. Roxb. MSS,—Leaves unequally heart-
thaped, finely toothed throughout, rough on both fides ; un-
divided; or three or four-lobed. Fruit folitary, ftalked,
obovate, abrupt, briltly—Communicated by Lord Viicount
Valentia from the Eaft Indies. Branches flender, downy
when young. Leaves on fome branches four or five inches
long and three broad, heart-fhaped, with one fide of the
bafe much larger than the other, on flender foot/alés two
inches long ; on other branches unequally heart-fhaped at the
bafe in a fimilar manner, but much {maller, and deeply
three-lobed, one lateral lobe ufually divided, their footftalks
{earcely an inch long, and more downy ; thefe feem to be
younger leaves than the undivided ones ; all are rough with
minute points and briftles, paler beneath, minutely but
fharply soothed throughont, fomewhat pointed. — Fruit
axillary, the fize of a filberd or bigger, tapering at the
bafe, lopped attheend. Fruit/a/i fhorter than the foot-
ftalk, with a {mall three-leaved involucrum about the mid-
dle, which is clofe to the fruit when very young. This is
probably nearly related to the following, which we have not
{een, but the defecriptions of their leaves can fcarcely be
made to agree.

101. F. cannabina. Lour. Cochinch. 668.—* Leaves of
the item haftate, cut; thofe of the branches ovato-lanceo-
late, lightly ferrated. Stem nearly ereé&t.??—Native of the
plains of Cochinchina. A /brub fix teet high, branched, with
a {mcoth tough and fibrous bark, Leaves ftalked, fcatter-
ed, very rough. Fruit oval-top-fhaped, on long, fimple, fo-
litary, lateral italks, with a three-cleft rounded involu-
crum.

102. F. rufefcens, Vahl. En. n. 89. (F. heterophylla, ;
Lamarck. Dict. v. 2. 499. Valli-teregam ; Rheede H. Mal.
Vv. 3.83.t. 62.)—** Leaves ovate-oblong, fomewhat toothed,
undivided or lobed, rough. Fruit flightly ttalked, hairy
like the ftalks and branches.’”?—Native of China, and the
Eaft Indies. Sonnerat. Leaves green on both fides,
about five inches long, aad half as broad, on ftalks not
an inch in length; fome of them undivided, others with
three or four deep lobes, almoft as in the common fig-
tree. J*ruit clothed with reddifh hairs or briftles. La-
marck. Rheedce fays his plant is a climbing flrub fix or
feven feet high, throwing out long trailing branches in
every direction.

103. F. morifolia. Ibid. n, go.—** Leaves in three deep
divifions, very rough ; their fegments lanceolate, angular,
and fomewhat pinnatifid.*?—Native of the Eaft Indies,
Branches Slender, fcarcely rough, a little downy in the

upper

1 i eG}

upper part. Leaves ftalked, alternate, obtufe at the
bal.>three-ribbed ; veinlefs above; flightly veiny beneath ;
deftitute of pubefcence, but very rough on both fides
with minute points, the upper fide appearing under a
magnifier as if covered with {mall white, membranous
feales) The fegments are narrow ana tapering. Vahl.

104. EF. fimpliciffima. our. Cochinch. 667 —‘ Leaves
palmate. Stem perfectly fimple. Fruit compreffed.””—
Native of the woods of Cochinchina. A /brub five feet
high, with a ftraight upright ftem, deftitute of branches.
Leaves large, ttalked, feattered, rough. Fruit f{mall, ax-
illary, ieffile, folitary, roundifh, faffron-coloured. Lourei-
ra.

105. F. Cariea. Common Fig. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1513.
Miller Iluftr. t. roo. Trew Ehrh. t. 73, 74, excelleit.
Ficus and Chameficus ; Ger. em. 1510.)—Leaves pal-
mate, bluntifh, wavy, or fomewhat~ toothed, rough.
Fruit top-fhaped, umbilicated, fmooth.—Native of the
fouth of Europe and fome parts of Afia, where it is alfo
generally cultivated, but will not bear the fevere win-
ters of the north of Enrope, nor even our own, without
proteGtion. Stem branched from the bottom, from fix to
twenty feet high, with long, twilted, pliant, round, grey-
ifh branches, rough when young. J.caves deciduous, a
fpan long, in three or five deep rounded lobes, of which
the central one is the largeft, the outermoft much the
fmalleft; they are of a deep green, fcarcely paler, but
rather more hairy ; beneath, furnifhed with radiating ribs,
one to each lobe, and many tranfverfe veins. Fruit foli-
tary, on a fhort thick ftalk, tapering at the bafe, and
furnifhed with a three-leaved involucrum. Its colour is
generally purplifh, its pulp foft, fweet and fragrant.
‘There are numerous varieties of cultivated figs, of which
the moft hardy is the Common Purple. Others are ei-
ther more tender, worfe bearers, or lefs defirable in fla-
vour. Several excellent kinds however are found in the
fouthern parts of France, Italy, Spain and the Levant.
In thofe countries figs are ufually brought to table, with
melons and mulberries, in the beginning of the dinner, as
well as at breakfaft, and do not in general make a part
of the defert.

The F. Carica in its wild ftate is a more humble and
diftorted fhrub, bearing fruit which comes to no perfee-
tion as to flavour, bat the parts of fructification are very
perfect, and the feeds are duly ripened, even in France.
Such figs as feem to fall off before they arrive at matu-
rity, are commonly thofe in which the ftamens are moft
numerous or effective, and which have therefore attained
their final perfection. TThefe are carefully collected in
the Levant to impregnate the female bloffoms of the
cultivated fig, their pollen being probably more perfeét
than what is produced by the ftamens of fuch indivi-
duals as have, on the other iiand, more perfect piltils, In
other words, the plants are incompletely dicecious, like the
mulberry and many others. This willexplain the myftery
of Caprification, whether wounding the fruit be ufeful to
promote its ripening, or whether the perfeétion of the pulpy
receptacle be owing chiefly to the vigorous growth of the
female flowers confequent to their impregnation. Though
both caufes feem to co-operate, we fhould lay moft ftrefs on
the latter, which the analogy of other fruits confirms. See
CapriFicaTion.

All the {pecies of Ficus are either trees or fhrubs, whofe
fecreted fluids are milky, more or lefs acrid or feetid, how-
ever fweet and wholefome the fruit of feveral, though not
of all, may be. ‘The leaves are fimple, ftalked. Stipulas
lateral, not intrafoliaceous, im pairs, membranous, decidu-

S.

ous, generally taper-pointed. Flowers more or lefs poly.
gamous. z P

We have in the above fynopfis of the fpecies added four-
teen to thofe of Wahl, though we have prefumed to reduce
two of histo one; feen. 99. Poflibly fome of the reft, -
which he, as well as ourfelves, have been obliged to
adopt upon truft, may, on a future examination, prove
not diftin& from each other, while it is probable that nu-
merous undefcribed {pecies may {till be latent in the wilds of
Afia and America. S.

Ficus, in Gardening, a tree of the deciduous fruit kind,
of which the fpecies cultivated are, the common: fig-tree
(F. carica) ; the Egyptian fig tree, or fycomore (F. /yco-
morus) ; the poplar leaved fig-tree (¥F. religinfa) 3 the Ben-
gal fig-tree (F. Bengafenfis;; and the Indian fig-tree
(FE: Indica).

Of the firit {pecies there are feveral varieties, the chief of
which are the following :

Brown Ifchia fig. —'his isa fort which has a large fruit,
fhort, globular, with a pretty large eye, pinched in near the
footitalk, of a brown or chefout colouron the outiide, and pur-
ple within ; the grains large, and the pulp {weet and high-
flavoured ; it often burfts open as it ripens, in the end of
July, or the beginning of the following menth. This has
its fruit ripening well on ftandards in warm foils and fitua-
tions.

Black Genoa fig —This is a kind which has a long fruit,
that {wells pretty large at the top, where it is obtufe ; tlie
lower part is very {lender towards the ftalk ; the fkin' of a
dark purple colour, almoft black, and has a purple farina
over it, like that on fome plums; the infide is of a bright
red, and the flefh very high-flavoured. It ripens early in
Augutt.

Small white carly fig. —This is a fort which has a round-
ifh fruit, a little flatted at the crown, with a very fhort
foot-{talk ; the fkin thin, and, when fully ripe, of a pale yel-
lowifh white colour; the infide white, and the flefh fweet,
but not high-flavoured. It ripens in Auguft, as in the pre-
ceding kind.

Large white Genoa fir.-—This isa kind which hasa large
globular fruit, a little lengthened towards the ftalk ; the
fkin thin, of a yellowifh colour when fully ripe, and red
within, It is a good fiuit, but the trees are not good
bearers in general,

Black Ifchia jig. —This, which isa fhort fruit, of a mid-
dling fize, a little flatted at the crown, has the fkin al-
moft black when ripe, and the infide of a deep red ; the flefh
very high-flavoured. It bears well, and ripens in Augutt
in this climate.

Malta fiy.—This, which has a {mall brown fruit, much
compreffed at the top, and greatly pinched towards the
foot-{talk, has the fkin and infide of a pale brown colour ;
the flefh very fweet, and well-flavoured. When the fruit is
permitted to hang upon the trees till fhrivelled, it becomes
a fine {weetmeat,

Murray, or brown Naples Jig-—This is a kind which
has a pretty large globular fruit, ofa light brown colour on
the outfide, with faint marks of a dirty white, the infide
nearly of the fame colour; the grains'are pretty large, and
the flefh well-flavoured. It ripens the latter end of Auguft
in general.

Green Ifchia fig.—This is a fort which has an oblong
fruit, almoft globular at the crown ; the fkin is thin, of a
green colour ; but, when fully ripe, ftained through by the
pulp toa brownifh caft; the infide purple, the flefh
high-flavoured. It ripens about the end of Augutt.

Madonna, Brunfwick, or Hanover fg.—It is a kind
7 which

FICUS

which has: a long pyramidal fruit of a large fize; the fkin
brown; the flefh of a light brown colour, coarfe, with
little flavour. It ripens the end of Auguft, and the begin-
ning of September.

» Common blue, or purple fig.—This is a fort which. is
oblong, itisa great bearer. The fruit ripens in Auguft in
general... : ;

Long brown Naples fig.—This isa kind which has the
leaves deeply divided ; the fruit long, fomewhat compreffed
at the crown ; the foot-ftalks pretty long ; the ficin of a dark
brown when fully ripe ; the flefh inclining to red ; the graine
large, and the flefh well-flavoured. It ripens in Septem-
ber.

Yellow Ijchia fig. —This isa fort which has a large fruit
ofa pyramidal form ; the fkin is yellow when ripe, and the
flefh purple and well flavoured. it is not a good bearer,
but ripens in September in mott cafes.

Small brown Ifehia fig.—Thisis a fort which has a {mail
pyramidal fruit, witha very fhort foot-italk ; the fkin of a
light brown, the flefh inclining to purple, of a very high
flavour. It ripens late in September. it is not a good
bearer. :

Gentile fig —This fort has a middle-fized globular fruit ;
the fkin, when ripe, yellow; the flefh alfo inclines to the
fame colour; the grains large, and the fleth well-flavoured,
but it ripens very late, and is a bad bearer.

There are alfo other forts, as the beft early white, black
Provence, Cyprian, Ford’s feedling, green’ Naples, large
black, large blue Marfcilles, Milward, {mall black Ifchia,
white Ifchia, yellow Cefar,

Thofe which are moft proper fora {mall garden, accord-
ing to Mr. Forfyth, are; the large white Genoa, early
white Murray, {mall brown Ifchia, and the black Hchia.

It isafferted by the fame writer, that in a good feafon
the btown, or chefnut coloured Ifchia, the black.Genoa, the
{mall white early, the Murray, or brown Naples, and
the common blue, or purple fig, will ripen on ftandards.

The fecond fort is often here called the fycomore-tree, and
mulberry fig-tree. This, and not the great maple, is the
right fycomore.

The fifth fort is often known by the name of banyan-tree,
and is a native of the Eatt Indies.

MM. thod of Culture —Vhe firit tort and varieties may be
readily intcreafed, either by fuckers, layers, or cuttings, but
the two laft are the beft methods, acegebg to Mr. Forfyth,
who has had great experience in raifing fruit-trees of this
kind. :

The fuckers fhould be taken off from the roots as low
down as poffible, and, after being trimmed, planted out in
nurfery-rows, at the diltance of two or three feet from each
other, with thetops entire, to take their natural growth,
when intended for {tandards ; but when for walls, efpaliers,
or dwarfs, in the fituations where they are toremain. In the
latter cafe, they fhould be cut or headed down to fix or
siggigprche in the early {pring, to induce lateral fhoots to
be thrown out near the ground. ;
~The lay
fhoots .of the bearing trees, and be laid dow in the
autumn, or early in the {pring, being proteéted from frott
during the winter by.tan or fome fort of ‘ftrawy material.
When-the plants are fufficiently rooted, as in the following
autumn, they fhould be taken off and planted out in the
places where they are to remain, as they do not bear tranf-
planting well, being covered at the roots with dung, tan,
or litter during the winter. The cuttings fhould be taken
from the well-ripened, woody fhoots of the former year,
which, without being fhertened, may be planted out in the
+ Vou, XIV. ly

fhould be made from the well-ripened woody

beginning of the autumn, on beds of loamy earth, ina
warm, fheltered fituation, to the depth of eight or ten inches,
proteéiing them with tanners’ bark and litter duting the win-
ter; the litter being removed as the {pring advances. When
they have ftricken good root in the following autumn ; they
fhould be taken up and planted where they are to grow aud
remain. ;

Thefe forts of trees are moftly cultivated as ftandards in
warm climates, but in thisin general againftwalls or as efpa-
liers ; and only fometimes as ftandards.

The forts ufually cultivated againit walls are thofe of the

blue and white kinds, but feveral of the others. fucceed
well ia this management, where they are duly attended
to.
But for efpaliers, and as ftandards, the firft, fecond,
third,’ ninth, and teuth varieties are probably the moft pro-
per.
In their culture as wall-trees, they fhould always be
placed in fuany fituations, for the purpole ofthe fruit being
the mott effeGvally ripened, as in that ofa full fouthern ex-
pofure, but an eait or welt afpe& will anf{wer very well wher
that cannot be had with convenience.

Inthe planting them out, where the wallsare of confiderable
height, fitteen or eighteen feet diftance may be fufficient ; but
in low walls, twenty or more are not too much {pace. Mr.
Forfyth advifes from twenty to twenty-four feet, as the moft
fuitable diftance for planting thefe trees at, in general.

Where the trees are planted againft fire-wails, they fhould
not be kept too clofe, be drawn by glaffes, or have the heat
too great, but have at all times, when the weather is favour-
able, a good fhare of free air admitted, and if the trees
are young, care fhould be taken that tleir roots are not ex-
tended beyond the reach of the covering ; they mult be fre-
quently watered when they begin to fhew fruit, othenwife it
will drop off; but oldtrees, whofe roots are extended to a
great diltance, only require to have their branches now and
then fprinkled over with water. Where thefe trees are pro-
perly managed, the firft crop of fruit is. greater than upon
thofe which are expofed to the opeu air, and ripens fx
weeks or two moiiths earlier, anda plentiful fecond crop
may alfo be obtained, which ripens early in September, and
fometimes-in Auguft ; but the fires fhould not be ufed to
thefe trees till the beginning of February ; as when they
are forced too early, the weather isfrequently tao cold to
admit a fufficient quantity of frefh air to fet the fruit ; but
the covers fhould be put over the trees a month before, to
prevent the fhoots from being injured by the froity flate of
the weather.

The management of the trees in the commor
aftcr they have been headed down or shortened in
ner mention.d above, whether they be on walls or efpaliers,
i3 that of training them horizontally, fo as to preferve the
branches inan equal and regular manner on each jide, at the
diftance of from fix to eight inches from each other, and, for
the moft. part, keeping their full length without any fhorten-
ing, that as large a proportion ef youag or bearing wood as
poffible may be preferved. Some, however, advife their
not being laid in. fo clofe, confidering a foot or eighteen
inches as little enough room for them.

» And ingthe pruping of thefe trees, Mr. Forfyth advifes
that it fhould never be done inthe autema or winter, butin.
the early {pring mouths. The belt time, he conceives, to be
about ehottatnes end of April or beginning of the following
month, as by this period it may be afcertained what branches
have been deftroyed by the feverity of the winter. And as
the ends of thofe branches, the wood of which has not.
ripened well in the autumn, will te molt injured, they fhould

} ~

2
5

bh 0 d

FICUS.

be cut into the found wood as near to an eye or bud as
poflible. ;

Incafes where the branches have been permitted to run
up, fo as to leave the bottom ina naked ftate, every other
branch is advifed to be cut out as near to the ground as it
can be done, by which the walls or efpaliers will be provided
with good young wood, care being taken to {top the ends of
the fhoots in fummer, as about the beginning of June, in
order to induce fide-fhoots to be thrown out for fruiting the
following fammer ; by which time plenty of fine wood will
be provided, and then thre remainder of the old branches may
be cut out as before, pruning their young fhoots as in the
preceding cafe, conftantly pinching off the ends of ail
the ftrongeft fhoots at the top bud, except fuch a: are lead-
ing ones. ; fap

But in the fpring prunings, as the fruit is produced near
the tops, the bearing fhoots fhould never be fhortened, nor
fhould the fine fhort fide and fore right fhoots be cut off,
except when decayed ; as they ripen better than the long
{trong ones, and are not fo apt to be deftroyed by frofts in
the winter feafon. By this practice, it is contended that
the trees will be covered with fruit from the tops to the bot-
toms of the wall, &c., inftead of having a few only at the
top, asis the cafe in the common method of management
with thefe trees

In fummer, as many fhoots are fent off, fome of thofe
that are irregular and ufelefs may be rubbed off, and the
others trained in for the forming of future bearing wood.
The proper period for this is about the beginning of June,
and in the two following months.

After the fruit has attained the fize of {mall nutmegs,
the points of the top buds are recommended by Mr. Porfyth
to be pinched or cut off with a fhayp knife, fome of his
powdery material being immediately applied, to prevent the
oozing out of the milky juice, and the confequent exhaul-
tion and injury of the trees. ;

In order to prevent the neceflity of cutting the trees
down in the above manner, they fhould be covered in
winter before the approach of froft, which would deftroy
the ends of the fhoots before the wood was ripened and ren-
dered hard.

Where fig-trees are greatly injured in the winter, the beft
practice is to cut them down as near the ground as pofiible,
as in the following year, by the above management, they
may be got into a good bearing fate. b

The beft mode of proteéting thefe trees is, according to
Mr. Forfyth, to ** cover them with bentings, or fhort grafs,
from the pleafure-ground, which he finds anfwers the pur-
pofe very well; after it is thoroughly dry, it may be putin
a cock, covering it with ftraw, to prevent the rain from
penetrating into it, which would caule it to heat and rot ;”’
or it may be put into a fhed. If grafs cannot be procured,
fome dry mofs may be employed. In performing the work,
“ firft cover the trees with laurel, yew, fir, or fpruce boughs,
and then tuck in the fhort grafs or mofs among the branches,
beginning at the top of the tree, tucking in the grafs, &e.
as you defcend, till you come to the bottom.” Fern, when
well dried, he fays, makes an excellent covering. The trees
may be thatched on the outfide with the long leaves of the
common fern ; and where thefe can be got, there will be no
occafion for fhort grafs. When it can be procured, which
it may in moft country places, it will, he fays, be found pre-
ferable to laurel.

They may alfo be fheltered in winter by wrapping hay or
ftraw bands round the branches of the trees; and then open-
ing the ground, laying in the branches, and covering them
over with mould about nine inches deep, leaving the ends of

the fhoots about three inches out of the ground, and covere
ing the ground over with feme rotten leaves, or old tan, &e.
to keep out the froft. The roots of the trees may likewife
be covered in the fame manner. Where the walls are low,
and the borders broad, all the branches may be brought
front ways; but when they are high, only the fide branches
can be brought forward in the above manner. It is the prac=
tice of fome to cover with reeds and itraw; the latter he
does not by any means approve of, as it is very apt to har-
bour rats and mice, on account of fome of the grain being
left in it at the time of threfhing.

In puttisg in the grafs, care fhould be taken that no mice,
&c. have got amongit it ; and during the winter, it fhould
be feen that no rats or mice get among the branches of the
trees that are covered againft the walls ; as if they do they
will infallibly bark the branches, and in that cafe there
will be a neceflity of heading the trees down in a complete
manner.

Thefe animals may be deftroyed by fetting traps near
the roots of the trees, as foon as they are covered. See
Garpen Traps.

Great care, he fays, fhould be taken not to uncover the
fig trees too foon in the {pring ; and it fhould be done par-
tially, as there are frequently frofts and cutting winds
in the months of April and May, which will infallibly
kill the young fruit as they make their appearance in the
{pring.

Thofe branches which have been laid into the ground
fhould be taken up in the month of April, having the hay
or {traw-bands taken off, and then nailed to the wall. Some
fern leaves, or any other light covering, may be ftuck in
among the branches, to prote¢t them from the drying
winds and frofls till the fruit comes to the fize of a large
walnut, or rather till the leaves are fufficiently large to pro-
tect the fruit. : :

It is obferved, that the Italians, when they with to for-
ward the ripeniag of figs, drop in a little {weet oil, from a
quill, into the eye of the fruit ; but care muft be taken not.
to hurt the fkin, which will make the fig burlt. This will
make a difference at leaft of a fortnight in the ripening of
the fruit. j

It is _alfo recommended, as foon as the leaves begin to
fall, to brufhthem off with a broom, but by no means till
they will come off eafily. If they are forced off before
they begin to wither and decay, the trees will bleed at the
foot-ftalks. At the fame time the flalks fhould be cleared”
of all the fmall late fruit, which, if fuffered to remain dur-
ing the winter, will rot, and injure the tree, fo as to prevent
it from bearing the enfuing fammer. If any milk be ob-
ferved oozing trom the foot-italks, a little of the compofi-
tion fhould be ufed, which will ftop it, and heal the injured
part. See Composirion.

By doing this, the ripening and hardening of the wood
will be affifted before the winter frofts fet in.

In ftandard-trees of all forts little pruning is neceffary,
only jutt to take out the very irregular branches and the
young fhoots, when too much crowded, and the dead ends
of the fhoots, as well as any dead wood that there may be
in them.

Mr. Forfyth, however, obferves, that as the branches
of ftandard fig-trees are very liable to be killed in fevere-
winters, it will be neceffary to lay them alfo in the ground,
wrapping them up in hay or ftraw-bands, as direéted for
wall-trees. It will be fometimes impraéticable to lay down
the middle branches ; they muft, therefore, be well covered
with hay or ftraw-bands, and the outfide ones laid down,
going regularly round the tree, and taking particular care
r not

FID

not to hurt them with the fpade, then to mulch them with
rotten leaves, &c.

Where Mr. Forfyth has been under the neceffity of cut-
ting fig-trees down near to the ground, after hard winters,
he has found, by the ufe of his compofition, that “ in the
courfe of two years, the new wood has covered over the old
ftump, and the branche: filled up the former f{pace, bearing
alfo plenty of fine fruit.”

“The other fpecies are eafily propagated by cuttings during
the fummer feafon. When the cuttings are taken from the
plants, they fhould be laid ina dry fhady place for two or
three days, that the wounds may be healed over, otherwife
they are apt to rot 3 after which, they fhould be planted in
pots filled with fandy light earth, and plunged into amo-
derate hot-bed, where they fhould be {haded from the fun,
and two or three times a week gently refrethed with water,
“if the feafonis warm; but they muft not have too much
moilture, as it would infallibly deftroy them. When the
cuttings have taken root fuffictently, they fhould be each
planted into a feparate fmall pot filled with undunged earth,
and replunged into the hot-bed, fhading them until they
have taken Froth root; then they fhould have a large fhare
of fuee air admitted to them at all times when the weather
“4s favourable, to prevent their drawing up weak, and to
give them ftrength before the cold comes on. In autumn
the pots fhould be removed into the ftove, and be plunged
into the tan-bed, where they fhould conftantly remaia, and
be treated in the fame manner as other tender plants from
the fame countries ; for although two or three of the forts
may be treated in a hardier manner, yet they will not make
much progrefs. They may likewife be increafed by layers
when necellary.

Thefe are fhrubs in this climate which afford variety in
“ftove colleGions.

Ficus, in Conchyliology, a name given by authors to a
peculiar {pecies of fea-fhell. It is of the genus of the do-
fium, and has a remarkably depreffed clavicle. ‘See'Con-
CHOLOGY.

Ficus, or Ficatio, in Surgery, fiznifies a tubercle, or
excrefcence, about the anus, or pudenda. The term is faid
‘tobe derived from $v», fo, produce, or eife from the Hebrew

hig.
# FIDARI, in Geography, a river of European Turkey,
in Livadia, which runs into the fea, eight miles N. of
Patras.

FIDD, an iron pin ufed at fea to fplice or faften ropes

‘together ; it is made tapering and fharp at one end.
here are alfo fidds of wood, which are much larger
than the iron ones. :

The pin alfo in the heel of the topmaft, which bears it
upon the chefs-tree, is called a fidd.

Fivp-/ammer, is ufed for a hammer, the handle of which
is a fidd, or tapering into that form.

FIDDES, Ricuarn, in Biography, a learned divine,

-and polemical writer, was born at Hunmanby, in the county
of York, in the year 1671, and went firft to ftudy at Cam-

bridge, but afterwards was admitted of Univerfity College,

in Oxford. Entering into holy orders, he obtained the
living of Hulfham, in his native county, but the air of the

lace not agreeing with his health, he was forced, to forego
all thoughts of refiding on his living; having while there
Toft the ufe of his fpeech, which he never after perfectly re-
covered. Hewas appointed chaplain at Hull, but he {pent
the latter part of his life at Putney, where he died in 1735.
In 1718 and 1720, he publifhed a Body of Divinity, in
two volumes, folio ; in confequence of which, the univer-

‘Gity of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of do¢tor in

FID

divinity. In 1721, he publithed two fetters an the foul’s
immortality, occafioned by the epitaph on the duke ef
Buckinghamfhire. In 1724, appeared a Life of Cardinal
Wolfey, in which the free manner he had treated fome opi-
mons induced a belief, that he was favourably inclined to
the Catholic tenets. The fame year he publifhed a treatife
on morality, and healfo wrote fifty-two practical difcourfes.
His firft publication was a prefatory epiftle concerning fome
remarks to be made on Homer’s Thad, addrefled to Dean
Swift, &c. Gen. Biog. Di&. :

FIDDICHOW, or Vinucrova, in Geograpiy, a town
of Hinder Pomerania, on the Oder, 22 miles S.W. of Star-
gard. N. lat. 53° 13’. E. long. 14° 33’.

FIDDLE, probably from Fides, Latin. This is the
vulgar name for the violin, which is a modern inftroment, as
the ufe of the bow cannot be traced in antiquity. The
earlieft mention which we have found of the fiddle in Eng-
land, is in the legendary life ef St. Chriftopher, MS. Ver-
non. Bodl. Lib. (119) written about the year 1200.

** Chriftofre him ferved longe.

The king loved the melody of fithele and of fonge.”

The fiddle, however, did not feem in common ufe in
fealts, mummeries, and procefiions, for fome hundred years
afterthis period. It is mentioned by Chaucer, but was-not
allowed to be a concert inftrument, till the reign of Charles
II. who, m imitation of Louis XIV., eftablithed a band of
twenty-four violins, alias fiddles, which gave birth to Tom
Durfey’s fong of “« Four and’ Twenty Fiddlers all on a'Row,’”
&c., a humorous production in which there isa mockery of
every inftrument, and almoft every trade; and which, in
our own memory, ufed to be performed between the atts,
or between the play and farce, by fome man of humour at
benefits. See Viouin, Repec, and Bow.

FippieSbaped leaf, in Botany, folium panduriforme,
is oblong, broad at the two extremities and contra&ed in the
middle, like a fiddle or fome fort of guitar, and not like the
ancient pandyra or reed-pipe, as the Latinname implies. See
Lear.

Fippre Wood. See CirHAREXYLON.

FIDDLER’s Exnow, in Geography, a bend of Wood
creek, between the outlet of South bay, and the mouth of
the creek at the northern end of lake Champiain, oppofite
to: the mouth of Eaft bay. The mouth of Wood creek lies
in N. lat. 43°32’. W. long. 73° 15° 12”.

FIDE-Jussores Afidui. See Assipuus.

Five-jufor, in the Civil Law, is a furety, or one that
obliges himfelf in the fame contract with a principal, for the
greater fecurity of the creditor or itipulator, See Bait
and CauTionry.

FIDEI-Commissum, in the Roman Law, the appoint-
ing of an heir, or bequeathing a legacy to a perfon on this
condition, that he furrender'the inheritance or legacy to an-
other perfon, for whom the fame is originally meant; or it
is an inheritance left in truft with any one, for the ule of
another.

Fidei-commiffa were much ufed among the Romans. Ina
the French law the-thing is become odious; as being, ordi-
narily, no other than an expedient in favour of perfons to
whom the laws forbid any thing to be given. In order to
this, fome trufty friend is chofen to be made legal heir, under
a tacit agreement to deliver the inheritance to the perfon in-
capacitated by law. But of later times the fame expedient
has come in ue with regard to perfons capable of inheriting;
to whom the teftator, for particular reafons, does not care
to leave the inheritance dire@ly. n?

As it happened that the fidei-commiffioners did not al-
ways faithfully reftore what was truited to them, Auguttue

3E3 took

F-LE

took proper meafures to oblige them thereto ; to this end a
pretor was ereCted, whofe bufinefs was reltrained to the
fingle matter of fidei-commiffions.

Asateftament was null without the inftitution of an heir,
and it frequently happening that the fidei-commiifioner re-
_fufed to accept the truft, upon which the teltament fell to
the ground; to engage fomebody to aecept it from a con-
fideration of advantage, the Pegafian fenatus confultum de-
ereed, that the fidei-commiffioner fhould be at liberty to
retain a fourth of the fidei-commiffion. /

FIDELES, in Church Hiftory. See Berizvers.

FIDEN A, or Fipena, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Italy, upon the Tiber, N. of Romeand S. of Ven. It was
founded on the territory of the Sabins, by a colony of Alba,
and feems to have been very powerful before the foundation
of Rome, as it fultained a war againft it, which lafted from
the year of Rome 17 to the year 327, when the Fidenates
were fubdued by the dictator. Emilius Mamercus.

FIDENTIA, a town of Gallia Cifpadana, fituated
towards the §.E.; near which the troops of Carbon were
eut to pieces by thofe of Sylla.

FIDICUL&, in Antiquity, is often ufed to fignify the
fame with eguuleus, a kind of punifhment ufed among the
_ancients.

Fipicut, in amore proper fenfe, denotes the cords
wherewith the criminals’ limbs were diftended on the
equuleus.

FIDMIN, in Geography, a town of Egypt; five miles
W, of Fayoum.

FIDRA, a {mall ifland near the eaft coaft of Scotland,
at the entrance of the Forth; three miles N,W. of North

Berwick. N. lat. 56°5'.. W. long. 2° 49/.

FIDULEA, afmal! ifland in the Grecian
four miles S.W. of Stamphelia.

FIEF, the fame with feud er fee ; which fee.

FIEF p’Havuzerr, a name given by the Normans, and
adopted by the Mirrour, to that {pecies of tenure denomi-
nated knight-fervice,. which fee.

FLEGO, or Fiyooco, in Geography, a fea-port town of
Japan, on the S. coalt of the ifland of Niphon, with a large
harbour in the bay of Ofaca; 24 miles $.S.W. of Ofaca,
and 48 S.W. of Meaco.

FIELD, in Agriculture, isa portion of land mottly inclofed
by fome fort of tence, and employed either in tillage or as
patture. Fields fhonld be -proportioned in fize to the na-
ture of the hufbandry under which they are chiefly ma-
naged ; where they are of the arable kind, they may be
much larger than where they are of the grafs or grazing de-
feription. (See Inctosine of Land.) For the method of
finding the contents of a field, fee Area, Cuarn, and
SURVEYING.

Fievp-Fallow, aterm frequently made ufe of to fignify a
eommon field, which is occafionally cultivated under the
fallow fyftem. See Paruow.

Vitip-Grafs, any fort of grafs cultivated or grown in
the field. See Grass.

Fietp-Hufbandry, thofe forts of hufbandry or cultiva-
tion which are practifed in the field, whether th: y relate ta
tillage or grafs.. See Husnanpay.

Fiexp /Vell, the name of a pit or {mall fort of artificial
watering-place for cattle ina field. See Dainkine Pond.

Fieip-Work, that fort of work which relates to the field,
and which is of very different kinds.

Fienp-Scabins, the common name of a perennial weed
often met with in tillage lands. The {tem is upright and
branching, rifing to the height of a foot or a foot anda
half. It is fpotted, rough, and hairy, The lower leaves

Archipelago ;

4

FIE

are oval, and indented about the edges; but thofe on the
ftalk are divided and pinnated. The flowers are blue, and
of the compound kind, confifting of a great number of
{mall ones, each divided into four parts, and having one
feed under them. The plant has a bitter difagreeable tafte.

Fievp-de, or Li/Gale, in our Ancient Cuffoms, a kind of
drinking in the field, by bailiffs of hundreds; for which
they gathered money of the inhabitants of the hundred to
which they belonged. But this cuftom has been long fince
prohibited. :

Tisup, Campus, in Antiquity, is frequently ufed for a
public place, or {quare in a tity, &c. .

Such were the Field of Mars, Campus Martius; and
Field of Flora, Campus Flore, in Rome; and the Field of
May, Campus ATaii, among our anceftors, &c. o;

Tizxp of Afars was denominated froma temple of that
deity, built therein ; it was the fcene or place of the aflem-
blics called comitia. ‘Tarquin the Prom as length appro-
priated it to his own ufe; but after the expulfion of the
kings, the confuls Brutus and Collatinus reftored it to the
public ufe again, for aflemblies and ele¢tions.

Originally it was no more than a meadow on the banks
of the Tiber, where horfes grazed, and the Roman youth
were exercifed to war. But it was atterwards erected into
a maguificent {quare, adorned with ftatues, &c. See Campus
Mariius. ;

Fiexp of Flora, was the place where the laws, edifls, and
conititutions, were publifhed. ;

Fiserv of May. See Campus Maii.

Fiery Bafil, in Botany. See Cuinopopium.

VFierp Bafil, American. See Monarpa.

Fierp Bafil, Syrian. See Z1z1PHo0RA. rer

Fierp, Clofe, was anciently a place enclofed, or railed
in with a barnier, for juts and tournaments to be perform-
ed in. .

Yierv, Llyfan. See Exysium. We

Frey, Ricuarp, in Biography, an able champion of
the doétrines and difcipline of the church of England, was
born at Hempftead in Hertfordfhire, inthe year 1561. In
1577 he was admitted a member of Magdalen college, Ox-
ford, where he took his degrees with high reputation. His
great learning and talents pointed him out as adapted to All
certain ufeful and important places in the church, till at
length he was chofen divinity reader to the fociety of Lin-
coln’s Inn. In this fituation his fervices gaiued him many.
friends among the learned members, one of whom prefented
him to the valuable living of Burrowclere in Hamplhire, and
in a fhort time after he was offered the {till more valuable
rectory of St. Andrews, Holborn, but he chofe to adhere to
that in the ecuntry, as affording him more ample opportu-
nities for ftudy, on which his mind was very intent. In
1598 he took his degree of doctor of divinity, and became
chap 1 ordinary to queen Elizabeth, and was foon after
made prebendary of Windfor. On the death of the queen
he fucceeded to the fame office of chaplain with her fuc-
cellor James ; and was entrufted with the management of
foie fpecial commiffions iffued for ecclefiaftical canfes, and
the exercife of {piritual jurifdition within the diocefe of
Wiaschetter. In 1604 he obtained a prebendary of Windior,
and when the king went to Oxford to witnefs the {cholaftic
exercifes at that univerfity, Dr. Field was fent for to take
a part in the divinity act; aud the manner in which he per-
formed his part veflected the higheft degree of credit on his
learning, and afforded uncommon fatisfaction to the fplendid
audience. ;

In 1610 the king beftowed upon him the deanery of
Gloucelter, but he continued to refide and labour at Burrow-

‘ vy ae ~ @leres

Eeliealy D.

clere, only going to Gloucefter occafionally to preach when
his particular duty required him. Sometime, in the winter
months, he ufuallyfpent at Windfor, and was often felected
to preach before the king, who exclaimed on firlt hearing
him, “ This is indeed a /°ie/d for God to dwell in.? The
monarch held Dr. Field in fo hich efteem that he was anxious
to promote him to the bifhopric of Salifbury, but his cour-
tiers prevailed upon him to give it to another. The king,
however, determined to raife him to the fee of Oxford, which
was expected to become vacant in a fhort time, but before
the vacancy occurred, Dr. Field died of an apoplexy, in
the year 1616, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. His prin-
cipal work, asa literary man, was entitled ‘Of the Church,’
four books, folio. This was publithed in the year 1606,
andin 1610 the author added a fifth book, with an appendix,
containing a “ Defence of fuch Paflages of the former
Books that have been excepted again{t, or wrefted to the
maintenauce of Romifh Errors.” Dr. Field was univerfally
refpeéted, and at his death generally lamented. «* He was,”
fays Wood, ‘* much againit difputing about the high points
of predeftination and reprebation, nor did he like that men
fhould be bufy in determining what God’s decrees in heaven
are. He was one that laboured much to heal the breaches
of Chriftendom, and was ready to embrace the truth
wherefoever he found it. His defire, his prayers, his en-
deavours, were for peace, to make up the breaches of the
church; not to widen differences, but to compofe them.’
Gen. Biog. ’

Fiexp, in Heraldry, is the furface or face of the fhield,
or efcutcheon ; thus called, as containing the atchievements
anciently acquired in the field of battle.

The field is the ground whereon the colours, bearings,
metals, furs, charge, &c. are reprefented. In blazoning
a coat, we always begin with the field: he bears fable,
&e.

. Among the more modern heralds, field is lefs frequently
ufed than fhield or efcutcheon.

Fierp of Bartle, in the Military Language. The pof-
feffion of this, after an engagement, is generally {uppofed
to denote which party has obtained the vitory; the wortted
army, for the mutt part, retiring with the view to rally, and

eventually tomake a frefh ftand at {ome advantageous pofition.
But it does not always follow that pofleflion of the field re-
mains, with thofe to whom the greatelt merit attaches: we
fometimes fee an inferior force repel the attacks of purfuers,
and following its route, leaving to the difcomfited affailants
that {cite on which a large portion of them may breathe their
laft, while the vilorious band, thouch fomewhat diminifhed
in numbers, effect a fafe retreat. “Retention of the field
under fuch circumftances denotes the want of power to fol-
Tow, and, according to the military phrafe, is ‘a ruinous
victory;”’ ufually to be clafled with thofe fad effects pro-
duced by fevere conte(ts in an enemy’s country, where the
latter are conflantly obtaining both fupplies and reinforce-
ments, from which the invaders are, or thould be, completely
ent off. We cannot give a ftronger reprefentation of this
ofition than is afforded by the glorious ltruggle maintained
i our Spanifh allies, who, though certainly in the firft in-
ftance by no means competent to repel their invaders, at
length were roufed toa due fenfe of their fituation, aud
difplayed, their national character for loyalty, piety, aud
bravery, in the moit glowing colours. -
i Aeperions knowledge of the field on which an army is
about to engage, cannot but become an object of great im-
jortance, not only. to the commander-in-chief, but to all
thofe in charge of divifions of the troops under his au-
thority. An intimate acquaintance with, various minutix,

fuch as broken ground in-which cavalry cannot a&t ; {wamps
in which they as well as artillery would be fixed, or at leaft
be unable to fulfil their intention ; ftrong fituations, fuch as
uatural lines made by precipices bordered by banks, or
fringed with underwood ; elevated {pots, on which batteries
could be placed to advantage, and behind which large
bodies of cavalry might be concealed; bridges within com-
mand, by means of which a fafe retreat might be made ;
and all fuch points, are indifpenfable towards the fuccefsful
iffue of the day. :

We do riot mean toaffert that every commander has it in
his power either to choofe the field on which he will make a
ftand, or that, when he has chofen it, he muit be thoroughly
acquainted with all localities ; but it may be permitted us to
obferve, that no man, whatever rank he may have attained,
or whatever fervice he may have feen, is competent to be
placed atthe head of an army, but more efpecially one a&-
ing upon the defenfive, whofe eye does not molt keenly
fearch for natural advantages, or who does not, when thofe
advantages are apparent, profit by them in a fuitable manner.
We particularize the defenfive, becaufe that fyftem rarely
fails to afford thofe highly valuable acquirements in regard

to the feveral {trong politions every country affords, more or

lefs ; but which may not always be fufficiently afcertained by
an invading army. Thus, it mult be evident, that during the
apprehenfion of invafion, our generals, throughout the
country, had the faireft opportunities for moit accurately
reconnoitring every defenfible point, whereby they would
have been enabled to a& with the greateft effet, and to
choofe their field on almoft every occafion, which could not
have fallen to the lot of hoftile troops, whofe advance muft
invariably have been attended with fome uncertainty, and
all its train of mifchiefs.

In reviewing the great namber of plans that have at times
been publithed, wherein the pofitions of the contending
parties and their feveral movements have been laid down,
one obvious feature appears common to a very great majority;
namely, that the party which awaited the attack of its ad-
verfary, had its flanks, or at leaft one of them, covered by
woods, rivers, villages, moraffes, or broken ground. The
great objet appears to have been there, to throw impedi-
ments in the way of the enemy’s horfe. Hence we fee,
that. fo foon as any part of che centre gave way, the
whole were. thrown into copfufion, bearing down the
feveral lines in fucceffion, and offering opportunities for a
dreadful difplay of the powers of cavalry. It appears rather
doubtful how far an equal force fhould fo place itfelf, unlefs
to defend fome valley, &c. through which alone the enemy
could penetrate into a country.

FieLp-Fortijicalion, relates to the formation of fuch
temporary lines of defence, redoubts, &c. as well as of fuch
batteries, of various deferipsions, as may be deemed necefe
fary either for the maiatenance of a pofition, or for driving
an enemy from that he may occupy. It would be utterly
impraCicable to afford initruGions Suited to every cafe ;
there being fuch varieties of locality, as well as of circum-
{tance, which can only be provided for on the fpot, and
never could come under any general defeription. Although
we are apt to confider the {cience of fortification, in all its
branches, to appertain, rather exclufively, to the corps of
engineers, yet no general fhould be entruited with the com-
mand of an army, unlefs pofleffing either an intimate ac-
quaintance with that {cience, or fuch a ready conception
of the adyantages and difadvantages of every pofition he
may aflume, as fhould enable him, as it were by infpiration,
to adopt orreje& it without hefitation. We fear that this
excellent quality rarely comes, as Dogberry fays, ‘by na-

ture,?*

ture,” and that few nations can boaft.any great lift of fach
‘éjyeaven-born generals.” Not but that many individuals
pofiefs this admirable talent ; the misfortune is that its pof-
feifors too often are placed 12 fituations totally uafuited to
their genitis; or, if they do ‘enter within the pale of mili-
tary orders, either Iingerin fubaltern capacities, or eventually
fall among the too many wictims immolated at the fhrine of
what we call glory, long before their abilities'could be duly
‘appreciated | Aes Gp

Field-fortification is generally divided under two heads;
the offenfive, and the défenfive : ‘thefoirther of courfe rélates
pally fieges, ‘and 'the latter to the covering
of arfries, Or 'p fe as to rendér them flronger, and to
throw every obltacle in the way of affailaits. The ‘offenfive
braiich affords the ‘freateft latitude for deliberation, ‘bet
requires no lefs judgment than the defenfive ; 1 is ufvally
confided eftirely to the managenient of the engmeérde-
partment, by whom tlie diftakees, bearings, and extent of
the feveral batteries are determiied. ‘Thirs, when an amy
invelts a fortrefs, the engineers, cfpecially if ‘not previoufly
furnifhed with a correét plan Of its defences, proceed to re-
connoitre, in the moft exaG manner, the feveral lines ‘of fire
to which certain fpots would be expofed, ‘and the effets
likely to be produced ‘by batteries, both of ‘canton and of
mortars, erected thereon. Two 'pireat objeéts mift always
be held in view ; ‘namely, to'obtain a Wired? fire, as near as
may be ‘practicable ‘to the work ‘to be ‘battered, and the
placing the néceffary batteries ‘In fuich manner, that, while
the belt effects may be produced, the'cannon and their portion
-of artillery-men, together with every neccffury apparatus,
may not be fubjeGed to etifilade. (See Eri LADE.)

Field-works are rarely conftruted ‘ina durable manner’;
they are for the mott part formed by the excavation of the
foil, correfpond in'fzure with the parapet to be formed,
and, from the refemblance of the ditch, are called trenches.
The foil thrown up being arranged in a proper manner, and
fecured by medns of fs/cines (which fee), from falling
back into the excavation, occafions the fhelter to become
duplicate in its ratio to the a€tual depth excavated. Thus,
in digging atrench of four feet in depth, there will be
formed a covert-way of eight feet in depth, in confequence
of the height to which the foil is thrown. The lower four
feet, that is, fo far as the trench reaches, will be folid ; the
reft, being loofe foil, juft thrown up, will for a while be
lefs competent to refilt heavy fhot. ‘Thofe parts intended
for cannon will demand an ample tock of fafcines, for the
purpofe of keeping the merlons in proper form and duly
compacted. The places of arms, &c. which are generally
made at the extremities of parallels, in order that the be-
fiegers may take advantage of any forties, as well as to
guard the flanks of the trenches, will ufually require ample
epaulements for the infuring of fafety to thofe on duty.
Where mortar batteries are made, they will not require any
obvious embrafures, though the interior flope of the parapet
may be made with a much fmaller angle from the horizon
eppofite each piece, provided the works be fufficiently thick
to allow fuch adiminution ; otherwife the mortars muft be

to attacks, pri

taining a dire@ fire. However, as enfilading batteries ave
generally neceffary, and as it is always expedient to filence
thofe which flank the battered angle, it very generally
occurs that fach a etofs-fire can be obtained as ferves to
give every neceflary fupport to contiguous lines of approzeh.
The batteries raifed for the purpofe of breaching any patt
of the principal, cannot well be too clofe thereto ; provided
their elevation be fach as not to be commanded from the
principal. This approximation is, however, ‘the work of
time, and cannot be attempted until the fire ofthe tenmltons,
lunettes, ravelines, and generally the counter-guards tbe
filenced 5 after which the approaches may be carried up to
the very creft of the glacis, there to make a lodgement, as
well ‘es in the Covert-way. This being effeéted, at is ufual
for the befiegeis to ttorm, vnlels owing ‘to weakuefs of the
gartifon, ‘or the timidity of its commandant, the pkace
fhould furrender.

In defenfive field fortification‘a few general rules fhonld
be well underltoad. 1. Never to occupy a pofition, by
choice, whereof any important part is commanded by
places of which the adverfary can'take poffeffion + this applies
far more ftri@ly to permanent defences; which, im fuch cafe,
would be of little or no avail. 2. Always'to make the
weaker poiitts the ‘firlt objects of attention; afterwards
ftrengthering the Rronger parts, fo as to fecare the others,
and forming fuch a general conneGtion of the wholeas may,
fo far as praticable, ‘render the wholly equally formidable.
3. To avoid all pofitions which are deficient in fupplies,
efpecially of water; and never, on any account, to extend
beyond the means of ‘a firm defence; obferving, ‘that how-
ever much the reverfe may have been praétifed, rather ito
leave one flank weak, than tohazard any thing in the centre ;
where, if the enemy fhould facceed in penetrating, ruin’te
both flanks mutt follow in detail.

The expert engineer never fails to render fuch mills,
houfes, churches, &c. as may be within his fcope, fub-
fervient to the purpofes of defence. Whiere fniall parties
are to be covered, the interiors of fuch edifices fhould be
fitted up in the ‘beft manner that may be praéticable for
enabling the occupants to do execution'among the affailants,
A trench may be dug within the whole circumference, and
loop-holes be made for the purpofe of allowing one row of the
defenders to gall the enemy from nearly a level with the
exterior ; a pofition not ealily to be overcome, while others
fire ftanding : every angle in a building becomes more orlefs.a
flank, and enables the decupants to make a defperate ftruggle.
When time admits, various flanking walls fhould be thrown
up, either of mafonry or of thick planks; the laft are beft.
A good breaft-work, made on a flanking principle around
any church, or folitary houfe, and efpecially a brick-built
wind-mill, having many floors or ftories, in each of ‘which
loop-holes can be cut, or even cannon of {mall calibre -be
mounted, as in a block-honfe, will enable a handful of men
to ftand out againft a great fuperiority of force.

The paflage of aford, a detroit, and a bridge, may all he
covered, much in the fame manner, by what is ufually called
a téte de pont (i.e. bridge-head), of which a fketeh is given in

brought back until they may bear depreffion to a proper jig. 6. Plate I. Tadics : this kind of defence is ufually thrown

angle for throwing grape, fay about 12° or 15°, without
endangering the creft of the parapet. ae
In this {pecies of fortification little or no attention is paid

to any aneen of the batteries for the purpofe of caufing
them mutually to become flanks, as muft be done on defenfive
principles. ‘The befiegers being generally far more nume-
rous than the befieged, and the greateft attention to the
prevention of enfilade being imperioufly requifite, induce
-to paying attention chiefly to one object; namely, the ob-

up on that fide of the river neareft to the enemy, beyond
the bridge, and again covered by works on the hither fide,
to which the defenders can retire, and difpute the paflage,
when the ¢éte de pont may not be tenable,.

Lines of defence, drawn merely as a check to cavalry, or
for the generally covering an inferior army from attacks
at the pleafure of the enemy, may confift of various kinds
of works, according to the nature of the ground, the time
allowed ee conftru€ting them, and the number of men that

can

ELE Ts D.

ean be fpared for their occupation. When only cavalry is to be
oppofed, nothing more is neceflary than an abbatis, (fg. 7),
formed by felling large trees, and after lopping off the more
minute branches, placing them, fide by fide, ina compact
manner, with their ems inwards; and either ftaking the
whole down, or fecuring them together with bines, or ropes,
&c. fo as to prevent them being eafily drawn away by anenter-
prizing enemy. It is, in general, found beft to make even
this kind of defence of fuch a form as may afford flanking
fires; obferving to place a few guns along the curtains, fo as
to fire, as it were, in barbet over the upper boughs that point
towards the affailants.

. Some fituations are naturally fo ftrong as to require
nothing more thana breatt-work ; fuch, for inflance, as the
borders of a precipice which cannot be taken by affault,
and from which a direét fire in every part affords the beft
means of defeating any party that fhould approach. In
fuch very ftrong places a itraight line may aniwer, but, in
mott cafes, flanks fhould be thrown cut, asin fg. S,of which
the general tendency muft be governed by local circum-
ftances. Whatever may be their direction or form, it is
proper that no part of the lines intended to afford mutual
defence fhould exceed what is termed the point-blank range
of a mufket ball ; which is generally underftood to be about
200 or 250 yards, according to the charge of powder.
When within 1 50 yards, the advantages will be greatly
augmented.

fig. 9, reprefents a continued uniform line, compofed of
fhort curtains, a, a, a, a, with the redans, J, b, 2, b, 6; thefe
latter muft bear fuch an angle, or be placed at fuch a dif-
tance from each other, as may allow a perpendicular drawn
from their faces, at the point of junétion, as at c, to pafs
jult clear of the faliant angle, d ; if this be not attended to,
the defenders of one redan will pour their fire into that
adjoining. And, if the angle be too great, that is to fay,
more than 100° or 105°, the defences will be weakened in
every part, on account of the great obliquity neceffary in
dire&ting the fre, both in the curtain and in the redan ;
which, in the firing of mufketry, is always attended with
bad confequences.

Fig. 10. fhews a lire of the fame kind as that jutt de-
feribed, with independent redans, e, ¢, e, e, thrown up before
the curtains, by which they are commanded. ‘Thefe
fhould be placed at {ufficient diftance in advance, to prevent
the enemy, in cafe they fhould be able to carry them, from
affaulting the curtain under cover of the flanks; which
they might eafily do but ‘or that precaution. The angles
of the independent redans fhould correfpond with thofe of
the intermediate ones, which may be about Go, or 65 degrees,
according to circumftances.

Fig. 11. fhews avery good mode of making alternately
fhort flanks in a regular order, fo as to refemble the over-
lapping of tiles: the ufual defignation is ¢¢en cremaillaire,”
from the French word cremaiilon, fignifying that kiad of
pot-hook which can be lengthened at pleafure by means of
ratchets. The termination of this fort of indented line
ought to be ftrong ; otherwife it would be fubjeé to affault
at the point, A, where the addition of the redan, B, adds
greatly to its fecurity.

Fig. 12. fhews a line of obtufe angles, called fwallow-tails,
a, a, which would not afford a fufficient flanking fire; there-
fore it is expedient to mix them alternately with redans.
This is an excellent mode for lines not finifhed with re-
doubts, or with advanced redans.

Fig. 13. isaline of fwallow-tails, a, a, a, mixed with
out baitions, 4, 4, b, wherein it will be feen there is great
ftrength. The addition of a cavalier, c, in each battion, with

a jleche, d, in front of the {wallow-tail, c, obvioufly renders
{uch a line truly formidable.

Fig. 14. exhibits a line of curtains, a, a, flanked with
baitions, and having redoubts, c, c, in their centres,
This is alfo attended with great ftrencth, efpecially
as the latter prevent the enemy from foliowing up any
advantage. We thall conclude this article with obferving,
that field-fortification muft ufually be extremely irregular ;
therefore on lines of any extent it may be expetted to fee
the whole of the above-mentioned defences intermixed ac-
cording as the ground may fuit them refpeétively. In
fome parts, where deep fiffures or craggs may intervene, the
line will of courfe be broken; there it will be neceflary to
place batteries on the mo‘ commanding fituations, as well
as to fcarp, and otherwife add difficulties to the afcent, fo as
to prevent the enemy from making a pufhin fuch fituations;
which, when well defended, may be%confidered impregnable.

In carrying field-works over rifing grounds, {ome parts
of the detences will fometimes expofe their flank; wher
this happens, an epaulement mutt be thrown up, of fufficient
height to obftruct, not only the point-blank, but the-
ricochet ranges of the enemy’s fhot.

Circular baitions have been properly exploded ; it being
evident that the general tendency of their fire was weakened;
while, at the fame time, that portion moftadvanced towards
the enemy could not poffibly be flanked by any other works

We fhall now offer to the confideration of our military
readers a few practical obfervations derived from a {mall
work poflefling confiderable merit ; thefe are fele@ted be-
caufe they furnifh, in concife terms, the very elements of that
highly important topic now under confideration.

1. The {pot on which works are to be conftruéted fhould
determine their figure ; nor fhould any attention be paid to
pielerving a regular form, which does not occupy the
ground to advantage.

2. Every line muft be fo difpofed, that the flope of hills
all around, even to the very bottom, be open to the {mall
arms of the garrifon, and every part fhould be difcoverable
to the diftance of at leaft 500 paces.

3- Works thrown up for the defence of a defile fhould al-
ways be within mufket fhot of it; which muft not be more
than 200 yards.

4. The beit defence in works that are flanked, or where
oue fide is defended by the fire of another, is that formed by
right angles.

5. A faliant angle fhould never be lefs than 60°, nora
re-entering angle leis than go°, nor greater than 120°.

6. The entrance into the work fhould always be in that
part leaft expofed to attack, and if poffible in a re-entering
angle,

7. Endeavour to prefent, if poffible, a longer front to
the enemy than he can occupy in making the attack,

8, Avoid all ground commanded by an eminence, either
in front, flank, or rear.

g- Never leave your rear fo expofed that an enemy can
attack fo as to turn it.

10. Always make the angles of a work in the direGtions
leaft expofed to attack ; and confequently endeavour to pre- -
fent a front to the enemy’s batteries, &c.

tt. The garrifon fhould never be drawn up more than
two deep; allowing an ordinary pace of two feet for each
file, and from. fix to. eight paces far each piece of
ordnance,

12. Ifa work is fo large as to be defended by a battalion
or two, a referve fhould be allowed of sbout one-fixth of the
number.

13. The fpace within a work fhould always be fuilicient

tor

Fal E

for the men to move and lie down; every foldier will re-
quire at leaft 18 fquare feet, and every piece of ordnance
about 216. ‘

14. Provided the work be not too extenfive, the more in-
ward fpace there is the better.

“15. A parapet, to refift cannon, fhould never be lefs than
12 feet thick, and for mufket fhot nox lefs than fix feet.

16. The height of the parapet mutt be regulated by the
fitnation of the work, and of the adjoining ground ; with
this confideration, that the height (of its creil) above the
banquette fhould not exceed 44 feet; if higher, men of
rather a fhort ftature will not be able to fire over it.

17. The depth and breadth of the ditch muft be regu-
lated by the quantity of earth required for the parapet and
banguette,

18. A téte de pont, or any work intended to cover the
embarkation of troops, or the paffage of a river, &c. fhouid,
if poffible, be made where the line of the river or coaft
forms a kind of re-entering angle, that the flanks of the
corps, as well as thofe of the works, may be covered. See
Field-FORTIFICATION.

To carry on the work.—The number of workmen mutt
be proportioned to the time allotted for carrying on the
work, the quantity of labour, and the number of hands ca-
pable of being employed at the fame time. "When the
ditches are broad, the workmen muft be potted in two rows;
but, if narrow, only in one. In the firlt cafe the earth will
bethrown by thofe who are on the outward edge of the
ditch to the fecond row, and by them upon the parapet :
for which reafon the fecond row, to keep pace with the firft,
ought to be twice asnumerous. ‘the workmen fhould never
be placed nearer than two paces, ‘or four feet from each
other, and two men with fhovels fhould be preceded by one
with a pick-axe. If -more than ufual expedition be re-
quired, one more with a wheel-barrow, or bafket, may’ be
added to fix or eight with fhovels. Another row of workmen
fhould alfo be placed on the parapet, to {pread the earth
and beat it down as it is thrown up. In fixing the fafcines,
three men will fuffice for every 24 feet of the work ; thefe
fhould be provided with two mallets, one faw, and one hand-
bill or hatchet. ‘

In order to form fome idea of the time in which a field-
work may be completed, compute the number of cubic feet
of earth to be excavated, thus; multiply half the fum of
the breadth of the ditch, at top, by the depth, for the num-
ber of fquare feet in the profile; this multiplied by the dif-
tance between the workmen in feet, will fhew the number of
cubic feet each man has to dig : or being multiplied by the
length of the ditch (in feet) will give the cubic contents of
the ditch. Now, one man is fuppofed to be able to move
216 cubic feet of earth in a day during the fummer ; but
this is not always the cafe. If a field-work be completed
in 24 hours, it will be as much as the moft diligent work-
men are capable of. This time is generally allowed for the
formation of a weak profile; 48 hours for that of a ftronger,
witha revetement of fafcines ; and 72 for the ftrongelt.

The different flopes forthe works mult depend upon the
nature of the foil, and the materials of which the work is
compofed.
fafcined, fhould be one-fixth of its height, and the flope of
the banquette equal to its height. ‘The flope of the fearp,
or counterfearp of the ditch, fhould be trom half its height
to its full height, according to the foil. The fuperior flope
of the parapet muft depend entirely upon the fituation of
the work, and that of the furrounding country. The inte-
rior flope of the parapet is generally lined with fafcines, to
keep up the earth; but it is not abfolutely neceffary to

The interior flope of the parapet, though it be -

L D.
fafcine the exterior flope, if the foil be tolerably ftiff. The:

embrafures are commonly made 20 inches wide within, and
nine feet on the outfide. They muft always be lined with
fomething to retain the earth; turf is generally preferred,
as fafcines are fo apt to take fire. The manner in which
fafcines are made may be feen under that head. 4
Tt fometimes happens that the foil is fo hard as to render
it impodible to throw up works by the means of excavation ;
and where it is a loofe fand, equal difficulty would occur
regarding its retention, even when kept up by revetements
of fatcines. In either of thefe cafes, the batteries, &c. muft
be formed by placing gadions (which fee) in fuch order, and,
contiguous, as may ferve to give a preper form to the mer-
lons. The gabions may be either lined with leaves, faeking,
&c. where the {cil is a running fand, or they maybe rammed
full of clay, or whatever iff foil may be at hand ; wool,
cotton, chips of leather, bark, or whatever may Herve to
confine the fand, may anfwer according to circumftances, ob-
ferving that, in fome inltances, the whole interior mutt be
gabioned. It will be evident that on a bad oil, fuchoas
above deferibed, no ditch could be rendered both efficient
and permanent; if lined with fafcines, they might prove.
the deltru€tion of the whole work, fhould the enemy throw
carcafies or fheils into it. A battery formed of gabions
may be run up with great celerity, provided) proper mate-
rials for filling them be at hand, and plenty of labourers at
command, In very hard, rocky foils, there is great difficulty.
in fixing gabions, on account of the: impraéticability of
driving the neceffary ftakes. To. refit mufketry, fand’
bags are often found fufficient. Thefe are particularly fer-
viceable in fituations where the oppofing troops are very
clofe ; being placed foas to lean towards each other, but
leaving afmall interval, like a loop-hole, and being again
crowned with an entire layer of the fame kind ; they offer
an exccllent fkreen, from behind which the affailants may
be galied in the mott aes manner. Sand bags, ar:
ranged along the top of a low wall, add confiderably to the
means of defence, efpecially where the wall is fo irregular.
as to offer the means of flanking. :
Fie.p-Piece, a fpecies of artillery intended for fervice.
in the field, in contradiftinétion to fuch pieces of ordnance
@s are appropriated to the defences of fortified places, to
naval warfare, and to battering in breach. Field-pieces are
in general made of brafs, or rather of gun-metal, which con-.
fifts of from 8 to rolbs. of tin to 100lbs. of: cupper; the
largeft proportion of tin being ufed for mortars. The’
ordnance under defeription is ufually divided into three
clafles, viz. battalion guns, artillery of the park, and horfe
artillery. The battalion guns include all light pieces at-
tached to regiments of the line, which they accompany in,
all manceuvres, to cover and fupport them. The following
natures of field ordnance are attached to battalions of
infantry, by the different powers in Europe : ;

The French have two — 4-Pounders ser battalion.
Englifh two 6 do. Yaoy
Danes tavon ~9) aredas do. *
Avttrians three’ 6 of ido do. —
Pruffians two 6 © do. inthe rf lin }

: ee ea two 3. © do.inthe 2d line
Havoverians two 3 do. per battalion.

- The artillery of the park is compofed of every clafs of
field orduance. It is intended to form batteries of pofition,
that is to fay, to occupy advantageous fituations, inde-'
pendent of the movements of the troops, but with the view
to fupport them, and to produce the greateft effeéts.
Sometimes the park is divided into the feveral parts of the
line ; fometimes it is advanced under cover of cavalry,

which,

FIELD.

which, fuddenly retiring, at 2 proper moment, unmafk
the battery, and furprife the enemy by the fatal dif-
clofure.

“The park fhould be fufficiently numerous to afford fup-
plies in the event of any pieces being taken by the enemy;
but, on the other hand, it is bad policy to burthen an army
with too large a train, which not only occupies a great
lmgth of line, which in fome inftances expofes the whole
to injury, but demands fo large a ftock of forage for the
horfes, &c. as to occafion confiderable inconvenience on the
feore of provifions. ‘The common rule is, to attach to the
park twice as many field-pieces, of various natures, as there
may be battalions of infantry in the army. The moft ap-
proved proportions are thefe: 2 fifths of the whole te be
12-pounders ; 2-fifths to be 6 pounders, and 1-fifth to be
g-pounders. Butin different countries it is found neceffary
to lewer the eftablifhment to the following ftandard;
viz. only 1-fourth to be 12-pounders; 2-fourths to be
6-peunders, and 1-fourth to be 3-pounders. For every 109
pieces of cannon it is fuppofed that four howitzers fhould
be added; buc we generally fee a much larger proportion
of the latter; perhaps as far as 18 or 20 to the 109:-the
French even exceed that proportion, and clais their field-
pieces into 12, 8, and 4-pounders ; which, as their pound
weight exceeds our’s confiderably, their ordnance may be
rated at about 1-fifth heavier than the Britifh.

Horfe artillery.—In the French fervice this confilts of
8-pounders, and 6-inch howitzers; a weight of metal re-
quiring the greateft exertions to move with due rapidity,
and rather tending to fubjeCt this department to delays, or

even to capture. With refpe& to the latter point, the
French feem to entertain fewer fcruples about relinquifhing
their ordnance than we do; they rarely make exigency fub-
fervient to honour, but look principally to effects; being
certain that a few field-pieces may always be fupplied from

_their park of artillery.

The Englifh horfe artillery confifts of light 12-pounders,
light G-pounders, and light Se iich howitzers. It remains
to be proved how far this feleétian is eligible ; but, in addi-
tion to the foregoing comment on the French eftablifhment,
we may perhaps be correct in hazarding an opinion, that,
except in the difcharge of grape, in which branch the
howitzers poffefs a decided fuperiority, the French
§-pounders may be confidered as very nearly on a par with
our 12-pounders; the former weigh only rocwt. 3qrs.
while the latter amount toe Scwt. 3.qrs. 4 lbs.; or, upon
the new feale now chiefly in ufe, to 12ewt. But our
medium 12-pounders have only a very fmall limber-box,
jately added, which carries 6 round, and 6 cafe fhot, with a
proportion of {mall ftores. ‘hey are attended each by
two waggons, having the ammunition, generally about
150 rounds, divided equally between them. The light
6-pounders carry 34 round and 16 cafe-fhot in their hm-
bers, and for each pair of guns about 260 rounds of forts
in one waggon. The 5!-inch lrowitzers carry 22 fhells,
4 cafe-fhot, and 2 carcafles, in their ref{pective limbers, aud
are attended by two waggons, carrying 24 cafe-fhot, 24
fhells filled, and 120 empty,. and_4 careafles. The horfe
artillery pieces have waggons on a peculiar cortiudtion
which carry as follow:

For 12-Pounders, light, on the limber— 12round, 4 cafe, 4 fhells oe G3

—_ do. in one waggon— 52 10 10 —— San

For 6-Pounders, light, on. the limber— 32 § — total 180.

= do. in one waggoa— g7 —— 13 —— ——

Fer st-inch howitzers, on the limber— — Ss 5 —— 113 —— .

abe ee do. in one waggon— — 10— al and 4 carcaffes total 75-
For 3-Pounders, heavy, with curricle—. + 6 ——- - 6 —— total 136.
ie oO. in one cart—1o9 —— 24 ——

The Britih parks of artillery are compofed of the fol-
lewing ordnance: medium 12-pounders, 4; Defagulier’s
6-pounders, 4; and light 54-inch howitzers, 4. hefe
are called brigades, according to their refpective calibres,
er natures; each brigade confiiting of 4 or 6 pieces, with
a referve of about 4th of the whole number, which fhould
be placed behind the firft line; but if the front be exten-
five the referve mutt be divided.

All field-pieces are mounted on carriages, ftanding on one

air of wheels five feet in height, and when travelling have
their trails, or rear, (which then precedes the gun itfclf,)
hooked up to the rear of the dimber, or carriage, on equal
fized wheels, allotted to the conveyance of the ammunition
in chefts ; thence called /imber-boxes.

Frep-Staff, is a ftaff carried by the gunners, in which
they {crew lighted matches, when they are on command ;
which is called arming the field-ftafls. See Linsrocx.

Fieip-Mar/hal, is the denomination of the modern mili-
tary rank in England, but fuperior to all others ; having
the chief command of the whole army.

Fikip Officers. See Orricers. :

Fiexp of Vifion, in Optics, is that conical fpace indefi-
nitely extended before us, fo as to include all objects that
can be feen at one view, or without turning the eyes. The

vecife limits of this {pace are not eafily afcertained. In
ooking at a {mall diftance, we have an imperfect glimpfe
af objects through almodt the exteat of a hemilphere, or at

Vou, X1Y.

leaft for above fixty degrees each way from the optic axes;
but towards the extremity of this {pace obie@s are very
imperfeCly feen ; and the diameter of the field of diftin®&
vifion does not fubtend au angle of more than five degrees
at moft, fo that the diameter of a diftin@ image on the
retina is lefs than .06 of an inch ; but it is probably much
lefs. See Vision.

Fievp-Fare, in Ornithology, the Englith name of a bird of
the thrufh kind, called by authors Tuanws pilaris, which
ice.

It is a bird of paflage, and vilits us in England toward
the end of autumn in vaft flocks, and leaves us in fpring ; it
is not certainly known where thefe birds breed. They
feed on berries, particularly thofe of the holly, and are well
tafted birds.

This bird is eafily taken with water bird-lime in the
following manner? take out a gun, and kill two or three
field-fares with it ; by that time the gun has been difcharged
two or three times, the reft of thefe birds will be fo thy,
that there will be no coming near them ; then tie one or
two of thofe that were fhot to the upper branches of a
bufhy tree, in fuch manner, that they may {eem alive and
fitting there. Then prepare two or three hundred twigs,
covering them well with the water bird-lime, made warm
for that purpofe; take a good birchen bough, and in that
place all the twigs ; tie this falt to the tree, juft underneath
where the athee iteld-fares are tied, and let this be in a place

3F whore

rie

where they come ina morning to feed, for they always ufe
ote haunt for feeding fo long as there is any food left there.
By this means the field-fares will fettle in whole flocks, near
thofe which they fee tied to the bufh; and two: or three
dozen may be in this manner taken at a time.

Frievp-Pare, American. See Turpus Migratorius.

Fieto-Lark. See Avaupa Arvenfis.

Fieip-Book, in Surveying, a book ufed for fetting down
angles, diftances, and other things, remarkable in taking
furveys. :

The pages of the ficld-book may be conveniently divided
into five columns. In the.middle column the angles at the
feveral ftations taken by the theodolite are to be entered,
with the diftances from the ftations. The diflances taken
by the off-fet flaff, on either fide of the {tation line, are to
be entered into the columns on either fide of the middle
column, according to their pofition with refpeét to that
line. The names or characters of the objects, with proper
remarks, may be entered in the columns on either fide of
thefe laft mentioned. See SurveyInG.

Frierp of a Painting, &c. is more ufually called the
ground thereof.

FIELDING, Henry, in Biography, a diftinguifhed
writer, was born in 1707 at Sharpham, near Glaftonbury
in Somerfetthire. After receiving the rudiments of educa-
tion at home, he was removed to Eton fchool, where he
laid in a refpeétable ftock of claffical learning, From Eton
he went to Leyden, where he ftudied the civil law, but
foon after his return he commenced writer for the ftage.
His firft piece was a comedy, entitled « Love in feveral
Mafks,”? and the fuccefs which he obtained in this inflance
led him to make numerous efforts in the fame way ; but his
early comedies are all forgotten: many of them were little
more than tranflations from the French.

At the age of about twenty-fix, or twenty-feven, he
married a young lady of great beauty, and with fome for-
tune, which, with what he obtained by the death of his
mother, put him in poffeffion of an eftate of rather more
than 200/. per annum. With this fortune he affumed the
flyle of a country gentleman, with a retinue of fervants,
horfes, and dogs. In three years he had exhaufted his

roperty, and involved himfelf in confiderable difficulties.
Fie now refolved to fludy the law, with a view to future
{upport, and entered himfelf in the ‘Temple. While he was
keeping the terms required, he fupported himfelf and family
by his pen. He wrote for the ftage, and publifhed many
effays which difplayed a fund of good fenfe, and acquaint-
aiice with mankind. His firft attempt at the humorous and
fatiric delineation of chara@er, was in the “ Hiftery of
Jonathan Wild,’ which difplays a familiarity with the
{cenes of low profligacy, which it is wonderful that a per-
fon in decent life fhould ever acquire; but his early courfe
laid the foundation of too much knowledge of this kind.
In 1742 he publifhed his firft proper novel, entitled «* The
Hiftory and Adventures of Jofeph Andrews, and his friend
Mr. Abraham Adams.?? The fcenes introduced in this
piece are chiefly thofe of low life: the grave Cervantic

humour is imitated, and the principal chara@er, parfon.

Adams, is rendéred the Quixote of the piece. His fuec-
cefs as a novel-writer was not favourable to his profeffional
puriuits, and he did not attain to any confiderable eminence
at the bar. He received little emolument from: his legal
praticé, and his other fupplies were inadequate to the de-
mands of his family. In the midit of anxious cares and
broken health, he had the misfortune to lofe his wife.
this ftroke he was fo far 6verwhelmed as to be unequal to
allexertion. “At length, the love of liberty ‘and the ‘caufe

By

PIE

of proteftantifm re-animated his fervour, and, in 1745%
during the rebellion, he wrote and publifhed a periodical
paper, entitled “ The true Patriot,’? which was followed
by ‘ The Jacobite Journal.” Thefe efforts in favour of
the government and conftitution, obtained for him the ap-
pointment to the office of a: Middlefex magiftrate, in the
difcharge of the duties of which» he was very exemplary
and took every method for preventing crimes, aud fer im=
proving the police. In’1749 he publifhed ‘* A: Charge to
the Grand Jury,”’ containing an accurate account of the in-
{titution and particular duties of grand juries. This was
followed by an «* Enquiry into the Cautes of the late in-
creafe of Robbers,”? dedicated to the lord chancellor
Hardwicke ; and by “ A Propofal for the maintenance of
the Poor:” both thefe pieces were efteemed judicious and
ufeful performances, and as exhibiting much diligent re-
fearch into difficult fubje@s. While he was thus employed
in the ferious avocations of his magifterial office, he found
leifure to write his ‘Tom Jones,’”? which muft ever be
regarded as a matter-piece of art, replete with the moft
ftriking delineation of manners, and exhibiting extraordinary
flall in managing the intricacies of a plot fo as to wind up
with the happieft effect. His third novel was eatitled
“Amelia,” which came out in 1751; after the publication of
this his conftitution began to give way very rapidly, but
the powers of his mind were {till in high vigour, and he
engaged in a new periodical work, entitled « The Covent
Garden Journal,”? which continued with much fuccels for
about a year, when the author’s ill-health obliged him to
fufpend his literary labours. As a lait refource, he was
advifed to try the climate of Portugal, but the voyage did
not contribute to his recovery ; he lived long enough to
defcribe the occurrences which he had witnefled in pafiing
from London to Lifbon, and died’ OGtober 8th, 1754, in
the forty-eighth year of his age. Fielding was poffeffed
of many folid virtues of the heart, and the powers of his
under{tanding were unquettionable. His novels, though
liable to objeétions, afford’ many valuable moral leffons.
His fcenes are often drawn from low life, and difplay too
much of the vices and crimes of mankind, yet they are
relieved by a confiderable admixture of nobler matter, and
contain many affecting pi€tures of moral excellence. His
fame as a.writer has not declined fince his death. He is»
{till regarded as much at ‘the head of the department of
comic romance as Richardfon is at that of the fentimental.
His fifter, Sarah Fielding, is known for two novels, entitled »
“David Simple,” and “ The Cry ;”? and for a tranflation >
of the Memorabilia”? of Xenophon: and his: half-
brother, fir John Fielding, was long at the head of the
public office, London. Biog. Brit.

IIELEWEER, in Geography, an ifland near the W.
coaft of Norway, about 22 miles long and 4 broad, with a
town. N. lat. 63°. 391. =

FIELSIA, a town of Swedifh Lapland;- 45 miles
SiS.E. of Afela.

FLEN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak; 5 miles’
S.W. of Cafhan.

FIENVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
te department of the Somme ; five miles'S.W. of Dour-s
ens.

FIENUS, or Frens, Tuomas, in Biography, a phy-
ficiah of eminence in the fixteenth century, was born at
Antwerp, where his father exercifed the fame profeffion, on
the 28th of March, 1567. He purfued his’ medical and
mathematical ftudies at Leyden, and afterwards at Bologna,
which he vifited in 1550. Onhis return to his native country
his talents-were foon mad¢ known’: in’ 1593 he was invited:

i - te

HEE

¢o Louvaine, in order to fill one of the vacant profefforfhips
of medicine in that univerfity, in which he took the degree
of dogtor about the end of that year. He refigned his
chair after feven years of refidence in that {chool, and went
to Munich, having been appointed phyfician to Maximilian,
duke and afterwards eleGor of Bavaria; but he returned to
his poft at the end of one year. In-41616, he was offered
the profefforfhip of medicite in the univerfity of Bologna,
with a falary of a thoufand ducats ; but the archdike Albert
immediately increafed his falary at Louvaine to the fame
fum, in order to do away the temptation of leaving that
city. Accordingly he remained there until his death, which
6ccurred on the 15th of March, 1631, at the colleze of
Breughel, of which he had been for a long time prefident.
Fienus has been ever regarded as an intelligent and able phy-
fician ; he had few equals among his contemporaries in the
knowledge of natural hiftory and furgery ; not to mention
his acquaintance with the Greek, and mathematics. His
works likewile contributed greatly to advance his reputation;
they were as follows. 1. “ De cauteriis Libri quinque,”
Qouvaine, 1598. 2. “ Libri Chirurgici XII., de preci-
ae Artis Chirurgice controverfiis,’? Francfort, 1602.
‘his work, which paffed through many editions, treats of
the principal furgical operations. 3. ‘* De viribus Imagi-
nationis ‘Tractatus,”? Louvaine, 1608. 4. ‘“ De Cometa
anni 1618,”” Antwerp, 1619. In this traét he combats the
opinions of Copernicus refpeing the motion of the earth.
5. * De vi formatrice feetis Liber, in quo oftenditur ani-
mam rationalem infundi tertia die,’”’ ibid. 1620. This
work was attacked by Louis du Gardin, a profeflor of
Douay, who maintained the better ground in this undeter-
minable argument. Fienus replied in, 6. “ De formatrice
feetus adverfus Ludovicum du Gardin, &c.,’? Louvaine,
1624. His opinion was alfo impugned by Santa Cruz, the
phyfician of Philip IV.. which produced, 7. “ Pro fua
de animatione Feetiis tertia die opinione Apologia, adverfus
Antonium Ponce Santa Cruz, Regis Hifpaniarum Medi-
eum Cubicularem, &c.,”? Louvaine, 1629. 8. “ Semio-
tice, five de fignis medicis Traatus,’? Leyden, 1664.
The father of the preceding, Dr. John Fienus, publifhed a
treatife at Antwerp in 1582, entitled, « De Flatibus huma-
num corpus moleftantibus Commentarius novus ac fingula-
wis,”” which pafied through many editions. Eloy. Dia.
FIERAS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Aland; twelve miles N.N.W. of Wardbere.
FIERT Facias, in Laz, a judicial writ, which lies at all
times within the year and day, for him that hath recovered
in an attion of debt and damages ; it is dire€ted to the fhe-
riff, commanding him to levy the debt and damages on
him, again{t whom the recovery was had. This {pecies of
execution is called jeri facias from the words in it which
command the fheriff, quod fieri faciat de bonis, that he
eaufe to be made of the coods and chattels of the defendant
the fum or debt recovered. This lies as well againft privi-
Jeged perfons, peers, &c., as other common perfons; and
again{t executors or adminiftrators with regard to the goods
of the deceafed. The fheriff may not break open any outer
doors (5 Rep. 92.) to execute this writ; but mult enter
poceby: and may then break open any inner doors, be-
Jonging to the defendant, in order to take the goods.
(Palm. 54.) And he may fell the goods and chattels, even
an eftate for years, which is a chattel real (8 Rep. 171.)
of the defendant, till he has raifed enough to fatisfy the
judgment and cofts: firft paying the landlord of the pre-
“mifes, upon which the goods are found, the arrears of rent
then duc, not exceeding one year’s rent in the whole. (Stat.

@ Ann. c..14.) If part only -of the debt -be levied on a

FIE

Seri faciar, the plaintiff may have a capias ad fatisfaciendum
for the refidue. (1 Roll. Abr. go4. Cro. Eliz. 344.) See
Execution.

FIESCO, Joun Lewts, in Biography, count of La-
vagna, a noble Genoefe, was born in 1525. He became
pofléffed of a large eftate at the age of eighteen, and, fur-
rounded with flatterers, began, at their fuggeftions, to af-
pire after that power and diftinGion in the itate to which
his birth and opulence feemed to entitle him, but from
which he was precluded by the fuperior influence of the
Doria family. (See Doria, Andrew.) Fiefco, who pol-
feffed all the talents proper to ingratiate himfelf with a
party, refolved to attempt a révolution in Genoa which
might raife him to the fiation that Doria now occupied.
His courteous manners rendered him 2 favourite with the
people. He obtamed the intereit of the court of France,
and the concurrence of the Pope, who accommodated him
with fome galleys. Notwithftanding the preparations that lie
wasmaking, Doria did not, and would not, fufpeét any thing
to the prejudice of Fiefeo, though the deftru€tion of him-
{elf and family formed an effential part of the confpiracy.
The day fixed for the bloody enterprize was January the 2d,
1547, and, on the preceding morning, Fiefco prepared a
galley under the pretext of a cruife againti the corfairs, and
then paying a vifit to Doria, he requeited permiffion to de-
part early from the harbour, and took his leave with much
apparent refpe&t, and every demonftration of affeGion. In
the evening he affembled his adherents, and having exhorted
them to join him in an attempt to free their country from
its oppreflors ; he went to make known kis projeét to his
wife, who, diftraéted with the idea of the impending dan-
ger, entreated him, on her knees, to defift from his defperate
undertaking. He had, however, made up his mind, and
was immoveable ; rufling fromher apartment, he exclaimed,
«¢ Madam, yeu fhall never fee me again, cr you fhall fee
every thing’ in Genoa beneath you.’’ Inthe dead of night
he fallied forth at the head of 500 armed men, furround-
ed by his fellow confpirators. “He difpatched parties to all
quarters, and proceeded himfelf to fecure the dock in which
the galleys lay. In pafling over a plank, ‘placed between
two veflels, it gave way and he fell into the water. The
weight of his armour funk him to the bettom, from whence
he never rofe, and thus, at the early age of twenty-two, his
life was facrificed at the fhrine of ambition. The confede~
rates had gone too far to recede with fafety ; they determined
therefore to {trike the defperate blow, but the death of their
Jeader was fatalto the attempt. Doria efcaped unhurt; the
fenate recovered its authority, and the family of Fiefco
paid the penalty of the crimes of their leader by ruin and
profcription. Mod. Univer. Hift.

Fiesco, in Geography, a town of Italy, ia the depart-
ment of the Upper Po; 4 miles E. of Crema.

FIESOLE, Grovannr pba, in Biography, ag hittorical
painter, who was born at Fiefoli, in 1387. His*real name
was Montorioli ; from his excellence in painting the expref-
fions of faints and angels, he was alfo called Grovanni Ans
gelico. He was firlt placed as a difciple with Giottino ;
He afterwards became a Dominican friar. His firft works
of confequence were painted at Florence, by order of Cof-
mo di Medici ; who having built the church and convent of
St. Mark, commiffioned Fra. Giovanni to paint the Chapter-
houfe, in which he reprefented, in frefco, on the walls, three
fubjeGts. ft, The Paffion of Chritt. 2d, All the Saints,
Founders of Religious Orders, weeping at the foot of the
Crofs, and on the other St. Mark the Evangedift with the
Virgin, the three Maries, and Sats Cofimo aud Damian,
prefert at ‘the Crucifixion. gee thefe, by way of —_

Ben 3 ae

FEF

he reprefented a tree, at the foot of which was St. Domiui-
co fupporting the branches, which in their turn upheld
portraits of all the popes, cardinals, bifhops, faints, and
doors in theology, whé were of the Dominican order.
His fame procured him an invitation to Rome from pope
Nicholas V., who employe@ him to paint his chapel and or-
nament manuicripts. He became fo warm an admirer of
Giovanni, that he offered him the archbifhopric of Florence,
which his humility aud perhaps love of his art, led him to
decline accepting for himfelf, and the perfon whom he re-
commended was inftalled in his ftead. He generally painted
his pictures {maller than life: Vafari fpeaks of them with
great delight, but they are not of a grand clafs, and are
often defective. He died in 1445, aged fixty-cight, hav-
ing been exceedingly induftrious, and leaving behind him an
immeife number of works, principally at Florence and
Rome.

FIESOLI, in Geography, a town of Etruria, the fee of
a bifhop, fuffragan of Florence, three miles N.E. of Flo-
rence, This is the antient Fe/u/e, one of the twelve cities
of Etruria.

FIFE, a fmall fhrill flute, blown at the fide, like a Ger-
man flute, It is inalmoft every mufical band, and as the tabor
and pipe euliven the dance, the fife and drum animate the
foldier, particularly in the quick flep. The fife has fix
notes, and furnifhes two otaves from the loweft D in the
treble, to Dinalt. The Swifs firft brought this inftrument
into France, after the battle of Marignan, under Francis I. ;
fince which time it has been admitted into regimental mulic,
in preference to the common octave flute, being made lefs
falfe from its having a key which the fife @ dee has not. La-
borde.

The fe is an inftrument, particularly intended for the

ufe of regiments, and forms, in conjunGtion with the drum,
the only mufic with which many corps are provided.
This little fhrill tube is ufually about fourteen inches in
Tength, and of one piece, though fome are made to take to
pieces ; but fuch are not fuited to military ufe: it may be
confidered a {mall kind of flute, efpecially if provided, as
fome are, with a key; but fuch are rare, the generality
being confined to only fix finger holes, and an embouchure,
or mouth-hole. The want of a key neceffarily occations a
difference in the fingering of many notes; but the compafs,
or extent, is about the fame as that of the German flute ;
namely, from D below the treble ftaff, to D in alt.; but
_all beyond B in alt. are more or lefs harfh, and cruelly
piercing toa fenfible car. Fifes are made of three feveral
fizes, denominated A, B, andC, refpectively ; A being the
largeft and deepeft toned, and one minor third below concert
pitch ; the next fize is made to corref{pond with the B b of
the mufical f{cale, and is generally uled when playing with
military bands, ufing what are called B b clarionets. The
C fifes are thofe at concert-pitch, and are chiefly ufed for
the ordiuary fervice of thefe inftruments. Such an aflort-
ment requires fome vehicle or receptacle; accordingly we
find that where fuch a diverfity is allowed, each fifer is pro-
vided with a

Fire-ca/e, which is atin tube, about twenty inches long,
and three in diameter, having two diaphragms of tin pierced
for the feveral fifes to pafs through, fo as to be kept fepa-
rate. There is atin hd which faftens down, and either
locks or is fixed by a [pring pin. This cafe is generally
painted to conform with the ornaments on the drums of the
regiment, and is flung over the fhoulder by means of a cord
with taflels. Though certainly decorative, we cannot but
view this appendage as both ufelefs and extravagant.

Firs-rails, ina Ship, are thofe that are placed on banifters

FIF

on each fide of the top of the poop, and fo along with
hances or falls. They reach down to the quarter-deck, and
to the ftair of the gangway.

Fire’s Pafage, in Geography, a channel in Broughton’s
Archipelago, about eleven miles in length and two in breadth.
N. lat. so" se’. E. long. 233° 11’.

FIFENESS, a cape of Scotland, on the E. of the
county of Fife, with a village of the fame name; a ridge
of rocks, called the Car rocks, extending a confiderable
way into the fea, renders the paffage of the cape dangerous
to feamen. N. lat. 56° 15’. W. long. 2° 30’.

FIFER, a perfon who plays on the fife: of thefe oneis
generally appointed to each company of infantry, who, in
company with the drummer, plays to the corps while march-
ing for the relief of guard, or when the arms are carried 5
alfo at the times of beating the reviellez, the aflemblez, the
retreat, the tattoo, and other regular or incidental duties.
The mott difagreeable part of the duty of the fifers and
drummers, contifts in the infliGion of fuch punifhments as
offenders are fentenced by courts-martial to undergo in pre-
fence of their companions in arms, occafioning this clafs
of perfons to be often treated with marked odium, and te
receive the opprobrious defignation of ‘ Bloody Thumbs.”
This term is derived from the ftains of blood attaching to
their hands, in confequence of their occafionally firaightening
the feveral cords of which a cat-’o-nine-tails is compofedy
and which in the aét of flagellation are apt to become en-
tangled, fo as to fall heavily, en mafle, upon the delinquent’s
fhoulders. We cannot let pafs this opportunity of exprefi-
ing our conviction, founded on the beft authorities, that
corperal punifhments are as unneceflary as they are dif-
graceful ; and that it is not only very praéticable, but has
in many inftances been found very effectual, to fubftitute
moderation for feyerity, and an attack on the pride of an
offender, for one on his flefh. Under the exiiting fyftem
we can never be led to envy the feelings of the fifers and
drummers of a regiment ; nor can w. entertain the opivion
that this clafs of our foldiery will be exempted from thofe
opprobious epithets, and thofe farcaftic refle&ions, which
affix aftizma of the moft obnoxious defeription.

FIFESHIRE, in Geography, is a county of Scotland,

almoft furrounded by the rivers Forth and Tay, the friths.

or eftuaries of which nearly form it into a peninfula. The
former river on the fouth divides it from the Lothians ; and

the latter feparates it from the fhires of Perth and Angusg .

on the eait it is bounded by the fhires of Kinrofs and
Clackma:inan ; and on the weft by the German ocean. The
length is 60 miles by 18 in breadth, comprifing about 480
f{quare miles. The rivers by which it is watered, befides
the two already mentioned, are the Eden and the Leven,
The Eden has its rife on the borders of Perthhire, between
the towns of Strathmiglo and Abernethy; and taking a
courfe of 17 miles due ealt, falls into the fea in the bay of
St. Andrew’s. Though a tide river, its ftream is compara-
tively placid, and its fine falmon fifhery is greatly annoyed
on this account with the notorious enemies of that fifh,. the
phoce or feals, which is elegantly alluded to by the poet
Johnitone. ;

.)
« Arva inter nemorofque umbras, et pafcua lata -
Lene fluens, vitreis labitur Eden aquis.’?

The Leven flows out of Loch Leven, a beautiful lake
of nearly 12 miles in circumference, partially included in the
fhires of Fife and Kinrofs, the fertile plain of which forms
its weft and northern boundary, and to the eaft and north
it is overlooked by the towering Lomond hills. Thefe and
other interefting {urrounding objects, particularly the royal

refidence

FIF

vefidence of the ancient line of Scottifh or Pictifh kings,
will be noticed in their re{peétive places. This river, after
ranning 17 miles in an ealterly direétion, falls into the fea
near the village of Leven. It has frequently been -con-
founded, by the admirers of Smollet for his beautifi-l ode
on Leven Water, with a river of the fame name moetie fhire
of Dumbarton.

This diftri anciently formed part of the provincia
invicta Caledonia, which name the Romans had given to
the country north of the river Tay, previous to their taking
poffeflion ; for Camden obferves, the T’ay was the utinoit
northern boundary of the Roman empire in this part of
Britain. Julius Agricola, the beft of generals under the
wortt of emperors, Domitian, though he was enabled to
penetrate further by incurfive inroads, even into the heart
of the highlands; yet fagacioufly perceiving no benefit
could arife by conquering a country, naturally uzproduc-
tive, and thinly peopled, wifely withdrew his army from
ewhat he termed the Barbarians; and to refift retaliations
ereéted a chain of forts acrofs thie part of the ifland, and
eftablifhed the Tay for his hoftile frontier. Some Roman
remains have been difeovered northward in Perthfhire, but
many more in thofe parts of ancient Fifefhire, which now
eontftitute the counties of Clackmannan and Kinrofs. The
face of this part of the country is agreeably diverified ; to-
wards the welt, it is mountainous, and a ridge of hills
extends. north-eaftward nearly the whole of its length,
dividing the county into two xatural diltriéts;.on each
fide the country. gradually falling to the refpective friths of
Forth and Tay. The low lands exhibit a fine fertile
eountry, the high lands molt extenfive and beautiful prof:

&s ; and both aretolerably well wooded: The two: conis
eal hills, called: the Lomonds, ftand’ very confpicuous, and
are vilible out at fea to a great diflance. The eaftern
Lomond, the moft regular and beautiful in its fhape, is
about 1650 feet above the level of the town of Falkland,
which ftands at its bafe. On the fummit of this hill is a
{mall lake, which has the appearance of a volcanic crater,
fimilar to thofe defcribed by Spallanzani in his travels
through Sicily. The weftern Lomond is lefs regular in its
form, but has greater elevation; and on the fummit is a
hieap of loofe ftones, denominated by antiquaries a cairn.

The natural produtions are numerous and varied. The
whole of the fouth fide of the county abounds in coal, and
the pits are numerous. ‘The weftern and midland diftricis
produce iron ; lead has been difcovered in the eaftera Lo-
mond, and mines of this ore are profitably worked in the
parifh of Kemback. Limeitone is abundant,. and of an
excellent quality ; there are valuable freeitone quarries, and
plenty of marle. The pebbles, much admired for the high
polifh they take, have been difcovered in different places ;
and various kinds of agates, with rubies of a fine water,
highly valued by lapidaries.

Agriculture appears to have early occupied the attention
of the inhabitants of Fifefhire ; and its artificial productions
evince a fpirit of induftry and improvement, furpaffed in
few parts of Scotland. ‘The property is pretty equitably
divided ;, there being few large eftates, and the proprie-
tors in general refide and cultivate theirown. From this
kind of equitable diftribution of land, its value is increafed,
felling from 25 to 30 years purchafe. ‘To entimerate the
feats of the nobility and gentry is not a part of our plan ;
‘but thofe of Aberdour, Leflie, Melville, and Ely, are par-
ticularly deferving notice. In feveral parts of the county
are the remains of royal feats; at Dumferline, Falkland,
Kinghorn, and St. Andrew’s. Thefe ruins will foon ceafe
‘to be interefting ; for in the words of lord Rochetter, ** they

FIF

are in the full perfection of decay.”? Almoft furrounded by
the fea, this county is furnifhed with feveral good harbours ;
particularly Burntifland, in the frith of Porth, oppofite
Leith, whichis inferior to none in the ifland. From the
cireumitance of the towns principally lying upon the
coaft, king James V!. compared this couuty to “a grey
mautle with a gold fringe.”” Thefe towns were regarded
by that monarch with peculiar attention, who, endeavoured
to. make them fubfervient to his grand and wife defiga of
raifing Scotland high in the fcale of commercial natious; a
rank her natural capabilities entitled her to hold. For this
purpofe he granted the inhabitants divers
immunities; and by every inducement encouraged them to
cultivate their local advantages. And thonzh many of
thofe privileges by the union have been rendered unim-
portant, yet they remain a ftanding monument of the jult
difcernment and political fagaeity of the royal grantor,
The county fends one member to the Britifh fenate. The
number of royal burghs or parlianient towns, as they are
ufually called, is:thirteen, wiz. Cupar, thie coutty town,
St. Amndrew’s, Inverkeithing, Dumferline, Burntifland;
Kinghorn, Kirkaldy, Dyfart, Pettenweem, Anftruther,
Kilrenny Eafter, Kilrenny Welter, andCrail. Severabothers,
formerly privileged with eleCtive franchife, have loft it, from
having been unable to defray the expenee of reprefentation,
by fending a commillioner to the Scottifh parliament.
Among thisnumber may be mentioned, the towns of Auch-
termuchty, Strathmiglo, Newburgh, Falkland, Kilconqu-
har, Elie, Earlsferry &c. which, though not very large
places, deferve notice from their former importance. The
county 1s divided into fixty-three parochial diftridts, and by
the enumeration returned to parliament in 1801, the number
of houfes was 17,065, and inhabitants 93,743, being 196
upon every fquare mile ; a much greater population than is
to be found in any other part of Scotland. Inits ecclefiafti-
cal diftribution it contains one full fyned and four feats of
prefbytery. The people are varioufly employed. Many in
the falmoa, herring, and efpecially what is denominated the
white fifhery, which is very produétive on this part of the
coaft; others in digging coals, great quantities of which
are carried coaltwile, and by-the Caledonian carnal, to other
parts. of Scotland.. The iron mines employ numbers, the
ore of which fupplies the Calder; Carron, and other iron
works ;, and ftill more are engaged in manufacturing linen
and cotton cloths ; with a kind of the latter, under the name
of green cloth,.the London calico printers have been long
fupplied from the :markets of Fife. This county anciently
conitituted an earldom, and the honcur was pofleffed by the
family: of Macduff; a title conferred on the thane of
Fife, by Malcolm III. for the fervices the former had
done that monarch, in rettoring him to the throne, which
had been previoufly pofleffed by the ufurper Macbeth.
This title having become extin&, was recently revived in
the Duffs of Braco, lateral defcendants of the ancient
family... General Statiftical Account of Scotland.

FIFTEENTH, Decima guinia, or Quinzieme, an ane
cient tribute or impofition of. money, laid upon any city,
borough, or other town, through the realm: not by the
poll, or upon this or that man, but in general upon the
whole city or town.

It is fo called, becaufe-it was fuppofed:to amount to a
fifteenth part of that which the city had been valued at of
old; or to a fifteenth part of every man’s perfonal eftate,
according to areafonable valuation. ,

This was impofed by parliament, and every town through-
the realm knew what a fifteenth for themfelves amounted to,
becaufe it was glsoza the fame ; whereas the fubidy, which

ras-

aa
privileges and

FIF

was raifed of every particular man’s lands, or goods, mutt
needs be uncertain.

The fifteenth feems to have been a rate .anciently laid
upon every town, according to the land or circuit belong-
ing to it. Camden mentions many of thefe fifteenths in his
Britan. viz. p.171. ¢¢ Bath geldabat pro viginti hidis,
quando fchira geldabat, &c.”” And p.181. Old Sarum
pro quinguaginta hidis geldabat, &c.” Which rates are
according to Doomfday. But in after-times the fifteenth
came to be underflood as impofed euly on goods and chat-
tels, not on lands. It was firft granted by parliament,
18 Edw. 1. viz. “ Computus quinte decime regi, an. 18.
per archiepifcopos, epifcopos, abbates, priores, comites,
barones, & omnes alios de regno, de omnibus bonis mobili-
bus conceffa.”? The city of London paid that year for
the fifteenth 2860/. 135. 8d. and the abbvt of St Edmund’s
6661. 135. 4d. which was by compolition; and thereupoh
had all the temporal goods of their diilrict difcharged: of
the fifteenth.

In the 8th of Edw. IIL. it was reduced to acertainty,
when, by virtue of the king’s commiflion, new taxations
were made of every townfhip, borough, and city, in the
kingdom, .and recorded in the exchequer ; which rate was,
at the time, the fifteenth part of the value of every townflup,
and the whole amounted to about 29,000/.; and, therefore,
it {till kept up the name ofa fifteenth, when, by the altera-
tion of the value of money and the increafe of perfonal
property, things came to be ina very different fituation.
So that when of later years the commons granted the king
a fifteenth, every parifh in England immediately knew their
proportion of it; that is, the fame identical fum that was
afleffled by the fame aid in the 8th of Edward IITI.; and
then ratfed it by a rate among themfelves, and returned it
into the royal exchequer.

“The way of collecting it was by two affeffors appointed
in every county by the king, who appointed twelve more
in every hundred to make a true valuation of every
man’s perfonal eftate upon which the fifteenth part was
levied.

Firreentu, in Mufic, is an interval whofe ratio is 4th, or

the double oftave or replicate thereof = 12242 + 24 f

+ 106m; fee table of Concorps.

Firreenru Stop on an organ, ie a range of pipes, fo
called becaufe each note therein is tuned a double octave or
fifteenth above the diapafons, which are reckoned the ftan-
dard. In accompanying choral parts in a concert, or in
church-fingine, this flop, the twelfth, the principal, and
the two diapafon ftops, are generally ufed together.

Firreentu-Mile creek, in Geography, a river which rifes
in Pennfylvania, and runs into the Potomack, in Maryland.
N. lat. 39° go!. W. long. 78° 25!

FIFTH, in Mufic, is a perfect concord, the next in per-
fe€tion to the unifon and oétave; in the divifion of the
monochord its ratio is 3:2, that is, the third part of a
ftring isa 5th to the o¢tave of the whole ftring. (See
Monocuorp and Funpamentat Bafe.) The sthis a
principal found in the triad or common chord. It is made
adifcord by the 6th; the falfe 5th is a difcord -in itfelf,
and muft be prepared and refolved. The perfeét 5th is
feven half notes above the bafe. It is fo perfect a concord
that nofucceffion of 5ths with the bafe, or any of the other
parts, can be borne, afcending or defcending together.
Dr. Pepufch has given all the warrantable means of pre-
paring and refolving it asa difeord; and for the unwarran-
table fucceflion of 5ths, fee Padre Sacchi delle quinte
fucceflive. The 5th of a key, falling to the key-notegn the
hafe, being regarded as afull cadence or clofe, has given

RLF

birth in France to the denomination of dominant, asi€
governs or leads to the key-note or tonic of every key.
Thus, G is regarded as the dominant of C, and .D of G,
&c.. ,

The fifth, or major Fifth, is one of its moft important ins
tervals, and the moft perfect or agreeable in its harmony of
any other interval within the octave ; it is ufually marked V,
in writings on the theory of mufic, and confiits of feven
of the half-notes of keyed inftruments, which have 12 founds
in the oftave. Its ratiois }=3582 + 7:f + 31 m; its com-
mon logarithm is .8239087,4094, and its binary or Euler’s
log-= .584962, which is its decimal relation to the o€tave
(x) of which itis nearly the 31d part: it contains 32.639526
major commas, is compofed of a major and minor third, and
is the complement ofa minor fourth to the o€tave: itis equal
to the fum of a major tone and minor fourth, a femidiapente
and a medius fernitone, a tritone and major femitone, three
major tones and alimma, three apotomes and four limmas;
two major tones, one minor tone, and a major femitone alfo
compofe it, (fee Quint.) Two circumflances have cony
curred to render this concord the moft proper to:be ufed
in the tuning of keyed and fivinged initruments, viz. its
great perfection, by which much facility is given in tunings
and it being the only concord which will bear repeating
12 times in fucceffion (with, or without defcending o€taves)
and each time produce a note an{wering nearly to the 12
notes in common ufe, and on the 13th repetition fall very
nearly on an o€tave of the note firit ftarted from: which
circumftances occafion this concord, tempered in. different
degrees, to be almott exclufively ufed in the tuning of inftru-
ments. Befides the above, various other intervals bear the
names of fifth, as

Flat fifth, the femidiapente of the ancients, or falfe fifth
of fome, being lefs than a tone or major-fifth by the medius

femi-tone, and confilts of fix half-notes ; its ratio is 2 =]

nA iy

311 D+ 6/f + 2710, = eet its common logarithm is

-847032533979.: its binary log. = .508148, and it is =
28.35349 major commas. It is the complement of a tri-
tone, is equalto a minor fourth and a major femitone, a tri-
tone and minor comma, to the difference between two
minor thirds and a major comma ; a major, a minor, and two
major femitones alfo compofe it; and it is the difference
between two 4ths, and a IIId, whence it may be tuned on "
an organ.

Sharp fifth, or diefis defective minor fixth, the fuper-
fluons fifth of Tartini, confilts of eight half notes ; it exceeds

: { : Se a
the true fifth by a minor femitone ; its ratio is te rkg
2

2+
== 394 © + 8f + 34m; its common logarithm is

.8061799,7398 ; its binary log. = .643856, and it is =
35-92564 commas; it is the complement of the flat fourth ;
it is equal to two major and two minor tones, and is equal
to the difference of a miner fixth and enharmonic diefis, alfo
to 2 VIII —2 6ths, 2 V — 2 3ds, 2 VI — 2 aths, or to
2 III: whence it may be tuned. ‘
Comina deficient fifth, or leffer fifth of Holder, and deficient
fifth of others, is lefs than a true fifth by a major comma,
3
as its name imports ; its ratio is eA aes
++ °39.m 3 its common logarithm is .8293037,7283, and its
binary log. = .567042: it is = 31.639524 major commas.
It is equal to one major, two minor, and one major femi«
tone,

Fl F

tone, and to a minor fourth and minor tone’; it is alfo equal

€o the difference between two 4ths aud a 3d, whence’ it may
be tuned.
‘Comma-deficient flat fifth, is an apotome lefs than a true
MeDN 5 lenges. Bt) S ,
CL ea 3002 + 6f + 26m:
its common logarithm is .8524275,7167, and its binary log.
= .490228 ; it is = 27.35340 major commas. It is’ tlie
complement of three major tones; is equal to two comma-
déficient minor thirds: to two major tones and two limmas,
and is alfo the diference between four 4ths, and two Vths,
whence it may be tuned.
Comma redundant fifth, or greater fifth of Holder, is a

: : 7 5 vA EepL OS)
major comma: larger than a true fifth; its ratio is ——

243
25

=> = 3692 + 7 f + 32m; its common logarithm

fifth: its ratio is

is 8185137,0905; and its binary log. = .602881, it is =
33-639526 major commas, three major tones, and'a major
femitone, and is the drfference between two Vths and a 3d
and two 4ths, whence it may be tuned.

Comma-redundant fharp fifth, or {uperfluous fifth of fome,

: : * : 35256
isa femitone medias larger thana true fifth ; its ratio is aes
405

: 5)

= = 405 = + 8 f+ 35m; its common logarithm is
.8007849,4209; and its binary log. = .661776: it is

36.92564 major commas, two major thirds, and a major
comma ; it is the difference between a major fixth anda
limma; and between two Vths and a IIId and two 4ths,
by which it can be tuned.

- Comma-redundant flat fifth, or tritone maximum of Enlex,
alfo the diminifhed fifth of fome, isa minor femitone lefs
than a true fifth; its ratio is a =

76 pye = 3222 + Of +

28 m, its common logarithm = .8416375,0790, and the
binary log. .526068: it is = 29.35340 major commas: it
is equal to two major tones and two major femitones, alfo
to two 3ds;’ whence it may be tuned.

Diafchi/ma-defedive fifth, is a diafchifma lefs than a true
1 4 WwW
see oe = HOE + 1f + 307m5
its common logarithm is .8297938,7996, and its binary log.
= .5654173 it is = 31-548683 major commas: it is equal
to the difference of four minor tones anda chromatic diefis;
to the fum of a minor fourth and two limmas, to five limmas
and two apotomes; to the ditference between feven oftaves
and eleven fifths, or feven minor fourths and four fifths,
Whence it may be tuned. It is the refulting fifth, or that
between the dearing notrs, when eleven fucceflive perfet
fifths are tuned in an oGiave.

‘ Double deficient fifth, is two major commas lefs than

yr - Be ta hey BF ,
a true fifth ; its ratio is ante — 3 = 3365 4 If + 29
m3 its common logarithm is .8346983,0472, and its binary
logarithm = .549121: it is = 30.63952 major commas,
and to a major tone, two minor tones, and alimma; and it
is the difference between two Viths, two 4ths, ‘and three
Vths, wherice it may be tuned.

Double fuperfluous frarp jifth, is an apotome greater than
atrue fifth, and two major commas greater than a fharp
4096 ye
Ee =) = 416 D+ Sf + 36m;
as Ob OF reser 3 =.
its common Jogarithmiis .7953$99,rO2T, and its binary log,

>

fifth ; its ratio is

fifth s its ratio is

FIG

= .675696: it is = 37.9256} major commas, alfo to four
apotomes and four limmas, to two major thirds and two major
commas ; to four major tones; to the difference between
eight Vths and four VIIIths, or between four Vths and
four 4ths, from either of which lait, this interval may be
tuned.

Minimum fifth of M. Henfling, or extreme diminifhed
fifth of fome, is exceeded by a true fifth, the quantity of
two minor femitones and a major comma: its ratio is
3D ie B0e
Shen, 22
is .8647613,0675, and its binary or Euler’s logarithm =
.4149253, and it is = 25.06728 major commas: it is equal te
the difference between a XIth and three I1Ids, whence
this interval may be tuned.

Firrs-monarchy Men, in Ecclefiaftical Hiffory, the de-
nomination of wrong-headed and turbulent enthufiafts,
who fprang up in England during Cromwell’s ufurpation ;
and whoexpected Chrift’s fudden appearance on earth to efta-
blifh a new kingdom ; and, aéting under the influence of this
illufiony they aimed at the fubverfion of all human governe
ment, and were for turning all things into confufion.

FIG, in Botany, See Freus.

Fic, Jndian. » See Cactus.

Fic, Jnfernal. See ARGEMONE.

Fic, Pharaoh’s. See Ficus and Musa.

Fic, Marygold. See MesrmBpRYANTHEMUM.

Fic tree, Cochineal. See Cactus.

Fié-wort, the common name of a plant of the weed
kind, which is frequently met with in paiture lands. The-
roots are of the oblong knobby kind. The leaves are heart-
fhaped, cornered, and placed on foot-ftalks. The flowers
have much refemblance to thofe of crow-foot, but differ in
having the cup divided into three parts only, the petals being
about eight in number, and narrower, It is a low plant,
which runs very much by the roots, choaking up moft
others which are near it. It has likewife the names of pile-
wort, leffer centaury, &c. See ScropHULARIA.

Fic, Petrified, in Natural Hij/icry. Among the nume-
rous pyritic fubftances of Sheppy iflaad, Mr. Jacob colle&-
edtwo which he thought to be figs ; which Dr. Parfon
afterwards referred to a recent fungus, but perhaps with not
much better reafon.

Fics, in the Materia Medica. They are moderately
nourifhing, grateful to the itomach, eafier of digeftion than
any of the other fweet fruits, and foften the afperities of the
breaft, &e. and accordingly are ufed in medicine, to make
gargari{ms againit diforders of the throat and mouth ; and
asan ingredient in pectoral deco€tions, and in lenitive elec-
tuaries. They are alfo applied externally to foften, digett,
and promote maturation.

Figs are dried either by a furnace, or in the fun, having
firft dipped them in fealding hot ley, made of the afhes of
the fig-tree. The Latins call them carice, or jicus paffey
when thus dried.

In this condition they are ufed both as medicine and food $
being both the wholefomer, and ecafier of digeftion, when
thus cleared of a quantity of their aqueous and viicid
parts.

Fics, in Commerce. The beft figs are the produce of
Turkey, Italy; Spain, Provence, &c. The iflands of the
Archipelago yield figs in great abundance ; but they are
much anferior in goodnefs to thofe of Europe. Yet the
Greeks in thofe iflands cultivate them with wonderful care
and attention; asmaking the principal food, and a confider*
able part of the riches of the country.

They

75> + 5f + 24m; its common logarithm

FIG

They have two kinds of fig-trees; the firft, called ornos,
er the wild figetree ; the lecond, the domeflic jig-tree.

The method of cultivating and ripening thefe figs makes
a peculiar art, by the ancients called caprification : often
fpoken of among them in terms of admiration. Some of
the modern naturalifls have looked on it as a chimera ;. but
Monf. Tournefort has affured us of the contrary, and given
us that procefs, as he learnt it upon the fpot. See Capra-
FICATION. ,

Fics, in Antiguity, were ufed in divination. : See Syco-
MANTIA.

Fic, inthe Afanege, isa fort of wart, or fpongy excref-
eence, on the frufh, and fometimes all over the body of a
horfe. The figs that appear in the frufh or fole make an
evacuation of ftinking malignant humours, that are very
hard to cure. The only effectual -remedy for thefe excref-
cences is extirpation.

Fic, Znfed, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the
Enelith to the creature called by the French, after Mr.
Reaumur, the faux puceron, or falfe puceron, from its very
much refembling the puceron in external appearance, but
being extremely different from it when nearly exaniined.
Thefe infegts.are, when at their full growth, of the bignefs
of the head of a pin of the largeft fize, but there are ufually
found among them feveral that are fmaller, down to fuch as
are fearce perceivable to the naked eye. ‘They are found in
great plenty on the back, or under-fide of the leaves of the
fix-tree, but they never are feen in clufters like the pu-
eceron.

#he body) and breaft of this infeé&t are green, and the
eafes of the wings are white, and befet with hairs. This
creature has two antenne or horns, which it can exert at
pleafure ; but they ufually are lodged under the furrows of
the wings, and are not to be feen, unlefs the animal be
turned belly upwards ; the head alfo is bent downwards,
and the eyes {eem directed to look at objects only placed
under them.

It has fix legs, and a fine {mall trunk iffuing from the ex-
tremity of the head; this is but fhort, and is of a lively
green ; it is terminated by a fharp point, and has a fine
brown filament like a hair, which it thrufts out of the body
of the trunk at pleafure, and which feems a fort of engine
or organ deftined to convey into the body the juices extra-
vafated by the wound and fu€tion of the trunk. The crea-
ture ufually remaine in perfeét quietnefs on the leaf on which
itis found; but has this peculiarity, in its pofition, that it
is always found with its head refting upon one of the ribs of
the leaf, aud its body onthe plain part ; by this means, the
anterior part of the head is raifed above the furface of the
plain part of the leaf, and the creature can, by that advan-
tage, move his trunk about at pleafure, and fix it into differ-
reut parts of the leaf, while his body is perfectly ftill at the
tine.

Thefe creatures throw off their fins many times in their
growth, the furrows marking the places where their wings
are, and the protuberances made by their cafes are always
feen, however young they are examined.

In the months of May and June thefe infects all become
winged, and afford a peculiar {pecies of a four-winged fly,
which is remarkable for hopping ; but as its hinder legs are
not greatly larger than the reft, it leaps but alittle way at a
time.. The body of this fly is green, its wings are bordered
with yellow, and its legs are white ; it hasa trunk of the fame
nature with that of the creature before its winged ftate, and
with this it continues to fuck the juices of the leaves of the
&g-tree asit did before.

The manaer in which thefe animals propagate their fpe-

FIG

cies is not yet known. The pucerons, to which they more
approach in figure than to any other animals, have always *
young ones found within them ; but thefe, if examined in
whatever ftate, never have any fuch appearance, not even fo
much as eggs being found in them ; it fhould feem that their
eves are too minute for our infpe&tion, but that they are
Oviparous, not viviparous animals. Reaumur’s Hitt. vol. vi.

p- 93.

Fic-fhell. See Dorium.

Fre-tree cloth of Otaheite, in the South fea, is a coarfe
and harfh cloth, of the colour of the darkeft brown paper,
made of the bark of a tree which refembles the wild fig-
tree of the Weft Indies. This cloth has the quality of re-
fifting water ; and the greater part of it is perfumed, and
worn by the chiefs as a morning drefs. For the method of
manufacturing and colouring this cloth, fee Aoura.
Hawkefworth’s Voyage. vol. ii. p. 210, &c.

Vic-wort Worm, in Natural Hiflory, the name of an in-
feét which feeds on the leaves of the {crophularia, or fig-wort,
and which is ufually efteemed a caterpillar, but is one of
thofe infects called by the French faufe chenilles.

Vic-eater, in Ornithology, aname given by Albinus and
Latham to the Moracinia nevia, which fee.

FIGALO, Cars, in Geography, a capeon the coalt of
Epire, at the entrance of the gult of Arta. N. lat. 39° 20/.
E. long. 20° 34/,

YIGARUOLO, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, near
the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 45>10'. E Jong. 13° 43'-—,
Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of the Lower Pos
13 miles N.W. of Ferrara.

FIGEAC, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri€t, in the department of the Lot, feated on the
Selle ; 46 miles N. E. of Montauban. The place contains
6452, and the two cantons 23,8co inhabitants, diftributed
on a territory of 275 kiliometres, in 23 communes. This
was originally a Benediétine abbey, founded by Pepin,
A.D. 755, and f{ecularized by Paul III. It was formerly
a place of fome {trength, but falling into the hands of
the king, during the religious war, A D. 1612, its cita-
del and fortifications were demolifhed. WN. lat. 44° 37's
E. long. 298; ,

FIGER, or Fisyu, a rich and extenfive province of
Japan, on the W. coaft of Ximo.

FIGGING, in the Manege, a kind of cant term among
dealers in horfes for thrufting “a corn” (as they call it) of
ginger into the fundament of a horfe, or vagina of a mare,
at the time of their being led out for fhow, for the purpofe
of producing irritation, and eaufing them to lift up the tail.
The London dealers, it is faid, are in geueral fo much jn
the habit of recurring to this artifice, that they permit no
fervant to fhew a horfe without having previouily figged
him, under a certain forfeit. ;

FIGHIG, in Geography, a town of Africa, fituated on
the fouth fide of the Atlas, in the country of Biledulgerid.
The women manufacture woollen cloth of exquifite finenefs,
much valued in Barbary, and fold at a high price. The
inhabitants carry on a great trade with Fez and Morocco,
and with the negroes: 240 miles E.S.E. of Mequinez.
Ni laty 32° 5!) W. long, 1° 5

FIGHT. See Barrys and EnGaGEmMENT.

Ficuts, in a Ship, are the watte-cloths which hang
round about her in a fight, to hinder the men from being
feen by the enemy.

Ficuts, Clo/e, denote thofe bulkheads afore or abaft
the fhip, which are put up for men to ftand fecure behind,
and fire on the enemy, iw cafe of boarding. See Crosse.

Fients,

FIG
“¥Freurs, Running, at Sea, thofe where the enemy do
not itand the battle, but are continually ohafed.

FIGHTING, in the Mihtary Art. Under the head of
EncaGement we have giver a defcription of the ordinary
occurrences in both military and naval warfare, and we have
endeavoured to give a popular idea of thofe fluctuations
which muft ever be expe€icd to attend every conteft, even
where the fuperior numbers of one party fhould feem to
threaten the other with complete deitruGiion, We hall,
in this place, add, that every circumftance tends to render
the conclufion of a fight the moft awful and moft decifive.
The cannonade, which generally ufhers in the confliét, 1s
xarely very deftruétive, though, as approximation takes
place, and that cafe or grape-fhot are fub{tituted for round-
Shot, the carnage is certainly increafed beyond all propor-
tion. It is neverthelefs curious to obferve, that even in
thofe late battles in the neighbourhood of Vienna, wherein
not lefs than 8co pieces of ordnance, and full 250,000 men
were engaged, for at leaft 30 hours, in which it isafferted the
Auttrians alone difcharged more than 3,000,000 of mufket
ammunition, the killed and wounded (fetting the prifoners
apart) did not amount to 80,000 men. Confequently not
one in forty of the latter took effet; even if we fuppofe
the vait trains of artillery attached to both armies to have
femained inaétive. But when we confider that a very large
portion, commonly two-thirds of the whole number killed
and wounded, are ftruck with cannon-fhot of fome defcrip-
tion, and that of the remainder many are wounded by the
bayonet only, we muft feel our aftonifhment excited to
the higheft pitch at the comparative infignificance of muf-
ketry. Such, however, is the fact.

Bufh-fighting, which relates to a more defultory and fecret
mode of oppofttion, is far more deftru@tive. In this, each
individval aéts independently as a rifle-man; he conceals
himfelf under banks, behind trees and bufhes, and either
fires at the enemy, or affails him with the bayonet, or {word
ia hand, according as circumftances may demand, the great
art being to deftroy without being feen. To this kind of hof-
tility all uncivilized nations at firit refort, ufing ‘pears, flings,
{words, andclubs of various defcriptions,'and particularly ufing
their bows with great dexterity. In general, regular troops
are not much employed in bufh-fighting, except in clofe
countries, where banditti- harbour, and efpecially when po-
pular infurrections take place. It is a fpecies of fervice
very trying both to the courage and the conititution, and
though even performed in the higheft flyle by our gallant
foldiers, is contidered by them as a moit arduous and hazar-
dous duty.

Prize-fighting, however much it may be upheld by
amateurs, as conducive to the fupport of a certain kind of
«courage among the lower claffes, cannot be noticed by the
more enlightened, as teeming with barbarity, and often with
the moft wanton aéts of cruelty. The man who, merely for
paftime, or as a fpeculation, can encourage two of his fellow-
creatures to enter the lifts, and to do all in their power to
maim, or even to murder each other, muft in his heart be a
complete ruffian. That every individual fhould, in thefe
‘days, be able to defend himfelf, will not be denied ; but,
in admitting thus much, we pafs amoft fevere cenfure on
the difpofitions of thofe who are too often indifcriminately
termed peaceable citizens, and who, we are apt to think, if lefs
induced by a certain kind of emulation, towards which prize-
fighting greatly contributes, might perform their feveral
duties in life, and pafs each other in the ftieets without
either provoking others, or pretending to have received
infults from others of a more praife-worthy difpofition,

Vou, XIV.

FPrG

Without attempting to enteron their merits in other re-
{pects, as we referve ourfelves for a full expofition of their
principles in its proper place, we cannot refrain from re-
marking that the poffibility, as well as the good policy, of
refraining from blows, is confpicuoufly proved by that clafs
of diffenters generally called quakers.

Ficutine Lfand, in Geography, called by the French
* Grofe ifle aux Dindes,’? lies about four miles below
Detroit (which fee); it is valuable for pafture, but has
very little wood. In the fummer the Indians make it 2
place of encampment, and fome of them plant a little
corn.

FIGHTWITE, Firuwira, in the Saxon times, fignified
amulé& for making a quarrel, to the difturbance of the
peace. ‘ Mul&taob commifiam pugnam in perturbationem
pacis, que in exercitu regis 10 folidorum erat.”? Blount
and Jacob, in tranfcribiag this paflage, have inferted 120
fols.

FIGI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Ximo; ro miles N. E. of Funai.

FIGIN, a river of Norway, which runs into the North
fea, 10 miles S. of Stavanger.

FIGLINA, in Ancient -Geography, a town of Gallia
Nzrbonnenfis, marked in the Itinerary of Antonine between
Valence and Vienne.— Alfo, a town of Gaul, belonging to
the Allobroges, fituated upon the left of the Rhone.

FIGMAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Garonne; 7 miles N. N. W. of
‘Touloufe.

FIG-TREE Bay, a bay on the N. E. coaft of the ifland
of Jamaica. N. lat. 18’ 18’. W. long. 76° 29'.—Allo, a
bay on the W. coaft of the ifland of St. Chriitopher, near
Sandy Point.

FIGUERAS, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, containing
4640 inhabitants, where the Spaniards, in 1786, began to
ere€t a fortrefs, which they defigned fhould be impregnable.
It was to contain quarters for 150 companies of infantry,
with 502 horfe, apartments for 60 officers, with fuitable ac-
commodations ; one long range of magazines for provifions,
and four for powder. The works were made bomb-proof.
The glacis is for the mot part formed of the rock, and the
whole is protected by proper baitions. It is faid that
12,000 men are fufficient to defend thefe works. Never-
thelefs, the place was taken by the French in 1794 ; three
leagues from Janquera, and feven from Gerona. The adja-
cent country is agreeable; the hills are fhaded with ever-
green woods ; the plains are well cultivated, and divided by
hedges of aloes and wild pomegranate. The road from hence
to Gerona is diverfitied with gentle eminences and fruitful
plains. Two of thefe hills exhibit fome volcanic appearances.

FIGUERO-pos-Vinuos, a town of Fecugal in the
province of Eftremadura, fituated near fome lofty moun-
tains, ona {mall river, which runs into the Zezere; cele-
brated for its wine : 20 miles north of Thomar.

FIGURA, in Mufic. See Ficure.

FIGURAL, or Ficurats numbers, fuch as do or may
reprefent fome geometrical figure, in relation to which they
are always confidered ; as triangular, pentagonal, pyramidal,
&c. numbers. See NumBers.

FIGURATE, or Ficurarive, that which has a rela-
tion to figure, or that teaches under fome obfcure refem-
blance. Thus a figurative ftyle is that which abounds in
figures. (See Figure and Sryre.) The figurative Ryle,
F. Bouhours obferves, is neither the moft juft, nor the beit.
For this reafon Cicero directs us to the ancieuts, who not
having yet bethought themfelves to ufe figurative expreffions,

3G but

FIG

but keeping to the moft proper and natural way, have almoft
all wrote well, ** Sunt enim illi veteres, qui nondum ornare
poterant ea, que dicebant,-omnes prope preclare locuti.’””

Long ufe, fay the grammarians, renders that proper in all
Janguages, which at firft was figurative. The fame thoughts
appear more lively when exprefied by a figure, than when in
fimpleterms. The reafonis, that figurative expreflions de-
note not only the principal matter, but alfo the emotion and
paffion of the perfon who f{peaks.

Ficurative isalfo much ufed in fpeaking of the myfte-
ries and figures of the old law. In this fenfe manna is {aid
to be figurative of the eucharift.

Ficurartive is alfo ufed in the Greek grammar for what
we otherwife call chara“teriftic, viz. a letter that character-
izes certain tenfes of the Greek verbs ; or that diftinguifhes
and {pecifies them.

In the firft conjugation of tke barytonous verbs, the %
is chara¢teriftic, or figurative of the preter tenfe, and the
ef the future.

-Ficurarive, or Figurative counter-point, in Mu/ic, is that
wherein there is a mixture of difcords along withthe concords.
See CounTER-POINT and SuPPosITIQN.

Where the difeords are ufed asa folid and fubftantial part
of the harmony, the counter-point is properly called the har-
mony of difcord.

FIGURE, Ficura, ina general fenfe, denotes the fur-
face of terminating extremes of a body. ;

All bodies have fome figure ; whence figurability 1s gene-
rally ranked among the eflential properties of body or mat-
ter. A body without figure would be an infinite body.

The corpufcular vhilofophers account for every thing from
the figure, bulks, and motions of. the atoms, or primary cor-

ufcles of bodies.

’ For the figure of bodies, confidered as objects of fight,
fee Vision.

The {choolmen difpute whether or no the quality of
figurebe the fame with that of form ; and if they differ, what
it is that conititutes the difference? Boéthius will have
figure only predicated of inanimate bodies, and form of ani-
mate. Others extend figure to all-natural things, and form
to all artificial.ones ;. whence the verfe,

«“ Formam viventis, picti dic effe figuram.”?

Others apply figure indifferently to all kinds of bodies,
but not in all relations. If only the bare circumference, or
circum{cription, be confidered, they call it figure ; but if the
circumference be confidered as endowed with colour, they
then call it form, which fee.

Ficure of the Earth and Planets.—This fubje& has been
fo fully treated under Decree and Earrtn, that very little
remains to be faid in this place. The general {pherical form
of the earth feems to have been known in ages of the moft
remote antiquity, but this knowledge was often confned
only to philofophers and mathematicians ; during the middle
ages, the dotrine was even difputed, and the fpherical
figure denied by fome of the fathers of the church; and it
is only fince the revival of learning in modérn Europe that
it has been univerfully received and acknowledged by every
clafs of people. I’. is now nearly 1c0 years, that the firlt
mathematicians of Europe have directed their particular at-
tention to the exact determination of the real figure of the
earth ; an hiftorical account of thefe labours, and’of the
refult obtained from them has already been given under the
articles above mentioned. “Since thefe were written, the
meafurement of the arc of the meridian has been continued
in our own country, and our continental neighbours have

FIG

likewife occafionally publifhed fome additional documetitsy
relative to their great furvey. Nothing howeyer has oc-
curred to alter any of the principal refults which we have
given; every thing feems to confirm the opinion, that
though the mean figure of the earth approaches very nearly
to the {pheroid, whofe ellipticity is ,+,, yet that the irregu-
larities in the denfities of the different mafles are very great,
fo as to render all the partial meafurements entirely unfatis-
factory. Europe, in general, appears to be much flatter
than accords with the general form; other parts of the
globe muit of courfe be more protuberant ; but obfervations
are ftill wanting to enable us to pronounce in what manner
thefe irregularities are diftributed, fo as to compenfate each
other; nor can we flatter ourfelves this queftion will foon
be determined, confidering the uncivilized ftate of the great
portion of the globe, compared with that requifite to con-
du& the operations neceflary for thefe inveltigations. It
appears that the projeét, once entertained, of determining
the exact difference of latitude and longitude by geodetical
meaiurement, mu{t now be abandoned, or at leaft confined
to very {mall tra&s of country, as the errots of aftronomi-
cal obfervation, when well condu&ted with perfeé& inftru-
ments, are lefs than thofe which arife from the irregularity
of the earth’s figure. This obfervation, however, only ap
plies to particular cafes, where extreme accuracy is required 4
for, in general, the fituation of places, determined by
national furvey, is always extremely near the truth, and the
limits of error may almoft always be known. Our Know-
ledge of the natural hiftory of the earth has not yet been
very materially improved by the inveftigations which have
been made relative to its figure. It does not appear that
the earth has ever been ina ftate of entire fufion or fluidity,
for then it would probably have taken a more regular
figure ; yetit approaches much nearer to the figure affigned
by theory than could have arifen from the crumbling of its
folid particles, as fome have fuppofed. This intermediate
{tate feems confiftent with the information derived from our
chemical knowledge, and other fources of information.
Though a fatisfactory folution of thefe difficulties is at pre-
fent beyond our reach, yet feience is advancing towards this
object with rapid ftrides, and many years will not probably
elapfe before the myttery is removed, that at prefent ob-
ftruéts our refearches into the original nature and conforma-
tion of the earth.

Ficure of the Planets. See the planets refpeétively.

Ficures, in Architecture and Sculpture, denote reprefent-
ations of things made in folid matters ; fuch as ftatues, &c-
Thus we fay, figures of brafs, of marble, of ftucco, of
platter, &c.

But, in this fenfe, too, the term is more ufually applied
te human reprefentations than to other things. Thus we
fay, an cquettrian figure, for a man on horfeback. ‘

Daviler obferves, that thofe, either reprefented fitting, as
popes, &c. or kneeling, as on monuments, &Xc. or laid all
along, as rivers, &c. are more properly called figures than
ftatues. s ;

Ficures, in Archite@ure, are faid to be detached, when
they ftand lingly, in oppofition to thofe compofitions which
are called groupes. >

Ficures, in Arithmetic, are the numeral characters; or
the characters whereby numbers are expreffed, or written.

Thus the numberof four hundred and fifty is written, or
exprefled, by three figures, 450. ; ‘

The figures in arithmetic are the nine digits; 1, 2, 3, 4)
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ando. :

Thefe figures were firft brought into Europe by the Moors

of.

FIGURE.

of Spain, and into England, as Dr. Wallis apprehends,
about 1130, See Arirumeric and Cuagacter.

However, from fome ancient dates, fuppofed to confit
wholly or in part of Arabian figures, fome have concluded,
that thele figures originally Indian, were known and ufed
in this country at leatt as early-as the tenth century. The
weft ancient date difcoyered by Dr. Wallis was that on a
chimney-piece at Helmdon, in Northamptonfhire, M 133,
#,¢. 1133. Other dates difcoyered: fince,: are 1090, , at
Colcheiter, in Effex; 1016, with the Roman M for a
thoufaad, at Widgel-Hall, near Buntingford, in Hertford-
fhire; torr on the north front of the parifh-church of
Rumfey in Hampthire ; and 975 over a gate-way at Wor-
cefter, Dr, Ward hae urged feveral objeétions again{t the
antiquity of thefe dates. As no example occurs of the ufe
of thefe figures in any ancient manufcript, earlier than fome
copies of Johannes de Sacro Bofco, who died in 1256, he

“thinks it ftrange, that workmen fhould have made ufe of
thefe figures fo long before they appear in the writings of
the learned ; and he alfo difputes the fa&. The Helmdon
date, aceording to nim, fhould be 1233; the Colchetter
date 1490; that at Widgel-hall has in it no Arabian figures,
the i and 6 being I and G, the initial letters of a name ;
and the date at Worcefler, he fuppofes to confilt of Roman
numerals, and to be really MXV, Martyn’s Abridg. of
Phil. Tranf. vol, ix. p. 420, &c.

Ficure, in Afrology, a defcription, or draught, of the
flate and difpofition of the heavens, at a.certain hour; con-
taining the places of the planets and ftars, marked down in
a figure of twelve triangles, called houfes.

This is alfo called a hocro/cope and theme.

Ficure of an Lclipfe, in Aftronomy, denotes a reprefenta-
tion of the path or orbit of the fun, and the moon, during
the time of the eclipfe, upon paper; with the number of

“ digits eclipfed, and the beginning, middle, and end, of
darknefs. See Ecripse.

Ficure, or Delineation, of the full moon, fuch as viewed
through a telefcope with two convex glaffes, is of confider-
able ule in obfervations of eclipfes, and conjunctions of the
moon with other luminaries. In this figure of the moon are
reprefented the maculx, or fpots, of the moon, marked by
numbers; beginning with the fpots, which ufually enter
firit within the fhade at the time of the great ecliples, and
alfo emerge the firft.

Ficure, in Conics, denotes the reQangle made under the
Jatus re€tum and tranfyerfum, in the hyperbola and ellip-
fis.

Ficure of the Diameter. The reétangle under any dia-
meter, and its proper parameter, is in the ellipfis and hyper-
bola, called the figure of that diameter.

Ficures of Plants, fince botany became a ftudy, have
come into general ufe to promote a knowledge of the various
{pecies and genera of the vegetable kingdom. The oldett
drawings of plants of which we have any knowledge, are in
a manufcript of Diofcorides, in the Imperial library at
Vienna, of which we have already given an account. .(See
Dioscorres.) Thefe are fuppofed to be as ancient as
the third century of the Chriftian era, and ferve at leatt to
fhew what was under{ftood concerning the plants of this
writer at that period. After the invention of printing,
figures of plants were very foon introduced into botanical
or medical books, and were at firft cut on wooden blocks,
and printed in the pages of letter-prefs. Fabius Columna,
in bis Earpeancs, publifhed at Naples in 1592, gave the
firft copper plates of plants. We know not exactly how
Joon the practice began of colouring the figures in books ;
but from fome copies of Dorftenius and Tragus in our pof-

feffion, it appears to have been ufual about the middle of
the 16th century, The above-mentioned drawings at Vienna
are coloured, but in the rudeft poffible ityle. Engravings
in botanical books were not coloured till the early part cf
the 17th century, Befler’s Hortus Ey/fellenfis, publithed
in 1613, was perhaps one of the earlieft ; but it is always
difficult to fay whether fuch works were actually publithed
coloured, or whether, as often happened, they were painted
fubfequently by fome of their poffeffors. All thefe old
works were painted by hand, and not printed in cciours.
This laft method was firlt introduced, we believe, by the
late profeffor Martyn, in his fplendid Hi/oria Plantarum
rariorum, publifhed at London in 1728, the drawings of
which came from no lefs a hand than Van Hiuyfum. But
the execution of the plates in mezzotinte, and the colour-
ing, are far inferior to the apparent merit of the drawings.
The French at prefent excel in this art of printing in
colours, as may be feen by the exquifite publications of
Redouté and Ventenat, not to mention others of birds and

uadrupeds. Bulliard led the way in his Herbier de la
| ees which is now far excelled by other fimilar works
in this refpe€t.— Nor are the French lefs eminent at prefent
in their engraved uncoloured botanical figures. Some ad-
mirable performances of this kind appeared in the reign of
Louis XiV. in our days the works of l’Heritier have
juftly been admired, and are now even excelled.

In Germany and England the greater part of botanical
plates are flight engravings, coloured by the hand, though
fome of Dr. Thornton's figures, and thofe very well exe-
cuted, are printed in colours. The German figures are
ufually altogether deficient in pi€turefque beauty, or colour-
ing, properly fo called, but are expreffive, and tolerably
cheap, fo as to be ufeful to the f{cience. This however
can only be faid of their beft works, fome, the fecond-rate,
though popular, ones, being coloured not much unlike the
varnifhed Dutch toys feen ata fair. On the ather hand,
Germany has produced fome exquifitely delicate botanical
works in colours, as the Plante Lichenofe of Hoffmann,
and the cryptogamic works of Schrader and others.

It is much to be wifhed that the public were not burthened
with repetitions of the fame plant over and over again, at
leaft by authors who publickly profefs to publifh new ones
only. In books deftined to exhibit the entire plants of any
One country, or exclufively the exotic plants of any varti-
cular garden or gardens, fach a fcheme being avowed, there
is noimpolition. But till the moft valuable and refpectable
are fuch as figure only entirely new plants, or at moft what
are badly or erroneoufly figured before. If this were at-
tended to, the reprefentations of all known plants might in
time be acceffible fomewhere or other. However perfect the
{cience of botanical definition may have become, few
writers are competent to keep it up to its higheit ftandard,
who yet may be able to fpeak to the eyes by a picture. Noa
painting indeed, however excellent, ought to fuperfede, or
be unaccompanied by, defcriptions and detinitions, which
alone render botany a fcience ; for who can argue from a
picture? Language is the current coin of rational beings.
Neverthelefs, the two modes of initru@tion may advanta-
geoufly go handin hand, If every known plant were to be
found delineated in fome work or other, the ftudy of
botany would be much facilitated, and even fuch an attempt
as that of Schkuhr of Wittenberg, to furnifh an univerial
fet of botanical fures in as compendious a form as poffible,
metits great praife, though it may be doubted whether the
rude colouring of fuch a work adds any thing to its value,
though unfortunately too much to its price. It has often
been remarked that the uncoloured wooden outlines of
3G2 Brunfeliius,

FIGURE.

Brunfelfius, Fuchfius, and a few heré and there in other
authors, exprefs the plants intended better than many
finifhed plates. Hence outlines of Plumier and other
botanifts have been publifhed in imitation, but none come
near the merit of their prototypes. ‘The truth is, that to
make one of thofe admirable outlines, requires the flall of
a firft-rate painter, if not a {park of the genius of a Grecian
ftatuary. Hence they are likely to remain unrivalled, as
they have hitherto been. Of exquifite precifion, without
that fublime degree of art, Leers’s figures of graffes in his
Ilora Herbornenfis ave matchlefs examples.

Some perfons have attempted, and even publithed, figures
made by an impreffion taken from the dried plant with
printer’s ink on paper. Thefe might be fuppofed likely to
prove peculiarly accurate, but they generally fail in execution.
They may indeed give the unnatural {tiff outline of a dried
fpecimen, but the prominent parts of the furface being
neceflarily what give the darkett impreffion, they of courfe
totally miflead the eye, and all but the moft flender and
expanded fubjeéts produce a mafs of confufion and de-
formity.

As we are on the fubje& of figures of plants, we beg
leave to corre& an error in ouraccount of Dor #na japonica.
A plate of that fhrub is extant in Thunberg’s Scones P/.
Japonicarum, dec. 3, a work which however indifferently
executed, ranks very high for the originality and rarity of
its contents. S.

Ficure, in Dancing, denotes the feveral fteps which the
dancers make in order and cadence; confidered as they
mark certain figures on the floor.

Figures, in Fencing, are the divers guards, poftures,
attitudes, or difpofitions, of the body, arm, or fword.
See Fencine.

Ficure, in Fortification, is the plan of any fortified
place; or the interior polygon, &c.

When the fide and angles are equal, it is calleda regular ;
when unequal, an irregular figure.

Figure, in Geomancy, is applied to the extremes of
points, lines, or numbers, thrown or caft at random: on
the combinations or variations whereof the fages of this art
found their fantaftical divinations.

Ficure, in Geometry, denotes a furface inclofed, or cir-
cum{cribed with one or more lines. .

Such are triangles, fquares, polygons, circles, ellipfes,

&e. .
Wolfius defines figure a continuum terminated by a peri-
meter. In which fenfe figure is applicable both to fuper-
ficies and folids. Inthe former cafe, the perimeter is of
lines; in the fecond, of furfaces.

Figures are either re€tilinear, curvilinear, or mixt, ac-
cording as the perimeter confifts of right lines, curve liaes,
or both.

The fuperficial parts of a figure are called its fides ; the
loweft fide, its bafe; and the angle oppofite to the bafe,
the vertex.

The height of a figure is the diftance of the vertex from
the bafe.

Figure, in Grammar, is an expreffion that deviates from
the eommon and natural rules of grammar ; either for the
Jake of elegance or brevity.

The beft grammarians only reckon four figures; the el-
lipfis, pleonafm, fyllepfis, and hyperbaton. Others add
two more; viz. antiptofis, and enallage.

Ficure, in Heraldry, a bearing m a fhield. Of thefe
figures there is almoft an infinite variety : fome are natural ;
fuch as the celeftial figures of the fun, moon, ftars, &c.
and their parts; the effigies of men, women, &c. and their

parts: animals, as lions, ftags, foxes, boars, &c. and their
parts; birds, as eagles, fwans, ftorks, pelicans, &c. and
their parts; fifhes, as dolphins, whales, fturgeons, trouts,
&c. and their parts; reptiles, and infeéts, as tortoifes,
ferpents, grafshoppers, &c. and their parts ; vegetables, as
trees, plants, flowers, herbs, &c. and their parts; and
ftones, as diamonds, rubies, pebbles, rocks, &c. ‘Thefe
charges, as well as ordinaries, have divers attributes or epi-
thets, which exprefs their qualities, pofitions, and difpofi-
tion. - Thus, the fun is faid to be in his glory, eclipfed, &C.
the moon in the complement, in crefcent, &c. Animals are
faid to be rampant, paffive, &c. Birds have alfo their deno-
minations; fifhes are defcribed to be bauriant, naiant, &c.
Befides thefe natural figures, there are alfo artificial figures ;
the principal of which are warlike inftruments, as fwords,
arrows, battering rams, gauntlets, helmets, fpears, pole-
axes ; ornaments ufed in royal and religious ceremonies, as.
crowns, coronets, mitres, wreaths, crofiers ; towers, caltles,
arches, columns, plummets, battlements, churches, port-
cullis, borrowed ‘frem architeiure and fortification; and
fhips, anchors, rudders, pendants, fails, oars, mafts, flags,
gallies, lighters, &c. derived from navigation; all thefe
bearings have different epithets deneting their pofition, ftruc-
ture, &c.

There are likewife chimetical or imaginary figures ufed
in heraldry, that are the refult of fancy and caprice;
fuch as centaurs, hydras, pheenixes, griffons, dragons, &c,
Porny’s Elem. Herald. p. 132, &c. 172, &c.

Ficure, in Logic, denotes a certain difpofition of the
terms of a fyllogifm; particularly of the medium, with re-
gard to the extremes.

Hence it follows, that there are as many figures of fyllo-
gifms, as there are different conneétions of the extremes with
the medium; fo that, though the fchoolmen ordi-
narily only reckon three, yet a fourth might be ad-
mitted.

In the fir? figure the medium or middle term is the fub-
je& of the major propoiition, and the predicate of the
minor. ‘This contains four moods, and applies to the proof
of all forts of queftions, whether univerfal or particular,
affirmative or negative. In the /econd figure the middle
term is the predicate of beth the premiffes, and this con-
tains four moods, admitting only of negative conclufions.
The third figure requires that the middle term be the fub-
ject of both the premiffes, and has fix moods, admitting
only of particular conclufions. The fpecial rules of thefe
three figures are the following: in the firft, the major
propofition muft always be univerfal, and the minor af-
firmative; in the fecond alfo the major muft be univer-
fal; and one of the premiffes, together with the conclu-
fion, muft be negative; in the third figure the minor
a be affirmative, and the conclufion always parti-
cular.

In the fourth figure, called by the Peripatetics the indi-
reé, and by others the Galenical figure, as varying too
much from the natural form, the middle term is predicated
in the major propofition, and fubjeGted in the minor. Some
logicians will allow this to be nothing elfe but a mere
inverfion of the firff figure. It has five moods. Watts’s
Logic, part ili. chap. 2.§ 3.

Ficure, in the Afanufadures, is applied to the various
defigns reprefented or wrought on velvets, damafks, taffa-
ties, fattins, and other ftuffs and cloths.

The mott ufual figures for fuch defigns are flowers, imi-
tated from the life; or grotefques, and compartments of
pure fancy. Reprefentations of men, beatts, birds, and
landfcapes, have only been introduced fince the tafte for the

Chinefe

PIG: U RUE.

Chinefe ftuffs, particularly thofe called furees, began to pre-
vail among us.

It is the woof of the ftuff that forms the figures ; the
warp only ferves for the ground. In working figured ftuffs,
there is required a perfon to fhew the workman how far he
mutt raife the threads of the warp, to reprefent the figure
of the defign with the woof, which is to be paffed acrofs
between the threads thus raifed. This fome call reading
the DESIGN, which fee.

For the figures on tapeffry, brocade, &c. See TarEstTRY,
&e.

For thofe given by the calenders, printers, &c. See Ca-
LENDER, &c.

Figure, in Mufic. In general, figure includes all the
characters ufed in mufic to exprefs founds, their place in the
{cale, with their duration and equivalent refts: whence
contrappunto figurato, to diftinguifh it from contrappunto
femplice, plain counterpoint, which Zarlino defines common
chords of note againit note, all of the fame leagth, and
without difcords, Figurative harmony, fometimescalled florid
‘counterpoint, is that in which the chords are broken into
melody, and exprefled by figures or notes of different lengths.
See TIME-TABLE..

Ficure, Mute; mute figures, in Italiam mufic, imply
‘reits, or characters denoting filence. ;

Figure, Apparent, in Optics, that figure, or fhape, which
an obje€t appears under when viewed at a diftance, being
often very different from the true figure ; for a ftraight line
viewed at a diftance may appear but as a point; a furface
asaline; and a folid as a furface; and each of thefe of dif-
ferent magnitudes, and the two laft of different figures, ac-
cording to their fituation with regard to the eye. Thus an
arch ae circle may appeara ftraight line; a {quare or ob-
long, a trapezium, or even a triangle; a circle, an elliphis ;
angular magnitudes, round ; a {phere, acircle, &c.

Alfo any fmall light, asa candle feen at.a diftance in the
dark, will appear magnified, and farther off than really it
is. Add to this, that if feveral objects are feen at a diftance,
under angles that are fo fmall as to be infenfible, as well as
each of the angles fubtended by any one of them, and that
next to it; then all thefe objeéts will appear not only to be
contiguous, but to conftitute and feem but one continued
maguitude,

Figure, in Painting and Sculpiure, is ufed to fignify the
form, the contour, or outline of the furface of bodies of

whatever kind they may be. In conformity with this, we
fpeak of a drawing, as reprefenting the figure of atree, a
houfe, a book, a horfe, &c. &c. And in {culpture we
{peak of figures of brouze, of marble, of ‘plafter, &c. As
however man is the principal fubje&t on which artitts who
‘purfue the ftudy of the higher branches of thefe arts are
‘called to exert their talents, the Auman form is therefore by
way of pre-eminence called the fgure.

A picture wherein the reprefentation is given of a great
number of men, women, or children, is faid to be full of
figures. Ou the contrary, a land{cape wherein there is only
the reprefentation of mountains, trees, &c. and not of
human beings, is faid to be without figures. For further
‘illuftration fee Human figure.

Ficure, isalfoapplied to reprefentations, or images of
things-in prints, &c.

Some readers chufe to have the figures, efpecially the
mathematical ones, in wood, for the convenience of having
‘them immed ately annexed to the matter they refer to:

- others rather chufe to be at the pains of turning over, and
having recourfe to another part of the book, that they may
have as figures more neat and accurate on copper.

The author of a colle&ion of differtations, printed at
Paris in 1715, fhews, in the firft diflertation on the Hebrew
medals, p. 66, that the Jews were allowed to make any kind
of figures, or images of trees, plants, buildings, flowers, &c.
but not thofe of animals, or of the fun, moon, and ftars.

Ficures, Brimjone. See Brimstone.

Ficures, Cafting of. See Castine.

Ficure Circumfcribed, and Infcribed. See C1RCUMSCRIB-
ING, and InscriBED.

Ficures, Equal. See Equa.

Ficure, £quilateral. See EQuivaTeERAL.

Ficures; Plain. See Prain.

Ficure, Regular, and /rregular.
IRREGULAR.

Ficure, Similar. See Simivar.

Ficure, in Rhetoric, is a phrafe, or turn of f{peech or
difcourfe, more beautiful and emphatical than what is ufed
in common or ordinary fpeaking. Accordingly it implies
fome departure from fimplicity of expreffion ; but at the
fame time this deviation from what may be reckoned the
moll fimple form of fpeech, by no means fuppofes any thing
uncommen or unnatural ; the cafe is fo far otherwife, that, on
many occafions, figures are the moft natural, and the moft
common methed of uttering our fentiments. Nor fhould
it be imagined that every alteration from the common man-
ner ought to be efteemeda figure, or deferving of that cha-
raéter. It muft contain fome beauty, or exprefs fome paffion,
to merit a place among rhetorical figures, and be marked out
for imitation.

Figures, by the Greeks called cyxxparx, /chemaia, are the
enrichments of difcourfe, and we only ufe thera when raifed
and moved with the confideration of fomething extraordinary.

The term fgure, as Dr. Ward obferves, feems to have been
borrowed from the ftage, where the different habits and
geftures of the aGtors, fuitable to the feveral chara&ters they
fuftained, were by the Greeks called cynuaiaz, and by the
Latins figure. Nor is it unufual with us to fay of a perfon,
both with refpe& to his drefs and aGtions, that he makes a
very bad, or a very graceful figure. And as language is
the drefs, asit were, of ourthoughts, in which they appear
and are reprefented to others; fo any particular manner of
fpeaking may, in a larger fenfe of the word, be called its
figure, in which latitude orators fometimes ufe it (fee
Cic. De Orat. 1. iii. c. 52.) ; but rhetoricians have reftrained
the fenfe of the word to fuch forms of fpeech, as differ from
the more common and ordinary ways of expreffion; as the
theatrical habits of ators, and their deportmert on the ftage,
are different from their ufual garb and behaviour at other
times. Or, as the figure_or fhape of one body diitinguifhes it
from another, fo figures are forms of {peech, having, each
of them, a caft or turn peculiar to itfelf, which both dif-
tinguifhes it from the reft, and diftingnifhes it from fimple
expreflion. Simple expreffion juft makes our ideas known
to others; but figurative language, more than this, beftows
a particular drefs upon that idea; a drefs which both makes
it to be remarked, and adorns it.

Some have erroneoufly imagined, that figures of {peech
fhould be clafled among its chief resnements not invented
till language had advanced to its later period, and mankind
were brought into a polifhed ftate ; and that, then, they
were devifed by orators and rhetoricians. Whereas the con-
trary to this isthe truth. Mankind never employed fo many
figures of {peech, as when they had hardly any words for
expreffing their meaning. For, firit, the want of proper
names for every object, obliged them to ufe one name for
many 3 and, of courfe, to exprefs themfelves by compari-
fons, metaphors, allufions, and all thofe fubstituted forms of

ipeech

See Recurar and

FIGURE

f{peech which render language Ggurative. Next, as the ob-
jeGts with which they were moit converfant were the fenfi-
ble, material objeéts around them, names would be given to
thofe objects long before words were invented for fignifying
the difpofitions of the mind, or any fort of moral and intel-
leGtual ideas. Hence, the early language of men being
entirely made up of words defcriptive of fenfible objects, it
became, of neceflity, extremely metaphorical. Tor to fignify
any defire or paffion, or any act or feeling of che mind, they
had no precile expreflion which was appropriated to that pur-
pole ; but were under a neceffity of painting the emotion or
paflion which they felt by: allution to thofe fenfible objects
which had moft relation toit, and which could render it, in
fome fort, vifible to others. Other circumltances, alfo, be-
fides neceflity, contributed to the ufe of thisfizured ftyle at the
commencement of Janguage. In the infancy of all focieties,
men are much under the dominion of imagination and paflion ;
every thing will appear new and ftrange to them ; fear and fur-
prife will be their prevalent paffions; and their language
will neceffarily partake of this chara&ter of their minds; they
will incline to exaggeration and hyperbele ; and they will
be apt to deferibe every thing with the ftrongeft colours
and moit vehement expreffions. DBefides, wherever ftrong
exclamations, tones, and geftures blend themfelves much
with converfation, the imagination is always more exercifed,
and a greater effort of fancy or paffion ise» cited, confequent-
‘ly the fancy kept awake, and rendered more fprightly by
this mode of utterance, operates upon ftyle and enlivens it
more. Facts might be eafily cited in confirmation of thefe
reafonings.

Figures, in general, may be defcribed to be that lan-
guage which is prompted either by the imagination or the

paffions. _ Rhetoricians have commonly divided them ito

two great claffes ; viz. figures of words, and figures of

thought. The former are generally called tropes, and con-
8 g y pes,

fift in a word’s being employed to fignify fomething that is
different from its original and primitive meaning ; fo that if

ou alter the word, you deftroy the figure. Some writers,
Beare have diftinguifhed between figures and tropes.
(See Trove.) | Figures of thought fuppofe the words to be
uled in their proper and literal meaning, and the figure to
confift in the turn of the thought; as is the cafe in exclama-
tions, interrogations, apcftrophes, and comparifons : with re-
fpe&t to which, though you vary the words that are ufed, or
tranflate them from onelanguageintoanother, you may, never-
thelefs, itill preferve the fare figure in the thought. Other
rhetoricians have diftributed figures into the following two
kinds, differing lefs in fenfe than expreffion from the former ;
the one of fextences, and maintained in the fenfe itfelf, with-
out any immediate dependance on any particular words ; the
other are only in the words themfelves. As to Figures of
Jentences, fome are principally adapted for reafoning and in-
{truétion, and others to move the paffions, and hence figures
have been called the “ language of the paffions,”

Among the ancients, Demofthenes is moft celebrated for
expreffing the force and energy of thefe figures, and Ifo-
crates excelled in the beauties and delicacies of verbal
figures.

Cicero lays fo great ftrefs on thefs figures, that he repre-
fents them as the brighteft parts of oratory ; and makes
the power and efficacy of the art to depend in a great mea-
fure on a thorough knowledge and application of them.

Of the firlt kind, and of thofe that are principally adapted
ror reaioning, the moft confiderable are fix ; viz. ProLer-
SIS, OY anticipation; Hyroxo xe, or fubjefion; ANAco1-
NOSIS, OY communication ; epitrope, or CONCESSION $ para-
bole, or Sjmitirupe; and Awnrirnesis, or oppafition.

Thofe of the fecond kind, or fuch as are fitted for moving
and influencing the paffions, are Epanorruosis, or ears
redion; PARALEPSIS, or omiffion; PARRHESIA, OV repree
henfion; APARITHMESIS, or enumeration; ELXXERGASIA, OY
expofition; Tyroryrosis, or imagery; Aroria, or
doubt; AvositorEsts, or concealment; erotefis, or Un-
TERROGATION 3 ecphonefis, or Excramarion 3; Evipyo-
NEMA, or acclamation; ArosTROPHE, or addre/s; PRo-
sopopeta, or the fidtion of a perfon. Sve cach under its
proper head.

Of Figures of words, fome-are tropes, 1. e. tranfations
of words from their proper fignitcation, to fome more 1¢~
mote and extraordinary one. See Trope.

Others are figures of words, mare properly fo called, and
not tropes; being fo inherent in the words, that upea
changing of the words, or fometimes only their fituation,
the figure is deftroyed: as in amanles funt amentes, where
the figure would be loft, if inftead of amestes you fhould

ut ulti.

Thus alfo, to lof all relifo of life, isin ofa to Iefe life;
the Fgure is loft by changing the order of the words; as,
to Icfe ail ri life of life, is fo lofe life in effec.

The principal of thefe verbal figures may be arranged
into three clafies ; {uch as confift in a deficiency of words,
in a redundancy, cra repetition. To the urit clafs belogz
the Exgzipsis and Asynperon. Under the fecond divi-
fion are coinprcherded the PLeonAsmus and POLYSYNDE~
ron. The third kind of verbal gures includes thofe by
which the fame word in found, or fenfe, is repeated ; or one
of alike found or figni”cation, or both. OF the iirft fort
in this divifion there are ten, called ANTANACLASIS, PLocr,
Epizeuxis, Crimax, AnApHoRA, EPISTROPHE, SyM-
proce, Epanarrrsis, Anapirtosis, and Epanopos.
To the fecond clafs belong the Paronomasia, the Ho-
mMo1oproron, the Srnonymra, and Dertvario; the two
frit of which refpe€t words that are fimilar in found only,
the third in fenfe, and the laft in both.

With regard to the proper ufe of figures, we may ob-
ferve, that they fhould always be accommodated to the fen-
timents, and rife in proportion to the images defigned to
be conveyed by them; it is alfo better, in general, to be
nervous than copious, that the images, by their clofer union,
may imprefs the mind with greater energy, though in fuch
ficures as are defigned for ornament or illuftration, a more
diffufive way of painting is fometimes agreeable. ‘The too
frequent ule of figures fhould be avoided; and they fhould
be fo interwoven in a difcourfe as not to render the ftyle
rough and uneven, fometimes high and at other times low ;
now dry and jejune, then pompous and florid. In every
cafe they fhould feem to nfe more from nature than art, to
offer themfelves rather than to be the effeét of ftudy. Finally,
it fhould be duly confidered, that neither all the beauties,
nor even the chief beauties of compofition, depend upon
tropes and figures. Jor aiurther account of the ufe and
effects of figures on language, fee Sty. See alfo Me-
TAPHOR, and each of the articles above noted. Ward’s
Orat. Le&. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34. _ Blair’s Leét. vol. 7. ii.

Ficures of Profody comprehend the S¥NALOEPHA,
Ecruurpsis, Crasts, SYN@RESIS, Diazresis, SYSTOLE,
and Diastote. See each article. :

Ficure is ufed, in Theology, for the myfteries reprefented
or delivered obfcurely to us under certain types or ations
in the Old Teftament. buitar’,

Thus, manna is held by fome to be a figure ort
euchariit ; and the death of Abela figure of the faite
Chri. ,

Many divines and criti¢s contend, that all the agtions, hif.

; tories,

of the
ering of

FIL

fories, ceremonies, &e. of the Old Teftament, are only
figures, types, and prophecies, of what was to happen under
the New. The Jews are fuppofed to have had the figures or
fhadows, whilft we poflefs the fubftance.

Ficure is alfo applied ina like fenfe to prophane mat-
ters; as the emblems, enigmas, fables, fymbols, and hiero-

lyphics of the ancients.

FIGURED, in Heraldry, is an epithet applied to thofe
bearings which are depiGted with a human face.

Ficurep, inthe Manufadures. A figured camlet, ftuff,
tabby, &c. is that whereon there are divers defigns of
flowers, figure, branches, &c. imprefied by means of hot
irons. Figured ribbands firft came into fathion about the
year 1680, The method of performance was by fucceflively
applying fteel plates engraven with divers ornaments, as
flowers, birds, grotefques, &c.

But one Chandelier, a ribband-maker of Paris, invented a
much better and readier way of doing it, by a machine not
unlike the flatter ufed in coining, to flatten the pieces of
metal, only much fimpler.

The principal parts thereof were two fteel cylinders, en-
graven with the fgures intended to be reprefented. Thefe
cylinders were placed over each other like the rolls of a
rolling-prefs, having each of them, at one of its extremes,
a little dented wheel, one of which catching into the other,
the whole was put in motion by means of a winch or handle
faftened to the firlt.

The machine thus prepared, the workman heats the cy-
linders, and places the ribband in the little place remaining
between the two, which he contracts yet farther by a {crew
that preffes the upper part down upon the lower; the turn-
ing the rolls by the handle, a whole piece of ribband was
figured in lefs time than a fingle yard could be done in the
ordinary way.

Fieurep Velvet. See Vevver.-

Ficurep, in Mujic, is an adj. inthorough bafe, when the
harmony of a compofition is expreffed by figures over the
bafe to denote fuch founds as differ from common chords.
See Cuorps, THoroucn Ba/e, and AccoMPANIMENT.

FIJOAGO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Niphon; 45 milesS.W. of Meaco.

FIJIXASAKI, or Firosaxs, atown of Japan, in the
ifland of Niphon; 50 miles N.E. of Achita.

FILABRES, a ftupendous mountain of Spain, in Gra-
nada, between Moxacer and Guadix, which is a folid block
of white marble, without any mixture of {tones or earth,
about a league in circuit and 2000 feet high; it is flat on
the fummit, and its front towards the N.W. is about 1090
feet high, and nearly perpendicular,

FILAGO, in Botany, from flum, thread, and ago, to
produce, or have to do with, in allufion to the cotteny web
connetted with every part ef the plant. Cud-weed—Linn.
Gen. 450. Schreb. 587. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2387. Mart.
Mill. Di&. y.2. Jui. 179. (Evax; Gertn.t.165.) Cleats
and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-neceffaria. Nat. Ord. Covi-
pofite nucamentacee, Linn. €orymbifere, Jul.

Gen, Ch. Common calyx of numerous, chaffy, imbricated
feales, containing feveral perfeé florets in the difk, and nu-
merous female ones in the circumference, among the {cales
of thecalyx. Cor. in the perfect florets funnel-fhaped, with
a four-cleft upright border ; in the female ones, hardly dif-
eernible, extremely narrow, cloven at the top. Stam. Fila-
ments in the perfect florets four, capillary, fmall; anther
cylindrical, four-toothed at the top. Pi/?, Germen moit
perfest in the female florets, ovate, deprefied, rather large ;
ityle,thread-fhaped; fligma acute, cloven. Peri, none, ex-
cept the permanent calyx, Seeds to the female florets only,

rig.
obovate, compreffed, {mall, fmooth; down none. Reccpt,
cylindrical, naked, except the permanent f{cales of the calyx,
which feparate the feeds.

EM Ch. Receptacle cylindrical, clothed with the calyx-
fcales. Seed-down none. Female florets among the calyx-
feales ;- perfect ones four-cleft, in the dif.

1. F. pygmea. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1313. Cav. Ic. t. 36. (Gna-
phalium umbeliatum mininum; Bauh, Hitt. v. 3. p. 1. 162.
Evax umbellata; Gaertn. v. 2. 393.) Found in the fouth
of Europe, in wafte fandy ground, particularly in places
occafionally inundated. The root is annual. Stems either
entirely wanting, or more or lefs elevated, folitary or nume-
rous, fimple or branched, at moft three or four inches high.
Whole plant clothed with a white cottony tenacious web.
Leaves {cattered, obovate or {patulate, entire, many of them
furrounding the little heads of flowers ina radiating manner,
and making an elegant rofaceous appearance.

Profeffor Willdenow rightly retains this as the only fpecies
of Filago, the reft being bef referred to Gnraphalium. It
is alfo the original one. :

FILAMENT, Firamentum, a word though not of
claflical authority, yet well fupported by analogy, is techni-
cally applied to the ufually flender thread-like part which
fuftains the anther of a flower; fee AntHER=. This part,
however, is not effential to all {pecies of flowers, though the
anther itfelf, being the male organ, is fo. But the Jatter in
fome cafes is immediately affixed to the corolla, receptacle,
or piltil, on which it is feffile, without any filament.

The filaments differ in number, from one to feveral huns-
dreds, in different genera, or even f{pecies of the fame gepus,
though the latter cafe is rare. They, however, vary in this
refpect occafionally, in the faine {pecies or individual. ‘They
differ alfo, but vary lefs, in their infertion, or origin, with
re{pect to other parts of the flower, proceeding either from
the receptacle, asin the Poppy; the calyx, as in the Rofe ;
or the corolla, as in the Jafmine. Their form is ufually
fimple, each filament bearing ove anther; but in the Orange
and St. John’s Wort many filaments are united into one,
and in moft of the Papilionaceous family one filament only
is feparate, nine others being united from their bafe almoit
to the fummit. In the natural order of Rutacee, fee Di-
osmA and Ertostremon, the filaments are more elaborate
in ftru€ture than ufual, being tuberculated and glandular,
and jometimes bearing their anthers on a fort of appendage,
or pedicle. Indeed the extremity of each filament, in many,
inftances, tapers into a fine flexible point, like an additional
ftaik, allowing of a free or rotatory motion in the anther ;
witnefs the Paffion flower, and White Lily. Such flowers
are faid to have verfatile anthers. Filaments are extremely”
different in proportion, fome being prominent far beyond
the verge of the bloffom, expqfing their anthers to the wind
and weather, while others lie concealed in the bottom or
tube of a flower, carefully proteG&ted from wet. Some are
long and capillary; others hort, broad, or thick.

A very curious circumitance refpecting Slaments is, that
in fome initances they appear endued with a {pontaneous
motion, as in Ru/a (Rue) Saxifraga and Parnafia. In
thefe flowers the frlaments bend in their turn over the ftigma,
that the anthers may more certainly drop their pollen
upon it, and {nbfequently retire. In the Barberry bloflom
the fame thing is accomplifhed by an exquailite irritability in
the inner fide of each filament atthe bottom, in confequence
of which it contraéts when touched, {eatteri ig the pollen
over the ftigma, and after a while, refuming its original po-
fitiony makes way for others. Some filaments are very fen-
fible hygrometers, as in the Cock’s-comb, Ce/. fia, contrac-
ing in dry weather. and fo approaching the ftigma, and re-

tiring,

Pit
tiring for fhelter under tke corolla in wet.
rion of Plants.

Vhe word flamenta is alfo ufed for the fronds of the
genus Conferva, which {ee; thefe being of a fine thread-
like, or rather capillary, form and fize. Roth contends that,
to avoid ambiguity, f/a fheuld be ufed in the latter cafe,
which exprefles the fame thing fill more correétly. This
is certainly an improvement, though it is fearcely poffible
that the ambiguity in queltion fhould caufe any confution. S.

Firament, in Medisine, Anatomy, Natural Hiflory, &c.
aterm ufed in the fame fenfe with fibre for thofe fine threads
whereof flefh, nerves, fkins, plants, roots, &c. are come
pofed.

“FILANA, in Geography, a river of Benin, which runs
into the Atlantic ; N. lat. 4°40’ IE. long. 5° 22’.

FILANDERS, in Falconry, a difeate in hawks, &e.
confilting of filaments or ttrings of blood coagulated and
dried, occafioned by a violent rupture of fome vein, by
which the blood extravafating hardens into the figures
above-mentioned, to the great annoyance of the reins, hips,
&e.

The word is French, //andres, formed from ji/, thread.

Frvanpers are allo a fort of fine {mall worms which
greatly incommode the hawk in the gorge, and about the
heart, liver, and lungs ; but which, on fome occalions, are
fuppofed to be of fervice, and to feed on the fuperfluities of
certain parts: See Brack Worm.

There are four kinds of thefe landers or vermiculi. The
firft, in the gorge or throat ; the fecond, in the belly; the
third, in the reins: the fourth are called needles, on ac-
count of their exceeding finenefs. The fymptoms that dif-
cover the difeafe are the bird’s gaping frequently, ftraining
the ff{t or perch with her pounces, croaking in the night,
ruffling her train, rubbing her eyes, wings, noftrils, &c.
As the worms are very rettlefs, the bird is frequently endea-
vouring to caft them up ; and in opening its mouth you will
readily difcover them: From the throat, &c. they will
afcend to the larynx, brain, &c. and finally over the whole
body.

The ordinary caufe is bad food. ‘The proper remedy,
they fay, is not by killing them, for fear of impofthumes
from their corruptions ; but chiefly by ftupefying them,
that they may be offenfive but feldom.

This 1s belt effeéted by making the bird fwallow a clove
of garlic, after which fhe will feel nothing of the filanders
for forty days. Others ufe rte, worm-feed, aloes, vervain,
faffron, &c.

FILANGERI, Gaerano, in Biography, a celebrated
political writer, was born at Naples on the 18th of Augutt
1752. His parents intended him for the army, but his own
genius pointed out to him the fciences as moft adapted to
his future purfuits. Politics, moral philofophy, and legifla-
tion engaged his mind, and feemed to abforb all his atten-
tion. He foon difcovered the defects of the exifting laws by
which moft of the European nations were governed, In
1771, he drew up the plan of a treatife on private and pub-
lic education, which, however, he never completed. In
1774 he publifhed a fmall work, in which he defended a
new law againft the arbitrary decifion of a judge, with great
judgment and the nobleit enthufiafm. After this he deter-
mined to retire from public life, in order that he might pre-
pare himfelf for important duties, by diligent and uninter-
rupted fludy. But in 1777 he entered into the fervice of
the court, and was appointed a gentleman of the bed-cham-
ber, and an officer of the marine. ‘Thefe avocations did
not prevent him from devotiag many of his days, and fre-
quently whole nights, in philofophical refearch, In 178@

See Fecunna-

ELT EL
he publifhed the fir part of his work « On Legiflation,’””

which was intended to conlilt of feven books ;. but of which
only four, and a part of the fifth, made their appearance
during the author’s life. The early parts of this work were
received with the warmeft approbation ; and the celejyrity of
the author contizued to increafe; but as he had indulged
in liberties which were new in Italy, he was open to the
attack of venal and bigoted writers. His work was op-
pofed by profeffor Jofeph Grippa, who publifhed a letter
under the title of Scienza della Legiflatione Vindicata,”
with obfervations againft Filangeri’s propofal refpeétmg
feudal and criminal laws. Soon after a decree was iflued
by which the treatife “ On Legiflation’’ was declared among
the number of prohibited works, on account of the advice
given in the fecond book, to abolifh ecclefiattical property,
and the propofal promifed in the fifth for reforming abufes
in the power of the church. Filangeri was, however, pro-
tected by the court, and various diftinguifhed marks of fa-
vor were conferred upon him. In 1,83 he married an
Hungarian lady fent to Naples by the emprefs Mary
Therefa, as governefs to the fecond of the princefles. With
the permiffion of his fovereign, ke retired from civil and
military employment, that he might devote his whole time
to the completion of his work at his country houfe near the
town de la Cava, a few miles from Naples, where he refided
till March 1787, when he was appointed to a place in the
royal college of finance. In this fituation he appeared with
great advantage asa ftatefman, and many wife and very ufe-
tul eftablifhments were formed in confequence of hints which
he fuggefted. Scarcely had he arranged his plans of
economy and reform, when he was arrefted by the hand of
death. He died in July 1787, in the 37th year of his age.
His death was lamented by the monarch, who {fettled a
penfion on his infant family, to be employed in their educa-
tion, The demand for his great work on legiflation was fo
great, that it went rapidly through ten editions in his own
country, and was tranflated into the German and French
languages. Gen. Biog.

FILARIA, in Zoology, a genus of inteftinal worms,
which have the body round, filiform, equal, and quite
fmooth ; the mouth dilated, and furnifhed with a roundifh
concave lip. i

The genus filaria, as now eftablifhed, unites fome few of
the Vermes, formerly referred to the genus Afearis, and ac-
cording to its more extenfive application in the Gmelinian
edition, fome of the Gordius tribe may be included alfo in
the fame genus. The vermes, which are truly of the
filaria genus, feem to beabundant throughout all animated
nature ; they are net found in man, nor has their prefence
been hitherto determined in the higher clafs of domeitie aai-
mals, the horfe excepted ; but there are few of the undo-
meiticated quadrupeds, and f{carcely any of the bird tribe
that have been attentively examined, in which they have not
been difcovered ; they are obferved in the fifh and reptile
race, and infeéts are infefted with them in inconceivable num-_
bers. As thefe are the moft fimple of inteftinal worms, the’
different {pecies may not perhaps have hitherto been dii-
criminated with fuflicient accuracy ; they do not feem to
afford any very decifive charaéters by which the fpecies
may be readily diftinguifhed ; and it is no doubt for this
reafon that fyitematic writers defcribe and clafs them merely
according to the refpetive animals in which they are « b-
ferved. Gmelin inferts that highly dangerous creature, the
hair-worm of the Indies, at the head of this genus, becautfe
it infefts man: in} this inftance he deviates from the ex-
ample of Linnzus, who confidered that kind of vermes asa
{fpecies of gordius, and not without reafon. The two

genera,

Ft

genera, filaria and gordius, are indeed analogous, and cor-
refpond in every effential particular, except the ftruéture of
the mouth, and the difference in this refpeét is not exprefled
with due precilion either by Linnzus or Gmelin; the
filaria genus have the mouth terminal, and more or lefs per-
ceptibly dilated, of a fimple form, and furnifhed with a
rounded lip ; to the Gméelinian character of the gordius we
fhould add that the mouth confilts only of a dent or incifion,
and is fo very minute as to be imperceptible to the naked*
eye.

Species.

* Infefting the Mammalia.

Egvut.. Body tapering behind, tail finely pointed, and in-
curved. Abildgeard. ;

Found in the cellular membrane of horfes.

Leonrs. Inthelion. Redi.

Marres. Inthe martin. Redi.

Lerores. Inthe cellular membrane of hares.

** Infefling Birds.

Fatconrs. Inthe cellular membrane about the abdomen
and thighs of hawks. Redi.

Srricts. In the cellular membrane about the head and
earsof owls. Pallas.

Cornicts. In the crop and lungs of crows. Pallas.

Crconra. In the cellular membrane of the ftork. Redi.

Garuinz. In the fmaller inteftines of poultry. Goeze.

The body is capillary, and about two inches long.

#*k Infefting Infecs in their perfec State.
Scaraspar. Inthe fearabeus fimetarius. Phil. Tranf,
Sirenx#. Inthe filpha obfcura. Goeze.

* Caras. Inthe carabus. Lifter.

Gryvut. Inthe gryllus. Roefel.
Monocuut. Inthe monoculusapus. Walch.

**E® Tnfofling the Larve of Infeds.

Leriworrerorum. ‘Tail hooked. Schranck.

Paririonum. In butterflies. Werner.

Porycutort. White. In papilio polychloros. Werner.

Urtics. Body yellowith-grey. In papilio urtice. Wer-
ner.

Pallas,

_ Berutz. Body white. In papilio betula. Werner.
Quercus. Body white. In papilio quercus. Werner.
Sexincum. Inthe {phinx euphorbie. Roefel.
Puarzenarum. Inthe phalena. Mannigf.
Overcus. White. In phalenaquercus. Werner.
Caz. Chefnut. In phalena caja. Werner.
Ziczac. Inphalenaziczac. Degeer.
Nuerae. Inphalena uupta. Goeze.
Pst. In phalena pi. Roefel.
Peruionecta. In phalena pellionella.. Goeze.

- Thefe creatures are found under the fkin of the Jarve,
fometimes folitary, from four to feven inches loug, and very
deftructive. aes: :

-Tunrurepinis. Found in the larve of the tenthredo.

A&. Stockh.
‘ ParyGanex, Found in the larve of the phryganea.
Deveer. '

» KFILAWS, among the modern /Egyptians, villages inha-
bited by the original natives of the country. i

» FILAZER, Fivacer, Filizxer, an. officer in the court
ef common pleas, fo called becaufe he files the writs
whereon he makes out procefs.
» Of thefe there are nine in the

feveral divifions and counties
Vou XIV.

FIL
of England. They make out all writs and proceffes upoa
original wnits, iffuing out of chancery, as well real as perfo-
nal and mixed, returnable in that court.

tions where the view is prayed ; and upon replevins and re-
cordaris, writs of retorno habendo, fecond deliverance, and
writ of withernam. In real aétions they make out writs of
grand and petite cape before appearance.

They-.enter all appearances and fpecial bails upon any pro-
cefs made by them. They make the firft fcire facias upon
{pecial bails, writs of hadéas corpus, diftringas nuper viceca-
mitem vel ballivum, and duces tecum ; and all fuperfedeafes,
upon fpecial bail or appearance, &c. writs of habeas corpus
cum caufa upon the fheriff’s return that the defendant is de-
tained with other ations, and writs of adjournment of a
term, in cafe of peitilence, war, or public difturbance.

Till an order of court made 14 Jac. I. which limited the
filazers to all matters and proceedings before appearance,
and the prothonotaries to all after, they alfo entered decla-
rations, imparlances, judgments, and pleas, whereto a fer-
jeant’s hand was not requifite, and made out writs of execu-
tion, and divers other judicial writs after appearance. The
filazers of the common pleas have been officers of that court
before the ftat. ro Hen. VI. c. 4. in which they are men-
tioned ; and in the king’s bench, of later times, there have
been filazers who made out procefs upon original writs ree
turnable in that court on a@tions in general.

FILBERT, a common name frequently applied to the
beft fort of the hazel-nut. It isoften written Jilberd, and fome-
times /i/bud.

Fivsert-tree, the name of the tree from which the flbert
nut is obtained. It isthe low, fhrubby tree ufually planted
out in gardens, orchards, and other places. See Cory-
GUIs:

Thefe trees may be raifed by planting the nuts, by layers,
by fuckers from the roots, atd by grafting upon bazel
Jocks ; but the beft methods are thofe of layering, and plant-
ing the off-fets or fuckers. The layers fhould be laid down
in the early autumnal feafon, and when they are become fully
rooted, be taken off, and planted out in rows at the diftance
of two feet and twelve inches apart, in the rows. After
they have attained fufficient growth in thefe rows, they may
be carefully taken up and planted where they are to re-
main.

The off-fets or fackers may be taken off with good radi-
cal fibres, and be immediately planted out. where they are to
remain. ;

They anfwer beft where the foil is of the light, mellow, fri-
able kind, but willfucceed in moft, when well protected from
cold winds.

They may be planted in the flandard method, in rows, at
ten, fifteen, or twenty feet diltance, by twelve feet in the
lines ; or be trainéd to fingle ftems, to the height of four,
five, or fix feet, with full branches, {preading heads, and in
the hedge manner, either in fingle or double rows, ten or
twelve feet between; but the ftandard mode is moft proba-
bly the belt, as producing the finett auts.

Ig Kent they never fuffer thefe trees to sie higher thar

3 H ux

Pict. EK.

fix feet, regularly pruning them in the manner of the goofe-
berry buth.

There are two {ub-varieties of this tree, namely, the white-
fkinned, and the red-{kinned, the former being in general the
molt efteemed.

Firserts, Petrified, in Natural Hiffory, and filbert-trees
alfo, have been defcribed by different authors, as found in
the {trata of the earth. Mr. John Ray mentions {uch as be-
ing found under the city of Modena and its neighbourhood,
at twenty-fix feet beneath its furface ; but Mr. Whitehurtt,
who quotes this paffage at length, in his Enquiry concern-
ing the Earth (rit ed. p. 172.) obferves, that thefe are not
original ftrata, but modern accumulations of alluvial foil,
which have buried the briars, corn, filberts, &c. in the al-
terations which the fuperticial parts of the ground about Mo-
dena have undergone ; and fimilar remarks might, we believe,
be applied to every other inftance of real filbert-trees or nuts
being found beneath the furface of the earth, or in accumu-
lations of calcareous tufa, (fee Nurs ;) and the fame will be
found to belong to the clafs of recent foffils, mentioned in
our article Coav.

FILE, an inftrument ufed for reducing, and for giving
fhape and {moothnets to a number of articles made of wood
or metal.

It is divided into two varieties from the form of their teeth,
namely, files andrafps. The former are cut upon the furface
with a fharp-edged chiffel, In the latter, the tooth is raifed
with a triangular punch. The file is adapted for working
metals, but the ra{p is more fitted for wood, bone and horn.
Files again are diitinguifhed by being fingle or double cut.
The fingle cut file is fimply cut once over, and is employed
for filing brafs, and the fofter metals. A fecond courfe
of teeth is cut to form the double cut file, croffing the firlt
diagonally. This kind is beft fuited to iron and {teel. f

Files are alfo called by different names, from the various
degrees of finenefs of their teeth, as fmooth, fecond cut,
baftard cut, and rough files.

And again, from their fhape, they are called flat, half.
yound, fquare, three fquare, round, and fome having two
round fides.

The fteel employed for files requiresto be very hard, and
in confequence undergoes a longer procefs in the converfion :
jt is faid to be donble converted.

The very heavy files, fuch as {miths’ rubbers, are made
of the inferior marks of bliftered fteel: the more delicate
- kind, fuch as watch-makers’ files, being made of catt fteel.
The fteel is previoufly drawn at the tilt, into rods of fuit-
able fize.

Forging of Files —The flat and the fquare files are made
wholly with the hammer, and the plain anvil. T'wo work-
men, one called the maker, and the other ftriker, are re-
quired in the forging of heavy files ; the {maller being forged
by one perfon only.

The anvil is provided with a gate, or groove, for the recep-
tion of certain boffes, or dies, which are ufed for the purpofe of
forging the half-round and Sea as files. The half-round
bofs contains a hollow which isthe fegment of a fphere, much
lefs than half a cirele. That ufed for the triangular files has a
gate or hollow, confifting of two fides, terminating in an
angle at the bottom.

In forging the half-round file, the fteel is firft drawn out,
as if intended ‘to make a flat file. It isthen laid in the bofs,
and hammered, till the underfide becomes round. ‘The tfteel
for the triangular file is tilted into {quare rods. ‘The part
to form the file is firft drawn out with the hammer, as if
intended to form a {quare fie, It is then placed in the hols

with one of the angles downwards, and by ftriking upon
the oppofite angle, two fides of the fquare are formed into
one, and confequently a three-fided figure produced. By
fucceflively prefenting the different fides to the ation of the
hammer, the figure is rendered {till more compleat.

In forming the tangs of moft les, it is neceflary to make
the fhoulders perfetly {quare and fharp. This is performs
ed by cutting into the file a little on each fide with a fharp
fate or aggron, and afterwards drawing out the part fo
marked off, to form the tang.

After forging, and previous to being ground and cut,
the files require to be annealed. This procefs is generally
performed by piling up a great quantity together, in a fur-
nace for the purpofe, and heating them red hot ; fuffering
them afterwards to cool flowly. This method of annealing
files, or indeed any other articles, in which great hardnefs
is requifite, is very objeétionable, fince the furface of fteel,
when heated red hot in the open air, is fo liable to oxyda-
tion. Two evils refult from this cireumftance, befides the
lofs by wafte. Firft, the fcaly oxyd is very hard, and dif-
ficult to remove ; and fecondly the fteel, particularly on the
furface, is deprived of a portion of its carbon, and there-
by rendered lefs fufceptible of hardening.

A fuperior method of annedling is praétifed by fome file
makers, and fince hardnefs in a file is fo effential a proper-
ty, the procefs ought to be generally adopted.

This method confifts in placing the files in an oven or
trough, having a clofe cover, and filling up the interftices
with fand. ‘The fire is made to play on every fide of this
veflel, as gradually, and as uniformly as poffible, till the
whole mafs becomes heated red hot. The fire is then dif-
continued, and the whole fuffered to cool, before the cover
is removed from the trough. Another evil may however
arife from keeping fteel red hot even in a clofe veflel, for
too great a length of time. It aflumes a kind of cryttalli-
zation under which its tenacity is much impaired. Hence,
it will be proper not to anneal too many at once, and not
to heat them too hot. Steel, annealed in this way, is per-
feétly free from that {caly furface acquired in the open air ;
and if each corticle be perfeétly furrounded with the fand,
and the cover not removed before the fteel is cold, the fur-
face will appear of a filvery white colour.

If the fteel be fufpected to be too kind, from containing
too little carbon, powdered chareoal may be employed in-
ftead of fand, or fand mixed with charcoal. In this cafe
the bles fhould be ftratified alternately with the charcoal, in
order that the extra-conyerfion may be uniform.

The next thing is to prepare the files for cutting, by
making the furface, to contain the teeth, as level as pot-
fible. This was formerly effeéted by means of files; and
the procefs is called ftripfng. The fameis {till pra@tifed by
the Lancafhire file makers, and by others not having conve-
nience for grinding. The greateft quantity of files, how-
ever, are ground to prepare them for cutting. The ftone
employed for the purpofe is of the fandftone kind, the tex-
ture of which is compact and fharp, but rather rough. They
are of as great diameter as can be ufed with convenience ;
and about eight inches broad over the face. When ufed,.
the furface is kept immerfed in water. The grinder fits in
fuch a pofition as to lean over the ftone, while its motion is
direétly from him. Its furface moves at about the fame
{peed with thofe ufed in grinding cutlery. Since the obje&
in grinding files is to make the furface as even and flat as
poffible, and as this cannot be done fo completely upon a
{mall ftone, the ftones of the file-grinder are laid afide when
they are reduced to a certain fize, and are employed for

grinding

FIER -

grinding other articles, Though grinding is by far the
moft expeditious method, it does not give that truth to the
furface which can be effeéted by filing. If the price of the
articles would admit, however, it would be well to render the
furface more even by the file after grinding. If the furface
be not flat, it is obvious, that when the file is ufed for filing
2 large furface, thofe teeth in the hollow parts of the file
will not be brought into aétion. It is from attention to this
circumftance, and to the care in annealing and hardening,
that the Lancafhire file-makers have generally excelled.
' They are, however, confined chiefly to the {mall articles,
fince the larger files would not pay for the procefs of
ftriping. : 3

~ Cutting of Files. —If the vaft number of teeth contained
ina file, and their requifite uniformity are confidered, a
taachine capable of effe€ting a bufinefs fo apparently mecha-
nical, may be confidered a defideratum.

Though many attempts have been made to accomplifh
this obje€t by machinery, and feveral varieties of machines
hhave been conftruéted for the purpofe, no one has yet been
fufficiently generalin its application, to render the profe-
cution of fuch an object very defireable. Among thofe
who have diftinguifhed themfelves in this enquiry, Mr.
Nicholfon, the publifher of the Philofophical Jourmil, we be-
lieve, invented the moft likely machine for file cutting, for
which he took out a patent. We do not know, however, that
either Mr. Nicholfon’s, or any other machine, is at prefent
‘ufed for the purpofe. A ble, which is of the fame breadthand
thicknefsthroughout, ofany form, may be cut bythemachine,
becaufe the fame magnitude of flroke is required forevery
tooth ; but if the file be comical, it is obvious that a ma-
chine, capable of giving all the varieties of ftrokes required
in cutting even one fide of a fle, would be teo complicated
to be of any great utility. Again, the chiflel employed for
cutting a file is frequently liable to {nip, er be otherwife out
of order. This the workman, in the common way of cut-
ting, can eafily feel, and immediately ftops to repair it. A
very great evil would arife from this fource, in cutting with
the machine ; and this evil would be greater in proportion to
the number of chiffels which one perfon had to overlook. It
has alfo been faid, but wecannot affirm the faét, that the teeth
raifed by machinery are not fo full and fharp as thofe formed
by hand. Till the above inconveniences can be obviated,
in all probability the common method will be continued; the
different apparatus and mode of performance of which we
will endeavour to defcribe.

The tools of the file-cutter confift of an anvil _placed
upon a block of fuch a height, that the man fits to his
work. He has alfoa piece of lead, or lead alloyed with tin,
on which he lays the files when one fide is cut. The chiffel
and hammer are of fuch fize, as the fize and cut of the file
require. He is alfo provided with a leather ftrap, which
goes over each end of the file, and paffes round his feet,
which are introduced into the {trap on each fide, in the fame
manner as ftirrups are ufed. The file-cutter, therefore, fits
as if he were on horfeback, holding his chiffel with one
hand, his hammer in the other, at the fame time he fecures
the file in its place by the preffure of his feet in the itir-
rups. A, fig. 1. (Plate XIII. AMi/cellany,) is the block ; B,
the anvil ; a 4, the file, laid upon the piece of lead; C, C, the
ftirrups pafling over the ends of the file ; D, the feat on which
the workman fits. Fig. 2. is the form of one of the chiffels for
cutting the files. Fig. 3. reprefents the chiffel or punch for
raifing the tooth of the rafp. Fig. 4. the hammer ufed to
ftrike the head of the chiffel. Thefe people have found by
experience that there is an advantage in having the head of
the hammer hooked inwards. This is eafily accounted for,

when we obferve that the ftroke will be made pretty near
the centre of percuffion. Great pains ought to be taken in
preparing the edge of the chiffel. It is, in the firft place,

hardened and tempered by heating it gradually till it appears

of a yellowith brown. It is next ground very true to form
the edge, which is afterwards finifhed upon a Turkey ftone,
with oil. It is not required to be very fharp, the bottom
of the tooth requiring to be rather open, to prevent the file
from clogging with the fubftance to be filed. ‘The edge is
alfo required to be very {mooth, in order that it may flip
eafily upon the furface of the files: this is alfo facilitated
by flightly greafing the furface. From this advantage, the
worker, after making one tooth, is enabled, by feeling only,,
to ferm, at its proper diftance, the fucceeding tooth, by
fliding the chiffel clofe up againft the back of the preced-
ing one. All thefe motions are performed with aftonifhing
rapidity, firft the chiflelandthen the hammer. Weobferved 2
boy, in cutting three-fided files of five inches long, baf-
tard cut, make 225 ftrokes, which produced as many teeth,
in one minute. And the whole file being double-cut, con-
tained 1350 teeth, or fix times the above quantity. The
fecond cut file, of the fame fize, contains 2025 teeth, and the
{mooth file 2700, confequently, the difference in labour be-
tween the baftard-cut and the fmooth files is about as two
toone. Larger files, from the greater furface, require a
much greater ftroke to raife the tooth, and confequently
fewer ftrokes will be made in the fame time.

In the double-cut files, the firft fet of teeth, which the
workmen call up-cutting, are, previous to cutting the fecond
courte, filed flightly upon the face, in order to allow the chif-
fel to flide freely.

The fingle-cut file is more durable than the double-cut,
and ought to be preferred for all purpofes, excepting for
iron and fteel.

The fame method is employed in cutting the rafp. The
workman is however guided completely by his eye, in regu.
lating the diftance of the teeth from each other. "Phe rafp
ought to be cut in fuch a manner that no one of the teeth
may ftand oppofite to another. This not only allows the
rafp to cut fafter, but makes the furface, either of wood or
other fubftance, much fmoother.

Hardening of Files.—This is the laft and moft important
part of file-making. Whatever may be the quality of the
iteel, or however excellent the workmanthip, if it is not
well hardened, all the labour is loft.

Three things are ftri@ly to be obferved in hardening ;
firit, to prepare the file onthe furface, fo as to prevent it
from being oxydated by the atmofphere, when the file is
red hot, which effe& would notonly take off the fharpnefsof
the tooth, but render the whole furface fo rough, that the file
would, in a little time, become clogged with the fubftance
ithad to work. Secondly, the heat ought to be very uni-
formly red throughout, and the water in which it is
quenched frefh and cold, for the purpofe of giving it the
proper degree of hardnefs. Lajftly, the manner of immer-
fion is of great importance, to prevent the files from warping,
which in long thin files is very difficult.

The firit object is accomplifhed by laying a fubftance upon
the surface, which, when it fufes, forms as it were a
varnifh upon the furface, defending the metal from the ation
of the oxygen of the air. Formerly, the procefs confifted
in firft coating the furface of the file with ale grounds, and
then covering it over with pulverized common falt, (mu-
riat of foda.) After this coating became dry, the files are
heated red hot, and hardened; after this, the furface is lightly
bruthed over with the duft of cokes, when it appears white
and metallic, asif it had not been heated. This proceis has

3H2 lately

FILE,

lately been'improved, at Jeaft fo far as relates to the econo-
my of the falt, which, from the quantity ufed, and the in-
creafe of duty, had become a ferious object. Thofe who
ufe the improved method are now confuming about one-
fourth the quantity of falt ufed in the old method. The
procefs confifts in diffolving the falt in water to faturation,
which is about three pounds to the gallon, and ftiffening it
with ale grounds, or with the cheapeft kind of flour, {nch
as that of beans, to about the confiftence of thick cream.
The files only require to be dipped into this fubftance, and
immediately heated and hardened. The grounds, or the
flour are of no other ufe, than to give the mafs confiftence,
and by that means, allowing a larger quantity of falt to be
laid upon the furface. In this method, the falt forms immedi-
ately a firm coating. As foon as the water is evaporated,
the whole of it becomes fufed upon the file. Inthe old me-
thod the dry falt was fo loofely attached to the file, that
the greateft part of it was rubbed off into the fire, and
was {ublimed up the chimney, without producing any
effect.

The carbonaceous mattet of the ale-grounds is fuppofed
to have fome effeét, in giving hardnefs to the file, by com-
Dining with the fteel, and-rendering it more highly carbo-
nated. It will be found, however, upon experiment, that
vegetable carbon does not combine with iron, with fuffi-
cient facility, to produce any effe@, in the fhort {pace of
time a file is heating, for the purpofe of hardening. Some
fite makers are in the habit of ufing the coal of burnt
leather, which donbtlefs produces fome effect ; but the car-
bon is generally fo ill prepared for the purpofe, and the
time of its operation fo fhort, as to render the effect very
little. Animal catbon, when properly prepared and mix-
ed, with the above hardening compofition, is capable of
giving hardnefs to the furface even of an iron file.

The carbonaceous matter may be readily obtained from
any of the foft parts of animals, or from blood. For this
purpofe, however, the refufe of fhoe-makers and curriers,
is the moft convenient. After the volatile parts have been
diftilled over, from an iron ftill, a brigit fhining coal is left
behind, which, when reduced to powder, is fit to mix with
the falt. Let about equal parts, by bulk, of this powder,
and muriat of foda, be mixed together, and brought to the
confiftence of cream, by the addition of water. Or mix
the powdered carbon with a faturated folution of the falt,
till it become of the above conififtence. Files which are in-
tended to be very hard, fhould be covered with this compo-
fition, previous to hardening. All files intended to file iron
or fteel, particularly faw files, fhould be hardened with this
compofition in preference to that with the flour or
grounds, Indeed, we are of opinion, that the carbonaceous
powder might be ufed, altogether, in point of economy,
fince the ammonia or hartfhorn, obtained by dittillation,
would be of fuch value as to render the coal of no expence.
By means of this method the files made of iron, which in
itfelf is infufceptible of hardening, acquires a fupericial
hardnefs, fufficient for any file whatever. Such files may
at the fame time be bent into any form, and, in confe-
quence, are particularly ufeful for fculptors and die finkers.

The next point to be confidered is the belt method of
heating the file for hardening. For this purpofe a fire,
fimilar to the common fmiths’ tre, is generally employed.
The ble is held in a pair of tongs, by the tang, and intro-
duced into the fire, confifting of very {mall cokes; puth-
ing it more or lefs into the tre for the purpofe of heating
it regularly. It mult frequently be withdrawn for the
purpofe of obferving, that it is not too hot in any part.
When it is uniformly heated, from the tang to the point,

i

of a chetry red colour, it is fit to quench in the water
At prefent an oven, formed of fire bricks, is ufed for the
larger files, into which the blalt of the bellows is directed,
being open at one end, for the purpofe of introducing the
fles and the fuel. _Near to the top of the oven are
placed two crofs bars, on which a few files are placed, to
be partially heating. In the hardening of heavy files, this
contrivance affords a confiderable faving, in point of time,
in addition to which they are more uniformly and thoe
roughly heated.

After the file is properly heated for the purpofe of hard-
ening, in order to produce the greateft poffible hardnefs, it
fhould be cooled as foon as poflible. ‘The moft common,
method of effecting this is by quenching it in the moldett
water. Some file makers have been in the habit of putting
different fubftances in their water, with a view to increafe
its hardening property. The addition of the fulphuric acid
to the water was long held a great fecret in the hardening
of faw fles. After ail, however, it will be found, that
clear {pring water, free from animal and vegetable matter,
and as cold as poflible, is the beft calculated for hardening
files of every: de{cription. :

In quenching the files in water fome caution muit be ob-
ferved. All files, except the half round, fhould be immerfed,
perpendicularly, as flowly as poffible, fo that the upper part
fhall not cool. This management prevents the. file from
warping. ‘The half round file muft be quenched in the fame
fteady manner, but at the fame time it is kept perpendicu-
lar to the furface of the water, it muft be moved a little ho-
rizontally, in the dire€tion of the round fide, otherwife it
will become crooked backwards,

When the files are hardened, they are brufhed over with
water and powdered cokes, when the furface becomes per-
feétly clean and metallic, ‘They ought, alfo, to be wathed
well, in two or three clean waters, for the purpofe of carry-
ing off all the falt, which, if remaining, will be liable to ruft
the file. In addition to this, they fhould be dipped into
lime water, and rapidly dried before the fire, after being
oiled, with olive oil, containing a little oil of turpentine,
while ftill warm, and they are deemed finifhed.

Fite is alfo a thread of wire whereon writs or other exhi-
bits in courts or offices are faftened or filed, for the more
fafe keeping and ready turning to the fame. :

A ble is a record of the court, and the filing of the procefs
ofa court makesit arecord of it. 1 Lil. 112.

Fixe, or Label, in Heraldry, a bearing, fometimes of
more, and fometimes of fewer points, being the difference or
diftin@tion of the eldeft fon.

It is fometimes alfo borne as a charge in a coat armour,
of which Gwillim gives many inftances; but it is oftener the
difference or mark of diltin€@tion which the elder brother
bears in his coat during his father’s life.

Some diftinguifh fle and /ale/, calling the file the upper
horizontal line, and the label the points which iflue from
it.

Five of three, or morelabels. See Lanev.

Fire, ina Military Senfe, isarow of men ftanding one be-
hind another; as a rank, on the other hand, includes any
number drawn up befide each other: whether, in either re-
fpect, they be in clofe or gpen order. ‘

Or, file is a line or feries of foldiers, placed one befere an-
other, and thus compofing the depth of a battalion ; and it
is thus diftincuifhed from the rank, which is a line of
foldiers, drawu up fide by fide, forming the /ength of the
battalion. A file is two or three deep ; hence, a battalion
or regiment drawn up confifts of two or three ranks, and
of as many files as there are men inarank. Files of cavalry

are

.

FIL

are generally two deep. A file on horfe-back occupies in
the ranks about two feet eight inches; a file on foot occu-
pies in the ranks twenty-two inches. :

Clof: files in cavalry are at the diftance which was taken
before difmounting, when cach man’s boot-top touches,
without preffing, that of his neighbour. : ;

Loofe tiles, in cavalry movements, are fix inches diftant
from boot-top to boot-top, being calculated for the gallop
as well as the walk of a fquadron.

Open files, in cavalry, are the full breadth of a horfe from
boot-top to boot-top. Recruits and horfes muft be frequent-
ly exercifed at this diftance.

Flank file denotes the extreme file on the right or left of
-afguadron or troop, battalion or company, &c. Forming
from file, is when the front file halts, aud the reft ride up at a
very {mart gallop, taking care to halt in time, and not to
over-run the ground. Ifthe formation is by doubling round
the front file, (¢. g. when a formation is made to the rear of

e march, or tothe right, when marched from the right)
the files muft double round as clofely and expeditioufly as
poffible. In all formings from file the leaders of ranks in-
tantly cover each other, take the ordered front, and halt.
The files which bind the right and left are called the
flanks.

In the covering of files on horfeback, the fame direCtions
hold good as on foot. Befides, it mult be fcrupuleufly ob-
ferved, that every man’s horfe ftands exaily ftraight to the
fame front as that of the man before him. Both iu the horfe
and foot drill the men fhould be often pra¢tifed in covering.
The former are thus taught to place their horfes ftraight
under them.

Clofe bles of infantry are foldiers ftanding in rank, con-
tiguous to one another, upon any given depth of line or co-
lumn. Whenever a regiment marches in front, every man
fhould feel his next man in whatever way he dreffes; but he
muft not lean upon him, nor muft he move his arms from
his body to feel him: fo that arm clofe tiles mean merely
that foldiers in the ranks fhould lightly touch each other,
without crowding or prefling. Open files are foldiers ftand-
ing in rank at given diftances without touching one another.
‘The formation at open files is only prattifed as a preparatory
drill for forming at clofe files (which is the order for ation)
in order that every man may be taught to ftand and move in
a proper polition, without getting a habit of leaning upon
hisneighbour. Onthis account every iitelligent officer who
has the management of recruits, will form them fometimes
at open files, and march in that order. Soldiers that have
been regularly drilled fhould likewife be occafionally prac-
tifed in adyancing by open fles. Double tiles are formed
by the left files in each rank ftepping to the rear of the
right files. Jndian files denote a line of men advancing or
retreating from either of the flanks, from the centre, or from
any proportion of a line in fucceflion to one another. ‘They
are fometimes called * goofe-files,” a term vulgarly ufed
among foldiers, and derived from a flock of geefe, which
generally follow a leader one by one We fay, clo/e the
files ; that is, bring the men nearer each other. Douéle the
files; that is, double the depth of the battalion, and di-
minifh its breadth or front by one half, The lait or hinder-
moft perfon is faid to ring up the file. To file, that is, to
advance to, or from, any given poiat-by files; as to file to
the front, to file to the rear, to file from the right or left
flank, or to file from any given company. To file off, is to
wheel from marching in a f{pacious front, and to march in

length by files. See Derize.

Frre-Leader is the foldier placed in the front of any file,
er the man who is to cover all thofe that fland dire@ly in

FIL

the rear of him, and by whom they are to be guided in all
their movements. TFile-leaders fhould be very careful to
preferve their proper diftances, from which ever hand they
are to drefs to, and the followers of each file mui only be
attentive to cover, and be regulated by their proper file-
leaders. In file the rear rank invariably dreffes by, and is
regulated by the front rank.

Five marching on foot. According to the printed regu-
lations, all recruits mutt firft face, and then be inftruGted to
cover each other exactly in file, fo that the head of the maa
immediately before may conceal the heads of all the others
in front.. The men fhould move with the lock-flep. The
front-rank men fhould cover exaCtly, and the rear-rank men
keep clofe and drefled to the front rank. File-marching may
be performed to the front, to the rear, and to either flank ;
in all which cafes the men muft be taught to cover well.
When recruits are at drill, on the word march, all are to ftep
off together, gaining at the firlt ftep thirty inches, and fo
continuing each ftep, without increafing the diftance be-
twixt each recruit, every man locking or placing his ad-
vanced foot on the ground, before the {pot whence the man
who precedes him had taken up his. Marching by ranks
in front, open files, is when any body of men advance by
ranks at open order, and drefs to fome given obje@ without
touching one another. The flank-man of the flank to
whom the foldiers drefs, muft be a non-commiffioned officer,
and he muft take care that his head be kept quite ftraight
to the front, and his body ereé&, and that he advances with-
out deviating in any the leaft degree to the right or the left.
In order to execute this effential part of the drill accurately,
two perfons fhould be prefent, one in the front, and the
other on the flank, to obferve the drefling. Marching by
ranks in front, clofe files, is when any number of men ad-
vance by ranks at clofe order, and drefs to fome given ob-
je&t, each man lightly touching his next man, without
crowding or prefling. The march in front at clofe files is
much more eafy than that at open files, becaufe every man
feels his next man, which-ever way the rank drefles, and
into whatever direétion the rank or column moves.

FILELIO, Francis, in Biography, a diltinguithed
Italian writer, was born at Tolentino in the year 1398.
He ttudied at Padua with fo.much fuccefs, that he was in-
vited to open.a fchool of eloquence at Venice in his 20th
year. In 1420 he went to Athens, where, under the di-
rection. of John Chryfoloras, fon of Manuel, he applied
himfelt fo vigoroufly to the ftudy of the Greek language,
as to be fent ambaflador to fultan Amurath IL. and alfo
the emperor Sigifmund. In this latter embafly he received
an invitation from-Ladiflaus IV. king of Poland, to aflit at
his nuptials, and-on that eccalion he recited an eration
at Cracow, in the prefence of the emperor and princes.
Returning to Conftantinople, he occupied himfelf in literary
concerns, and in 1427 he revifited Venice on the exprefs in-
vitation of many of the nobles. From Venice he removed,
in. 14.28, to Bologna, where he was received with extraordi-
nary honours, and appointed profeflor of eloquence and
moral philofophy, -with an ample ftipend. Civil difeord
obliged him ina few months to quit Bologna, and from
thence he went to Florence, where he foon colle&ed four
hundred {cholars, and was admitted to the rank of citizen
by a public decree. Here his life was fometimes in danger
from his enemies, among whom he reckoned the chief to be
Cofmo de Medici. In 1435 he accepted of a profefforhhip
at Sienna, where he was attacked by the fame affafiia from
whofe malice he had formerly efcaped at Florence. The
villain was detected, and punithed with the lofs of a hand,
‘The reputation of Filelfo was now fo high, that he was

invited,,

FIL

invited, at the fame time, to the performanee of important
duties by the pope, the Greek emperor, the duke of Milan,
and the univerfities of Perugia and Bologna. He accepted
the latter, where he re-opened his {choo} for a few months
only, when, repairing to the court of the duke of Milan,
he was retained by him in his fervice, and treated with great
favour. The death of the duke, in 1447, deprived him
of a powerful patron, but he was, aftera confiderable inter-
val, reoeived by the fucceffor to the dukedom, Francis
Sforza, who affigned him an honourable ftipend. He
next went to Rome, where he experienced the liberality of
pope Nicholas V. Proceeding to Capua, he was treated with
extraordinary regard by Alphonfo king of Naples, who con-
ferred upon him the honour of knighthood, allowed him the
privilege of ufing the royal arms, and placed on his head
the poetical crown of laurel. Upon his return to Milan,
he learnt that his mother-in-law, the widow of Chryfoloras,
and her two daughters, were made flaves in the capture of
Conftantinople by the Turks: at the earneit requelt of
Filelfo the duke difpatched two meflengers to Conftantino-
ple, with a letter and an ode addreffed to Mahomet II., who
reftored the female captives without a ranfom, At the
fame period Filelfo became reconciled to Cofmo de Medici,
and ever after remained in friendfhip with that illuitrious
family. On the eleétion of pope Pius IT. in 1458, he fet-
tled a penfion on Filelfo, which being paid only one year,
gave him an occafion to declaim againit the court of Rome
and the pontiff, a liberty which was punifhed with impri-
fonment. In 1469 he prefented pope Paul II. with his
tranflation of the Cyropzdia, for which he received a prefent
of four hundred ducats. This donation was handfome,
and perhaps unexpeé¢ted, and he felt it his duty to go to
Rome and return thanks in perfon. In the courfe of his
journey he was honourably received and treated at Florence,
by Peter and Lorenzo de Medici. He continued to refide
at Milan till 1474, when he obtained leave, on the invitation
of pope Sixtus 1V., to become profeffor of moral philo-
fophy at Rome. After this he removed three times to
Milan, and back again to Rome, tillat length, in the eighty-
third year of his age, he accepted an invitation from Lorenzo
de Medici to a Greek profeflorfhip at Florence. In the
performance of the duties of this office he died, in 1481, a
very fhort time after his arrival. He left behind many books,
which confiit of orations, moral difcourfes, poems, and fa-
miliar epiftles, that afford much curious anecdote relative to
the times. As aman of letters, he is more to be admired
for his induftry, and the great compafs of his attainments,
than for peculiar excellence in any one branch. Neverthe-
lefs he was a good hiftorian, well filled in claffical learning,
anda profound grammarian. Moreri.

FILER wun Son, Fr. in Mufic, implies the condué
of the voice in finging, in fuch a manneras to be able to pro-
long, fwell, or run rapid divifions of many bars, without
taking breath. The French verb fier, literally means to
ftring, thread, or wire-draw any fubftance: and, applied to
the voice, it means almoft every perfection of a great finger.
Millico ufed to fay that the voice, by practice, fhould be ren-
dered as ductile as wax when worked by the hand till it will
receive any impreffion. Rouffeau fays there are two ways
of managing the voice which come under the term filer /es
fous : the frft is what we have been defcribing ; the fecond,
that of fuftaining a tone fteadily, and perfectly in tune,
in along note, while the accompaniments are bufily em-
ployed. When the Gabrielli was here, during the time
that the Agujari fung at the Pantheon, after fhe had finifhed
one of her bravura airs, with long and difficult divifions,
and fuch high notes as had never been heard in England be-

FIL

fore, the Gabrielli faid to a sentleman in our hearing “ mais
mefiieurs, ce n’elt pas filer les fons ;’? one finger is never
to praife another. Agujari was however a very great finger
in a different ityle from that of the Gabrielli; who, when at
her belt, had very fingular vocal abilities. We have juit
now recollected that Agujari was forgotten in the alphabeti-
cal order where fhe ought to have had a niche, for which
we beg pardon of her manes, and fhall try to deferve it, by
doing her juftice here.

Lucretia Acujyari wasatruly wonderful yocal per-
former. The lower part of her voice was full, round, of an ex-
cellent quality, and its compals, after fhe quitted its natural re-
gifler, which it was to be wifhed fhe had never done, beyond
any one we had then heard. She had two o€taves of fair natural
voice, from A on the fif=h line in the bafe, to A on the fixth
line in the treble,and beyond that, in alt, fhe had in early youth
more then another o€tave; as Sacchini told me (fays Burney)
he had heard her go up to Bb in altiffimo. Her fhake was open
and perfe@, her intonation true, her execution marked and ra-
pid,and her ftyle of finging, inthe natural compafsof her voice,
grand and majeftic; though the pathetic and tender were
not what her manner or figure promifed, yet fhe had ex-
preffions fometimes that were truly touching, and fhe would
have been as capable of exciting univerfal pleafure, as admi-
ration, if fhe had been a little lefs violent in the delivery of
her paflages, and her looks had been more tempered by fe-
male foftnefs and timidity. She fang hardly any other mu-
fic while fhe was here than her hufband’s, Signor Colla,
which, though often good, was not of that eriginal and va-
ried caft which could fupply the place of every other mafter,
ancient and modern.

At this time there was no male finger in England with
irrefiltible attractions: Rauzzini indeed was here, who more
frequently pleafed than furprized his audience ; but it was
during this period that the proprietors of the Pantheon ven-
tured to engage the Agujari at the enormous falary of
1oo/.a night, for finging two fengs only! And yet, how-
ever exorbitant the demand, or imprudent the compliance
with it may feem, the managers of this moft elegant and
{uperb building, which would have done honour to Greeee
at its moft f{plendid period of tafte and magnificence, have,
fince that period, by going a more economical way to work,
inyolved the proprietors in difgrace and ruin, Indeed, in
fubfequent undertakings, previous to the fatal deftruc-
tion of the building by fire, they have more frequently had
money to pay than receive ; for, notwith{landing fo much
was difburfed to the Agvjari, much was likewife cleared,
and the dividend was more confiderable than it has ever been
fince that memorable era. The admirable Agujari, as
Sacchinitold us, was in her youth called “ la Baftardella ;”
and being lame it was faid, that, as foon as born, fhe had
been abandoned on a Cunghill by an unnatural mother, where
a pig was beginning to devour her, when fhe was unexpeét-
edly difcovered, and humanely protected, adopted, and fo
well educated in mufic, as to become the wonder of herage
and country. This admirable finger died at Parma in
1783. :

FILEY, in Geography, a {mall fifhing town of England,
on the E. coaft of the county of York, ina bay on the Ger-
man fea, to which it gives name ; near it is a ledge of rocks,
called “ Filey Brigg.’”? In 1801 the inhabitants were
505.

FILIAL, fomething belonging to the relatien of a fon,

Jilius.

The divines ufually diftingnifh between a fervile anda

filial fear. The moft abandened have a fervile fear of God,
7 fueh

FIL

fuch as that of a flave to his mafter; but not a filial fear,
i, e. a fear refulting from love and refpect.

Fiziar Portion. See Custom of London.

FILICAIA, Vincenzo pa, in Biography, an elegant
Italian poet, was born at Florence in 1642. He ftudied
and took his degrees at the univerfity of Pifa, He married
at the age of thirty-one: he was fond of retirement, occupying
himfelf in poetical compofition, and in the duties of domettic
life. He was tirft brought to publicotice by his fine can-
zoni compofed on the raifing of the fiege of Vienna. For
this he received the moft flattering and complimentary letters
from feveral crowned heads; from the emperor Leopold,
the king of Poland, the duke of Lorrain, and the queen of
Sweden. By the latter he was adopted into her own aca-
demy, and fhe took upon herfelf the charge of maintaining
jhis children ; at the fame time commanding him to conceal
her bounty, as being inadequate to the merits of fo great a
man. He was created a fenator by the grand duke, and
employed in fome important duties by that prince, which
he performed with fo much credit, as to gain the efteem of
the prince, and affeGtion of the people. He died univer-
fally lamented at Florence, in the year 1707, at the age of
dixty-five. ‘‘ He was,” fays his biographer, ‘ one of the
principal ornaments of modern Italian poetry, difplaying,
as well in his canzoni as his fonnets, great fublimity, ani-
mation and dignity, and fcarcely furpaffed by any in vigour
of fentiment and energy of ftyle. He alfo wrote Latin verfe
with elegance, and fome of his orations and epiftles are in-
ferted in the “ Profe Fiorentine.’’? He was member of the
academies of La Crufca, and the Arcadi. His fon Scipio
“gave a compleat edition of his Italian poems, under the title
of * Poefie Tofcane di Vincenzo da Filicaia, Senatore Fio-
rentino,’”? 1707, 4to.’”? Moreri.

FILICES, in Botany, Ferns, a very diftiné&t and natural
order of the clafs Cryftogamia of Linneus. The name is
fuppofed to be derived from fi/um, a thread, in allufion to
the flender fegments, or rather ftalks, of thefe plants,
whence alfo they are termed capillary plants, and fome of
them have the name of Maiden-hair, They ccnftitute the
fifth natural orderin the firft clafsof the fyftem of Juffieu,
and the firft order of the twenty-fourth clafs of the Linnean
artificial fyftem.

Their herbage is a frond, or leaf bearing fru@iScation,
per arborefcent, involute when young, the {talk more or
lefs {ealy ; the root perennial, and generally very long-lived.
Frudification moft commonly on the back of the leaf ; fome-
times at the edge; fometimes, (by a transformation, as it
were, of a leaf or its lobes,) {piked and terminal, or foli-
tary and axillary. Cap/ules utually of two valves and one
cell, moftly ftalked, and bound with a contrary elattic ring ;
fometimes feflile and aggregate ; very rarely of many cells.
Seeds extremely minute and copious.

The flowers of ferns are as yet altogether unknown, ex-
cept what Hedwig has defcribed in Equi/etum ; fee that ar-
ticle. The fame admirable inveftigator thought he difco-
vered anthers difperfed about the rib of the ae in fome
common ferns, and piftils under the cover of their young
fruit, fee his Theoria Generationis et Fruédificationis Planta-
rum Cryptogamicarum, 43, &c.t. 5, 6, 73 but others have
not affented to this theory. Bernhardi has fuggefted an-
other, equally hypothetical, that impregnation is performed
onthe upper fide of the leaf, the pollen being fecreted by
{mall membranous anthers fituated near the margin, and the
stigmas placed dire@ly over the point of attachment of each
dot or mafs of capfules. See Sims and Konig’s Annals of
Botany, v. 1. 107; but this is not better fupported by facts
than the doétrine of Hedwig. Some have imagined the

FIL

ring which embraces the capfule in moft dorfiferous ferns,
might perform the office of an anther; but fucha theory
will not account for the impregnation in genera where no
fuch part is to be found.

The feeds of ferns, independent of poetic fancies, were
early known to naturalifts. Gileke points out a paflage in
Cordus, denying them feeds indeed, but afferting that all
ferns are propagated by the duit at the back of their
leaves. Morifon tells us he raifed from feed the Harts-tongue
and the Ofmund-royal ; fee his Hiftoria, v. 3. 555 and 593.
Microfcopic obfervers, about the fame time, readily aicer-
tained the ftruéture of the capfules, and appearance of the
feeds. Ehrhart obferved the germination of /pidium /pinu-
lofum ; and, Mr. Lindfay of Jamaica raifed many ferns of
that ifland from feed, as recorded in the ‘lranfa&tions of the
Linn. Soe. y. 2.93, carefully attending to, and delineating
the progrefs of their growth. Mr. Fox of Norwich firit
taifed a Lycopodium from feed ; fee Tr. of L. Soc. v. 3. 314.
Similar experiments have been repeated by various other per-
fons, and in hot-houfes, where the larger kinds of flices
are cultivated, young feedlings, of a fcaly pellucid appear-
ance, like an infant Marchautia, may often be feen f{cattered
over the moitt earth, or rotten bark. Sprengel well obferves,
in his letters on Cryptogamous plants, tranflated by Mr,
Konig, and publifhed at London in :807, that the cotyle-
dons of thefe plants are not always fimple, and this raifes.
another difficulty refpeCting a natural claffiticatioa by thofe

arts. See CoryLEepones and DicoTyLEeponEs.

The poffible increafe of ferns, if we confider the abun-
dance of their feeds, is beyond computation. A fingle leaf
will.often bear one hundred millions of feeds. Yet we have
no reafon to think the countlefs numbers, that turn to no ac-
count as to propagating the fpecies, afford food for animal-
cula of any kind, or ferve any other fecondary purpofe.

Befides the feminal mode of increafe, a few ferns produce
gemma, or buds, on their ftalks or leaves, as Woodwardia
radicans ; and {ome take root at their points, as d/plenium
rhizophyllum.

To the botanical arrangement of ferns, much attention
has been paid of late years, and with confiderable fuccefs.
The fyftematic, writers of the 17th century touched this
fubje& but flightly. Ray, in bis Methodus Plantarum dif-
tinguifhes the {piked from the dorfiferous ferns, and propofes
to divide the latter according to the fituation of the feeds on
the edge or middle of the leaf, and according to the round
or linear fhape of the maffes which thofe feeds compofe. He
then diftinguifhes.them further into larger and {maller, own-
ing, at the fame time that he was not well fatisfied with fuck
a principle of arrangement; and finally {ubdivides them inte
fuch as have fimple leaves, and fuch as have them fimply,
doubly, or triply pinnate. What concerns the fituation of
the feeds. or capfules, in this fyitem is excellent, and is juftly
claimed by Ray as original. It forms, indeed, the baiis of
the Linnzan arrangement hereafter mentioned. But the
fhape or ftru€ture of the frond leads to no true generic dif
tinctions, and yet Ray, lofiug fight of his original principles,
diftributes ferns aceording to thefe faulty ones, fcarcely ob-
ferving how inconfiftent they are, and retaining old names,
without attempting to new-model them, or the genera
which they had hitherto fo imperfeétly defigned.

Tournefort, fo ftudious of the genera of plants, at-
tempted to diftribute ferns according to the forms of their
fronds, but even this he performed in a mot fuperficial
and imperfe&t way. His genus Fi/ix indeed is tolerably
charaéterized, after his principles, as having a pinnate leat,
and pinnatifid leaflets; his Lonchitis has auricled leaflets;
and his Zrichomanes “ generally roundifh ones ;”” while his
Pelypodium

BAL £C.E.S.

Polypodium has a fimple pinnatifid leaf. But his Ruta
muraria is ftrangely defined ¢ with leaves fomewhat re-
fembling garden rue ;’” his Filicula “ with leaves fomewhat
refembling thofe of Filix 5’? and his Adiantum with leaves
known from other plants by their peculiar appearance,””
without indicating what that appearance is. Such a loofe
mode of definition indicates a truly barbarous flate of fcience.
He paid no attention to the fituation of the fruétification in
thefe plants. Plumier, a very famous colle&tor and delinea-
tor of the {pecies of ferns, followed his countryman ‘Tourne-
fort implicitly in their generic arrangement, if it deferves
to be fo called, nor were any improvements in this line at-
tempted till the time of Linneus.

The fyitem of the learned Swede would of courfe have
been imperfect, had he not undertaken to characterize all
the genera, even of his clafs Cryptogamia, as much as pofli-
ble by their parts of fruétification alone, as far as fuch
could be deteéted. Unfortunately, however, not only the
effential organs of impregnation of ferns were then, as they
{till are, undifcovered, and the acceflory parts of their
flowers nearly as obfcure ; while the {tructure of the fruit in
dorfiferous ferns was fo much the fame, in all known to
Linneus, that it was ufelefs for the purpofes of generic
diftin@tion. He was therefore obliged to have recourfe to
other principles, which, in the arrangement of plants with
evident flowers and varioufly-formed fruits, he had rejected
as unphilofophical; thefe were deduced from the fituation
of the fruGtifications, and their aggregate figure, according
to the fcheme indicated by Ray, but frft carried into exe-
eution by Linnzus.

Thus fix genera appear difcriminated in the firft edition
of his Genera Plantarum.

Pieris. Fru@tifications difpofed in a line, running along
the margin of the leaf on its under fide.

Lonchitis. Fru@tif. in little crefcent-fhaped lines, under
the finufes of the leaf.

Adiantum. Frudif. in oval f{pots, collected under the
reflexed fummits of the leaves.

Afplenium. Frudtif. in flraight lines, arranged on the
under fide of the leaf.

Polypodium. Fruétif. in roundifh {pots, or dots, dif-
peried over the back of the leaf.

Acroftichum. Fru@if. accumulated into one mafs, en-
tirely covering the back of the leaf.

In the fecond edition of the fame work two other genera
are added.

Hemionitis. Fru@if. in lines running into or interfeting
each other, or branched.

Trichomanes. Calyx turbinated, folitary, erect, from
the margin of the leat itfelf. Style briftle-fhaped, termi-
nating the capfule—This laft definition is incorrect in
terms, there being no authority for the ufe of the words
ftyle and capfule in this cafe, and the former being indeed
merely a column, or elongated receptacle, to whofe lower
part feveral capfules are indeed attached, but whofe fummit
we are not warranted, by any analogy, to fuppofe a ftyle,
however appearances may be in favour of fuch a fuppofi-
tion.

In the 5th edition of Gen. Pl. a ninth genus is added,
while the arrangement of the former isa little altered.

Blechnum. FErudtif. difpofed in lines, parallel with, and
near to, the rib of the leaf.

Nothing new on this tubject occurs in the 6th edition of
the fame work, the laft to which its author himfelf lent any
affitance, nor did he leave any thing relative to it in ma-
nuicript.

Schreber, in his edition of the Gen. Pl. had added three

new genera, Marattia of Swarte, Cenopteris of Bergius,
and Menifcium one of his own.

It is proper to notice what has been done by fome con-
temporaries of Linneus towards obtaining fatisfactory
generic charadters of /ilices.

Adanfon, in his Familles des Piantes, publifhed at Paris
in 1763, has noticed the membranous involucrum which
covers the fruétification of moft ferns; as has Gleditfch in
his Syftema Plantarurh, publifhed at Berlin in 1764; but
they. have detected this part in very few genera, and have
erred in feveral of their remarks concerning it. Thus in
the common brake, Prerts of Linneus (Zhelypteris of
Adanfon, Cincinalis of Cleditf{ch) whofe involucrum is
manifeft to the moft carelefs obferver, the former properly
defcribes that part as of one valve, in the fhape of a pent-
houfe, while Gleditfch abfolutely denies its exiftence.
They both juftly obferve that the involucrum of A/plenium
Scolopendrium of Linnzus confitts of two valves, but do not
fay a word of its form in Blechnum, Hemionitis, or Lonchitis.
«They have totally deranged the Linnzan genera, but being
ignorant of any true principles, have made every thing
worfe than they found it; and as to nomenclature, they
have gone counter to every maxim and all forts of authority.
Both thefe writers have obferved the elaltic ring, which
binds together the capfular valves of ferns, but they have
alike both equally erred, in denying the exiftence of any
fuch part in Polypodium vulgare.’ It appears that both
thefe authors, who profes great originality, are not original
even in this error, for the flightelt infpeétion of this very
common fern would have prevented it, none having a more
evident ring ; they therefore could only have adopted it from
Tournefort, whom they do not quote, but who in his
figure and defcription has fallen into this unaccountable
miftake. Scopoli in his Flora Carniolica has made ufe of
the remarks of Adanfon and Gleditfch, without corre@ting
the above faulty particulars, which he adopts on their
authority, though fo very eafy to be afcertained or refuted.
Haller and moft other writers have made ufe of the Lin-
nean charaéters, with fome occafional variations of no great
moment, either with refpeét to nomenclature, or the dif-
pofition of the fpecies.

Indeed thofe who were converfant with European ferns,
or a few well-known exotic ones, only, would fcarcely find
any neceflity of looking futher than the Linnean generic
diftinGions. But the writer of the prefent article was in-
difpenfably led to confider the fubje&t with attention, in
confequence of the vat colleétion of , unfettled ferns of
which he. became poffefled in the Linnean herbarium, and
which were fubfequently much inereafed by the unbounded
liberality of his friend fir Jofeph Banks. Many of thefe
could not be reduced to any known genus, and others,
though by their technical characters poflibly referable to
fome, were yet fo novel in habit as to require to be kept
generically feparate. Many of thefe novelties were fent to
the celebrated Hedwig in 1786, in hopes of his affiftance ;
but nothing has tranfptred from him refpe&ting any generic
reformations, though he or his fon have fince publifhed a
few of the f{pecies.

The refult of a general review of all the known as well
as nondefcript ferns that could be got together, was a
Latin efflay, communicated to the Reyal Academy at
Turin, and printed in the fifth volume of their Memoires
in 1793, under the title of Zentamen botanicum de filicum
generibus dorfiferarum, audore J. £. Smith. In this the in-
volucrum, or membranous cover of the mafles of capfules,
was firft brought into ufe for generic diferimination, and
particularly the dire¢tion in which it opens, whether out--

wards,

PLLt ¢-E'ss

wards, that is, towards the margin or extremity of the
frond, or inwards, towards the rib, nerve, or bafe, of the
frond or its fegment. This eafy principle is found to lead
to the moft natural and diftinét genera, without any excep-
tion. It does not overturn ner change one of thofe efta-
blifhed by Lianzus, but more clearly defines them, while it
affords means of afcertaining new ones. ‘The part ia quef-
tion is found in almoft every fern, covering the fruétification
before the latter comes to maturity. It originates fome-
times from the margin of the leaf, but more commonly from
fome nerve or veia, in which lat cafe it is either lateral and
parallel, or terminal and vertical. The iuvolucrum adheres
firmly to the frond on one fide, whence its nourfhment
while growing is derived, and on the other is more or lefs
clofely preffed to, or funk into a cavity in, its furface,
withcut being really united with its cuticle, at leaft as far
as canbe obferved. Not but that even on this fide alfo the
air is altogether excluded, fo that in whatever mode the
impregnation of the germens is accomplithed, that operation
mult go on in fecret under this covering, without any
external communication, except through the ftalks by
which the capfules themfelves are attached, as the theory
of Berrhardi fuppofes ; while Hedwig’s implies an occa-
fional elevation of the margin of the young involucrum,
which we can find no reafon to believe. When indeed the
feed-yeffels and feeds are arrived at maturity, the neighbour-
ing parts, and efpecially the involucrum, dry up, the latter
feparating at the edge, and becoming crifped or reflexed,
to allow of the difcharge of the feeds. :

Inthe Effay in queftion the Linnzan genera of dorfiferous
ferns were thus diftinguifhed by characters taken from the
involucrum, in addition to thofe by which they were pre-
vioufly known.

Acrofichum. Ynvolucrum none, except little fcales, or
hairs, interfperfed among the capfules.

Polypodium. Tnvol. umbilicated, feparating nearly all
round.—Such fpecies as have no involucrum were {till
retained here for further examination, they being then fup-
pofed very few. tigers :
_ Afplenium. nvol. originating laterally from a vein,
and feparating inwards 3—that is, towards the nerve or
rib.
Hemionitis. Invol. in pairs, originating from the vein
{which runs between the lines of capfules) and each fepa-
‘yating outwards.
~ Blechnum. nvol. originating from the furface, con-
tinued, feparating towards the nerve.

Pieris. Invol. from the inflexed margin of the frond,
uninterrupted, feparating on the inner fide.

Lonchitis. Javol. from the inflexed margin of the frond
at each finus, in pairs, crefcent-fhaped.

_ Adiantum. Invol. like f{cales, from the inflexed margin
ef the frond, diftin&, feparating inwards.

Trichomanes. Unvol. marginal, urn-fhaped, undivided,
opening outwards, fhorter than the column bearing the
saptules. .

To thefe the following new genera were added.
Darea, diftinguifhed from /plenium by the involucrum
foparating outwardly, or towards the margin of the leaf.

Scolopendrium, diltinguifhed from Hemienitis, by its double
involucrum feparating inwards, the valves folding over each
ether.

Woodwardia, differing from Blechnum in having feparate,
fhort, or interrupted, vaulted involucrums. j
_ Lindfea, publithed by Mr. Dryanderia Tr. of Linn. Soc.
y. 3, differing from Preris in its continued nearly marginal
involucrum {eparating outwards,

Ver. XIV.

Vittaria, having a double involucrum covering its lone
line of capfules, one valve from the margin, turaed in, the
other from the furface, feparating outwards; its charaéter
combining thofe of Pferis and Lind/ca.

Davallia, having a {mall feale-lke involucrum to each
rouad mafs ef capfules, terminating a vein or nerve, near the
margin, or feparating outwards.

Dickfonia of L? Heritier, having a double involucrum to
each round mafs of capfules, one from the furface, feparating
outwards, the other from the inflexed margin of the frond,
embracing the former, and fepzrating inwards.

Cyathea, bearing its capfules in f{eattered hemifpherical
cups opening at the top without any lid.

LHymenophyllum, having an involucrum of two flattifh
ftraight valves at the edge of the leaf, opening outwards,
longer than the column to which the cap{ules are attached.

Schizea, haying a double uninterrupted involucrum, form.
ed of the inflexed edges of each linear appendage to the
fronds, which bears the fru¢tificaticn.

All thefe genera have, or at leaft were fuppofed to have,
a ring embracing each capfule; but it has fiace been ob-
ferved that in fome, as Schizea, there is only an appearance
of fuch a ring, as will be mentioned hereafte Another
fe€tion was fubjoined, confifting of three genera unknown
to Linnzus, whofe capfules are not only decidedly deftitute
of aring, but remarkably different in appearance and ftruc-
ture from the former, being feffile, naked, opening by pores.
Thefe the author termed thecate, as the former are annu-
late.

Gleichenia. Capfules with three cells and three valves ;
partitions originating from the middle of each valve.

Marattia of Swartz’s Prodromus. Fl. Ind Occ. Cap-
fules oval, burfting Jongitudinally on their upper fide, with
feveral cells in each divition.

Danaea. Capfules of one cell, opening by a pore at their
fummit, and accumulated together in two parallel rows.

See in their proper places CyarH#a, Danza, Darga,
Davactra, and Dicksonia.

This effay being repristed in Germany, called the atten-
tion of the learned cryptogamic betanitts of that country
to the fubje&. Hence various treatifes on the genera and
{pecies of ferns have appeared in different periodical publi-
cations, from the pens of Bernhardi, Willdenow, Mohr, and
others. It was alfo publifhed in Englifh in 1798, in a vo-
lume of Tra&s by the author.

Several new obfervations were made, and miftakes corre®-
ed, by the writers juft named. Mohr obferved that the
capfule of fome ferns is only corrugated, fo as to refemble
a ring, but not really furnifhed with one, as in Schi

ized.
The fame difcovery was long ago made, but never publifhed,
by Mr. R. Brown. Quxoclea, hitherto thought deftitute of a
ring, was proved to have one, and to be a true dorfiferous
fern. Several new genera were defined, but not in every
cafe juftly. Thus, the Spheropieris of Bernhardi is precilely
a Cyathea, he having conceived a wrong idea of the latter
genus, from fome of the European lefs certain fpecies. His
Wibelia is a Davallia, and his Ripidium a Schizea. “he
good genera eftablifhed by this and other writers will be men-
tioned hereafter.

At length the whole that had been done was revifed and
improved by the able Dr.Swartz, profefforof botany at Stock-
holm, who publifhed, in Schrader’s Journal at Gottingen ia
1800, the Generaand Speciesof Ferns arranged in fy ematic
order, which work appearedin a {till more perfe& form, with
a preface, defcriptions of new or rave {pecies, and feveral
figures at Kiel in i18c6, under the title of Synopiis Filicum.
The family of Lycopodium and its allies are {ubjoiued, as 2

ae diitinge

FILICES,

diftin& natural orders a diftin&ion to which we cannot
affent.
’ We fhall enumerate the genera of ferns according to Dr.
Swartz’s work.
Sedion't. Ferns whofe capfules are furrounded with
an elaftic ring ; ‘called by him Filices Gyrete.
* Tnvolucrum none.

i. eroftichum. Capfules forming an indeterminate {pot
or aflemblage, over the back of the leaf. :

2. Menifcium. Schreb. Gen.757. (Polypedium reti-
culatum ; Linn.) Spots crefcent-fhaped, nearly parallel, be-
tween the veins of the leaf. :

3. Hemionitis. Spots linear, forked and reticulated. Dr,
Swartz feparates from this genus fuch f{pecies as have an
involucrum, by the name of Diplaxium

4. Grammitis., Spots linear, ftraight, feattered.

- 5. YLenitis. Spots linear, longitudinal, continued, foli-
tary between the rib and margin on each fide, parallel.

6. Polypodium. Spots roundifh, feattered.

** Spots veiled with an involucrum.

7. Afpidium. Spots roundifh, {cattered, covered with
an umbilicated, more or lefs circular, involucrum.

This coniifts of the vaft tribe of Linnzan fpecies of Po/y-
podium, which differ from the vulgare and a few others in
having an involucrum, and of which we have already fpoken.
It is by far the largeft and moit troublefome genus of the
whole order.

8. Ajplenium. Spots linear, ftraight, fcattered. Invo-
lucrum lateral, feparating inwards.

9. Darea. (Called by Swartz Cenopteris, after
Bergius:) Spotslinear, nearthe margin. Involucrum late-
ral, feparating outwards.

to. Scolopendrium. Spots linear, in pairs, feattered.
Involucrum of two oppofite fuperficial valves, folding over
each other.

«11. Diplazium. (Hemionitis ; Smith.) Spots linear,
fcattered, in pairs, fimple or branched, at each fide ofa
-vein. Inyolucrum of two valves, originating from the vein,
feparating outwards.

12: Lenchitis. Spots crefcent-fhaped, at the finufes of the
leaf. Involucrum from the inflexed margin of the leaf, fe-
parating inwards.

13. Pteris. Spots linear, continued, marginal. Involu-
erum from the inflexed margin’ of the leaf, uninterrupted,
deparating inwards.

14. Vittaria. Spots linear, continued, longitudinal
along the difk or near the edge of the leaf. Involucrum
double, uninterrupted ; one feparating outwards, the other
inwards.

15. Onoclea. Spots indeterminate, entirely covering the
backs of fome leaves. Involucrum from the membranous,
yevolute margin of the leaf, either continued or interrupted,
feparating inwards.

16. Blechium.. Spots linear, longitudinal, continued,
parallel, one on each fide of the rib, Involuctum fuperficial,
continued, feparating iawards.

17. Woodwardia. Spots oblong, diftin&, lying near
the rib. Jnvolucrums fuperficial, vaulted, feparating in-
wards.

The term fuperficial involucrum, involucrum fuperficiarium,
exprefles one that originates from the furface, not from the
margin nor rib.

18. Lindfea. Spots linear, continued, near the margin.
Involucrum {uperficial; continued, feparating outwards.

19.! Adiantum, Spots roundifh or linear, diftinG, mar-

ginal, growing upon the inner fide of the membranous in-
volucrums, which are formed out of the reflexed edge of the
leaf, and feparate inwards,

20. Cheilanthes, Spots roundifh, diftin&, marginal, each
covered with a diftiné membranous involucrum, formed of
the reflexed crenate edge of the leaf, and feparating ine
wards,

This genus, eftablifhed by Dr. Swartz, and named from
XsAoc, the brim or margin, and a3So-, a flower, comprehends:
12 fpecies in his work, fome of which had previoufly been:
referred to diantum, others to Pteris, and fome even to
Polypodium ; which diverfity of opinion among authors af=
fords a ftrong prefumption of their not agreeing well with
any known genus, and confequently of the neceflity of
founding a new one to receive them. Accordingly the
above charaéter fufficiently diftinguifhes them from Adian-
tum, the only genus with which they could, in the prefent:
itate of the [cience, be confounded, by the fruGtification.
being feated on the leaf itfelf, and not on the feales which
form the involucrum—Polypadium fragrans, Linn. Mant.
3075 and a diitinG {pecies fo called by Desfontaines, Fl..
Aulant. t. 25753 alfo ddiantum capenfe of Thunberg, arey,
according to Swartz, {pecies of Cheilantbes.

21. Davallia, Spots roundifa, feparate, near the mar=
gin. Involucrum fuperficial, {cale-like, diftin@, terminating
a vein, and feparating outwards.

22. Dick/onia. Spots roundifh, feparate, marginal.
Tnvolucrum double; one fuperficial, feparating outwards,
the other from the inflexed margin of the frond, feparating”
inwards. :

23. Cyathea. Spots roundith, {cattered. Receptacle ofthe:
capfules central, withia a cup-fhaped involucrum, opening-
at the top.

The proper chara&ter of this genus confilts in the inyolu-
crum going under the infertion of the capfules, either im
the form of a membranous undivided cup, as in C. arborea 3.
(Polypodium arboreum; Linn.) and feveral others; or of a
fimilar cup compofed of numerous feales, as in C. harrida ;
(Polypodium horridum; Linn.). Whether fome European.
fpecies, as C. fragilis Fl. Brit., whofe involucrum is a mem-
brane enfolding the capfules while young, properly Lelong
to the fame, botanifts are not agreed,’nor have fome who:
have decided on this fubjeét been furnifhed with proper mae
terials for the purpofe.

24. Urichomanes. Spots marginal, prominent. Recepta-
cle of the capfules briftle-thaped, longer than the undivided,
pitcher-fhaped, direét involucrum. s

25. Hymenophyllum. Spots marginal, prominent. Re.
ceptacle of the capfules briftle-fhaped, fhorter than th
two-valved, dire& involucrum. :

SeG@ion 2. Capfules of one cell, deftitute of a diftin&
ring, opening by alongitudinal fiflure on one fide. —Thefe-
are called by Swartz Filices /purie gyrate, becaufe they-
havea wrinkled capfule, imitating the ring in the former
feétion ; or rimate, alluding to the fiffure by which the faid
capfule difcharges its feeds. . Te

26. Schizea. Capfules crowded, feffile, on the backs.
of feveral appendages to the leaf. Inyolucrum from the-
inflexed margin of each appendage, uninterrupted. ‘

27. Lygodizm. Capfules folitary, feflile, within the

imbricated two-ranked:{eales, of terminal or Iateral fpiked —

appendages to the leaf. ’

. Phename, derived from Avyes a teuig or wand, alludes to
the flender flexible habit.. This elegant genus, which.
comprizes the Ophiogloffum Jcaudens and flexugfum of Lin-

“nus, has been indicated by feveral writers. Willdenow

— has

vid & .

ae unas.

: FILICES,

bas named it Hydroglofum; Cavanilles Ugena; and Mirbel
Ramondia. None can be more diftin&, ~ :

28, Mohria. -Capfules feparate, feffile, at the edge ot
the leaf. Inyolucrums from the inflexed crenate margin.

A genus founded by Swartz in honour of his able cryp-
togamic friend Mohr, upon the Polypodium caffrorum Linn.
by fome referred improperly to O/munda.

‘29. Anemia. _Captules crowded, feffile, naked, on the
branches of a compound fpike.

This genus is feparated by Swartz from the following,
chiefly becaufe its capfules are feffilé ou a branched recep-
tacle, not ftalked and fituated on the back of a leaf, neither
are they fo much divided into two valves: The difference
is rather difficult to define, but may be founded in nature.
Both genera are quite deftitute of all involucrum. —The
prefent confifts of 17 fpecies, amongtt which are O/munda
phyllitidis, hirta, hirfuta, adiantifolia, bipinnata, verticillata
and fliculifolia of Linnzus, all fine Welt Indian ferns fizured
in Plumier.

30. O/munda. Capfules crowded, ftalked, naked, on
the metamorphofed leaflets. of the frond.

31. Todea of Willdenow. Capfules nearly feffile, on the
tranfyerfe, almoft parallel, veins of the leaf, naked.—The
only {pecies is T. africana. (Acroflichum barbarum Linn.)

32. Mertenfia of Willdenow. _ Capfules feffile, in round-
ifh, fuperficial, fcattered, naked f{pots.

Confifts of feven fpecies, one of which, AZ. furcata, is
Acroftichum furcatum Lion- figured in Plumier, t.28. This
genus is {carcely dikinét from the following.

33- Gleichenta of Smith. Capfules three or four toge-
ther, feffile in a little hemifpherical depreffion of the leaf.

It appears from this charaéter that Swartz confiders as
feparate capfules, what the author took for cells of one
capfule, and analogy confirms the opinion of the former.

34. Angiopieris of Hoffman. Capfules feffile, naked,

faced in a double feries, in little parallel neighbouring
Froteall together forming a longitudinal line near,the margin.

The only fpecies is 4. eveda, a molt elegant large fern,
found in the South fea and Philippine iflands.

Sedion 3. Captules deftitute of all traces of a ring.

* Capfules of many cells.

35- Maraitia of Swartz. Capfules oval, fcattered, at
firft clofed, then feparating into two parte, and difclofing
two rows of eells, opening at-the top.

36. Danea of Smith. Capfules oblong-linear, tranf-
vere, parallel, immerfed in the frond, with two rows of

cells, opening at the top.
*.

* Capfules of one cell, with two valves.

* 37. Botrychium of Swartz. Capfules diftin&, feffile,
crowded into a clufter, burfting tranfverfely. Separated by
Swartz from O/munda, and containing our 0. /unaria, &c.

38. Ophioglofium: Capfules united into a two-ranked,
fomewhat jointed {pike, burfting tranfverfely.

The Lycopodinee of Dr. Swartz we coniider as no lefs
genuine filices than the foregoing. ‘They have an herbace-
ous, or fhrubby, leafy ftem, with axillary fractifications, and
may be defined as follows.

_ Sedion 4. Capfules axillary, naked, of one, two, or
three cells. - ’

39: Lycopodium. Caplfules of one cell.
This is a large and beautiful genus, comprehended

amongft Moffes by Dillenius and Linnzus, from which its
fruit totally differs. Nothing is kaown refpecting the flower
or-impregnation..

©: Tmefipteris of Bernhardi. Capfulea of two cells,
with a tran{verfe ftructure.

T. tannenfis, a New Holland plant, is the only: known
{pecies,

41. Philotum of Swartz.
three cells. ! ;

Confiits of Lycopodium nudum of Linn. and one more
fpecics. | They have leaves, though {mall ones, analogous
to thofe of Lycopodium, and the capiules are really axillary.

Cavanilles, in his Leétures on Botany in Spanifh, publithed
in 2 vols, 8vo. at Madrid in 1802, has adopted the fame
principlesof arrangement, candidly acknowledging whencehe
has derived them, and defcribing many new ferns from the
Eaft and Weit Indies. Swartz refers to this work, which is
the more neceflary, as their generic names often differ.

One of the lateft writers on-the fubje& is Profeffor
Sprengel of Halle, who in his Letters on the Study of
Cryptogamous Plants, already mextioned, treats-eopioafly
of ferns, both phyfiologically and fyftematically: The
author does not feem to be aware of the perfon to whom he
is obliged for his leading principles and generic charaGters,
having apparently never {cen the above-mentioned Effay,
though he properly mentions “the excellent Swartz,’?
whofe treatife, as it ftands in Schrader, he might very well:
take to -be original; neither has the tranflator corrected
this omiffion, which we are well affured is an accidental, not
defigned, injuttice.

Sprengel eftablifhes the following genus upon the Euro-
pean Cyathee.

Athyrium. Capfules in fmall, feattered, round fpots, on
the whole lower furface of the frond. Involucrum fixedon
one, moitly the inner, fide, and commonly cpening towards
the margin.

This definition is not fufficient to give a clear idea ef the
fuppofed genus, which, as far as concerns the {pecies that
we haye all along referred to Cyathea, ought to be charac-
terized as having a lacerated involucrum, enfolding the
mafs of capfules, and inferted beneath them. The reformers
of Cyathea have not had accefs to the whole feries of f{pecies
which appedr to us to conne& thefe with the primary ones.

But however this may be, we are perfuaded feveral of
Sprengel’s Athyria belong rather to other genera, from
whence he has removed them.

We cannottake leave of Profeflor Sprengel’s work, whick
is full of excellent compiled matter, without guarding our
readers again{ft a pofition in his 6th letter, p. 73. “ The
only charaGter,” fays he, ‘¢ that can be derived from the
fhape of the fruit, in the claffification of ferns, is the pre-
fence or want of the annulated ring of the feed-veflels.
Irom this cherefore they may be divided,” (he ought
rather to have faid they Aave deen divided), into annulate,
with a ring, and exannulate, without a ring: but this is an
artificial, not a natural character; for the genus Onoclea,
whofe feed-veffels are annulated, approaches very near to
Ofmunda, whofe capfules are without a ring ; and Poly-
podium is clofely related to Murattia, Pteris to Angiopteris,
Afpleniumto Danea.”’ This is fo extraordinary an affertion,
as to fhake our confidence in the author’s judgment and
obfervation to the- very foundations. No ferns, no plants
of one natural order, are more diftin, unlike, and effentially
different from each other than thefe, infomuch that we
cannot account for, nor trace, the chain of ideas which
eaufed them even to be compared. We muft repeat that
nathing is more natural or abfolute thau the diftinGion be-
tween annulated and exannulated ferns, nor between either
of thefe, and fuch as have a wrinkled, or f{purioufly
annulated, -capfule. The writer of the prefent article
honettly confeifes that the difcovery of the latter tribe at

firft made him doubt the folidity of the diftinGtion as far as
2 iz ferns

Capfules of three lobes and

FIL :

ferns “with, fingle capfules' were concerned ; nor had he
leifure to refume the fubje&, before Dr. Swartz’s publica-
tion removed every {crtple, and fet the matter at reft.
About the thecate (Marattia and Danza) there could never
be any uncertainty. Their fruit is fo unlike the annulated
ferns, that to term them exannulaia feemed to imply a fort
of affinity or relemblance, (independent of the ring,) for
which there was no foundation; another term was there-
fore contrived, but it has not been adopted. ‘The author
is the more ready to refign it, as he has ever. found the
neceflity of keeping a watchful eye upon the invention of
new terms, in this and other branches of natural hiltory,
which are often but a-fubflitute fora deficiency of new
ideas.

Thus the German writers are pleafed to call, after Hed-
wig, the feed-veflel /porengium, though pericarpium is of
precifely the fame meaning, and has long been eftablifhed.
Profeflor Swartz rightly ufes cap/fule, which ynoreover ex-
preffes what fort of feed-veffel is intended. Yet the latter
prefers gyrus, a new botanical word, to annulus, becaufe, it
feems, annulus is ufed in fungi; as if there could be any
ambiguity or confufion! Willdenow and Swartz call the
involucrum indufium, (a cover,) which we think needlefs, be-
eaufe the part correétly anf{wers to the Linnzan idea, as well
as to the true meaning of the word involucrum, and has
long been fo called. Cavanilles names it tegumentum, and Hed-
wig perifporangium. So the latter calls the ring /ymplokiam,
and Palifot Beauvois names it ane//us. ‘There is no end
to fuch futile and reprehenfible changes. Sori of Swartz
may be advantagcoufly admitted for the {pots of fructi-
fication, which cannot always be called punda or dots,
being fometimes linear, and fometimes broad aud unlimited,
fo that the terms /ince and macule have been reforted to;
whereas the word /uri, {pots, comprehends every different
fhape.

We have in another place, Introduction to Botany, p. 388,
put in a proteft againft a corruption of the generic nomea-
elature of ferns, on which fubje&t we fhall here be very
brief. Several of the new names are compounded of Preris,
a feen, and fome other word. Now if thefe are allowed to
remain, fome fuch diftin@ive fyllables might be prefixed to
the old genus Preris of Linnaxus, to get rid of the latter ;
elfe a very found Linnzan law is needlefsly infringed, which
forbids forming new generic names of already eftablifhed
enes, combined with another word to give them a new
meaning. All writers, before they publifh, fhould ftudy
and obferve thefe matters, that fcience may remain uncor-
rupted aud unob{cured.

Fu the above general fynopfis of ferns we have faid
nothing of Pilularia, L/octes, Maifilea, Salvinia, avd Egui-

fetum, which have generally been confidered as belonging to
this natural order, but they ought rather to compofe a new
one, [tis hinted in the Flora Britannica that the two firft
Right perbaps be removed to’ Jonoecia in the artificial fyf-
tem, and if the laft fhould remain among the Slices fpicate,
fee Equisstum, it can only be on artificial principles.
Marfilea and Salvinia we have never critically examined,
but they feem near akin to Pilylaria, and are likewife per-
haps monoecious.

Of the Books containing figures of ferns, Plumier’s
fplendid volume of Outlines is the moft valuable. Petiver
has copied it on a diminifhed fcale. There are many Eaft
Indian fpecies in Rheede aid Rumphius; fome from all
quarters in Piukenet. The younger Hedwig, now alas !
uv longer furviving his father, has publifhed feveral coloured
plates of this tribe ; but no plants lefs require this additional
Alustration, being all fo much alike in colour, Many Eure-

FLL

an ferns are delineated in the Flora Danica, and Engliffa

otany, and a few in Bulliard’s Herbier de la France.
Lamarck has given feveral of the new genera, with the old
ones, in his general plates—Ferns are eafily dried and pre-
ferved in a herbarium, no other plants being fo little attacked
by infects.

Propagation and Culture —OFf the propagation of ferns
by feed we have already fpeken. Shade and moifture are
requifite for the fuccefs of the experiment ; and the feed-
lings are of extremely flow growth. Ferns of cold countries
are in our gardens hardly perennials, generally requiring a
moilt and fhady fituation, and flowly increafing by root.
Thofe of hot climates are many of them beautiful trees,
and when not tao large, well worthy of culture in our floves,
Phe Dickfonia arborea from Madeira is fo preferved in a
few curious colleétions, but does not fuceeed very well. Po/y-
podium aurcum, Davallia canarienfis, nd Weedwardia radi-
cans, are cafily kept in a green-houfe, and increafe flowly by
means of their creeping roots. We have feen growing in
the ftove of _Mr. Evans at Stepney in 1806, the Todea
africana, Willd. Rare Ferns, t. 3, in full fru@tification. It
was faid to have been brought from New South Wales, but
poffibly that might be a miltake, as we have often detefed
fuch in the reports of thofe who bring plauts from remote
countries. It is not however impoffible that this fern may
grow in New Holland as well as Africa, in which cafe it
will only afford a frefh inftance of the impropriety of names
of countries for fpecific appellations. §,

FILICULA, a little fera, was by Tournefort applied ae
a generic name to fome of the fmaller kinds of ferns, which
he fepirated from others merely on accountof their fize. They
belong to various genera, and have no good natural nor ar-
tificial charafters.

FILIGRANE, Firuicrer, or Filagree-work, a kind
of enrichment on gold or filver, wrought delicately, in
manner of little threads or grains, or both intermixed.

The word is compounded of fi/ or filum, thread, and
granum, grain. In Latin itis called filatim elaboratum opus,
argentum, aurum: but this is to be underitood as alluding ta
the lateft Latin writers, for //atim occurs only once in
Lucretius, who applies it only to woollen thread. In this
kind of work fine gold and filver wire, often curled o¢
twifted in a ferpentine form, and fometimes plaited, were
wrought through each other, and foldered together fo as to
form feftoons, flowers, and various ornaments; and they were
alfo fometimes melted together by the blowpipe into little
balls, by which means the threads became fo entwilted as to
have a very beautiful and agreeable effe@. It was formerly
much more employed than at prefent, in the manufacture of
fmall articles, which ferved more for fhow than for ufe ;
fuch as vafes, needle-cafes, cafkets to hold jewels, {mall
boxes, particularly fhrines, decorations for the images of
faints, and other church furniture. This art, however, is of
great antiquity ; and feems to have been brought into
Europe from the Ea. Among church furniture we meet
with filligree work of the midale ages. The Turks, Ar-
menians, and Indians make at prefent fome mafter-pieces ef
this fort, and with tools that are exceedingly coarfe and
imperfe&t. Articles of this nature, which are very pretty
and elegant, are manufa€tured inthe Deccan, and alfo in
China, where the filligree work is moftly wrought of filver;
but this is much inferior in delicacy of workmanfhip to that
of the Malays, defcribed by Marfden, in his « Hiftory of
Sumatra,” p. 140, &c. In this ifland it is univerlally
ufed and worn; and the gold{miths who are employed: in it
are fettled every where along the coaft. The igual
delicacy of the work is the more extraordinary, as the

tools

aE UL

toals employed in it are very rudely and inartificially
formed by the goldfinith, from any old iron which he can
pick up. he gold is melted in an earthen sice pot, in a
crucible of ordinary clay. Ia general they ufe no bellows,
but blow the fire with their mouths, through a joint of
bamboo; and when the quantity of metal to be melted is
confiderable, three or four perfons fit round their furnace,
which is an old broken iron pot, and blow together. At
Padang alone, where the manufacture is more extenfive,
they have adopted the Chinefe bellows. When they have
drawn the wire to a fufficient finenefs, much in the Euru-
pean manner, they flatten it, by beating it on their anvil,
and then give ita twilt, like that in the whale bone handle
of apunch ladle, by rubbing it on a block of wood witha
flat flick. After twifting they agein beat it on the anvil;
and thus form a leaf or element of a flower in their work,
which is cut off. The end is again folded and cut off, till
they have got a fufficient number of leaves, which are all
Jaid-on fingly. Patterns of the flowers or foliage, in which
there is not much variety, are prepared on paper, of the fize
of the gold plate on which the filagree isto be laid. They
then begin to difpofe on the plate the larger compartments
of the foliage, for which they ufe plain wire of a larger
fize, and fl them up with the leaves before mentioned.
To fix their work they ule a glutinous fubftance, made of a
red berry called Jooa /ago, ground to a pulp, on arough
ftone. ‘his pulp they place on a young cocoa-nut, about
the fize of a wall-nut: the top and bottom being cut off. The
juice of the cocoa-nut ferves probably to keep the pulp
moult, which would otherwife {peedily dry and become unfit
for the work. After the leaves have been all placed in order,
and fluck on, bit by bit, a folder is prepared of gold filings
and borax, moiftened with water, which they ftrew ovér
the plate, and then putting it on the fire for a fhort
time, the whole becomes united. In executing the open
work the foliage is laid out ona card, or foft kind of wood,
and {tuck on with the fago berry: and the work, when
‘finifhed, being ftrewed over with their folder, is put into the
fire, when the card or foft wood burning away, the gold
remains connected. If the piece be large, they folder it at
feveral times. When the filagree is finifhed, they cleanfe it
by boiling it in water, with common falt and alum, or fome-
times lime-juice ; and in order to give it a fine purple
colour, they boil it in water with brimftone. In making
little balls, with which their works are fometimes ornament-
ed, they take a piece of charcoal, and having cut it flat and
fmooth, they make'a {mall hole in it, which they fill with
‘old duft, and this, melted in the fire, becomes a little ball.
hey are very inexpert at finifhing and polifhiag the plain
parts, hinges, fcrews, and the lixe, being in this as much
excelled by the European artifts, as thefe fall fhort of them
in the finenefs and minutenefs of the foliage. The price of
the workmanfhip depends upon the difficulty or uncommon-
nefs of the pattern. In fome articles of ufual demand, it
does not exceed one-third of the value of the gold; but in
matters of “fancy it is generally equal to it. This art is
now negle&ted and little efteemed in Europe. Augfburg,
however, a few years ago, had a female artift, Marra
Euphros. Reinhard, celebrated for works of this kind, who
died in 1779. In 1765 fhe ornamented with this work
fome filver bafons, which were fent to Ruffia for the ufe of
the church, and which gained her great honour.

The term has been lately applied to ornamental works,
formed, as fancy dire€ts, of {trips of paper, differently co-
Joured, rolled into various figures, aad artfully combined.

FILING, in Mechanics, is the operation of ufing a fle
in.cutting away and reducing various fubitanees into any re-

FUL

qnired form. The file is chiefly eonfined to the working
of metal, though it is occafionally applied to wood, ivory,
bone, &c. ‘The art of filing is an effential to every work-
man in metal, and it requires great praétice and {kill to pers
form it well: the -principal difficulty confifts in filing a
truly plane and even furface to any piece of metal. To do
this, the work muft be held firmly in a vice, fo that the fur-
face to be filed be truly horizontal ; the workman then files
it over with a file, adapted in its cut, or fize of its teeth,
to the magnitude of his work: in doing this, if it is large,
he takes one end of the file in each hand, holding it firmly,
as he moves it backwards and forwards, in a horizontal plane,
taking care not to lean heavier upon one end of the tle
than the other. The file only cuts in going forwards ; he
mult therefore prefs harder upom it, that it may take hold
of the metal: in drawing it back it is unneceffary to lean on
the file, becaufe it is not then adapted to aé; it is ufual,
in fling a piece ef flat work, to begin at one fide, and every
time the file is drawn back, to move it fideways at the fame
time about the breadth of the file: the next ftroke pro-
ceeds ftraight forwards, as before, but ina frefh place, un-
lefs fome fudden eminence is to be reduced; then tayo or
more ftrokes fhould be made in one place, or the preflure
on the file increafed till all is brought to a flat or even furface.
When the whole of the work has been done over in one di-
rection, it is then filed in the fame manner at right angles
thereto, and afterwards diagonally, till it is finifhed, try-
ing it occafionally by a ftraight edged ruler. Some work-
men, by long praétice and experience, are able to make the
work flat by filing in one direétion only, and without any
trial; fo that if two furfaces of metal thus filed are placed
one upon the other, they will adhere together for an inftant
if the upper one be fuddenly lifted up. The height of the
vice, in which the work is held, isa matter of fome impore-
ance in filing; if the work is large, it fhould be about
forty inches above the floor on which the workman ftands ;
for {mall work it may be higher, becaufe the workman does
not need to bear fo heavily on the work. In filing articles
which are to be fitted ftogether, the workman makes ufe of
beviles, guages, rulers, compafles, &c. to mark out aad try
the work. Round pins, &c. are held in a hand-vice, and
fupported on a piece of wood while they are filed, and the
workman turns them round while he files, in order that they
may be truly round and have no angles.

The file-makers in Lancahhire, for cutting the teeth of their
{mall files, fometimes make ufe of a knife, Ag. 5. Plate XIII.
Mifcellany, which has abevilededge-; the workman ules it in
the fame manner as the chiffel, except that no hammer is em-
ployed. The fineft files ufed by watch-makers have fometimes.
as many as 35Q teeth periach, which are frequently cut by the
knife; other watch-makers’ files are cut in the manner above
deferibed, by the chiffel, fg. 6, which is ftruck on the head
by afmall hammer: ‘The-{mallett chiffels ufed are nota vait
deal larger than the figure, and the hammer, jig. 7, is the
full fize, though the handle in reality. is fomewhat longer ;
fome of very fine watchmakers’ files are not larger than
needles, and are called needle-tles.

FILIPENDULA, in Botany, fo called becaufe the
knobs of the roots are pendulous on threads from the main
ftock. ‘Tourn, Init. 293. t. 150, See Spiraea.

FILEPPOPOLI, Puipirropety, or Filtbe, in Geogra-
phys a town of European Turkey, in Romania, on the
Maritz, where it becomes navigable; founded by Philip, ta-
ther of Alexanderthe Great. Inthe year 250 it was taken
by the Goths, who are reported to have mailacred 100,000
perfons. in the fack of this eity ; and in 4360 it was taken
by Amurath I. emperor of the Turks; 90 miles ate.

FIL
ef Adrianople, and 124 W.N.W, of Conftantinople. “This

town is meanly built, without fortifications, or one good
ftreet. Its fituation is fo low and moift, that the mud is
fometimes two feet deep, and ftones, like potts, are fet up
to facilitate the progrefs of foot-paffengers. Neverthelefs
it is a place of confiderable fize. N, lat. 42°22'. E. long.
24 Ad: a ach iB

FILITZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach; fix miles S. of. Kirch Lamitz. —,

FILIUS Anrse Parrem, qg. d. the fon before the fa-
ther; a denomination applied by botanilts and florifts to
plants whofe flowers come vut before their leaves. Such
are the feveral {pecies of colchicum, or meadow-faffron, the
colt’s foot, butterbur, &c.

FILIX, in Botany., See Firices and Fern. rr

FILL, 7», in the Sea Language, is to brace the fails in
fuch a manner, that the wind entering their cavities from
behind, dilates them, fo as to advance the fhip in her courfe,
after the fails had been for fome time fhivering or braced
back.

FILLEK, in Geography, a town of Hungary, taken by
the Turks in 1554, bit foon after recovered. Its fortifs-
cations are deftroyed ; 40 miles S.E. of Cremnitz. i

FILLER, a term often provincially ufed to fignify the
horfe which fupports, and is placed between the fhafis of
carts or other carriages. It is commonly written thiller.
See THILLER.

FILLET, in dnatomy.. See FRanuM.

The word is French, filet, formed of fi, thread. :

Fite, or Filet, in Architedure, denotes a little fquare
member or ornament ufed in divers places and on divers oc-
cafions, but generally as a fort of corona over a greater
moulding.

The fillet is the fame with what the French call reglet,
bande, and bandelette ; the Italians, /i/fa, or liffella.

Fitret, in Botany. See Turead.

Finer, Teniola, in Heraldry, a kind of orle or bordure,
containing only a third or fourth part of the breadth of the
common borduree See Borpure. , i .

It is fuppofed to be withdrawn inwards, and is of a dif-
ferent colour from the field, 1t runs quite round near the
edge, as a lace over a cloak.

Fitxisr is alfo ufed for. an ordinary drawn like the bar
from the finifter point of the chief acrofsthe fhield, in maa-
nerof afcarf; though it is fumetimes alfo feen in the fitu-
ation of a bend, fefle, crofs, &c.

According to Guillim, the fillet isa fourth part of the
chief, and is placed in the chief point of the efcutcheon.

Fittet, in Midwifery, a contrivance for the purpofe of
extracting the child, in difficult births, when the head is
too large to pals readily through the pelvis. “The invention
is probably very ancient, as it is mentioned by Avicenna,
as well known in his time ; that is, towards the end of the
tenth century. The fimpleft, and probably the firtt con-
trivance of the kind, was made by cutting, in a {trong flip
of cloth, a flit, fufficiently large to embrace, and take into
jt, the head of the child. This was carried up into the va-
gina, upon the hand of the accoucheur, and pafled over the
face of the child, and lodged under the chin, or over the
hind-head, and preffed clole to the nape of the neck; the
hand was then withdrawn, and the child extracted by pulling
down the otherend of the cloth. Butas it was. difficult to
keep the noofe open, fo as to make it embrace the head of
the child; this defe& was attempted to be remedied, by
making a fheath, with a flip of {trong cloth, two feet or
sore in length, through which a thin piece of whalebone
was pafled. The noofe being carried ever the head,

FIL

and fixed under the chin, or clofe to the nape of the
neck, the whalebone was then withdrawn, and the child
extracted by pulling down the two ends of the sheath.
Various other improvements, or alterations, in the form
of the: fillet, have been devifed, sil with the. view of fa-
cilitating the paffing of the noofe over the head of the
child, or of fixing it when peffed, but w th fo little fuccels,
that it has long been given up as ulcleis, and the forceps, or
the dever, (fee thofe articles) are invariably ufed in all the
cafes for which the fillet was formerly recommended. This
may be a proper place to mention a kind of net invented by
Peter Amand,: (fee the article Amann, Picrre,) an accou
cheur of fome credit, who flourifhed the latter end of the
17th centary, with which he brought away, or pro-
pofed bringing away, the head of the child, when it hap«
pened to be left in the womb feparated from the body
The accident, which is fae from being of frequent occur-
rence, can f{earcely ever happen but when the brim of thre
pelvis, in the woman, is too narrow to fuifer the head of the
child to pafs entire or unmutilated; confequently, too nar-
row to admit the hand of the accoucheur, encumbered with
the net, to pafs intothe uterus. The contrivance, therefore,
funk as foon almoft as it was invented ; and the crotchet,
which is much more manageable, is conftantly ufed in thefe.
unpleafant cafes. See the article CroTcuer. .

Fitver is alfo ufed among Painters, Gilders, &c. fora
little rale and reglet of leaf-gold, drawn over certain mould-
ings; or on the edges of frames, pannel &c. efpecially
when painted white, by way of enrichment.

Fitvers, in the Adanege, are the loins of a horfe, which
begin at the place where the hinder-part of the faddle
re{ts. :

FILLING up of Cha/is, in Geology. It was a favourite
opinion of the late ingenious Mr. Whitehurlt, that moft,
er all of the rocky vallies in Derbythire, were formerly im-
menfe and almoit fathomlefs chafins, hiati, or gaping fil
fures, which were fubfequently filled up with the fragments
or ruins of the adjoining ftrata, to the level of the prefent ”
rivers or brooks ; the vale of Matlock-Bath he particularly
deferibes as fuch a Hlled-up chafm, in the fecond plate of
his “ Enquiry concerning the Rarth ;?? but which-opinion
the miners of the diftriét fhortly afterwards proved to be
unfounded, by driving acrofs, in folid and undilturbed ftrata,
under the bed of the river, fee Philofophical Magazine,
vol. xxxi, plate 2. :

The inftances are doubtlefs numerous, of the filling up
of chafms or fau/ts with alluvial and extraneous matters >
indeed it isa common occurrence; but it is to be obferved,
that fuch are in general guite filled up, and not partially,
fo as to leave a valley between the fides of the fault; for
faults ave but rarely vilible on the furface of the ground
(fee that article); and as rarely, or more fo, do they tras
verfe the bottoms of vallies, with which they feem to have
little conne€tion, but to have happened prior to the Exca-
VATION of Prallies ; fee that article. It is the opinion,
founded on the experience of molt miners, that the ftrata:
or meafures under vallies are as regular and undifturbed
as inany other places, and that faults are fcarcely fo much:
to be apprehended there, as in fome other fituations: if,
however, a change of the dip takes place, and a real diflo-
cation of the meafures on. the two fides of a valley, as
Mr, Whitehurit fuppofes in his,fection acrofs Matlock-Bath
vale, above referred to, then a fault may confidently be
looked for in the valley, the fame as would be expeCted in
any other fituation, where the fame circumftances occur.

FILLY, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying a mare, ~
or young female of the horfe kind of animals. See Horse,

Fiuuy

FIL

Fitzy Foa/, a termimplying a mare or female foal. See
Foat.

FILM, a thick fkin or pellicle. ; }

In plants it is often ufed for that thin woody fkin which
feparates the feeds in the pods, and keeps them apart.

Firm, White, on the eye of a horfe, may be removed by
lifting up the eye-lid, atter the eye has been wafhed with
wine, and ftroking it gently with the thumb with wheat-
flour: common falt and falt of lead, beaten fine, and put
jnto the eye, are propersto confume a film ;, or the horfe’s
eye may be wafhed with the fpittle in the morning, fafting,
having firft put a little {alt into your mouth; but there is
nothing fo effeétual as fal ammoniac, beaten and put into
the eye, and repeated every day till the film is gone.

- FILMER, Epwarp, gent. in Biography, in 1629, col-
. leé&ted, tranflated, and publithed, «« French Court Ayres, with
“their ditties, Englifhed, of four and five parts, dedicated
tothe Queen,”’ folio. . Thefe ayres were chiefly compofed
by Pierre Guedron, with two by Anthoine Boiflet. There
~.4s yery little mufical merit difcoverable in thefe fongs : which
_are, however, highly extolled in feveral copies of verfes pre-
fixed to the book ; and, among the reft, in one by Ben Jon-
fon, The editor feems to have taken great pains in tranf-
Jating the words, “* totidem fyllabis,” in order to accommo-
date them to the original melodies.

FILOPONSKAJA, in Geography, a town of. Euro-
pean Turkey, in Dobruzzic Tartary ; 18 miles S.S.E. of
Ifmail.

FILOQUIA, Anrinoguta, or Jerovilia, a town of
European Turkey, in Livadia, on a river which runs into
the gulf of Arta. It was anciently called Amphilochia, or
Argos Amphilochium, and, although once a celebrated town,
it was ruined by the war between the Venetians and Turks ;
44 miles.N.N.W. of Lepanto. f

FILTER, or Firtre, in Chemiffry, &c. a piece of
woollen cloth, linen, paper, or other matter, fome of
which are in the form of hollow inverted cones, ufed to
filtrate or ftrain liquors through. The filtre has the fame
ufe and effe&t with regard to liquids that the fieve or fearce
has in dry matters. Filtres are of two forts: the firit are
fimple pieces of paper or cloth, through which the liquid
is pafled without farter trouble. The fecond are twiited
up like a {kain or wick, and firft wetted, then fqueezed, and
one end put in the veflel that contains the liquor to be fil-
trated: the other end is to-be out, and hang down below
the furface of the liquor; by means of this the pureft part
of the liquor diftils drop by drop out of the vefiel, leaving
the coarler part belind. The filter or philter a&ts as a
fiphon,

. Fivrerisalfo an apparatus ufed to feparate water or other
fluids from any foreign moiiture it may contain ; this is effea-
ed ‘by caufing the water to percolate through an infinite
number of apertures, which ave too minute to allow the
paflage of any fubitances mixed in the water ; by this means,
the moft foul water, after paffing through fuch a filter be-
comes perfectly tvanfparent aud {weet, though at the fame
time itis not deprived of any of its qualities which depend
upon matter entering into combination with it ; only fuch as
depend upon mechavical mixture being arrefted in its pro-
“grefs through the filter. : f

~The great utility of filters for domeftic ufe mutt be evident,
as a fluid fit for culinary purpofes caw be obtained from any
putrid and muddy water ; on this account the conitruétion
‘of apparatus, which will at the fame time be cheap and effi-

‘* eacious, isa defirable object ; and a vatt variety have been

contrived, many poffefling great advantages.
JPhe-filter ins mo general ufe is a baton formed af fome

a

Lo ©

porous kind of ftone, and fupported over any convenient
veflel to receive,the filtred fluid. The foul water being
poured into the bafon, infinuates itfelf by flow degrees
through the minute pores of the-ftone, and is colleGed,
drop by drop, iato the receptacle placed beneath. This ap-
paratus aniwers its purpofe perfectly well for a time, but
has its defe€is.: the conftant accumulation of the impurities
in the bafon, in time choaks up the pores: of the fone; this
may be removed by wathing many times, but the more minute
particles of matter are, by infenfible degrees, carried down
into the itone, fill up the pores, and at length no water will
pafs through. A trifling error is alfe committed in the form
of the veflel, which is in general a hemifphere ; in this figure
the preflure of the fluid is greateft in the lowett point, and
gradually diminifhes in every other part, fo that unlefs, the
preffure is greater in the centre than it ought to be, fearcely
any water will pafs through the.other parts. A more eligible
form would be that of a cylinder, formed either of earthen-
ware or metal, with a circular plate of the filtering ftone ce-
mented into it at the middle; by this means, the preffure on all
parts wall be equal, and it would Have another advantage, that
when the water began to pafs flowly.through the ftone, by in-
verting the cylinder, the water, would be filtred ina contrary
direGtion, and act to remove the matter depofited in the pores

-of the itone by,the preceding procefs. The ftone proper

for conltguéting filters, is by no means {earce ; in ondon.a
very porous limeftone containing innumerable fragments of
broken hells is employed ; it bears itrong refemblance to-
the rag-ftone found at Barnack near Stamford, Northamp-
ton; a grit-{tone, procured at Birchover and Stanton Moor
near Winiter in Derbyshire, is found to be well adapted for.
filters, which are carried all over the country. The expence
of ftone filters, and their liability to be choaked up by long
ufe, have given rife to many others more fimple ; fand finely.
wathed, pulverifed glafs, pottery or charcoal, are frequent
ly employed, being placed in a proper fituation for the wa-
ter to percolate throuzh them. The latter, from its: well.
known antifeptic quality, is peculiarly adapted to- correct
putrid water, at the fame time that it feparates its impurities.
Mr. John Ifaac Hawkins, Titchseld ftreet, has eftablithed
a manufacture of charcoal /Iters for the fupply of the me-
tropolis where the water in eeneral requires fuch preparation.

Figs. 8 and 9, Plate XIII. Mifcellany, veprefent two con-
ftruGtiions. The latter isona large feale, and conitruGed ina
cafk A BCD, divided into two compartments byavertical par-
tition, EF, which does not reach within two inches of the bot-
tom of the cafk; the {pace 2 B D B C4 is filled with charcoal,
at firft a fratum of coarfely powdered charcoal four inches
deep, and this is covered with another ftratum of four inches,
in pieces about the fize of walnuts ;. in each divifion of the:
cafk the charcoal is covered with a perforated’ cover, the
foul water is poured in on the fide, A BEF, and is forced
by its preflure down one fide, and up»on the other, through
the charcoal, in which it depofits its extraneous mixtures,
and riies in the fide, 1 E F, perfedily tranfparent and {weet :
it is drawn off for ufe by the cock d; at ¢ is a cover to
prevent the foul water being accidentally thrown in on the
wrong fide; the cafk:is of wood, and charred withinfide, to.
{till farther fweeten the water.

The filter reprefented in fig. 8, is on a fmaller conftrue-
tion; here A is the veffel for the foul water, furnished with
a.cock a; delivering the water in the fpout 4, of a fecond
veflel B, containing the filter; it is filled with charcoal as
high as the cover ¢, which prevents the {mall charcoal being
diiturbed by the entrance of the foul water, which, after
percolating through the filter, efcapes at.the tube d into the
inferior refervoir, where it is retained until wanted, when it:

2 li

FIL

is drawn off at the cock g. The caf filter is two feet
eight inches in height, twenty-two inches diameter at the
bottom, and fixteen inches at top; if conftantly fupplied
with foul water it will purify one hundred gallons per
day ; its inventor ftrongly recommends it for the ufe of
fhips ; the other filter, which is made of earthenware, anda
much {maller feale, will do a proportionate quantity ; when
the charcoal becomes foul it may be taken out and replaced,
at an inconfiderable expence ; fand, pounded glafs or pot-
tery, and other fubftances, have at times been recommended.
Profeflor Parrot conftru€ted a filter with fand ; its form is
an inverted fiphon, the curve of which is filled with fand
wafhed exceedingly clean, a conftant {tream of the foul
water enters at one fide of the fiphon, and pafling down
through the fand in one leg, rifes through the other,
efcaping on a level rather lower than it entered. Great {trefs
is laid by the inventor upon the filtration by afcent, as well
as defcent, as he fuppofes the more weighty particles will
fubfide; though from their exceedingly {mall fize, they
might efcape through the interltices of the fand. It will be
ealily feen that the fhip filter by Hawkins is the fame in ef-
fect, though ona better conftruétion.

Mr. James Peacock took out a patent in 1791 for
filtration by afcent through any of the above-mentioned
fubftances; but he does not defcribe any thing material
which we have not mentioned above. .

The filter delineated in fig. 10. isa contrivance of Mr.
Collier, and defcribed in the Philofophical Magazine ;
A BC is an ordinary cafk divided into three parts by
three horizontal partitions ; the upper divifion AB aé is
to contain the refervoir of foul water; the partition ad is
‘perforated, and allows the water to pafs flowly down into
the middle divifion filled with broken crockery ware, pre-
fenting innumerable furfaces upon which the water depofits
any matters which will fubfide ; the caf is perforated all
yound to admit air at ad; the water then pafles into the in-
ferier compartment which contains the filters ; thefe are
three cylinders, one of which is feen at D ; they ave formed
of argil and filex baked together in a potter’s kiln. The
water percolates through this fubftance, and is received into
a veflel E communicating with the filters, formed of metal,
and furnifhed with a cock at eto draw off the fair water; F
is a metal tube placed upon the top of the refervoir E, with
which it communicates, and in which the water rifes as it
accumulates in the refervoir ; a cock at f will draw off the
foul water, and the tube F, being full, or nearly, of the filtered
water, the preflure will be reverfed, and the impurities
lodged in the pores of the cylinders removed by the con-
trary action.

To the inhabitants of a large city the filtration of the
water they make ufe of is a matter of confiderable im-
portance, but the praétice is at prefent confined to appa-
ratus on a {mall {eale for the ufe of one family only; filters
ona large feale might be fimply conftructed, and the ex-
pence of land for their formation would be amply repaid by
the improvement of the water. The conftruction of the
fhip filter feems beft adapted for this purpofe, a large tank
lined with brick-work, and divided into twe by a wall which
mutt have every other brick of the lower courfe omitted, fo
as to leave apertures at the bettom of the wall; this tank
being filled two feet deep with pulverized charcoal would
form an excellent filter, and feveral of thefe being arranged
round the fteam engine for pumping the water would alter-
nately {upply it. The expence of charcoal might be ob-
viated by ufing the refufe or charm as it is termed, or faw-
duit might be charred in an iron retort at a fmall charge.
See Firtearion.

FIL

‘Tirtea, or Philter, is alfo a charm, fuppofed to have.
a virtue of infpiring love.

The word is derived from Qi%por, which fignifies the
fame thing, of @irew, amo, I love.

Tbe Greeks, when their love was without fuccefs, had
feveral arts to procure the affections of their beloved. The
Theffalian women were famous for their {kil in this, as well
as other magical practices. Tlie means whereby it was ef.
fected were of divers forts; it was fometimes done by po-
tions, called $.2%,2, which are frequently mentioned in aue
thors of both languages. Juvenal {peaks thus:

“‘ Hic magicus affert cantus, hic Theffala vendit
Philtra, quibus valeant mentem vexare mariti.”

Their operations are violent and dangerous, and commanly
deprived fuch as drank them of their reafon. Plutarch and
Cornelius Nepos report, that Lucullus, the Roman general,
firit loft his reafon, afterwards his life by one of them.
Lucretius, the poet, ended his hfe by the fame way; and
Caius Caligula, as Suetonius reports, was driven into a fit
of madnefs by a filtre given him by his wife Cafonia, which
flory is mentioned by the fame poet. Ovid likewife affures
us, that this was the ufual cffect of fuch potions.

The ingredients they were made of were of divers forts,
feveral of which, applied by themfelves, were thought
effeGtual.

FILTJA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Sudermania; 10 miles S.W. of Stockholm.

FILTRATION, the att of pafliog any liquor through
a filtre, called alfo cglature, percolasion, and tranféolation.-
See Fiutre.

The end of filtration is of two kinds; the one to free
fluids from any folid bodies of a feculent nature with which
they are mixed; and the other to feparate any precipitated
powder or other folid body from fuperfluous fluid ; and the
means muft be varied accordingly. Such liquors as are in-
corporated with particles that adhere to them are rendered
capable of filtration by coagulating and collecting the hete-
rogeneous parts. This is effeéted either by boiling or by
mixing whites-of eggs and boiling them with the turbid li-
quors. See CLARIFICATION.

The moit commodious way of filtrating is by whited-
brown paper, or paper without fize, faftened over the mouth
or aperture of a funnel; the fmallnefs of the pores of this
paper admits only the finer parts through, and keeps the
re{t behind. There are alfo filtrations through fand, pulve-
rized glafs, &c. Spirits of vitriol, falt, and nitre, are filtrated
through a quantity of beaten glafs in the bottom of a
funnel.

Filtration is alfo performed by a woollen or linen bag,
called Hippocrates’s fleeve: the choice of thefe muit be
direéted by the liquor to be filtered.

Dr. Papin contrived a method by which filtrations
through cap-paper might be made fuddenly, and with
great quantities of liquor, by the help of the air-pump.
Forthis purpofe he made ufe of the following contrivance :
AA (Plate X1IL. Mifcellany, fig. 11.) is a glafs receiver ;
B Ba cover fitted to it; CC C is a pipe forming the com-
munication between the receiver A A and the air-pump ;
DD a hallow veffel full of little holes; EE E a pipe that
makes the communication between the veflel D D aud the
receiver A A ; F TF’ a veffel to contain the liquor te be fil-
trated, and GG the plate of the pump. When this in-
ftrument is ufed, the fhallow veflel D D ought to be tied
about firft with linen cloth, and then with cap-paper, fo
that no liquor may get inte the holes of the faid yeffel but
through the cap-paper, and linen cloth ; this mui be wholly

s placed

s

FIL
3

‘placed within the liquor to be filtrated : let the air be ex-
trated by means of the air-pump out of the vefiel A A.
Then the liquor in the veffel F F muft be drawn through the
cap-paper, and the linen cloth into the veflel DD, and
from thence through the pipe E. E E into the veilel AA;
and this operation muft be quick, on account of the great

-preflure of the atmofphere that drives the liquor ; belides,
the fedimeat of the liquor fubfiding at the bottom of the
veifel F F will not be fo apt to flop the pores of the cap-
paper as in ordinary filtrations. Birch’s Hifl. of the Royal
Society, vol. iv. p. 366, &c.

Filtering ftenes.and fiitering bafens, either natural or
artificial; for the purpofe of purifying water,, are not
sunfrequently ufed ia this and in other countries. Rocky
mountains, beds of fand, gravel, &c. are natural filtres.
The compofition for making filtering bafons, in order to
purify water, confifts of equal parts of tobacco-pipe clay,
and coarfe fea, river, drift, or’ pit-fand. ‘he bafons are
‘formed and turned on a potter’s wheel ; and they fhould be
‘about 2 of aniach thick. When the veflels are of the ufual
degree of drynefs, the whole outfide and infide furface mult
be fhaved or turned off on a potter’s wheel; and, when

“perfectly dry, thefe bafons are burnt or baked in a potter’s
‘Kiln after the ufual manner. Many patents have been
‘obtaiued by different perfons for filtering machines of their
‘own invention. See Fitter.

The fecretion of the divers juices in the body from the
‘mafs of blood feems to be little elfe but filtration. Pit-
“cairn, and other late’ authors, hold that the diverfity of
‘filtration does not depend on the different configurations of
‘pores, but on their different fizes or diameters.

Springs alfo feem to be raifed from the ocean by the fame
‘principle of filtration. ,

_ Firrrarion, in Pharmacy, is chiefly conceraed in tinc-
tures; as when fome portion is drawn from the ingre-
‘dients or fulpended in the tin@ture which is not neceflary
‘to it, but dilturhs and renders the reft unpleafant both to
“the palate and fight. Befides this, there is a filtration
which has much tortured the philofophy of fome ages to
“account for; this isthat performed by the afcent of the finer

“parts of a liquor up a cord or {kaia of cotton, or fuch like
“matter, which is contrived to drop over another vetlel and
eave the groffer behind. -

After the fame manner it is, without doubt, that the hu-
‘midity of the earth is drawn up into the fubitance of the
‘roots of vegetables, which we know confifts of long and
very minute fibres, fo difpofed as to form a great number
‘of ‘tubular interilices; thefe a€&t in the nature of this
fort of filtre, and attra& the juices and moifture appointed
-for the nutriment and increafe of the plant.

‘Some fay, that the caufe of this afcent is becaufe the li-
quor fwells thofe parts of the filter that touch it, by enter-
‘ing into the pores of the threads which compofe it, whereby
‘they rife up, touch, and wet thofe next above them; and
-thefe again the next threads; and fo on to the brim of
‘the veflel, when the liquor runs over, and defcends in the
“other part of the filter which hangs down by its own natural
“gravity.

* But this account is liable to many objeGtions, efpecially
as liquors rife after the like manner in glafs tubes much

“above the furface of the liquor they are immerfed in, where
“the glafs cannot be imagined thus to {well.

' Others account for it, by ate every filter as com-

a of a great number of lors, {mall, folid bodies, which

ie ‘very clofe together; fo that the air getting in between

‘them lofes much of its preffure, and cannot’ gravitate fo

*dtrongly as it doth on the fluid without them; the.coufe-

‘Vou. XIV.

FIL

querice is; that the parts of the water between the threads
of the filter muft be prefled upwards, and afcend till
they come forhigh, as, by their weight, to counterbalance
the general preflure on the other parts of the furface of the
water. L

Laftly, the retainers to fir Ifaac Newton’s philofophy
deduce the phenomenon from the principle of attraction,
According to them, the caufe of this filtration is, doubt-
lefs, the tame with that whereby flaids afcend up heaps
"of afhes, fand, &c. the fame with that whereby water is
railed in form of vapour, the fap rifes in vegetables, and
the blood . cirenlates through the capillary arteries, and
the extremely minute glandular ftrainers. See Ascent of

fuids.

FILTRUM, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a ftone
much ia ufe in the eaftern parts of the world, and fometimes
with us for the filtrating of water intended for drinking,
The Japanefe are extremely fond of this ftone, and im-
pute their uninterrupted health, and particularly their
being always free from the ftone and gravel, to their
drinking the water thus cleared of <ll its heterogenzous
and miichievous particles. The people of this, and many
other places thereabouts, have a dettled opinion, that
moit difeafes arife from impurities of water, and are well
affured, that thefe impurities are all lodged in the ftone-filtre,
and lett behind by the water in its paflage.

‘The manner of ufing the ftone is this; they form a fort
of mortars with very thick bottoms out of the largelt
pieces of it, and the water is poured into thefe, and the
fone being of a very lax and fpungy texture, it foon
makes its way through, and is received into a veffel
placed underneath for that purpofe. It being-found,
therefore, an eafy thing for us to have our water filtered
in the fame manner that the Japanefs have, it remains
to try whether it will have all thofe falutary efleG@s which
the people of that part of the world give it; and this
feems not to be imagined from reafon and analogy. We
very well know that water is frequently impregnated
with faline particles, and that it alfo frequently diffolves
by this means earthy and other matters which it other-
wife could not do. But we alfo know, that falts diffolved
in water are not to be feparated by filtration; and it is
equally certain, that earthy, fparry, or other matter, that
is fufpended in water when clear, will in like manner pafs
through the filter with it.

Upon the whole, we are happy enough to have no occa-:
fion for filtering ftones, fince our {prings and rivers afford
us water already pure enough to our hands; and in places
where this is not the cafe, it is always poflible to fave rain-
water, which will keep a long time with proper manage-
ment, and is much purer than all the art in the world can
make fuch as has once been foul. Valentini Mufeum
Mufzorum, lib. i. cap. 22.

The only inftance in which a filtering-ftone can be of real
ufe, is, when there is no water to be had but that of fome
muddy river; in this cafe, the mud being a foreign body
not diffolved in, but only floating among the water, it will
be left behind in its paffing the clofe ftru€ture in the filtre ;
but this is always to be as well obtained by letting it ftand
a while to fubfide.- Ephem. Germ. Cent. iii. p. 76:

Filtres, however, have been found ufeful to thofe whe
live near the metropolis, and who are f{upplied with water
from the Thames, the New River, and the ponds. from
Hampftead ; and many filtering machines ‘have been con-
trived for this purpofe. See Firrse and Firtration.

TILTZ, Anton. in Biography, a performer on the
violoncello in the Ele&tor Palatine’s -band at Mauheim, ia

3 K : 1763,

FIM

1763, and an elegant eompofer, His pleafing productions
for various inflruments were foon npticed and admired ;. but
alas! death ftopped his careersitt the prime of life, before
his genius and talents were well developed. In 1768 the
mufical world was robbed of this young artift, ot. whom,
from the {pecimens he had already given of his abilities, the
higheft expectations were formed. In Paris and Amiter-
dam the following compofitions appeared before his deceate,
fix fymphonies, fix violin trios for the harpfichord, violin,
and bafe. hele were printed from the Paris copy, by
Bremner, as were molt of his fymphonies. Nothing. was
ever fo elegant, and at the fame time {fo eafy, as his harp-
fichord trios. He left behind him in MS. various concertos
for the violoncello, the German flute, the hautbois, and the
clarinet, which were fold tingly in MS. at the mufic shops
in Leipfic and Hambro’, all much admired when executed
by great performers. Belides thefe, fome MS. duets and
folos for the violoncello were long purchafed and performed
with great applaufe.

FILUM Agua, the thread or middle of the ftream
where a river parts two lordfhips. ‘ Et habebunt iftas
buttas, ufque ad filum aque predic. File du mer, the
high tide of the fea”? Rot. Parl. 11 Hen. [V.

FILURINA, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Macedonia; 28 miles N. of Edefla.

FIMARELLA, 2a river of Naples, which runs inta the
gulf of Tarento. N. lat. 39° 36’. E. long. 17° 12’.

FIMBLE Hemp, in Rural Economy, aterm fometimes
applied to early ripe hemp, or female hemp. See FEmMBLE
Hemp.

FIMBRIA, in Anatomy, the fringed border of the open-
ing, by which the Fallopian tube communicates with the
abdominal cavity. This part is named the fimbriated ex-
tremity of the tube. (See Generation.) There isalfoa
part in the brain called corpus fimbriatum. See Brain.

Fimesria, in Surgery, was a term anciently employed
to fignity the outer tape, or fillet, which was put on to
fecure the reft of fome bandage, or apparatus.

FIMBRIATED, a term in Heraldry, signifying that
an ordinary is edged round with another of a different co-
lour.

Thus, he beareth, or, a crofs-pattee gules fimbriated
fable.

FIMBRISTYLIS, in Botuny, trom fimbria, a fringe,
and /iy/us, the ftyle of the flower. Wahl. Enum. v.°2.285.
Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Cala-
maria, Linn. Cypercidea, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. a fingle fcale to each flower, concave,
keeled, gradually deciduous, making part of a {pike im-
bricated every way. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments ufually
three, rarely only one or two; anthers linear. Pi/?.. Ger-
men very fmall, fuperior ; ftyle with a half-globular bulb
at the bafe, which falls off along with it; comprefled and
gradually dilated upward, fringed or ciliated at each edge 5
ftigmas two, capillary, {preading, downy. Peric. none.
Seed one, lenticular, convex at each fide, pointed at the
bafe, without any furrounding briftles. Receptacle gra-
dually elongated and becoming naked from the bafe up-
ward, very clofely pitted, the pits or cells having each a
membranous border.

Eff. Ch. Glumes chaffy, imbrieated every way. Corolla
none. Style cloven, bulbous at the bottom, compreffed,
fringed at each edge. Seed folitary, without any briftles
at irs bafe.

This genus is feparated from Scirpus by Vahl, in con-
fideration of the great extent of the latter, which has long

FIM

rendeved fome fuch divifion defirable.
as follows.

Stems feveral, ereét, without joints, leafy in the lower
part. Leaves channelled, rough-edged upwards. Involu-
cram like the leaves. Rays of the umbel bearing each one
fpike, and having a central feffile {pike at their bafe ; fome-
times each ray bears two fpikes, one of which is feffile, the
other tlalked ; all the {pikes are gradually elongated as the
feeds ripen. Keel of the feales green.

The author juft named ftill feems to confider this as an
artificial genus, which may perhaps be tenable as a fection
only of Scirpus. Yet he afferts it to be as diftin& from the
latter as Pelargonium and Erodium ave from Geranium ;
three genera as diftin&t, if we be not greatly miftaken, as
any that agree in natural order throughout the whole vege-
table kingdom. See Exonium.

Vahl has 24 fpecies of Fimbrifylis. Among them are,

F. miliaceum. Spikes globofe. Inyolucrums of about
two leaves, fhorter than the twice-compound umbels.
Stem leafy at the bale’? (Scirpus miliaceus ; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 75. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. 305. Rottb. Gram. 57. 0. 77.
t. 5. f. 2. Burm. Ind. 22. t. 9. f. 2.)—Native of the Eaft
Tudies. Perennial. Stems a foot high. Leaves flaccid,
{mooth. Umlels more compound than the above account
of the habit of the genus implies. Spikes {eareely bigger
than multard-feed, rufty-brown.

F. dichotomum. ‘ Spikes ovate-oblong. Involucrum
of about three leaves, longer than the repeatedly compound
umbel.”” (Scirpus dicl.otomus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 74. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 303. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. £. t. 52. Rottb.
Gram. 57. t. 13. f. 1.) —Native of the Eaft Indies and fouth
of Europe, in moift fandy ground. oof annual, fibrous.

erbage glaucous-green. Stems from fix to twelve inches
high. Spikes more ovate and acute, as wellas larger, than
in the former. Stamens from one to three. Rottboll de-
{cribes the ftyle as rough, but does not reprefent it fo,
neither is that charaGter, which makes the plant a Limbrij-
tylis, exhibited by Mr. Bauer in the Vara Greca.

F. ferrugineum. ‘ Spikes ovate-oblong. Scales fome-
what downy or hoary in the middle. Involucrum of about
two leaves, as long as the fimple umbel.’? (Scirpus ferru-
gineus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 74. Gramen cyperoides majus,
{picis ex oblongo rotundis compactis ferrugineis ; Sloane
Jam. v. 1. 118. t. 77. f£. 2.)—Native of falt marfhes in

He defines its habit

Jamaica. Stems a foot and half high, glaucous, ribbed,
comprefled. Umbel fimple or compound, of from three to
fix rays. Spikes half an inch long, brown and hoary.—

Vahl is much confufed in his quotation of Sloane, as in
many other fimilar cafes, his book being carelefsly executed
in that re{pect. In this inftance he errs by copying Lin-
nzus without turning to the book quoted.

F. /padiceum. ‘ Spikes oblong, cylindrical, acute.
Involucrum rigid, of two leaves, as long as the doubly
compound umbel.” (Scirpus fpadiceus ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 74.
Gramen cyperoides majus aquaticum, paniculis plurimis
junceis {partis, {picis ex oblongo rotundis {padiceis ; Sloane
Jam. 118. t. 76. f. 2.)—Native of watery places in the
Welt Indies. Stems two or three feet high, rigid and rufhy.
Spikes numerous, acute, an inch long, dark fhining brown.

F. argenteum. ‘ Spikes cylindrical, obtufe, feffile,
cluftered, in round heads.”?—(Scirpus argenteus ; Rottb.
Gram. 51. t. 17. £.6. Mulen-pullu ; Rheede H. Mal. v. 12.
Tol. t. §4.)—Native of moiit places in the Eaft Indies.
Root apparently annual. Stems numerous, from three to fix
inches high, glaucous as well as the leaves. Spikes of a
filvery grey, numerous, in denfe heads. Wahl thinks

Scirpus

FIN

Scirput menander of Rottboll, 50. t. 14. £ 3, is not different
from this,

We believe this genus will receive augmentation from
feveral fpecies hitherto confidered as Scirpi, but not yet
deferibed. As far as we have obferved, the progreflively
denudated rachis of the {pikes, from the deciduous glumes,
is very characteriflic of a Fimbriffylis.

FIN, in Geography, a {mall river of the county of Mo-
naghan, Ireland, which rifes in the weft of the county, and
runs into Lough Erne.

Fin, Pinna, in Natural Hi/fory, the name ef that part
of a fith which diftinguifhes it from other aquatic creatures,
no animal but a fifh having fins and wanting legs.

The fin is properly a part ftanding out or hanging from
the body of the fifh, and confifting of a membrane fup-
pee by feveral rays or oblong bones, which are in fome

ard and firm, and in others cartilaginous.

This definition of a fin properly excludes all thofe other
parts of a fifh which may be prominent from the body, and
may be of a membranaceous itructure, and even bear the
appearancé¢ of a fin, though they have none of the rays or
little bony fubftances within them, and therefore cannot
ferve the creature in the office of tins in fwimming ; for the
cartilages or hones which fupport the membranes of the fins
are what give them their due and neceflary ftrength and
firmnefs to bear agaiuft the water for the motion of the
body of the fifh; thofe other membranaceous appendages
to the bodies of fifhes cannot do this; for wanting the
fupport of thefe rays, the fimple and foft membrane has no
mote power of moving the water than the water has of
moving it. Hence appears the ufe of the bones or rays
fupporting the fins, and the truth of the definition, that
nothing is properly a fin which wants them.

The fins, by their differences, make very obvious diftinc-
tions among the feveral f{pecies of fifh ; and thefe differences
are in regard to number, fituation, figure, and propor-
tion,

The number of the fins, including the tail, is very dif-
ferent in different fifh. 1. In fome there is only one fin to
the whole fifh: this is the cafe in the ophidium lumbrici-
forme, and inthe murena, 2. The fins are twoin number
in others, as in the petromyze, and the hke. 3. There
are many which have three fins, as the conger, the eel, the
common ophidium, the Greenland whale, the fea-cow, aud
the like. 4. Many have four fins; of the number of which
are the dolphin, the phoccena, and the fecond kind of the
acus Ariltotelis. 5. Several have five fins, as the ammo-
“dytes or fand-cel, the fword-tifh, the lupus marinus, the
mola or fun-fifh, and many others. 6. ‘The lump fifh gives
us an inftance of fix fins; for the feeming firlt fin on the
back of that fifh is not a real fin, but only a cutaneous
prominence. 7. Many tifh have feven fins, as the gudgeon,
the pleuroneétes, the cyprinus, the clupea, the coregones,
the ofmeri, the falmons, the cobites, the efoces, the cernua
fluviatilis, the gaiteroftei, the {pari, the labri, the filurus,
the mugil alatus, the remora, the caprifeus, the hipptrus,
the pompilus, and the accipenfer. 8. Many fifh alfo have
eight tins each ; of this number are fome of the pearches,
the clarea, the cottus, the mugil, the labrax, the fudis,
the mulli, the ling, the trachurus, the {cyzne, the trachi-
nus, the uranofcope, and that little ith called the anguella
by the Venetians. 9. ‘The fcorpena of Rondeletius gives
us an inftance of the tins being nine in number ; and finally,
the febmbri and thynni give us inftances of eleven fins in the
fame fith.

The differences in fituation are lefs numerous than thefe

vas to number, bat they are not lefs obvious and effential.

FIN

t. They are generally placed both on the back and belly,
as we fee in moft of the fpecies of fifhes. 2. They are
fometimes placed only on the back ; this is the cafe in the
petromyze, the acus lumbriciformis, and fome others.
3. Some have them, on the contrary, only on the beily ;
of this kind are the Greenland whale, the fea-cow, and the
like: and to this it is to be added, that the back and belly
fins differ greatly in the feveral tifh, in their being placed
more or lefs backward or forward.

The differences of fhape or figure in the fins of fifhes are
alfo very obvious. 1. They are in fome nearly triangular,
as in the cyprini and falmons, &c. 2. Some few fifh have
them round. And, 3. Some have them of an oblong fquare
or parallelogram [quare.

Finally, the difference in proportion is not to be omitted,
for they are in fome much fhorter and fmaller than the body,
as is the cafe in the generality of fifh ; but in others they
are of an equal length with the body. Of this kind are the
pectoral fins in fome of the legyrz, and the ventral fins in
the mugil alatus of Rondeletius and other authors. Artedi,
Ichthyol. p.4. See Anatomy of Fisues.

Fin, Fr. Fine, Ital. Finis, Latin, the end of a work,
or, in Mufic, of acompolition.

Fins of Fi/b, in Natural Hiftcry, is the name by which
fome foffil relics have been denominated, owing to their re-
femblance to that member of the finny tribe, m the prefent
race: Mr. W. Martin recommendsthe claffing of all thefe
detached parts of reliquia under temporary {pecies; there
to remain, until the whole, ora fufficient number of tke
parts of the fame animal, fhalle found united, to determine
its place among the permanent {pecies.

Fin, in Rural Economy, is a term frequently ufed to fig-
nify a fharp cutting plate of iron, fixed upon the coulter or
fock of a plough, in order to render its operation or work
more complete. It is moitly had recourfe to in coarfe, tough,
peaty forts of land.

Fix, a common name frequently applied to the trouble-
fome weed termed re/?-harroc.

Vina, the balena phyfalus of Linneus.
LU Ss

Fins, Whale, ave commonly taken for that part of the
whale which the populace call cAale-bone ; but whence the
miftake fhould anife is not eafy to determine.

Thefe whale-fins, as fome have erroneoufly called them,
are the moft valuable part of the animal. See /V/ale Fisu-
Exy, and WHALE-éone. :

FINAL, that which terminates or comes laft in any thing,
as a final judgment, final fentence, &c.

Tinat Cau/fe, is the end for which the thing is done.
The final caufe is the firft thing in the intention of a p
who does a thing; and the lait, in the execution. See
Cause.

Finat Decree. See Decree.

Finar Judgment. See JupGMENT. :

Finay eifers are thofe which clofe words.

The Hebrews have five final letters, which, when at the
end of aword, have a different figure from what they hare
at the beginning or in the middle thereof. Thefe are the
ba Fe = PO caph, mem, nun, pe, t/ade, which every
where but at the end of words, are wrote 5, *, 3, SO»

nn ee

See Puysa-

-

< FINALE, in G: ography, a town of Italy, in the depar
ment of the Panaro, on an ifland in the river Pauaro ;
miles N.N.E. of Modena.

Finace, a fmall marquifate, furrounded by the Ligu-
rian republic, agreeable, fertile, and populous ; which, alter
having frequently changed its poffeilors, at length became

3 K2 fubjee

FIN

fubjeGt to the Ligurian republic. Its capital is a fea-port
town of the fame name, having a good harbour on the coatt
of the Mediterranean ; 31 miles S.W. of Genoa. N. lat.
442 10, BE. long. 8° 24".

Finaxe, Ital. in JZufic, the laft chorns, or movement
at' the end of an a& of an opera; and in fymphonies, concertos,
quartettos, or fonatas, the laft movement ts called the fzale.
The finales of the Italian comic operas are the moft inge-
nious, varied, pleafing, and mafterly compoftions which dra-
matic mufic can boaft; particularly thofe of Piccini, Paefiello,
Cimarofa, and Mozart. Such a varicty of meafure, fuch
fire, grace, paflion and pailhios, by turns, that the hearer, at
the end, is unable to fay what movement or paflage he likes
belt. They are extremely difficult to perform, yet the Ita-
liana, by dint of ftudy and rehearfal, are no more embar-
raffed than if, inftead of finging, they were only talking
and fquabbling the whole time.

FINALIS Pavsa,in old mufic, two Latin words.
Corona.

FINANCES, in'Political Economy, denote the revenues
of the king and ftate; much the fame with the fifens of the
Romans. The word is derived from the German, fizaniz,
feraping, ufury ; though Du-Cange chcofes rather to de-
duce it from the barbarous Latin, fnancia, preflatio pecu-
niaria.

Phe French havea peculiar kind of figures or numeral
Characters, which they call chiffre de finance. See Cua-
RACTER.

Finances, Britifb. See Funp and REVENUE.

FINBO, in Geography, a mountain of the Lower Enga-
dine; 8 miles N. of ‘l'rafp.

FINBY, a town of Sweden, on an ifland in the go-
vernment of Abo ; 28 miles S.S.E. of Abo. N. lat. 60°
ql, Me. long.)23°

FINCASTLE, a poft-town of America, in Virginia,
and capital of Botetourt county, fituated on the E. fide of
Catabaw creek, afmall ftream which falls into James river,
onthe W. fide ef the North mountain. It has about 56
houfes, a court-houfe and gaol, and contains 426 free inha-
bitants, and 276 blacks. It lies on the pott road from Rich-
mond to Kentucky ; 36 miles E. of Lexington.

FINCH, atownbhip in the county of Stormont, in Up-
per Canada, W. of Ofnabruck.

Fincnx, in Ornithology. See Frinciyva.

Finca-backed, ftreaked on the back with white.
moitly ufed in refpect to cattle.

FINCHED, in Rural Economy, a term which is often
ufed to fignify cattle flreaked on the back or other parts
with white {ots or {tripes.

FINCK, Herman, publifhed at Wittemberg, in 1556,
« Practica Mufica,” in Latin, with exainples of various
charaéters, proportions, and canons, with opinions of the
ecclefiaitical modes or tones, anda more pleafing and arti-
ficial method of finging. his may have been a ufeful
tra& when publifhed, but it is dry, and little is to be learnt
init now, of material ufe.

FINDER, in Optics, a fhort telefcope, generally affixed
to the tube of a large one, for the purpole of expeditiouf-
ly finding out any object. This finder does not magnify the
object more than four, fix, or eight times; but it has a
large field of view, fo that a great part of the heavens may
be feen through it at once. In the infide of its tube, and
exactly at the focus of the eye-glafs, there are two flender
wires, which crofs each other in the axis of the telefcope.
The finder is adjufted by means of {crews upon the tube of
the large telefcope, in fuch a manner, that, when an objeét,
feen through the finder, appears to be near the croffing of

See

43".

It is

FIN

the above-mentioned wires, it is at the fame time vifible
through the large telefeope ; hence, when the obferver
wifhes to view a {mall diftant objet, asa ftar, a planet, &c.
he moves the inftrument to one fide or the other, until, by
looking through the finder, he brings the object nearly to
coincide with the croffing of the wires. And when that
takes place, he immediately looks through the large tele-
{cope.

Finpers, in our Old Statutes, are {uppofed to be the fame
with thofe we now call fearchers, who are employed for the
difcovery of goods imported or exported without payin
cuftom. Stat. 18 Edw. III. 14 Ric. II. 17 Ric. If.
&c.

Finver, among Sport/men. See Water-Doc. ’

FINDHORN, in Geography, a fithing-town of Scot-
land, on the N. coaft of the county of Murray, at the mouth
of the river Findhorn, near the firth of Murray, witha to-
lerable harbour, and a large convenient bay; 9 miles W.
of Elgin. N. lat. 57° 139'. W. long. 3° 29'.

FINDING ¢f a Bill of Indicment, in Law. See Ix-
DICTMENT.

FINE’, Oronce, in Biography, one of the moft cele-
brated mathematicians of his time, was fon of a phyfician
at Briancon, where he was born in the year 1494. His
father dying while he was very young, he was fent to Paris,
and, through the intereft of Anthony Silvelter, obtained a
place in the college of Navarre, where he went through a
courfe of claffical learning and philofophy. His attention
to polite literature did not prevent him from applying much
of his attention to mathematics, which he found moit con-
genial to his tafte and inclination. Tn thefe fciences he had
no inftruGtor, and the ftudy of them had fallen into difrepute.
Regardlefs of the prevailing fafhion of the age, he determined
to proceed, and by the force of his own genius, and a fe-
dulous application, he made confiderable progrefs in them.
Tn 1519, he publifhed an edition of ** John Martin Siliceus’s
Arithmetic ;’? and afterwards, in 1523, he gave to the pub-
lic a revifed and improved edition of the ‘* Margareta Philo-
fophica,’? containing the principles of rational and moral
philofophy. After this, for he was ftill a ftudent at the
college of Navarre, he gave private leGtures in the mathema-
tics, andthen becamea public teacher of them in the col-
lege of Gervais. In this capacity he obtained fo high a
reputation, that Francis I. who had founded a new college
at Paris, and who was defirous of filling the proteflorfhips
with men of the firft rate abilities, recommended Finé-as the
moft proper perfon to teach the mathematics. This excel-
lent mathematician, like many others who flourithed at the
fame period, was devoted to the art of judicial aftrology,
and, on one occafion, he fuffered a long and fevere imprilon-
ment, for preuming to announce predictions that feemed to
affe€&t the court of France. Finé was likewife a good me-
chanician, and invented and conftruéed different initruments
and pieces of mechanifm, which added very much to his ce-
lebrity as aman of fcience. Notwithfanding his genius,.
afliduity, and extraordinary talents; and the efteemin whieh
he was held by an almoft indefinite number of perfons, it
was his hard lot never to receive an adequate reward for his
great fervices. Through the whole of life he had to
ftruggle with the evils of poverty, to the difgrace of many
who affected to value him yery highly, and who could not
but be well acquainted with his wants, but who neverthes
lefs had net the f{pirit nor the virtue to afford him any afiitt-
ance. He died in the utmoft diftrefs in 1555, leaving be-
hind him a wife and fix children, involved with debt, and
deftitute of all means of fupport. Provifion was, however,
made for their decent maintenance, by thofe who had pre-

tended

¥ INE.

tended to patronize him while living. The works of Fine
were publifhed together in-three volumes folio, which bear
the dates of 1532, 1542, and 1546. Bayle. Moreri.

Fine, that which is pure, and without mixture. The
term is particularly ufed‘in {peaking of gold or filver. See
Gorvand Sirver.

Fine, jinis, or finalis concordia, in Law, denotes a fo-
lemn amicable agreement or compofition of a fuit (whether
that fuit be realor fictitious) made between the demandant and
tenant, with the confent of the judges; and enrolled among
the records of the court where the fuit was commenced ;
by which agreement freehold property may be transferred,
fettled, and limited. (Cruife on Fines.) Sometimes, fays
Shepherd (Touchft. c. 3.) it is taken for a final agreement
or conveyance upon record for the fettling and fecuring of
lands and tenements ;’”’ and accordingly it is defignated by
fome to be “ an acknowledgment, in the king’s court, of the
land or other things to be his right that doth complain ;”
and by others ** a covenant ‘made between parties, and re-
corded by the juftices ;” and by others ‘a friendly, real, and
final agreement amongtt parties, concerning any land, rent,
or other thing, whereof any fuit or writ is hanging between
theminany court ;” and by others more fully “* an inftru-
ment of record of an agreement concerning lands, tenements,
or hereditaments ; duly made by the king’s licence, and ac-
knowledged by the parties to the fame, upon a writ of co-
venant, writ of right, or fuch like, before the juftices of
the Common Pleas, or others thereunto authorized, and en-
grofled of record in the fame court ; to end all controverfies
thereof, both between themfelves, which be parties and pri-
vies to the fame, and all ftrangers not fuing or claiming in
due time.”

A fine is fometimes faid to be a feoffment of record (Co.
Litt. 50.) ; though it might be more eccurately called an
ackuowledginent of a feoffment on record; by which is to
be underftood, that it has at leaft the fame force and effect
with a feofiment, in the conveying and alluring of lands;
though it is one of thofe methods of transferring efates of
freehold by the common law, in which livery of feifin is not
neceflary to be actually gives ; the fuppofition and acknow-
ledgment thereof ina court of record, however nétitious,
inducing an equal notoriety. But, more particularly, a fine
may be defcribed to be an amicable compofition or agree-
ment of a fuit, either a€tual or fidtitious, by leave of the
king or his juftices; whereby the lands in queftion become,

- or are acknowledged to be, the right of one of the parties.
(Co. Litt. 120.) In its origiital it was founded on an actual
{uit, commenced at law for recovery of the poflefion of
land or other hereditaments ; and the pofleffion thus gained
by fuch compolition was-found to be fo fure and fo effectual,
that fictitious aCtions were, and continue to be, every day
commenced, for the fake of obtaining the fame fecurity.
A fine is fo called becaufe it puts an end, finis, not only to
the fuit thus commenced, but alfo to all other fuits and con-
troverfies concerning the fame matter. Accordingly it is
fo exprefled in an ancient record of parliament, 18 Edw. I,
Fines, indeed, are of equal anuquity with the firit rudiments
of the lawitfelf: they are Spoken of by Glanvil and BraGton
in the reigns of Henry If. and Henry IIT. as things then
well known and long eitablifhed; and inftances of them
have ‘been produced even prior to the Norman invafion.
(Plowd. 369.) So that the flatute of 18 Edw. I. called
& Modus levandi fines,” did not give them original, but
only declared and regulated the manner in which they
Should be levied, or carried on. This is as follows;

"1. The party, to whom the land is to be conveyed or
affiired; commences au action or fuit at law, againit the

other, generally an action of covenant, by fuing out a writ
or ‘precipe,” called a writ of covenant; the foundation
of whichis a fuppofed agreement or covenant, that the one
fhall convey the lands to the other; on the breach of which
agreement the action is brought. On this writ there is due
to the king, by ancient prerogative, a ‘ primer fine,” ora
noble for every five marks of land fued for; that is, one-
tenth of the annual value. (2 Inft. 511.) The {uit being
thus commenced, there follows I

2. The “licentia concordandi,’’? or leave to agree the
fait. For, as foonas the aGtion is brought, the defendant,
knowing himfelf to be ia the wrong, is fuppofed to make
overtures ‘of peace and accommodation to the plaintiff ; who
accepting them, but having, upon fuing out the writ, given
pledges to profecute his fuit, which he endangers if he now
deferts it without licence, he applies to the court for leave
to make up the matter. This leave is readily granted ; but
for it there is alfo another fine due to the king, by his pre-
rogative, which isan ancient revenue of the crown, and is
called the ‘‘king’s filyer,”? or fometimes the ** poft-fine,’”
with refpeé& to the primer-fine,” before-mentioned. And
this is as much as the primer-fine,”? and half as much
more, or 10 fhillings for every mark of land; that is, three
twentieths of the fuppofed annual value. (5 Rep. 39.
2 Int. srr. Stat. 32 Geo. 11. c. 14.)

3. Next comes the ‘concord,’ or agreement itfelf,
after leave ebtained fromthe court; which is ufually an
acknowledgment from the deforciants (or thofe who keep
the other out of poffeffion,) that the lands in queftion are
the right of the complainant. And from this acknowledg-
ment, or recognition of right, the party levying the fine is
called the “cognizor,”’ and he to whom it is levied the
“cognizee.”” ‘Uhis acknowledgment muft be made either
openly in the court of Common Pleas, or before the lord
chief juftice of that court ; as alfo before one of the judges
of that court, or two or more commiflioners in the county,
empowered by a fpecial authority called a writ of “ dedimus
poteftatem ;” which judges and commiffioners are bound by
ftatute 18 Edw. I. ft. 4. to take care that the cognizors
be of full age, found memory, and out of prifon. If there
be any feme-covert among the cognizors, fhe is privately
examined whether the does it willingly and freely, or by com-
pulfion of her hufband.

By thefe a&s all the effential parts of a fine are com-
pleted ; and if the cognizor dies the next moment after the
fine is acknowledged, provided it be fubfequent to the day
on which the writ is made returnable (Comb. 71.), {till the
fine fhall be carried on in all its remaining parts; of which
the next is

4. The “ note” of the fine; which is only an abitra&t of
the writ of covenant and the concord; naming the parties,
the parcels of land, and theagreement. This muft be enrol-
led of recordin the proper office, by direGtion of the ftatute
5, Hen. TV. core

5- The fifth part is the ‘ frot?” of the fine. or conclufion
of it; which includes the whole matter, reciting the parties,
day, year, and place, and before whom it was acknowl deed
or levied. Of this there are indentures made, or engrofied,
at the chirographer’s office, and delivered to the cognizor
and the cognizee; ufually beginning thus, “ hec eft finali
concordia,” or “ this is the final agreement,”? and then re-
citing the whole proceeding at length. Thus the fine is
completely levied at common law. By feveral ftats
additional folemnities are introduced, in order
fine more univerfally public, and lefs liable to be
fraud or covin. And firft, by 27 Edw. I. c. 1.
of the fine fhall be-openly read in the court of

9?

to

2

FIN E.

Pleas, at two fevetal days in one week, and during fuch read-
ing all pleas fhall ceafe, By 5 Hen. 1V. c, 14. and 23 Eliz.
c. 3. all the proceedings on fines, either at the time of ac-
knowledgment, or previous, or fubfequent thereto, hall be
enrolled of record in the court of Common Pleas. By
1 Ric. III. c. 7. confirmed and enforced by 4 Hen. VII.
c. 24. the fine, after engroffment, fhall be openly read and
proclaimed in court (during which all pleas fhall ceafe)
fixteen times, viz. four times in the term in which it is
made, and four times in each of the three fucceeding terms;
which is reduced to once in each term by 31 Eliz. c. 2;
and thefe proclamations are endorfed on the back of the
record. It is alfo enacted by 23 Eliz. c. 3. that the chi-
rographer of fines fhall every term write out a table of the
fines levied in each couuty in that term, and fhall affix them
in {ome open part of the court of Common Pleas all the next
term; aud fhall alfo deliver the contents of fuch table to
the fheriff of every county, who fhall at the next aflizes fix
the fame in fome open place in the court, for the more
public notoriety of the fine.

Fines, thus levied, are of four kinds: 1. What is in our
Jaw French called a fine “ fur cognizance de droit, come
ceo que il ad de fon done,’”’ or a fine upon acknowledgment
of the right of the cognizee, as that which he hath of the
gift of the cognizor. This is the beit and fureft kind of
fine; for thereby the deforciant, in order to keep his cove-
nant with the plaintiff, of conveying to him the lands in
queftion, and at the fame time to avoid the formality of an
aétual feoffment and livery, acknowledges in court a former
feoffmeut, or gift in poffeffion, to have been made by him to
the plaintiff. This fine is therefore faid to be a feoffment
of record ; the livery thus acknowledged in court being
equivalent to an actual livery ; fo that this affurance is rather
a confeffion of a former conveyance than a conveyance now
originally made; for the deforciant, or cognizor, acknow-
ledges, ** cognofcit,”’ the right to be in the plaintiff, or cog-
nizee, as that which he hath ‘de fon done,” of the proper
gift of himlelf, the cognizor, 2. A fine “ fur cogmzance
de droit tantum,”? or upon acknowledgment of the right
merely; not with the circumftance of a preceding gift from
the cognizor. This is commonly ufed to pafs a reverfionary
interelt, which is in the cognizor. For of fuch reverfions
there can be no feoffment, or donation with livery, fuppofed ;
as the poffeffion during the particular eitate belongs to a
third perfon, (Moor. 629.) It is thus worded; ¢ that
the cognizor acknowledges the right to be in the cognizee;
and grants for himfelf and his heirs, that the reverfion, after
the particular citate determines, fhall go to the cognizee.
(Welt. Symb. p. 2. § 95.) 3. A tine “ fur conceflit”’ is,
where the cognizor, in order to make an end of difputes,
though he acknowledges no precedent right, yet grants to
the cognizee an eftate * de novo,” ufually for life or years,
by way of fuppofed compofition. And this may be done
referving a rent, or the like ; for it operates as anew grant.
(Wett. p. 2. § 66.) 4. A fine “fur done, grant, et render’?
is a double fine, comprehending the fine “ fur cognizance
de droit come ceo, &e.’’ and the fine “ fur conceffit :?’ and
may be ufed to create particular limitations of eflate ;
whereas the tine ‘ fur cognizance de droit come ceo,
&c.”’ conveys nothing but an abfolute eitate, cither by
inheritance, or at lealt of freehold. (Salk. 340.) In this
laft {pecies of fine, the cognizee, after the right is acknow-
ledged to be in him, grants back again, or renders to the
cognizor, or perhaps to a ftranger, fome other eftate in the
premifes. But, in general, the firft fpecies of fine, ‘ fur
cognizance de droit come, &c.’’ is the moft ufed, as it con-
veysa clear and abfolute freehold, and gives the cognizee a

feifia in law, without any actual livery ; and is therefore
called a ** fine executed,’? whereas the others are but * exes
cutory.” ,

The force and effe& of a fine principally depend, at this
day, on the common law ; and the two ftatutes, 4 Hen. VII.
c. 24. and 32 Hen. VIII. c. 36. The ancient common
law, with refpeét to this point, is very forcibly declared by
the tlatute 18 Edw. I.; which ftates that the fine is fo high
a bar, and of fuch force, that it precludes not only thofe
which are parties and privies to the fine, and their heirs,
but all other perfons in the world, who are of full age, out
of prifen, of found memory, and within the four feas,
the day of the fine levied ; unlefs they put in their claim on
the foot of the fine within ayear andaday. But this
do@rine of barring the right by ‘* non-claim’? was abo-
lifhed for a time by a {tatute made in 34 Edw. IIL. c. 16.
which admitted perfons to claim, and falfify a fine, at any
indefinite diltance (Litt. §441.); whereby, as fir Edward
Coke obferves, (2 Init. 518.) great contention arofe, and
few men were fure of their pofleffions, till the parliament,
held 4 Hen. VII. reformed that mifchief, and excellently
moderated between the latitude given by the ftatute and the
rigour of the common law. By that itatute the right of
all ftrangers whatfoever is bound, unlefs they make claim,
by way of aétion or lawful entry, not within ove year and
a day, as by the common law, but within fve years after
proclamations made ; except feme-coverts, infants, prifoners,
perfons beyond the fea, and fuch as are not of able mind;
who have five years allowed to them and their heirs, after
the death of their hufbands, their attaining full age, reco-
vering their liberty, returning into England, or being re-
ftored to their right mind. Henry VII. feems by this
ftatute to have covertly extended fines fo as to have been a
bar of eflates-tail, in order to render them more open to
alienations ; but doubts having arifen whether they could,
by mere implication, be adjudged a fufficient bar (which are
exprefsly declared noi to be by the ftatute * de donis’’),
the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 36. was thereupon made,
which declares that a fine levied by any perfon of full age,
to whom or to whofe ancettors lands have been entailed,
fhall be a perpetual bar to them and their heirs, claiming by
torce of fuch entail; unlefs the fine be levied by a woman
after the death of her hufband, of lands which were, by
the gift of him or his anceftor, afligned in tail to her for
her jointure (ftat. rc Hen. Vil. c. 0.); or unlefs it be
of lands entailed by a&t of parliament or letters patent,
and whereof the reverfion belongs to the crown.

From the view now given of the common law, regulated
by thefe ftatutes, it appears that a fine is a folemn conyey=
ance on -record from the cognizor to the cognizee ; and
that the perfons bound by a fine are parties, privies, and
JAtrangers. The parties are either the cognizors of cognizees ;
and thefe are immediately concluded by the fine, and barred
of any latent right they might have, though under the
legal impediment of coverture. And, indeed, as this is
almoft the only a& that a feme-covert or married woman is
permitted by law to do, (and that beeaufe fhe is privately
examined as to her voluntary confent, which removes the
general fufpicion of compulfion by her hufband), it is there-
fore the ufual and almoit the only fafe method whereby
fhe can join in the fale, fettlement, or incumbrance of any
eltate. Privies to a fine are fuch as are any way related to
the parties who levy the fine, and claim under them by any
right of blood, or other right of reprefentation. Such as
are the heirs-general of the cognizor, the iffue in tail
fince the ftatute of Henry VIII., the vendee, the de-
vifee, and all others who muft make title by the perfons

who

EI

who levied the fine. For the a& of the anceftor fhall bind
the heir, and the a& of the principal his fubftitute, or fuch
as claim under any conveyance made by him fubfequent
to the fine fo levied. (3 Rep. 87.) Strangers toa fine
are all other perfons, except parties and privies. Thefe are
alfo bound by a fine, unlefs, within five years after proclama-
tion made, they interpofe their claim, provided they are
under no legal impediment, and have thena prefent intereft
in the eftatee The impediments, as we have already men-
tioned, are coverture, infancy, imprifonment, infanity, and
abfence beyond fea; and perfons, who are thus incapaci-
tated to profecute their rights, have five years allowed them
to put in their claims after {uch impediments are removed.
Perfons alfo that have not a prefent, but a future intereft
only, as thofe in remainder or reverfion, have five years al-
lowed them to claim in, from the time that fuch right ac-
erues. (Co. Litt. 372.) And if within that time they ne-
glec& to claim, or (by the ftatute 4 Aun. c. 16.) if they do
not bring an aétion to try the right within one year after
making fuch claim, and profecute the fame with effect, all
perfons whatfoever are barred of whatever right they may
have, by force of the ftatute of non-claim. But, in order
to make a fine of aay avail at all, it is neceffary that the
parties fhould have fome intereft or eftate in the lands to be
affected by it. Elfe it were poflible that two ftrangers, by
amere confederacy, might without any rifk defraud the
owners by levying fines of their lands; for if the attempt
be difcovered, they can be no fufferers, but muft only remain
in flatu quo ; whereas, if a texant for life levies a fine, it is
an abfolute forfeiture of his eftate to the remainder-man or
reverfioner (Co. Litt. 251.) if claimed in proper time. Itis

not therefore to be fuppofed that fuch tenants will frequently
yun fo great a hazard; but if they do, and the claim is not

duly made within five years after their refpective terms ex-
pire (2 Lev. 52.), the eftate is for ever barred by it. Yet
where a ftranger, whole prefumption cannot be thus pu-
nifhed, officioufly inte:feres in an eftate which in no wife
belongs to him, his fine is of no effe€t; and may at any
time be fet afide (unlefs by fuch as are parties or privies

thereunto (Hob. 334.) by pleading that ‘* partes fiuis nihil
habuerunt.”” And even if a tenant for years, who hath
only a chattel intereft, and no freehold in the land, levies a
fine, it operates nothing, but is liable to be defeated by the
fame plea. (5 Rep. 123 Hardr. 401.) Wherefore, whena
leffee for years is difpofed to levy a fine, it is ufual for him
to make afeoffment firft, to difplace the eftate of the rever-
fioner (Hardr. 402. 2 Lev. 52.), and create a new free-
hold by diffeifia. Blackit. Com. Book ii. See Recovery.

In order to punifh criminally fuch as thus put the eitate
of another to the hazard as far as in them lies, the flat. 21
Jac. I. c 26. makes it felony without benefit of clergy to
acknowledze, or procure to be acknowledged, any fine, re-
covery, or judyment, &c. in the name of any perfon not privy
or confenting to the fame.

Fines may be reverfed for error, fo as the writ of error be
brought in 20 years, &e. and not afterwards by ftat. ro & 11
W. IIL. c. 11. which 20 years are te be computed from the
time of the fine levied, and not from the time the title
accrued (2 Stra. 1257.) No perfen can bring a writ of
error, to reverfe a fine, or any judgment, that is‘not iatitled
to the land, of which the fine was levied. In order to avoid a
fine there muit be aw actual entry, except where the fine is’
levied without proclamations ; for the flatute 4 H. VII.
¢. 24. does not extend to fuch a fine, and it may be avoided
at-any time within 20 years, (2 Wilf. 45.) The entry,
when neceflary, muft be made by the perfon who has a right

se Oe

to the lands, or by fome one appointed by him.
(1 Inft.258 a.) Nething can be affigned for error that
contradicts the record. (1 Rol. Abr.757.) Fines are not re-
verlible for rafure, interlineation, mifentry, or any want of
form, but it is otherwife if of fubftance. (Stat. 23 Eliz.
c. 3.) Fines may be avoided, where they are obtained by
fraud, covin, or deceit, though there be no error in the
procefs. (Cro. Eliz. 471.)

Fines are generally divided into thofe with, and thofe
without proclamations ; the former is termed a fine accord-
ing to the ftatutes 1 R. III. ce. 7. 4H. VII. c. 243 and
the latter is called a fine of the common law, being levied
in fuch manner as was ufed before the ftatute 4 H. VII.
c. 245 and is ftill of the like force by the common law, to
difcontinue the eflate of the cognizor, if tke fine be
executed.

Fines are either fingle or double. Single fine is that by
which nothing is granted or rendered back again by
the cognizees to the cognizors, or any of them. Double fine
contains a grant and render-back, either of fome rent, com-
mon, or other thing out of the land, or of the land itfelr,
toall or fome of the recognizors for fome eftate, limiting
thereby remainders to ftrangers not named in the writ o
convenant.

In this kind of fine, called ‘ fur done, grant and ren-
der,’? both the fines * fur cognizance, &c.”? aud ** fur con-
ceffit,”’ are formed into one; and it is partly executed and
partly executory. See Fine above.

Sometimes alfo a double fine is when the lands lie in feveral
counties.

Fines, with regard to their effe@, are divided into exe-
cuted and executory. Fine executed, is fuch as of its own
force gives a prefent poffeffion (at leaft in law) to a cog-
nizee ; fo that he needs no writ of “habere facias feifinam’?
for execution of the fame: of which fort is a fine “ fur cog-
nizance de droit come ceo, &c.”’ that is, upon acknowled;-
ment, that the thing mentioned in the concord is “ jes
ipfius cognifati, ut illa que idem habet de dono cognitoris.’?
Welt. § 51. K.

The reafon is, becaufe the fine paffeth by way of releafe
of a thing which the cognizee hath already (at leaft by fup-
polition) by virtue of a former gift to the cognizor, which
is, in truth, the furett fine of all. See Fine, {upra.

Fines executory, are {uch as of their own force do not exe-
cute or give the poffeffion to the cognizee witheut entry or
action, but require a writ of « habere facias feifinam ;” as a
fine *¢ fur cognizance de droit tantum,”’ unlefs the party be
in poffeffion of the lands. This kind of fine is commonly
made ufe of to pafs a reverfion There is alfo another exe-
cutory fine called © fur conceffit.”? See Fine, fupra.

Fines in England are now levied in the court of Common

leas at Weitminiter, in regard to the folemnity thereof,
ordained by the ftatute of 18 Ed. I. ftat. 4. before which
time they were fometimes levied in the county-court, court-
barons, and in the exchequer, as may be feenin Origines Ju.
ridiciales, &c.

Fines are alfo taken by commiffioners in the country, em-
powered by dedimus potefiatem. 15 Ed. I. itat. de fine
‘Though by the common law all fines were levied in the court.
Vines levied befor the juftices in Wales, or in the counties
palatine of Chefter, Durham, &e. have the fame effea as
thofe that are levied before the juitices of C. B.

Fins adnullando levato de tenemento quod fuit de antique
dominico, a writ dire&ed to the juftices of C. B. for difannul-
ling a fine levied of lands in ancient demefne to the prejudice

of thelord, Reg. Orig. 15.

4. Fines

FINE,

Fines for alienation, ave fines formerly paid to the king
by his tenants in chief, for licence to alienate their lands ;
according to the ftatute 1 Edw. HI. c. 12. but taken away
by ftatute 12 Car. I]. cap. 24.

Fine capiendo.proterris, &c, a writ lying where a perfon
upon conviction of any offence by jury hath his lands and
goods taken into tne king’s hands, and his body 1s committed
to prifon; to be remitted his imprifonment, ,and have his
lands and goods re-delivered him on obtaining favour for a
fum..of money. Reg. Orig. 142. j

Fins farce, isjanjexpreffion in ftat. 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 12.
denoting that a) perfon is forced to do that which he caa in
no way avoid,

Fine levando de tenementis de rege in capite, &c. a writ
directed to the juftices of the Common Pleas to admit of a
fine for the fale of land holden of the king in capite. Reg.
Orig. 167. = Oe

Vine non capiendo pro pulchre placitando, a writ to inhibit
officers. of courts to take , fines for fair pleading. Reg.
Orig. 179. F

Pine pro redifvifina capienda, Kc. a writ lying: for the ree
leafe of one imprifoned for a redifleifin, on payment of a
yeafonable fine. Reg. Orig, 222.

Fines /e roy, are all fines to the king. Under this
head are included fines for original writs. Thus, for
every writ of plea of land, if it be not of right patent,
which is for the yearly value of five marks, and for all ori-
ginal writs in debt and trefpafs, where the debt or damage
is 4o/. a fine is die to the king of 6s. 8d. and more pro-
en the writ is for greater value.

Fine alfo, according to Cowel, fignifies a fum of money
paid as an income for lands or tenements let by leafe, an-
ciently called gerfuma.

Fine is alfo uled to denote an amends, pecuniary punifh-
ment, or recompence, for au offence committed againtt the
king and his laws, or againft the lord of a manor. In
which cafe a man is faid, facere jinem de tranfgreffione cum
vege, &c.

In all the diverfities of the ufe of the word fine, it hath
but one fignification ; and that is, a final conclufion, or end
of differences between parties. In the lait fenfe, where it
denotes the ending and remiflion of an offence, it is ufed by
Bracton, who {peaks of a common jine that the country pays
to the king for falfe judgments or other trefpafles, which
is to be affeffed by the juitices in eyre before their departure,
by the oaths ef knights and other good men, upon fuch as
ought to pay it. There is alfo a common fine in courts leet.

The diferetionary fines (and difcretionary length of impri-
fonment) which our courts are enabled to impofe, may feem
an exception to the general rule, that the punifhment of
every offence is afcertained by the law. But the general
nature of the punifhment, viz. by fine or imprifonment, is
fixed and determinate; though the duration and quantity
ef each mutt frequently vary, from the aggravations, or al-
leviations, of the offence, the quality and condition of the
parties, and innumerable other circumitances. The guan-
tum, in particular, of pecuniary fines neither cai, nor
ought to be, afcertained by any invariable law. The value
of money is flu€tuating; and what would be ruin to one
man’s fortune may be matter of indifference to another’s.
Thus the law of the twelve tables at Rome fined every per-
fon, that ftruck another, twenty-five denarii; and this, in
the more opulent days of the empire, became a punifhment
of fo little confideration, that Aulus Gellius tells a ftory
of one Lucius Neratius, who diverted himfelf by giving a
blow to any perfon at pleafure, and then tendering the legal
forfeiture. Qur flatute law has not therefore often afcer-

6

portionably wh

tained the quantity of fines, nor the common law eVers
merely directing fuch an offence to be punifhed by fine in
general, without fpecifying the certain fum: and this will
appear to be fully frfiictent, when we confider that, how-
ever unlimited the power of the court may feem, it is far
from being wholly arbitrary; but its diferetion is regulated
by law. For the bill of rights (ftat..1 W. and M. ft. 2.
c. 2.) has particularly declared, that exceflive fines ought
not to be impofed, nor cruel and unufual punifhments in-
flicéd (which had a retrefpe& to fome unprecedented pro-
ceedings in the court of king’s bench, in the reign of ng
James II.); and the fame ftatute farther declares, that al
grants and promifes of fines and forfeitures of particular
perfons, before conviCtion, are illecal and void. Now the
bill of rizlits was.ouly declaratory of the oldiconftitutional
law; and accordingly we find it exprefsly holden, long be-
fore (2 Inuit. 48.) that all fuch previous grants are void;
fince thereby many times undue means, and more violent pro-
fecution, would be ufed for private lucre, than the quiet
and juit proceeding of the law would permit. ;

‘The reafonablenefs of fines in criminal cafes has alfo been
ufually regulated by the determination of ** Magna Charta’?
(c. 14.) concerning amercements for mifbehaviour by the
{uitors in matters of civil right. See AmMERCEMENT.

Courts of record may fine for an offence committed in
court in their view, or by confellion of the party recorded
in court. (1 Lill. Abr. 621.) A man fhall be fined and im.
prifoned for all contempts done to any court of record,
againit the commandment of the king’s writ, &c. (9 Rep. Go.)
See Contempr. Some courts may imprifon, and not fine,
as the conltables at the petit feflions; fome courts cannot
fine, or imprifon, but amerce, as the county, hundred, &c. ;
but fome courts can neither fine, imprifon, nor amerce, as
ecclefiaftical courts held before the ordinary, archdeacon, &cy
or their commiffaries, and fuch who proceed according to
the canon, or civil law. (11 Co. 43, 44.)

A fine may be mitigated the fame term it was fet, being
under the power of the court during that time, but not af-
terwards. (T. Raym. 376.) And fines aflefled in court by
judgment upon an information, cannot be afterwards miti-
gated. (Cro. Car. 201.) Ifa fine certain is impofed by fta-
tute upon any conviction, the court cannot mitigate it ; but
if the party comes in before conviction, and fubmits to the
court, they may aflefs a lefs fine; for he is not convicted,
and perhaps never might. The court of exchequer may —
mitigate a fine certain, becaufe it isa court of equity, and
they have a privy-feal for it. (3 Salk. 33.) If an exceffive
tine is impofed at the feffions, it may be mitigated at the
king’s bench. (1 Vent. 336.) :

All flnes belong to the king, becaufe the courts of jaf-
tice are fupported at his charge ; and wherever the law puts
the king to any charge for the fupport and protection of
his people, jt provides money for that purpofe. (Bra&. 129.)

INE-drawing, or rentering, avery nice way of fewi
up or rejoining the parts of any cloth, ftuff, or the like,
torn or rent in the dreffing, wearing, &c. 2

It is prohibited to fine-draw pieces of foreign manufac-
ture upon thofe of our own, as has formerly béen practifed.
See RENTERING. us

Fine Loch, in Geography, is one of the extenfive inland
waters of Argylefhire, in Scotland, conneéting with the fea by
means of the eftuary of the Clyde rivers, and by Kylbrannia
found on the weft of the ifle of Arran: it has alfo another
communication with Clyde river by means of the Kyles of
Bute on the weft of Buteifland. ‘The principal branch of
Fine Loch extends a few miles to the N.E. of the town of
Inverary ; from the top of Gilp Loch, which is a branch of

this

FIN

thialoch, the Crinan canal proceeds, for the paffage of thips
to the weft inte Crinan Loch, and the found of Jura.
From Eaft Tarbeth Loch, another fhort branch of Fine
Loch, the Tarbeth canal was, in 1773, propofed by Mr.
Watt to form another communication with the found of
Jura, by means of Weft Tarbeth Loch, See Canac.
Fint-/iller, in the Difillery ; that branch of the art
which is employed on the diltilling the fpirit from treacle
or other preparations or recrements of fugar, is called /ine-
Silling, by way of diftin&ion from mialt-itilling ; and the
perfon who exercifes this part of the trade is called a fine-
thiller, ‘
- The operation in procuring the {pirit from fugar is the
fame with that ufed in making the malt {pirit ; a wath of
the faccharine matter being made with water from
treacle, &c. and fermented with yeaft. It is ufual to add
in this cafe, however, a confiderable portion of malt,
and fometimes powdered jalap, to the fermenting backs.
The malt accelerates the fermentation, and makes the
{fpirit come out the cheaper, and the jalap prevents the
rife of any mufty head on the furface of the fermenting
liquor, fo as to leave a greater opportunity for the free
accefs of the air, and thus to fhorten the work, by turn-
ing the foamy into a hifling fermentation. Shaw’s Leé.
- 220.
7 FINECHIOLARO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Mediterranean, near the N.E. coaft of the ifland of Corfi-
ca; 7 miles N. of Baftia. N. Jat. 42? 58" E. long. 9?

"i
> PINEERING. See VENEERING.

FINERS of Gold and Silver, ave thofe who purify
and part thofe metals from other coarfer ones by fire and
acids, -—

- They are alfo called parters, in our old law-books, and
fometimes departers.

_ FINERY, in the /ron-works, is one of the two forges
at which they hammer the fow or pig iron. See Force.

Into the finery they firft put the pigs of iron, placiag
three or four of them together behind the fire, with alittle
of one end thruft into it ; where. foftening by degrees, they
ftir and work them with long bars of iron, and expofe at
different times different parts to the blaft of the bellows, in
order to refine it as equally as poffible, till the metal runs
together with around mafs or lump, which they call a ha//-
bloom. They then take this out, and give it a few ftrokes
with their fledges ; afterwards they carry it to a great heavy
hammer, raifed by the motion of a water-wheel ; where,
applying it dexteroufly to the blows, they prefently beat it
out into a thick fhort {quare. This they put into the finery
again, and, heating it red-hot, they work it out under the
fame hammer till it comes to be in the fhape of a bar in the
middle, but with two {quare nobs at the ends, which they
call an ancony. It is then carried into the other forge, called
the chafery. Phil. Tranf. No. 137, or Abr. vol. it. p. 559.
See Iron.

FINESSE, a French term, of late current in Englifh.
Literally, it is of no farther import than our Englith finene/s ;
but among us it is chiefly ufed to denote that peculiar delica-
cy or fubtlety perceived in works of the mind, and the
niceft and moft fecret and fublime parts of any {cience or
art.

It is fometimes ufed to exprefs that kind of {ubtlety made
ufe of for the purpofes of deception.
~ FINGAH, in Ornithology. See Lantus Cerulefcens.

FINGAL, in Biography, the dittinguifhed hero whofe
exploits and charaCter are fo charmingly pourtrayed in the
fafcinating poems of Offian, who, notwithitanding what has

Vout. XIV.

FIN

been advanced again{t their exiftence in the Gaelic language,
from which they were profeffedly tranflated ; was a real
perfonage, a famous warrior, and renowned prince. The
controverfy re{peéting the genuinenefs of the originals was
at one time as long and as ably defended by the partizansoa
each fide the queftion, as that on the fubje¢t refpeéting
the authenticity of the Epiftles of Phalaris by the critics of
the day, under thofe able leaders in centroverly, Boyle and
Bentley, What was the family name of this fuppofed fiGti-
tious hero of romance, but really the gallant defender of his
country from Roman fubjugation, does not appear on the
face of hiftory; in that early feriod it not wnfrequently
happened, the real name was funk in the official deficnation,
or honorial title. He was the fon of Comhal, the grandfoa
of Truthal, and the great grandfon of Trenmér, all Cale-
donian princes of great military reputation, during the fe-
vere ftruggles the Celtic tribes held with the invaders of Bn-
tain. He was king of Morven, a country to the north of

the river Tay, fuppofed by fome to have had for its fouthern

L

boundary the Caledenian foreft; and by others to have
extended farther fouthward, into part of the Roman pro-
vince of Valentia: it doubtlefs, from the beft authorities,
comprifed the whole of the northern and weftern Highlands,
inclufive of the Hebrides or Weitern ifles. His principal
refidence was ‘at Selma, in the vicinity of Glenco, county
of Moray, fuppofed to be the Cona celebrated by Offian.
According to the Irifh annals, he was born A.D. 282; but
the poems of Offian fix the date of his birth a few years
later. The time of his death is uncertain.

After the Romans had overrun the country of the Pi&s,
and given to that part of the ifland to the north of their pro-
vince, Valentia, the name of Caledonia, as the country next
to be fubdued, and penetrated part of the Highlands with
an army under Lollius; they were repulfed and beaten back
behind the frontier wall, erected at the command of Severus,
by the fuperior prowefs and valour of the troops under Com-
hal. On this oceafion, the exploits performed by the fon of
that prince evinced he was equally qualified by talents, as
defcent, to be the antagonilt of a Roman emperor, and the
hero of Offian ; when Severus determined to condué& the
war in perfon through North Britain, to wipe off the dif-

race of his defeated legions under Lollius, and revenge the
hoe atiee infliéted on his troops by the outraged natives ; he
pafled the two walls for thefe purpofes, with the colleéted
force of the empire ia Britain ; and entered with a {pirit of
vengeance, and reiterated menaces of extirpation, the dif
triét of Caledonia. At that period, the prince denominated
Fingal was the head of the united Britifh forces in the
north, the Vind-galt of the combined army, a {tation or
office fimilar to that of the Pendragon among the weftera
Britons; which has likewife been confounded with the fa-
mily names, and confidered .a perfonal appellation. The
haughty and enraged emperor was met by the undaunt:
Fingal, whofe troops, well acquainted with the de
paffes of the couutry, hung upon the invader’s
rafled the imperial army in its march, fele&eda
ground, and made at every turn vigorousattacks, and frequent-
ly drew the enemy into infidious and fatal ambufeades. Thus
wearied and reduced by the fuperior manctuvering of their
bold and vigilant opponents, the Romans experienced the
greateft diftrefs, fo as to be obliged to deitroy their fick and
wounded, left they fhould fall alive into the hands of what
they confidered a barbarous enemy. In this expedition
alone, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, they loft 50,00
men, and were conitrained to cede to the victors that part of
the country conquered by Lallius. And when the Romanss
after being reinforced, again entered the couatry under the
21, command

FIN

command of Caracalla, who was commiffioned to extermi-
nate the natives, Fingal met the Roman general in that part,
now the county of Stirling, the latter was defeated on the
banks of the Carron, the contefted dominions given up, and
the Romans again obliged to retire to the fouth of the wall.
Exclufive of thefe contefts, in which, through a protraéted
warfare, he difplayed a fuperior prowefs, and undaunted in-
trepidity, he appears to have conduéted alfo naval wars.
He is ftated to have made frequent voyages to Scandinavia,
the Orknies, and Ireland, defignated by Offian, as Lock-
lin, Inniflore, and Ullin.

“© The chara&er of Fingal,?? Dr. Blair obferves, “ is
perhaps the moft perfe& that was ever drawn bya poet, for
we boldly defy all the writers of antiquity to fhew us any
hero equal to Fingal. Throughout the whole of Offian’s
works, he is prefented to us in all that variety of lights
which give the full difplay of a character. In him concur
almoft all the qualities that can ennoble human nature, that
can make us admire the hero, or love the man. He is
not only unconquerable in war, but he maketh his
people happy by his wifdom in the days of peace. He is
truly the father of his people.” Whitaker’s Hiftory of
Manchefter. Offian’s Poems, with notes, &c.

FINGAMO, in Geography, a town of Japan, on the
ifland of Niphon ; 45 miles N. of Meaco.

FINGERS, in Anatomy, the laft divifions of the upper
extremity. For theirnames, fee Dicitus. The bones and
joints of the fingers are defcribed in the article Extremi-
Ties. The ftructure of thefe organs, confifting of three
bones moveable on each other, renders them particularly
well fuited for graf{ping, feizing, and holding external ob-
jeéts ; for all thofe offices which come under the common
mame of prehenfion. By this arrangement any object of
moderate fize can be encircled by the fingers. The fize of
the bones, the firmnefs of the joints, and the ftreagth of the
mufcles, beftow on them great powers in addition to their
flexibility. The integuments at their extremities are highly
organized, and receive a large fupply of veflels and nerves,
fo as to con{titute them the organs of touch, and the faci-
lity with which they can be applied to any body, of which
we are defirous to learn the properties, makes them a very
eonvenient fituation for that organ.

Fincers, Amputation of. See AMPUTATION.

Fincers, Carious. In thefe cafes the furgeen is to endea-
vour to extraét the exfoliating portions of bone, immediate-
ly when they become loofe. For this purpofe, he is juftitied
in making fuch incifions as may enable him to fulfil the ob-
ject in view. Until the procefs of exfoliation is fufficiently
advanced, he can do little more than apply fimple dreflings,
and keep the partin a clean, quiet ftate.

When the feparation of the dead pieces of bone will cer-
tainly deftroy the utility of the finger, and convert the part
into an inconvenient, ttiff appendage to the hand ; or, when
the patient’s health is feverely impaired by the irritation of
the difeafe, the termination of which cannot be expeéted
within a moderate {pace of time ; amputation is proper. It
isa truth, however, that many fingers are amputated which
might be preferved, and furgeons ought to confider well,
before prefuming to remove parts which, when cureable,
may become of the greateft confequence, in regard to the
perfection of the hand. The bread of many perfons, it is
well known, depends on the unmutilated ftate of certain fin-
ee Thefe remarks are offered, becaufe we have feen

everal furgeons, who are fond of feizing every opportunity
of cutting their fellow-creatures, remove fingers, which
might have been ufefully faved, either by allotting a little

FIN

more time to the exfoliation, or by making incifions, and
cutting out the dead piece of bone.

Fincers, Diflocations of. See Luxartion,

Fincers, fra@ures of. See Fracture.

Fincers, Supernumerary. Children are fometimes born
with more fingers than are naturel, and fince allowing the
redundant number to remain would keep up deformity and
create future inconvenience, the furgeon is called upon to
amputatethem. The redundant fingers are fometimes with,
fometimes without, anail; are feldom more numerous than
one on eaeh hand, are generally fituated juft on the outfide
of the little fingers, and, as far as our obfervation extends,
are incapable of motion, in confequence of not being fur=
nifhed, hke the reft of the fingers, with mufcles, The beft
plan is to cut off {upernumerary fingers with a fcalpel, at the
place where they are united to the other part of the hand.
The operation fhould be performed while the patient is in
the infant ftate, that is to fay, before the {uperfluous parts
have acquired much fize, and while the object can be accom-
plifhed with little pain. The incifions ought to be made
fo as to form a wound with edges, which can be brought
into contact with ftvips of adhefive plafter. The hemor-
hinge will almoft always ceafe, as foon as the dreffings are
applied, without any ligature.

Fincer, Goprrey, in Biography, who refided many
years in England during the latter end of the 17th
century, and the beginning of the laft, was a good per-
former on the violin, and a yoluminous compofer for that
inftrument, and when he quitted England and returned to
Germany, was, according to Teleman in Matthefon’s
€brenpforte, chamber mulician to Sophia Charlotte, queen
of Pruffia, in 1702, and in 1717 chapel mafter to the court
of Gotha. Finger was nota man of genius; but in fcience
he was intinitely fuperior to the muficians with whom he had
to contend. ,

Fincer’s Breadth, a meafure of two barley-corns in
length, or four laid fide to fide.

Fincer-seys,in Mufic, or clavier of the Germans, fignify
the arrangement of fhort levers of different colours, on
which the fingers aét in performing on organs, piano-fortes,
and fome other inftruments with fixed tones; the arrange
ment of thefe within one oftave, from C to C, is fhewn in
Mufic, Plate 1. ; the learning and recolleétion of which will
be much facilitated, by confiderirg the fame divided (between
E and F) into two parts, which Dr. Callcott, in his
Plain Statement of Earl Stanhope’s Temperament,”’ calls
a dttone and a tritone, fee thofe articles. It may be proper
here juft to add, that D is always the middle of the ditone
or firft divifion, and that G and A are the middle notes of
the tritone or fecond divifion of the /eptave, or whole oave.
In Mr. Hawke’s patent piano-fortes and organs, with 17
ftrings or pipesin each o€tave (fold by Mr. Bill, Rathbone
Place, and Mr. Elliot, Tottenham Court), the whole cla-
vier or range of finger-keys is fhifted, by pedals, for occa-
fioning either the five flat or the five fharp notes of each
oétave to be brought into play, as may be defired ; without
altering the pitch of the long keys or natural notes. See
TEMPERAMENT for an account of this, and various other
fyftems of mufical intervals.

Fincer-key Jntervals, is a term fometimes ufed for the
half-notes, or /emi-tones, between the 13 finger-keys of inftru-
ments ; thefe, according to the common theory and notation
ufed by all compofers and copyifts of mufic, are equal
among themfelves, and conform to the equa! temperament of
the feale, fee that article, and Philofophical Magazine,
vol. xxvii. p. 195; but, in ftri€tnefs, thefe finger-key in-
tervals, both the fimple ones between the next adjoining as

well

FINGER.

well as between the more diflant finger-keys, differ very fen-
fibly from each other, in moft of the other different fyttems
of temperament, and even in different parts of the {cale of
each of inch fyftems themfelves. ‘The number of thefe
finger-key intervals, which any interval, larger than the en-
harmonic diefis contains, appears on infpeétion, when it is
exprefled in the new notation of Mr. Farey, by the number
of /’s, or lefler fra@tions which it contains ; thus, his expref-
fion for the fifth 358 © + 7f + 31m, (Phil. Mag. P- 35-
vol. xxx.) fhews that interval to contain feven halt-notes or
finger-key intervals, and by which the fituation of its treble
above any note on the clavier or range of keys on an inftru-
ment, or of its bafs below any note, confidered as the treble
of a fifth, can with certainty be found. See Firru.

Fincer-keyed Viol, a mufical inftrument, noticed under
our article CLavioxe, which is another name for the fame
invention; at that time we had not had an opportunity of
feeing this inftrument, but have now the {fatisfaétion of
being able to prefent our readers with a drawing and deferip-
tion of it, having, for that purpofe, obtained the permiffion of
its inventor, Mr John Ifaac Hawkins, proprietor of the ufeful
and mechanical mufeum, No. 79, Great Titchfield itreet,
London, where are many curious mechanical contrivances, the
mott ftriking of which we fhall occafionally notice. P/a‘e
XIV. Mifcellany, is devoted to the elucidation of this cu-
rious piece of mechanifm: a general idea will be given by in-
{peGting the firft figure, which is a perfpective view of the
whole initrument, laid open, while the remaining figures ex-
plain the conftruction of the more minute parts. The inftru-
ment contains 68 gut ftrings, ftretched ina vertical pofition,
and arranged in four feries: the firft, A, corre{ponding to the
double bafs, with 17 large ftrings, 13 of which are covered
with wire; the longeit face is 38 inches, and the fhortett
28 inches: the fecond feries of 17 ftrings, B, producing the
tones of the violoncello, from 28 to 15 inches in length: the
third, C, is the viola, from 15 inches to feven long, and the
fourth, the violin, are from {even to three inches long. The
frame containing the ftrings is of equal height in all parts,
though the effective lengths of the ftrings are only to be
reckoned from their refpective bridges, a, 6,c, and d, to the
‘keys; each ftring is provided with a finger-key, which
keys are arranged in the fame order as in the organ, &c.
and each ftring is adjufted to found the proper note for the
key to which it belongs; the adjuftment is made at the
upper end of the fring by a ferew. To keep the inftru-
ment in tune, through all variations of the atmofphere, each
ftving is ftretched by a helical fpring, attached to the lower
part of the frame at one end, and to the ftring at the other;
by this means the tenfion of the ftring is always equal,
notwith{landing its variations of length from the ftate of
moifture in the air, as the force of the {pring will not be
fenfibly changed, by fuch minute alteration of length: thefe
fprings are feen beneath the keys of the inftrument
at high, and feveral of the tuning {crews are fhewn feparately
in fig. 2. The end of the {tring, ¢, or of a wire to which it
is tied, is hooked upon a pin projeCting from the nut, a,
ef the fcrew, 5, which is turned round by a {mall
handle to produce the motion of the nut, and adjuft the
firing.

The next parts to be {poken of are the rofined horfe-hair
bows, which are the moft ingenious parts of this invention;
they are four in number, being fituated at E F G and H in
Jig: 1. one to each feries of ftrings. ‘The horfe-hairs are
arranged within a circular ring of brafs, //, in figs. 3 and 6,
where the method is fhewn by which an approximation to
2 circle can be formed from a great number of fimilar and
equal chords within a larger circle; it isin fa a polygon,

but with fo many fides as to render its differertce from a
circle infenfible in its effeéts: the brafs ring containing the
hairs is {uflaiued by three wheels g, 4, andi, withinit, which
admit of its rotative motion, and at the fame time allow the
ftrings to pafs down through the ring at m; and to be as
near to the hairs as poflible, without touching them: for this
purpofe each feries of the ftrings is arranged in a circular
form to correfpond with the curvature of the bows at EF G
and Hin the principal figure. The circular bows are put
in motion by a pulley on the axes of the wheel i, anda ftrap
or band paffing round this, communicates motion from a
vertical axis, £, in fg. 7, which is common to the whole, and
is put in motion by a wheel, on the axis of a crank, which
is turned by the treadle I, and provided with a fly-
wheel, K, fig.1, to regulate the motion, and continue it,
while the treadle is afcending : the communication between
the horizontal axis /, fiz. 7. of thecrank and fly-wheel, andthe
vertical axis £, giving motion to the bows, is made by two
conical wheels, mand 7, covered with foft leather, touching
each other in their circumferences : this is an excellent fub-
ftitute for toothed wheels, both with refpe& to the freedom
and ifilence ef the motion, as the toothed wheels, being ne-
ceffarily conftru¢ied of metal, could not be divefted of an
unpleafant found, not to be endured in a mufical inftru-
ment.

The keys are conftruéted, as fhewn in figs. 3 and 4, moy-
ing on a fulcrum at 0, and by that means, when preffed
down by the fingers, the oppofite end elevates one arm of
the bent lever p; at the fame time the other arm is drawn
back, and the wire, g, moves one arm of 2 fecond angular
lever r ; the other arm ends in a hovk, which is engaged
with the ftring correfponding to the key: from this ar-
rangement, when the key is forced down, the ftring is drawn
in contaé with the hairs of the bow fitwated at f, juit
above the lever r 7, and the fri@ion caufes the itring to vi-
brate in the fame manner as the violin.

It is fcarcely neceflary, after this, to fay any thing re-
{fpecting the aGtion of the inftrument: the performer
keeps the bows in continual motion by the treadle I, which
moves with fuch eafe as to be no impediment to the freedom
of motion requifite for a performer ona keyed inftrument :
an increafe of preffure on the keys caufes that fulnefs of
tone which is fo much admired in the violin, and the delicate
foftnefs, produced by lightly touching the keys, is a prin-
cipal advantage in this inftrument ; and it is a great recom-
mendation, that by its affiftance thefe excellencies 6f the
violin are fecured to &very good performer on keyed inftru-
ments. The velocity of the bows is another circumftance
to be attended to at the fame time with the preflure: when
moved flowly the tones will be foft and delicate; but whea
the velocity is increafed the tones are full, and adapted for
grandeur of effect ; the alteration in velocity is eafily made,
Mr. Hawkins having adapted an ingenious balance weight
to the treadle, which aés to turn the wheel while the treadle
is afcending, fo that by this affiftance the wheel can be
made to revolve exceedingly flow, without danger of pitch-
ing, or ftopping at the higheft er loweft points of the
cranks: this ingenious contrivance is equally adapted te
lathes, or other machines receiving motion from the foot,
and will be explained under the article Foor WuE=L.

In this manner the velocity of the bows is completely
manageable by the greater or lefs prefiure upon the treadle,
and the performer may eafily make a fudden tranfition from
quick to flow, by refitting the afcent of the treadle when he
wifhes to retard it, or prefling the treadle while it is defcend-
ing to accelerate the motion of the wheel: it is worthy of
notice that cack bow moves with a different velocity, as is

3L2 bot

FIN

beft adapted to produce the vibration of the ftrings it is
applied to; this is effected by the different diameters of the
four pullies on the vertical axis &, ig. 5, which tunes the
bows; thefe are in fuch proportion, that when the double
bafs bow revolves at the rate of 25 times fer minute, the
others make 35, 50, and 75 revolutions in the fame ‘pe-
riod.

The inftrument is provided with pedals, one of which,
when prefled down, brings a picce of rofin in eonta& with
the hairs of each bow, fo as to caufe no interruption for
this neceffary operation. Another pedal elevates the bows
‘all together, and caufes them to aét nearer the bridge than
when it is not in ufe, producing the effe€t well known to
performers on the violin when they bow near the bridge ;
for this purpofe the frame containing the three wheels g, 4, i,
Jig. 6. of the bow, terminates in a ftem ¢, which flides in a
focket, and can be elevated or depreffed by the pedal juft
mentioned. Athird pedal brings a piece of leather lightly
in contact with the middle of each ftring, which caufes it
to vibrate in two portions, and found the oétave in a beau-
tiful tone, fimilar to the mufical, glaffes.

FINGERIN, in Jchthyology, a name given to the Samlet
or Salmulus, called alfo Branlin and Salmoneta, which is the
leaft of the trout kind, and fuppofed by feveral, without
fufficient reafon,.as Pennant conceives, to be the fry of the
falmon. It is frequent in the Wye, in the upper part of
the Severn, and the rivers that run into it, in the north of
England and in Wales. Thefe fifhes are alfo common in
the rivers of Scotland, where they are called Pars, ‘Thofe of
the Wye are there known by the name of Skirlings, or Laf-
prings. This fifh refembles the trout, but the head is
narrower, and the mouth lefs than that of the trout; the
body deeper ; length feldom exceeding fix or feven inches 5
the pectoral fins have generally one large black fpot, fome-
times attended by a fingle {mall one; the fpurious or fat fin
on the back is never tipped with red, nor is the edge of the
anal fin white ; the {pots on the body are fewer than thofe
-of the trout, and not fo bright, and it is marked from the
back to the fides with fix or {even large blueifh bars, whence
it has been called fingerin or fingery ; the tail is much more
forked than that of the trout. Some have erroneoufly fup-

ofed that there are no other but males of this {pecies.

FINGERING en Keyed Inftruments. This is a fub-
jet which, to treat amply, requires great knowledge, me-
ditation, and experience ; anc fo many examples and il-
luftrations of th+ rules, as an entire volume could hardly con-
tain, much lefs an article of a diGtionary. We fhall, how-
ever, give the principal elementary rules for the carriage of
the hand, and economy of the fingers, in a few keys, which,
by analogy, may be extended to the reft. Couperin (fee
Doicurer) was the firft who treated the fubjec&t with in-
telligence, in the minority of Louis KV. 1717 ; and though
his compofitions, for which the rules were given, have long
fince been thrown afide and forgotten, molt of his rules are
ftill good for mufic of a very different kind. He adviles
parents to place their children. under an intelligent matter,
at fix or feven years old, and prefcribes not only the man-
ner of placing the hands on the keys, but the carriage of
the perfon. ‘The height of the feat, if allowed to fit at fo
early an age, fhould be fuch as would place the wrifts on a
level with the keys; the fingers fhould be curved fo as to
be all of the fame length, fo as that each fhould cover a
key. Something fhould be placed under the feet of very
young {tudents, to prevent them from hanging loofe in the
air, and to fupport their frames in a juft Salbraes aad
this fupport fhould be diminifhed in proportion to their
growth, The diltance at which a perfon of mature age

FIN

fhould fit from the inftrument fhould be about nine inehes
and lefs in proportion to the fhort arms of children. They
fhould place themfelves in the middle of the keys, in as na-
tural and eafy a pofture as poflible; the knees not too clofe,
and the feet even. Great attention muft be paid to the
countenance of children, that no grimace or appearance of
difficulty fhould be vifible, and become habitual, which
would be attended to by ftanders-by more than the mufic
that is performing, however good and well executed. M.
Couperin even advifes a glafs to be placed on the defk of
the young performers in danger of becoming ridiculous,
that they may corre&t themfelves. Particular care fhould
be taken to place the hands even, and not let very young
fubjeéts attempt reaching oGaves too foon, as it flattens
the left hand, and makes it feem to belong to a different
perfon from the other. The time or meafure fhould never
be marked by the head, feet, or the whole perfon, which is
unbecoming and conftrued into affe€tation, Even in count-
ing the time it fhould be done in a whifper, or elfe it tends
to prevent the ear from having any fhare in the performance,
The fingers fhould be fufpended as near the keys as poffible,
and all their force fhould come from the upper joints, not
from the weight of the hand, which would be heavy and
thumping. Children in their early leffons fhould not be
fuffered to practife alone; they are too giddy and playful
to remember the rules, till duly impreffed by care and habit.
Couperin ufed to take away the key of the inftrument
during the firft leffons, that they might not undo in his ab-
fence all that he had tried with great pains to inculcate.
Shakes, beats, and trills, in all keys, mult be early prac-
tifed with both hands extremely flow, and quickened by
degrees ; as mutt be the exercifes for each hand, ealled evo-
lutions of fingering ; for which fee mufic plate. The weak
fingers of both hands, that is, the ring finger and the little
finger, mult be very much exercifed, to make them, if pof-
fible, equally brilliant with the others. Chords, if the
hands are well placed on the inftrument, are perhaps the
beft rules for fingering; for if the notes can be well and
eafily {truck together, there will be no difficuity in breaking
them into paflages. The rapidly running up and down
the keys, whatever number of flats and fharps there may be
at the clef, depends on the thumb, which, in keys with
flats, fhould be placed, in general, on C or F, and in moft
keys with many fharps upon B and E, that is, on a lone
key, which, if there are more than five fharps, will be E
and B x. The thumb of each hand, as far as five flats,
mutt be appropriated to F and C for the fame reafon; but
neither the thumb nor the little finger, in the rapid afcent
or defcent of the feale, fhould be ufed for a fhort key, unlefs
in playing octaves or chords compofed entirely of flats and
fharps. In practifing quick paflages, the fingers fhould be
lifted up with a f{pring, and not allowed to hang on the
keys, till wanted again, unlefs in arpeggioing chords, or
in paflages of expreflion. In\the firft prattice of a fhake, in
order to keep the wrift quiet, place the thumb on the 5th,
4th, or 3d below, and keep the fingers that are unoccupied
as tranquil as poflible. Couperin was the firft, we believe,
who made it a rule for his fcholars never to play two notes
together with the fame finger, unlefs in repeating chords.
See examples of iteration, Plate N° V.
N° VIII. Shakes fhould be praétifed with all the fingers.
Tranfient fhakes, double fhakes, a chain of running fhakes
turned, a feries of double notes in 3ds, 6ths, and oc-
taves; in the two latter, the thumb and the little finger
only can be uted, and nothing but dawnright drudgery
and perfeverance can acquire thefe modern tricks, fo unna-

tural to the genius of keyed inftruments. Double fhakes

san

FIN

ean only be gained, if at all, by long and patient practice.
The experiment, however, fhould be made.

N° IX. In order to transfer the fingers to different parts
of the inftrament, upwards or downwards, without quit-
ting anote which ought to be futtained, the young ftudent
fhould change the fingers upon the fame note with both hands
without letting the key rife. ‘There is no harm in letting
children play their firft leffoss by heart: it fortifies the me-
tory; occupies the ear more than the eye ; and, indeed, it is
impoffible for them to find the keys without looking at them,
till the fingers fall mechanically upon certain paffages and
chords, as the feet, in walking, move without the owner
paying the leaft attention to them.

With refpeé& to reading mufic readily, it muft be acquired

by playing firft with one hand, and then with the other, ff

feveral new pages of notes every day, without repeating
any thing; and when that can be done readily, at fight, with
each hand feparately, then let the pupil begin playing fim-
ple ftrains with both hands. This will be practice for the
eye alone. But in learning to execute difficulties, it mutt
be done by beginning flow, and repeating quicker and
quicker a thoufand anda thoufand times ; this is praGtice for
the finger. Expreffion depends greatly on the fultaining and
ceflation of found; or, in techuical language, on what the
Italians term /egato or foffenato, and ftaccato or fciolto, as
well as on accents, and the different fhades of piano and
orte.

In the evolutions of fingering, or fhort exercifes to form
the hands, it feems a paradox, but it may be truly faid of
Nos. III. and IV. that, by throwing a finger away, the
fingers, in fuch pafflages, become inexhauttible.

In the courfe of thefe exercifes, where the fingers are
marked, the femicircle, or ftar, includes fuch notes as lie
under the hand, without any contrivance or change: and
in other places, where no fingers are marked, fuch are ufed
as lie over the keys.

The detached paffages, N° VII. are meant to be feve-
rally repeated quicker and quicker, till the hand is tired.

FINGRIGO, in Botany. See Pisonra.

FINIA, in Geosraphy, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Schonen; 20 miles N. W. of Chriftianftadt.

FINIAL, in Ancient Archite@ure, the flower, fruit, or
foljage terminating a pediment or pinnacle in the pointed
ftyle. This repreiented a lily, a trefoil, an acorn, a pome-
granate, endive, &c. according to the talte of the architea
or artift.

FINIANA, or Finawna, in Geography, a town of Spain,
in the province of Grenada ; feven miles S. of Baga.

FINICA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, near
the coaft; 50 miles S. of Satalia.—Alfo, a river of Natolia,
which runs into the Mediterranean, 14 miles W. N. W. of
Cape Chelidoni.

INIMARBOO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra; 96
miles W. N. W. of Sego.

FINING. See Rerininc.
Fisine of Wines. The ufwal method of fining down

wines, fo as to render them expeditioufly bright, clear,
and fit for ufe, is this: take an ounce of ifinglafs, beat it
into thin fhreds with a hammer, and diffolve it by boiling in
a pint of water; this when cold becomes a iliff jelly.
Whilk up fome of this jelly into a froth with a little of the
Wine intended to be fined, then ftir it well among the reit in
the caik, and bung it down tight ; by this means the wine
will become bright in eight or ten days, This method,
however, is found to be belt fuited to the white wines: for
the red ones, the wine coopers commonly ufe the whites
ef eggs beat up to a froth, and mixed in the fame manner

FIN

with their wines. The method by which thefe vifcous
bodies act in the operation is this ; they entangle themfelves
among the flying lee or light feculencies that float in the
wine, and thus forming a mafs {pecifically heavier than the
wine, they fink through the body thereof like a net, carry-
ing down all the foulnefs they meet in the way to the bottom;
but when the wine is extremely rich, fo that its fpecific gra-
vity 1s greater than that of the mafs formed by the ingre-
dients ufed in fining ‘and the dregs or lee ; this mafs then
rifes upwards, and floats at the furface of the wine, which
will in this cafe alfo draw off fine. See CLariFicaTION
and Forcine.

FINIRE, in Law, was ufed to fine, or pay a fine upon
compofition and making fatisfaftion. It is the fame with
nem facere, mentioned in Leg. Hen. I. cap. 53.

FINISHING, in Archite@ure, &c. is frequently ap-
plied to the crowning or acroteria over a piece of building,
placed there to terminate and finith it.

VFINISTERRA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Galicia, near Cape Finifterre.

FINISTERRE, formerly a portion of Bretagne, in 48°
25! N. latitude, now the molt wefterly department of
France, bounded on the N., W., and S., by the fea, and
on the E. by the departments of the North coafts and
Morbihan, eftimated at about 50 miles from N. to S. and
40 to 45 from E. to W., and containing 343 fquare leagues,
and 474,349 inhabitants. It is divided into five diftrias,
viz. Breit, having 149,610 inhabitants ; Morlaix, 109,414 5
Chateaulin, 82,131 3. Quimper, 84,0745 and Quimperié,
48,620. Its capital is Quimper ; and its other chief towns
are Breft, Morlaix, Chateaulin, Lefneven, Landerneau,
Crozon, Briec, Quimperlé, and Bannalec. Its chief rivers
are the Aulne and Odet. The number of its cantons is 43>
and that of its communes, 257; its contributions amount

to 2,453,757 francs, and the expences charged upon it are
315,198 f. 66c. This department is tolerably fertile,
producing grain, flax, hemp, fruits, and good paftures,
with mines of iron and lead.

FinistTexre, Cape, Calticum Promontorium, called Arta-
brum by the ancients, and by fome Norium, a cape on the
N. W. coaft of Spain, in the province of Galicia. It is
nearly S. or a little wefterly, about five leagues from cape
Toriano, and {hips may anchor on the E. of a large rock,
in fix or feven fathoms, where is a great bay that runs far
inland, Forty-two leagues from Cape Finiflerre, there is
alarge rock above water, dangerous to navigators. N. lat. 42°
53' 52”. W.long. 9° 16! 15".

FINITE, fomething bounded or limited, in contradiftinc-
tion to infinite.

The fchoolmen make two kinds of finite; wiz, the one as to
extenfion, which is applied to things that have not all poflible
or conceivable extenfion.

The other as to perfe@ion, applied to things which have
not the lait perfection.

To get an idea of a thing finite in point of perfe@ion,
we firft conceive the thing as having certain perfeCtions ; and
then conceive fome other perfection which it has not, or
fome perfection in a farther degree. After the fame manner
I conceive a room to be finite, by having an idea of exten-
fion beyond what is contained therein.

FINITO, Jtal. in Mufic, a canon or fugue is faid to
be finito, finifhed, when it is not perpetual, but when at
fome certain place all the feveral parts ftop together on. the
chord of the key note ; after having followed each other for
feveral rounds, on fignal being given by the leading part
holding up his finger. See Canon. Boks

FINITOR,

FIN

YINITOR, in 4fronomy, the horizon ; thus called, be-
eaufe it finifhes or bounds the fight or prof{pect.

FINLAND, in Geography, a country of Europe,
bounded on the north by Lapland, on the eaft by Ruffia,
on the fouth oy agulf to which it gives name, and on the weft
by the gulf of Bothnia. This country was formerly divided
into Ruffian and Swedifh Finland. The former, or Ruffian
Finland, anciently belonged to the Swedes; but it was
partly ceded to the Ruffians by the peace of Nyftadt in
4721, and partly at the treaty of Abo in 1743: its capi-
tal is Wiburgh, and it now conftitutes the government of
Wiburgh. (See Wisurca.) The limits of Ruffia and
Sweden, fettled by the peace of Abo, are formed by the
river Kymans which flows into the centre of the gulf of
Finland ; on the fouth bank of which are a wooden houfe,
a rampart of earth, and a {mall battery. The frontiers
are defended by Frederick/ham, which fee. This province
retains moft of its ancient privileges, with fome modifica-
tions under the new government. The country produces,
befides palture, wheat, rye, oats, and barley, but not fuffi-
cient for the inhabitants. Wiburgh retains its own civil and
criminal courts of juftice ; in penal cafes, not capital, the
punifhments prefcribed by the provincial judicature are in-
flied ; but whenever acriminal is condemned to death, the
Ruffian laws interpofe, reprieve him from the fentence of
beheading or hanging, &c. enjoined by tle Swedifh order,
and confign him to the knout and tranfportation to Siberia.
In the governor’s court bufinefs is tranfacted in the Swedith,
German, and Ruffian tongues; the peafants ufe only the
Finnith diale&, but the inhabitants of the towns underftand
alfo Swedifh, aud many of them German. The Lutheran
is the eftablifhed religion of the province, but the Greek
worthip has been lately introduced by the Ruffians, This
part of Finland is not fo extenfive as Swedith Finland. It
‘is remarkable, that in both countries the produétions of
nature are fooner ripe in the parts covered with forefls,
than on the fea-coalt and iflands. The interval between
feed-time and harveft is from ro to 12 weeks. "The Finns
apply principally to the culture of hemp, flax, and tobacco,
which thrives well in their country. As to trees, thofe
which bear fruit, fuch as cherry and plum-trees, are almoft
always deltroyed by the rigour of winter; the mulberry is
planted and thrives only on the iflands ; the oak is faid not
to grow beyond 61°, and the afh beyond 62°. The foreits
of firs furnifh in Finland the principal articles of commerce
in wood, charcoal, timber, and planks, which are fent to
Wiburgh, Stockholm, &c. for exportation. The country
abounds with game, and in the lakes and rivers various kinds
of fith are plentiful. At the bottom of the morafles they dig
earth, from which iron is extracted, and they have fome
mines of lead. ‘The peafants of Finland differ very much
from the Ruffians in their afpe@ and drefs ; moft of them
have fair complexions, and many of them red hair, which
they part at the top and allow to flow at confiderable length
over their fhoulders ; they alfo fhave their beards; whereas
the Ruffians have generally dark complexions and hair,
which they cut fhort, and they alfo fuffer their beards to
grow. The Finns, by their commerce with foreigners, are
in general more civilized than thofe Ruffians who do not
refide in the capital or in their vicinity. The fmalleft
villages of Finland afford much better accommodations than
are ufually met with in the largeft towns of Ruffia. In the
12th century great pains were taken to convert the Finns
to Chriftianity ; and Henry, who was bifhop of Upfal, in
1157, fella martyr to his zeal in the accomplifhment of this
benevolent defign. That prelate founded the firft cathedral
in Finland at Randameki; but the fee was afterwards

FIN

transferred to Abo, not far from the former place. Martin
Skytte, and Peter Serkilar, were the firft promoters of
Lutheranifm in this country. The provinces of Swedifh
Finland are Finland Proper, the ifle of Oeland or Aland,
Oftrobothuia, Tavaftaland, Nyland, Savolax, and that part
of the fief of Kymene and Carelia, which Sweden referved
to itfelf; but the whole of Finland has lately (1809) been
ceded to Ruffia; in confequence of the unfuccefsful ftrug-
gles of the Swedes to maintain their independence ; and by
the treaty of peace concluded between Ruffia and Sweden,
and figned at Fredericktham, the incorporation of the grand
duchy of Finland with the Ruffian empire’ was contirmed.
The town of Torneo, and the river of the fame name, form
the frontiers.

Finianp Proper, a province, lately belonging to Sweden,
fituated on the fouthern part of Finland, confidered in its
utmoft extent, bounded on the S. by the gulf of Finland,
and on the weft by that of Bothnia; about 169 miles in
length and 1co in breadth. The foil is fertile, and the land,
efpecially in the feuthern parts, produces good corn, hay,
and hops. It has feveral fine lakes and rivers, which yield
abundance of fifa, and on part of the coaft is a pearl fifh-
ery. The inhabitants fubfiit by agriculture, grazing, fifh-
ing, and the manufaGture of woollen ware. The principal
articles of their commerce are grain, meal, cattle, butter,
talc, linen, yarn ftockings, &c. Fiuland is divided into
north and fouth; the capital of the former is Biorneborg,
and that of the latter Abo.

Finranp, Gulf of, that part of the Baltic fea which
wafhes the coaits of the governments of St. Peterfburg,
Reval and Wiburgh; it is above 400 verfts in length, and
from 100 to 120 in breadth. The gulf of Finland is of
difficult navigation, both on account of the heavy gales of
wind that are fo frequent here, and the multitude of rocks
and fhelves with which it abounds.

FINMARK, called alfo Lapmark, a province of Nor-
way, bounded on the N. by the northern ocean, on the E.
by the northern ocean and the territories of Ruffia, on the
S. by Swedifh Lapland, and on the W. by the northern
ocean, The coatt of this country is well inhabited, but it has
neither towns nor villages. The inhabitants fubfitt chiefly by
fifhing, and their country yields the beft falmon in Norway,
The he fuch is their latitude, continues above their heri-
zon in fummer for fome weeks. Finmark has a particular
governor, regilter, and judge. It is divided into Weft Fiu-
mark, which includes twelve churches and chapels, ferved
by five preachers; and Eaft Finmark, in which are nine
churches and chapels, ferved by three preachers. See Finns,

FINN, a river of the county of Donegal, Ireland, which
flows from a lake of the fame name, and, after a courfe of
feveral miles in an eaftern direction, joins the river Foyle,
near Strabane.

FINNERYDIA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland,
34 miles S.W. of Orebro.

FINNHAR, a {mall ifland on the weft fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 58’. E. long. 17°.

FINNIKIN, in Ornithology, the name of a particular
{pecies of pigeon, called by. More the Columba in gyruim
fiectens. It is of the fhape and fize of the common pigeon.
The crown of its head thas fomething of the refemblance
of a {nake’s head ; and it is gravel-eyed, and has a tuft of
feathers on the hinder part of its crown, which runs down
its neck not unlike a horfe’s main. It is not feather-legged,
and is in colour always either a black or blue pied.

They have their name from their fingular manner of
courting the female, which is always by rifing over her

6 and

FIN

and making three or four turns, flapping the wings, and
then turning as many times round the other way.

FINNIS Bay, in Geography, a bay of Scotland, on the
eaft coaft of the ifland of Harris. N. lat. 57°53’. W.
long. 6° 55’.

FINNS, a race of perfons, who are faid to be the abo-
rigines of Ruflia, and who inhabited the regions of the,Vol-
gaand the Duna. Thefe people, though they form one
main ftem of the inhabitants of Ruffia (the Slavonians
being the otker), have never, in any of their branches, rifen
into aruling nation; yet as they are the common ftock of moft
of the northern nations of Europe, they are diftinguithed by
their antiquity, and by thear wide extent from Scandinavia to
a great diltance among the Afiatic nations of the north, and
thence again to the fhores of the Volga and the Cafpian. Al-
though the Finns have been thus widely difperfed, yet they
have preferved a general refemblance in bodily frame, in
national character, in language, and in manners. It is alfo
remarkable, that the greater number of thofe who belong
to the Finnifh race, {till dwell only in the north, which
has ever been their favourite abode, and on which account
they are called inhabitants of moraffes or fens; and the
fifhery and chafe have been their chief occupation and trade.
Which of thefe widely difperfed people has the beft claim to
be confidered as the parent ftock, it is not eafy to decide.
The aboriginal name of Finns, known to the Roman hifto-
rian Tacitus, is not in ufe with any of thefe nations; but
they call themfelves by a different appellation. None of
thefe people have ever exhibited a confpicuous figwre on the
theatre of the world, nor acquired a permanent independ-
ence ; but they have all, as far back as hiftory can trace
them, been a prey to their more enterprifing and powerful
neighbours. Accordingly, they have no chronicles of their
own ; and their hiftory is only to be found in the annals of
their conquerors. Of their ancient hiftory nothing certain is
known, except that they poffeffed the greater part of Scan-
dinavia and Ruffia in the north, and feparated into feyeral
tribes, which either lived entirely without any government,
or, like the Permians and proper Finns, under their own
kings. All thefe were gradually fubjugated by three nations,
under the dominion of which they {till remain ; viz. the
Norwegians, the Ruffians, and the Swedes. The Norwe-
gians were the firft who fubje€ted a part of the Finnith
north. Finmark, which is a large province extending even
to the eaft of Cape Nordtowards Ruffian Lapland, has ever
been tributary tothem. Yet it appears that, long before
the commencement of the roth century, the whole tra&,
from Wardhuys to the White fea, was independent of
them; and that only the remoter Finns, about the gulf
of Bothnia and Finland, and on the Dwina, obtained
their national freedom.

The inhabitants of Finmark have been amply deferibed
by Leems (De Laponibus Finmarchiz, Copenhagen, 1767,
4to.) cited in Pinkerton’s Geography. This race of men,
he fays, is of {mall fize, generally about four feet, with
fhort black hair, narrow dark eyes, large heads, and high
cheek-bones, a wide mouth, aad thick lips, and of a fwar-
thy complexion, In the fouthern part of Finmark they
are mingled with Norwegians; but the northern wildernefs
is wholly their own, They call themfelves “ Same,” their

h ‘* Same-giel,”” and their country ‘* Same-édna,” be-

ing probably of the fame race asthe Samoieds. The lan-
uage has only an affinity with the Finnifh, but not nearly
fo much as the Danifh has with the German ; and, it fhould
feem, that they had anciently a different eech, which they
enriched with large additions from that of their more polifh-
ed neighbours the Finns. ‘Towards the fhore they build

FIN

huts; and on the mountains ufe tents of a flatly conic form,
and divided into two parts by a kind of paflage ; each part
having three rude fubdivifions; the two fartheft for the
mafter, miftrefs, and guefts ; the middle on each fide of the
fire for the children; and thofe nearett the door for the
fervants: behind thefe the cattle find a refuge, but the
cattle are few, the rein deer conftituting their chief wealth,
The fun abfents himfelf for feven weeks, and yet from ten
in the forenoon to one in the afternoon, thet vilight will
enablea perfon to read without a candle; neverthelefs the
ftars are vifible, and the moon, when apparent, fhines all
the day. The fun never fets for feven weeks in fummer ;
but in the night his beams are dull, and he aflumesa ruddy
hue. Several rivers, particularly the Tana, in eaftern Fin-
mark, fometimes much fwelled by the melted fnow, fupply
falmon and other fifh, the chief food of the Laplanders ;
though at a feftival they have mutton or rein-deer, and
mead, The men wear conic red caps, lined with fur, and
a kind of robe of cloth or fkin; the poor fometimes ufe
that of falmon, which appears like a white fhagreen; the
head and neck are protected with a fort of cowl, and the veft
is of -undreft fheep-ikin, withthe woolinwards. The head-
drefs of the women is narrowed in the middle, widening
like a bafon at the top: the veft and robe refemble thofe of
the men. Their amufements are fhooting with the bow at a
mark, a kind of tennis, and a game refembling draughts.
They are alfo fond of wreitling, and other exercifes. They
were formerly addiGed to magic, and were fabled by an-
cient times to invoke a demon in the fhape of a fly, which
was called the “ gan-fly,” and commiffioned to {ting their
enemies. Till recent times they were immerfed in pagan=
ifm, regarding particular mountains and rocks as gods.
Their chef god was “ Radien,’? who dwelled in the itarry
heavens ; in the lower aerial regions were “ Beivi,” or the
fun, a god, as Grotius has obferved, very unjuf to them ;
with “* Horangalis,’? or the thunderer, and other divinities.
On earth were the gods of hunting and fifhing; and the
goddefs «* Maderakko,”? with her daughter ‘* Sarakka,” a
kind of Venus, who prepared the body after Radien had
fent the foul. The ‘ Saivo Olmak,” or gods of the moun-
tains, were fuppofed to be oracular. The places of facri-
fice were chiefly holy mountains, near the firth of Waranger,
and along the Tana, and fome on the bay of Porfanger.
Their magical fongs and drums are very trivial. For
the converfion of the Laplanders to Chriitianity, Eric
Bredal, bifhop of Drontheim, made fome vain attempts
about the year 1660; but the royal miffion was not found-
ed till }714; and extended to the Laplanders of Finmark,
with thofe of Norlandto the fouth, being a confiderable
portion of the. diocefs of Drontheim. Since that period,
the miffionaries have been refolute, and induftrious, and fuc-
cefsful : there being commonly two for Finmark, one for
the eaft, who prefides over Waranger, Tana, and Laxefiord ;
the other for the welt, over Porfanger, Hvaifund, and Al-
ten.

The Roffians were the people who, next to the Norwe-
gians, difperfed themfelves among the Northern Finns ; and
though at firft, on their fettling about the Volkhof, they
lived on good terms with their neighbours the Tfchudes or
Finns, and even eleéted a government conjointly with them,
yet afterwards they, later than the Norwegians, and earlier
than the Swedes, conquered and fubdued them. At firft
the Ruffians had merely the region about the gulf of Fin-
land, er on the Kyrialabotn, and about the Ladoga lake,
quite up tothe White fea. They afterwards {pread farther
round in thefe defart countries, and fubjected to themfelves
a part of Finland. In the fequel they took not ouly the

whole

FIN

whole of Lapmark round Kola, but proceeded to levy a tri-
bute on the Finns in the prefent Finmark, and on thofe who
dwelt in Trumfen as far as Malanger. The other Finnifh
nations in the Eaft, on the Volga, and in Siberia, became
fubje&ttothem with their gradual extenfion into theferegions,

~ by the conqueft of the Tartar kingdoms and the difcovery
of Siberia. ‘The Swedes were the laft who founded a fo-
vereignty in the Finnifh paits of the North. It was not
till the middle of the 12th century, about the year 1157,
that king Erik, the faint, undertook the fubjugation and
converfion of the proper Finns: 1co years afterwards the
Swedes entered Tavattland ; towards the end of the 13th
century they eftablifhed themfelves in Karelia; and about
the lame time the Laplanders were alfo reduced under their
authority. Thus the whole of the Finnifh North was par-
titioned among three fovereigns, and the nation itfelf was re-
moved from the rank of an independent people. Of the 13
tribes into which the Finnifh ftock was divided, 12 belong
cither wholly orin part to the inhabitants of the Ruffian em-
pire; viz. the Laplanders, the Finns, the Ejfthenians, the
Livonians, Tfcheremiffes, I'fchuvafches, Mordvines, Voti-
aks, Permiaks, Siryanes, Vogules, and Kondifh Oftiaks.
The Madfhares alone, the great mafs of the mixed multi-
tudes whom we at prefent call Hungarians, are the only
Vinnifh nation which belongs not to Ruflia, and alfo the only
one that has preferved its national independence.

The country which is inhabited by the Finnifh nation
comprifes the north-eaftern corner of the Bothnic and Fin-
nifh gulfs, interfperfed throughout with mountairs, rocks,
morafles, and lakes, between the 6oth and 65th degrees of N.
latitude ; its circumference being computed at 30,000 verits.
The greater part of it did belong to the kingdom of Sweden ;
the {maller fouth-eaftern portion, till of late poflefled by
Ruffia, contained Ingermanland, Kexholm, and Karelia,
forming the government of Vyborg or Wiburgh, and part
of that of St. Peterfburg. In the governmeut of Vyborg,
the Finns compofe by far the greater part of the inhabitants,
or more properly they are the people of the country. In
mott of the circles of the Peterfburg government, they, with
the Ingrians, are likewife the main bedy of the population :
and in the government of Tver and Novgorod, they form
confiderable colonies, which have long been fettled in thefe
regions. The number of all the Finns living in Ruflia can-
not be corre@ly afcertained; but they probably exceed
400,000 perfons. ‘Tooke’s Ruff, Emp. vol. i.

. FINO, a fmall ifland in the Baltic, near the E. coat of
Sweden. N. lat. 58°9!. E. long. 16° 42!.

Vino, Cape, a cape on the coalt of Genoa. N. lat. 44° 79!.
E. long. 8° 6’.

FINOCHIO, in Gardening, the name of a plant fome-
times cultivated as afallad herb. See ANETHUM.

It is raifed by fowing the well ripened feeds procared
from Italy, about the end of March in a warm fituation, on
a bed of light rich earth in’ the drill manner, very thin, co-
vering them in lightly with the fine mould. The drills
fhould not be nearer together than about eighteen inches.
The plants will be up in about a month, when they mutt be
thinned out to fix or feven inches diftance, and be kept per-
feG@ly clean trom weeds. When the flalks begin to fwell out
above the furface of the ground, they fhould be earthed up
in the manner of cellery, when in the courfe of a fortnight
they will be ready for ufe, and eat crifp and tender. Suc-
ceflive crops fhould be fown every three weeks until July.
The late put in crops being occationlly watered and fhaded
from the heat of the fun.

"This plant is not now much cultivated in our kitchen
gardens.

FIO

FINOW, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
Upper Mark of Brandenburg 3 32 miles N. E. of Berlin.

FLNSCALE, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name for the
river fifth, more ufually called the rudd, the rutilus latior,
or rubellio fluviatilis of authors. See Cyrrinus ery-
throphthalmus.

FINSPANG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft
Gothland; 15 miles N. W. of Nordkioping.

FINSTER-AAR-HORN, a high mountainof Switzer-
land, in the canton of Bern; the elevation of which has been
found by actual meafurement to be 14,116 Englifh feet.

Finster Munffer, a town of the Tyrolefe; 12 miles
N.E. of Trafp.

FINSTERBACH, a river of Franconia, which runs into
the Rednitz, 2 miles N. of Roth,

FINSTERWALDA, a town of Saxony, in the. mar-
graviate of Meiffen ; 36 miles N. of Drefden. N. lat. 51°37’.
E. long. 13° 56’.

FINO, Jta/. in Mufie, implies a feint in preparing for
fomething that is not“performed, as cadenza-a-jinita implies
the making a full clofe expected, when, inftead of the bafe
falling a 5th or railing a 4th, another unexpected bafe and its
harmony are given, which at prefent is called a difappointed
cadence, and may be brought about various ways.

FINTONA, in Geography,a {mall poft town of Ireland,
in the county of Tyrone, on the road from Omagh to
Ennifkillen ; 7 miles S. from Omagh, and g4 miles N. W.
from Dublis.

FINTRAY, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Stirling, containing about rooo inhabitants ; 8 miles S. W.
of Stirling.

FINVARRA Pornt, a cape of Ireland, in the county
of Clare, on the fouthern coalt of Galway bay. W. long.
9° 4. N. lat. 53° 7’.

FIONDA,a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, in the
gulf of Satalia; anciently called Pha/elis, near a famous pafs
into Pamphilia; now the fee of a Greek bifhop, though
much decayed; 28 miles S. of Satalia. N, lat. 36° 36’.
E. long. 30° 26!. :

FIORA, ariver which rifes in the Siennefe, and runs inte
the fea below Montalto, in the duchy of Cattro.

FIORAVANTI, Leonarp, in Biography, a phyfician
of Bologna, in the fixteenth century, who poffeffed a confi-
derable degree of reputation among his contemporaries, not
only onaccount of his knowledge in medicine, but alfo of his
chirurgical dexterity. Neverthelefs he was an arrant empiric,
in the modern fenfe of the werd, and in the writings which
he left behind him, he dwells at great length on the excel-
lence of the fecret remedies which he pofleffed, and is violent
in his condemnation of blood-letting. He died on the 4th
of September 1588. The titles of his works, which are in
Italian, are as follows ; ‘* Del Specchio di Scientia Univer-
fale,”? Venice, 1564. ‘* Regimento della pefte,”? ibid. 1565.
“© Capricci Medicinali,” ibid, 1568. ‘* Il Teforo della
vita humana,” ibid, 1570. ‘* Compendio dei Secreti Natu-
rali,”” Turin, 1580, Venice, 1581, &c. ‘* Della Fifica, di-
vifa in Libri Quattro,” Venice, 1582, ‘¢ Cirurgia,”’ ibid.
1 ae All thefe works have undergone feveral editions.—

Eloy.

FIORENTINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Campagna di Roma; 25 miles N. of Terracina. N. lat.
41° 42.'E. long. 13° 6'.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Capi-
tanata ; 7 miles S. of Lucera.

FIORENZUOLA, a town of Etruria, in a valley ef
the Apennines, on the {cite of the-ancient Fidentia; 22
miles N. of Florenee.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Parma.

4 —<Alfo,

FIR

—Alfo, atown of Naples, in Capitanata, anciently called
Florentinum ; now decayed; 10 miles S. of St. Savaro.

FIORI, Mario va, in Biography, a painter of flowers,
whofe real name was Mario Nuzzi. He was born at
Perona in the kingdom of Naples in 162 3, and ttudied with
his uncle T’omafo Salini.
tions of nature, as flowers, fhells, &c. with great beauty.
A fulnefs and richnefs of touch and colour are given by him
with great elegance and lightnefs. It was fo much the talte
of the time to admire his produtions, that he could not
complete them faft enough for the demand ; and what was
more to his credit, Domenichini and other artifts of renown
were not afhamed to paint in conjunction with him. One
of his moft capital works is in the church of St. Andrea
della Valle at Rome. It is a wreath of flowers encircling
the portrait of St. Gaetano, which was painted by Andrea
Camaffei. At Wilton is a very beautiful painting of his; a
wreath of flowers round a head of the virgin, by Carlo
Dolci. He died in 1673, at 70 years of age.

FIORITO, ral. is a mufical term, implying flowery,
ornamented; as canto fiorito, florid fong, contrappunto frorito s
to diftinguifh them trom canto fermo, and coni appunto Jem-

lice. :

FIORLITA, in Geography, a {mall ifland of the Medi-
terranean, at the entrance of the gulf of Tarento. N. lat.

0° 14', FE. long. 13°.

FIORONI, Gian. Anprea, in Biography, mactro
di cappella at the great church or Duomo in Milan, about
the middle of the laft century. He was an excellent con-
trappuntift alla Pale&trina, that 16 to fay, in the ttyle of our
belt old mafters in their fervices and full anthems, which
confilt of good harmony, ingenious points and contrivances,
but no melody. Sig. Fioroni is a voluminous compofer
and publifher of mafles and motets in eight parts, @ due
ori. So that though this {tyle, and that of the church, are
abandoned in Italy, on days of fettival, when inflruments
and fecular fingers are employed, the ancient grave ftyle
of the 16th century is not wholly loft.

FIR-Tree, in Botany. See Astes and Pinus.

Fir-T7ree, the common name of a tree of the evergreen tim-
ber kind, frequently met with in the more elevated and
mountainous fituations of the colder climates of the north.
Ut has, for the moft part, fingle leaves, which are produced
on’ every fide of the branches. This is a tree which is
capable of being raifed upon almoft any fort of foil which
is not very retentive of moi{lure ; and it is both rapid in its
growth, and hardy in its nature, but not perhaps fo orna-
mental as fome others of the evergreen kind.

The ufual method of vaifing thefe trees is by fowing the
feeds taken from the well ripened cones which they produce.
‘The mode of extricating the feeds from the cones is, either
by ‘expofing them to the gentle heat of a fire, or by
foaking them fora fhort time in warm water, by which they
readily open and emit the feeds. ‘The former method is the
beft, when due attention is paid not to expofe them to
too great a degree of heat. This fhould not however be
done until the period of fowing or putting them into the

_ ground. Thebett way is to fow them in a nurfery where
the land has been well prepared, in order that they may be
well protected from the ravages of birds at the time of their
coming up; as they are very apt to deftroy them at
vhat period, by picking off the hufks of the feeds which
come up along with the plants. i

The proper time of putting the feeds into the ground is
about the end of March, or beginning of the following
month. They fhould be fown on a bed of light earth, and
covered to the depth of about half an inch by means of a

Vou. XIV.

He imitated the lighter produc--

Fi

garden rake. The plants flould be continued in this be@.
until the following {pring, being kept perfeétly clean from
weeds. At that time other beds fhould be put in 2 proper
{tate of preparation for receiving the young plants; into which
they fhould be carefully tranfplanted in rows, at the ditancé
of fix or eight inches from each other, and three or four
inches apart in the rows. When the feafon happens to be
very dry afterwards, it may be proper to water the plants
once ortwice a week according to the heat of the weather :
and in fome cafes itmay be requifite to cover the beds with
atsin order to {creen them from the fun arddrying winds, un-
tilthey have taken good root; after which ro further care is
neceflary, except that of keeping them free from weeds.
Vhe plants may continue in thefe beds two years ; at
the eud of which time they may be removed into other
{paces of open ground properly prepared for them, being
placed ont at fuch diftances as may be moit {uitable for
them. The moft ufual diftances in thefe cafes are four or
five feet from row to row, and two or three feet apart in the
rows.

After they have been planted out, when the weather
happens to be dry, they fhould ave a good watering to
fettle the mould to their roots ; and which may be repe
three or four times, in cafe the feafon continues droughty ;
with great beneiit in promoting their taking root, and
fecnring them from the effects of drying winds,

The plants may remain in thefe fituations for two or
three years longer, ‘or until they may be wanted; during
which time the ground fhould be dug between the rows in
every {pring, and be afterwards kept perfe@ly clean from
weeds by frequent hoeing, care being taken in the diggings
not to cet or injure their roots. This is all that is requi-
fite in their cultivation while they remaia in fuch places.

When they are to be removed into the fituations where
they are to remain, great care is necefiary in taking up the
plants, not to cut off or hnrt the roots, ner to fufferthem to
centinue any length of time expofed out of the ground,
before they are replanted. The mot fafe time for per-
forming the bufinefs of removing this fort of trees for
finally planting out in moift foils is the beginving of April;
though in dry lands they may often be planted about
Michaelmas, with fuecefs.

Fir trees are frequently yemoved at the height of fix or
feven feet and fometimes more, but the height of two or
three feet is much better, and plants of this hei! t zeneraily,
in the courfe of a few years, furpafs thofe that have greater
heights when firft fet out.

The firf, or large fort of plant, muft, at firt planting out,
be always well fecured by flakes or other meauis, in order to
prevent their being moved and made loofe by winds, which,
whenever they occur, are fure of deftroying the trees. The
finall plants only ftand in need of having the mould firmly
trodden sin about their roots durin g ‘the time they are
planting out, ;

The vatt improvements that have been made by planting
large mailes of trees) of tle fir kind on the poor, bare,
bleak, expofed, moory, and heathy fituations in the northern
parts of Scotland, fuiliciently thew their importance, and
plainly demonttrate the advantage of {uch undertakings in
{uch places, where properly managed. And though it may
be admitted that the Scotch fir ts amongit the mot perifh-
able and leaft valaable forts of timber wood that can be
raifed, and confequently fells in general, at the leatt price ;
yet as the expence of raifing it is very trifling, the returns
are in all cafes fo abundant as to fully fatisfy thofe who have
engaged inthe forming of fuch plantations. This has even
been the cafe when no other cireumftance but the dire@ in-

3M come

FIR-TREE.

come which has arifen from fueh plantations themfelves has
been taken into the account. But when the collateral ad-
vantages are confidered likewife, the benefit occafioned by
them is evidently extremely great. It has been ftated by
the author of the “ Effays on Rural Affairs’’ that in the
vicinity of plantations of the fir kind, houfes can be raifed
at fo little expence, and the roofs are fo much ftraighter,
and better than the ordinary ones, that fettlers in fuch fitu-
ations are induced to make their houfes much neater and
more commodious than in other places; and befides rails,
and other kinds of materials for dead fences, can be fo
eafily procured, that the poor people are firft enabled to
have goed well-fenced gardens, and then commodious in-
clofures of larger extent ; the branches likewife afford fuel
to them, which adds greatly to the comforts of their fitua-
tion. The cutting and manufacturing of the wood into various
kinds of utenfils furnifh employment for a great many
perfons ; population is thereby increafed, and with an aug-
mentatiou of population, its neceffary confequence, the delire
for land to produce the aeceflaries of life, and of courfe an
increafe of rent to the proprietor. Thefe new fettlers in the
defert waftes of Scotland, like thofe in America, cultivate
and improve the foil in proportion as the trees are removed
from it. At this moment, it is added, Mr. G Dempfter, who
will be long refpeted by his countrymen, fees fields on his
eftate rapidly converting, in this way, into cultivated
ground, and yielding him ten or twelve fhillings per acre in
rent, not only without any expence to himfelf, but after
having derived a confiderable profit from the fale of woods
of his own planting, which grew upon land that twenty-
five years ago was not worth to him above two pence the
acre, and which might have remained in that ftate, perhaps
for ages to come, had it not been planted at all. It is con-
tended by the fame writer, that it is by a judicious manage-
ment of this fort that men of large landed eitates, by a little
fore-fight, find themfelves enabled to provide both employ-
ment and fubtiftence, with much profit, to a numerous
people, who mutt otherwife have either remained in a detti-
tute condition, or have abandoned a country, which did not
properly provide for their accommodation.

It may be remarked likewife that a plantation of Scotch
firs may be made at much lefs expence than of any other
fort of trees in thofe northern parts of the kingdom, as the
young plants can be afforded at a lower price than any
others. In Aberdeenfhire, where planting is fo general as
to have become a fort of occupation, fir plants of two years
growth, above which age no experienced planter will ever
buy them, fometimes will be fold at the very low rate of
fourpence the thoufand, which confifts of twelve hundred
plants; and they formerly feldom exceeded eightpence ;
onthe average about fixpence, or one halfpenny the hun-
dred: but they have lately been confiderably higher.
‘There are men who make a bufinefs of forming plantations,
who will undertake to complete the whole, enclofing and
planting, at the diftance of one yard each way, and uphold
them for five years, that is, fupply any deficiencies that may
take place, at the rate of from ten to fifteen or thirty fhil-
lings the Scotch acre, which is nearly equalto one anda
quarter Englifh, according to the fize of the inclofure, and
the nature of the fence. In all cafes of this kind, it is fup-
pofed that the plantations are of the extent of thirty or
torty acres or upwards ; for where the inclofures are {maller,
the expence of inclofing is proportionally augmented. The
charge is thus not only rendered moderate, but the whole of
the expence that is to be incurred, afcertained before the
plantation is begun, by which the being involved in unfore-
Seen difficulties is fully obviated.

Experience has fully fhewn that there is fearcely any foil
fo bad, or any expofure fo bleak, that the fir-tree will not
live in, if the plantation be of fufficient extent, and not upon
the very f{ummits of high peaked hills. They do not indeed
bear the fea air very well, where they are much expofed to
the feverity of its blafts; nor is the wood ever of fo good
a quality, or the treelong lived, upon foils of the clayey
kind. It has been found that in the fouthern parts of the
kingdom, the pineafter bears the fea blaft much better than
any other of the fir tribe. Thisis a difcovery of great impor
tance, and which deferves the attention of improvers in the
way of planting. The {pruce fir will however beara {till more
expofed fituation than the Scotch fir; and aftera few years
from the time of planting, it fhoots up with ftill greater luxu-
riance. This isthe cafe probably only in particular fituations.
But thecones are not to be had in equal abundance ; and the
plants being more difficult in the rearing, they are fold at a
much higher price, ufually about fix fhillings the thoufand,
fit for being planted out. In a good foil the filver fir alfo
profpers well, and is a beautiful tree, on account of the depth
ofits fhade ; but the price of the plants is too great to ad«
mit of large plantations of it being made with advantage.
But wherever the fituation is bleak, and much expofed to
{trong blafts of wind, the plantation muft not only be of
confiderable extent, if the trees be expected to thrive, but
they mutt be planted very clofe together, fo that each plant
may ftand at the diftance of from two to three feet at moft
from each other. The more expofed the fituation is, the
clofer they fhould be planted; as it may be obferved that
until the branches begin to intermix, and give a mutual fup-
port to each other, the trees never begin to advance with vi-
gour. Where the plantations are thus thick, there is a
neceflity for beginning to thin them out at a pretty early pe-
riod, fo that aitet the tenth to the fifteenth year from the
time of planting, perfons muft be conftantly employed in
thinning them: and there are very few fituations, indeed, in
which the thinnings cannot be difpofed of to advantages,
or in which fuch forts of plantations cannot be made.

It has been remarked by an able writer, in the Tranfac-
tions of the Bath Agricultural Society, that though he does
not think that the Scotch fir can, in this country, ever
equal the yellow deal from the Baltic, yet it may be worth
propagating, as being ufeful in ordinary buildings. The
drier the foil is on which this fort of timber grows, the
flower is its progrefs ; but the clofer its pores, the more
{uperior its quality. When planted in rich land thefe trees
will fhoot three or four feet in a feafon, and equal, if net
furpafs, the abele in growth. In his plantations, though.
chiefly contined to chalky banks, in a north-weft expofure,
the trees evince, that when once rooted, few obftacles will
prevent their profitable progrefs. From obferying the mif-
takes of others in endeavouring to ornament their naked
downs too fuddenly, he has learnt the neceflity of planting
firs when only a foot in height, and by opening the ground
fome time before, inverting the turf at the bottoms of the
holes, and throwing the mould upon it in hillocks to melio-
rate, his plantations {ucceeded well: for though the foil is
fcarcely fix inches in depth, the firs fet in 1766 are now 30
feet in height, and from two feet fix inches, to two feet, in
circumference, at four feet from the ground; fome few
planted at the fame time in a deeper foil, and warmer fitua-
tion, are now about three feet round. And fpruce firs,
planted in 1766, likewife in a tolerably good foil, are now 4
feet in height, and from two feet ten inches and a half, to
three feet, round, But he has feen plantations that far
furpaffed either of thefe in growth; they however occupied
ground which was infinitely more valuable. See Pinus. In

hard,

FIR

hard, fcarce feafone the tops or fhoots of the fir tree have
been ufeful as a food for cattle, fheep, &c.

Fir, Mo/s upright. See Lycoropium.

Fir, Scotch, in Botany. See Pinus.

Fir-cones, fofil, in Natural Hiflory, are extrancous foffils,
refemblingz the cones of the fir-tree. Numbers of thefe
have been defcribed by different authors, who appear evi-
dently to have confounded recent and peat foffils with thofe
belonging to, or found lodged in the undi‘turbed ftrata, or to
have had but flight evidence of the identity of the foffils with
recent cones. We have been told that a very perfect fir-
cone was, a few years ago, foundat Afpley in Bedfordfhire,
not many inches beneath the foil, in a completely filicious
ftate. The many fables that have been publithed refpeéting
the petrifying {prings of this place, wonld have in-
duced the writer to have taken no notice of this, had it not
been related to him by a gentleman of veracity, and a com-
petent judge of thefe matters; but finee he has had himfelf the
a tah of making enquiries on the {pot concerning this
oflil.

Tir-cvood, fofil, has generally been that obtained from
out of peat moiles, in which recent fir-trees have been pres
ferved during the growth of the peat ; and, as Mr. Parkinfon
thinks, have undergone a degree of the dituminous FERMEN-
Tarion (which fee), by which their inflammability has not
only been preferved, but in {ome inftances heightened. ‘The
fame gentleman (Organic Remains, i. 400.) figures a fill-
civus remain, (Plate II. fig. 4 and 5.) which he deferibes as
apiece of fir, but we think without offering fufficient proof
of its identity to any of the recent fir tribe.

FIRABUS, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro.
vince of Mecran; 45 miles W.S..W. of Kidge.

FIRAN, a {mall ifland in the Red fea, about 18 miles
from the coaft of Arabia, celebrated for its fifheries of pearl.
N. lat. 17°13’. E. long. 41° 30’.

» FIRANDO, an ifland and kingdom of Japan, with a
good harbour, in the fea of Corea. N. lat. 33° 35’. E. long.
130° 40’.

FIRE. This word has been ufed to expre!s things fome-
what differing from each other; yet bearing analogy to its
moft ufual and moft common fignilication, which is that of an
active natural procefs, attended with the emiffion of heat
and light, and likewife with the decompolition of certain
fubftances, which are faid to be burning, or in a /late of com-
buftion, during the procefs, and are faid to be burnt after the
termination of the procefs.

The general ufe of fire, which comes continually under
our obfervation, fuggefts to our minds the meaning of the
word perhaps much more readily than the recollection of
the above itated definition; the latter, however, is at-
tended with this advantage, namely, that it defines the
limits of the meaning, whence it prevents its equivocal
application.

The various fpeétacles which fire exhibits to our fenfes ;
its aftonifhing effects, and the innumerable ufes to which it
may be applied, have, at all times, rendered it an object of
the utmolt confequence to the human f{pecies. The new-
born infant generally fixes his eyes to the flame ofa candle,
orto a common culinary fire, in preference to any other
object; at a more advanced age the various means of excit-
ing and of employing tires occupy the thoughts of a very

reat portion of the human fpecies ; and the indultry of phi-
ofophers has at all times endeavoured to inveitigate the na-
ture, and to account for the effects of tire.

It is not every kind of bodies that are capable of combut-
tion. "Chofe which are capable of fupplying a fire, or of
being burnt, are called combu/idtes, and fuch are either

FIR

fimple, as hydrogen, fulphur, and phofphorus ; or coim-
pound, viz. thofe which confift of various tubitances toge-
ther with a notable proportion of one or more of the above-
mentioned fimple combuttibles ; fuch as wood, coal, oils,
&c. Several other bodies are not combuttibles ; thefe, how-
ever, may, by the aétion of a fire, be rendered red-hot, fo
as to emit heat and light, but they do not undergo any de-
compofition ; or if they do undergo any, it is not of that
kind which a fire produces amongit bodies that are really
combuttibles. The incombuttible bodies that are rendered
red-hot, are faid to be ina ftate of ignition, or of incan-
defcence, and this incandefcence, which emits heat’ and
light, exifts no longer than the caufe which produces it ;
for after that it begins to diminilh, and gradually yanithes ;
whereas the real combuttibles, when once fet on tire, con-
tinue of themfelves to burn, until the materials are loft. Thus
a pebble or a brick, by being placed in the middle of a com-
mon fire, may be eafily rendered red-hot, but as foon as it is
removed from the fire, its heat and light will gradually di-
minifh, and will laftly vanifh; the pebble or the brick ‘re-
maining in the fame tate as it was before the operation. On
the other hand, a piece or two of wood fet on fire will of
themfelves continue to burn until their whole fubitance is
changed into fomething quite different from what it was be-
fore the combuftion.

Sometimes a fubflance which is aétually a combuflibie,
may, when placed in a common fire, be only ignited, and
aét like an incombuftible body ; that is, without undergo-
ing any perceptible decompolition. The reafon of this is,
that the given combuftible requires to be expofed to a very
high temperature before it will fuffer decompofition ;
therefore when placed in a lower temperature, yet fufficient to
render it red-hot, it will then only acquire a {tate of incan-
defcence. Thusa diamond, which is perfeétly combuttible
ina very high temperature, may be made repeatedly red-hot
and cooled, without the leaft alteration of its nature.

It may alfo happen that a combuftible body may be
placed in a degree of temperature much higher than that
which is neceflary for its combuttion; yet the combuttion
will not take place for want of fome of the circumitances
upon which that procefs neceflarily depends. Thus a piece
of charcoal placed ina clofe veflel may be rendered red-hot,
and may be kept in that (ate for any length of time, with-
out undergoing the leaft decompofition. The reafon of
which is, that in a clofe veflel no oxygen gas can come in
contaét with the ignited charcoal ; and without the pre-
fence of oxygen, or of fubftances which can yield oxygen, so
combuftion can take place. See the articles Comsustion
and Excitation, wherein whatever belongs to the theory
of combuttion will be found. ;

From the former of thefe articles it appears, that no fire
can continue long without a conitant fupply of a combuiti-
ble fubftance, and of oxygen ; for the whole procefs confilts
ina decompolition of both thefe fubflances, and the forma-
tion of new compounds, at the fame time that the latent
heat, or caloric, and the light, are feparated and are fet at
liberty. As fire is of great and conjtant ule for economical
purpofes, no pains have been {pared to determine how the
greatelt effect may be produced in the fafeit and mott eco-
nomical manner poffible, relative to all {pecies of fire, from
the burning of the Jeaft lamp, tothat of the moft powerful
furnace. ‘The combuttibles, which are ufed for all thefe
kinds of fire, are colleGtively called fue/, and in all cafes the
difficulty is to determine which kind of fuel is (according
to other concurring cireumitances of place, expence, &e.)
the fitteft for any given purpofe. The full confideration of
thefe particulars will be found under a variety of articles,

3M2 fuck

PORE.

fuch as Furt, Lawr, Licut, Furnace, &c.; we fhall
neverthelefs barely meution in this place fome of the lead-
ing fa€ta, which have been determined in confequence of re-
peated experiments, and which may, for the prefent, fur-
nifh the reader with a fufficient idea of the limits withia
which our powers of employing fires have as yet been con-
fined.

Half an ounce of fpermaceti oil, of the beft kind, ina
proper lamp, which is furnifhed with a wick of a fingle
thread of cotton, may be made to burn for about twenty
hours, and it feems that no fmaller or cheaper quantity of
any other combuttible fubftance isknown, which will main-
tain a fire for nearly fo long atime. The Chinefe ufe a
very peculiar mode of continuing a {mall fire. A very light
flick, about a twentieth of an inch in diameter, and about
fourteen inches in length, is crufted over with a fine fort of
faw-duft, wherein perhaps a very {mall quantity of nitre
may becontained. The faw-dult is probably made to ad-
here to the ftick by means of weak fize. Ifone of thefe
flicks fo crufted be lighted at one extremity, it will con-
tinue to burn, not with a flame, but like tinder, and will
laft about a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. The
Chinefe keep fuch {ticks burning before their idols, or for
the purpofe of lighting their pipes, even in their boats upon
-water ; and when one of them is nearly out, another is put
in its place. The flame of a lamp, furnifhed with fpirit of
wine, is much more ative than when furnifhed with oil,
aud it is to be remarked that the flame of fpirit of wine
gives much more heat, and at the fame time much lefs
light, than the like flame of oil. The flame of burning hy-
drogen gas in common air is rot very active, at leaft
not nearly fo attive as a fimilar iized flame from
oil; yet it is faid that the flame of hydrogen gas,
urged by pure oxygen gas, produces the moft active five
known. For this experiment the two gafes mutt not
be mixed in a common yeffel, and then Jet out of a {mall
apeiture in.order to be lighted, and to produce a ftream of
fire ; for in that cafe the whole quantity of mixed gafes
would at once explode, and burft the veflel; but the two
gafes fhould be kept in feparate veffels, as, for inftance, in
two bladders furnifhed with itop-cocks, and when the ftream
of hydrogen is burning, then the ftream of oxygen ought
to be direéted towards it. The gas, which is extricated
from coal by means of heat, has been found ufeful for light-
ing apartments in certain circumftances, but the particn-
lars will be found detailed under the article Frame. Fora
culinary, or common fire place, feveral fpecies of coal fur-
mith, ceteris paribus, the mott lafting, and, upon the whole,
the moft ufeful fre. The fame will do for large furnaces ;
but for fmall furnaces, wherein a clear fire may be wanted,
or for drying malt, &c. coke or charred coal is preferred ;
for the action of charring expels from the coal a good deal
of grofs vapour, which otherwife renders the fire fmoky,
efpecially at firft. The greateft heat of an air furnace, eight
inches in diameter, according to Wedgwood’s eitimation,
amounts to about 21,877° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, or to
160° of Wedgwood’s.

From the above-mentioned ftatements one may be eafily
led to conceive what degree of credit muft be given to thofe
idle fkories of perpetual fires, and of lamps having been
found aétually burning in old tombs, and ftone coffins. The
improbability, or rather the abfurdity of the accounts, is
fo very glaring as to render them only fit for novels and low
poems. \

Whatever belongs to fire, fuch as its excitation, its theo-
ry, its economical ufes, its natural devaitations, &c. ; ob-
trudes itfelf on our notice under fo many other obvious arti-

cles, as to fuperfede the neceffity of rendering the prefent
very prolix; there are, however, two particulars, which
may with more propriety be expected in the prefent ; and
therefore we fhall briefly fubjoin them. Thefe area {hort
hiftory of the principal opimons that have been entertain-
ed re{peéting the nature of fire, and fome remarks on the
various fenfes in which the word fire has been ufed. ‘

The opinions of the ancient philofophers refpecting fire
were various and fanciful. Ignorant of the leading faéis
which.a theory is required to account for, and unafulted
by experiments or tools, they generally made ufe of words
which couvey no definite ideas. ‘They called it an active
fermentation, an inteftine motion, a repulfive agent, and
fo forth; but no real attempt towards a rational inveltiga-
tion is to be found in their works. And though fome of
their aflertions feem to coincide with the more rational mo-

regular

was communicated to them.
the mechanical hypothetis, was believed and maintained by.
the mott able philofophers of much earlier, and much more
enlightened times. Bacon, Boyle, and Newton, were of,
that opinion ; and there feems to have exifted a confider-
able flruggle between thofe dillinguifhed perfons, and fome
celebrated chemifts of thofe times, who maintained that fire,
was a fluid of a peculiar nature. The former afferted that
the phenomena of fire could be accounted for on the fuppo-
fition that fire confifted in nothing more than the violent.
agitation of the parts of the bodies concerned; but as no
fuch motion could be produced without an adequate caufe,
they were,confiderably perplexed by it, and, in fact, their
attempts towards an explanation are very confufed. Boyle
fays that when a piece of iron becomes hot by hammering,
“there is nothing to make it fo, except the forcible motion
of the hammer impreffing a vehement and varioufly deters
mined agitation on the {mall parts of the iron.’’—It is to,
be remarked, that the fame Mr. Boyle, on obferving the
phenomena of the metallic bodies acqsiving additional.
weight by their calcination, was induced to publifh a trea-,
tife on the poflibility of rendering fire and flame ponderable.
Bacon defines heat, (which he confiders as meaning the,
fame thing as fire) to be ‘* an expanfive undulatory motion,
in the minute particles of a body, whereby they tend with
fome rapidity from a centre towards a circumference, and,
at the fame time a little upwards.’? Newton did not at-
tempt to affert any thing pofitive concerning it ; but he con-.,
jeGured that grofs bodies and light might be convertible
into one another; and that great bodies of the fize of oun
earth, when violently heated, might continue and increafe-
their heat by the mutual ation and re-aétion of their:
arts. » :

The firft of the chemifts who attempted to form chemif-
try into a regular fyitem, was John Joachim Beccher, but.
the famous George Erneft Stahal, (who was born in the
year 1660, and died in. the year 1734,) by following
Beccher’s plan, continued to raife the edifice, endeavouring
to colle& the principal faéts then known into a coherent,
fyftem, by connecting them by means of general principles.
This intelligent man, amongit other improvements, formed.
the famous phlogiftic theory of fire (fee the article Com,

5 BUSTION)»,

EUR SE.

Busrron), which was almoft univerfally adopted, notwith-
ftanding its infufliiciency to account for fome of the moft
eilential phenomena of combultion. This theory continued
in yogue until towards the clote of the-lait century, when a
new fyftem of chemiftry, and a new theory of fire was an-
nounced to the world by the immortal Lavoifier, who un-
fortunately died in the year 1794. His hypothefis, befides
the conviction with which its bare enunciation was attend-
ed, has continually derived additional confirmation from a
variety of new fats and fubfequent experiments. This
Lavoifier’s hypothefis will be found particularly defcribed
under the article CompusTion.

Since the publication of Lavoifier’s hypothefis, or rather
eftablifhed theory, an obje€tion, apparently of importance,
has been made to it by Count Rumford, in confequence of
fome experiments which he made upon friétion. ‘This gen-
tleman found, that ia boring a cannon during half an hour,
the temperature was raifed 70°; and that it fuffered a lofs
of 837 grains by the duft and {cales tora off, which amount-
ed to 54th part of the cylinder. He then, calculating upon
the fuppofition that all the heat fo raifed was given out by
thofe feales and duit, concludes that they muit have loft
66,360° of temperature; when at the fame time he found
that their fpecitic heat was not thereby fenfibly diminithed.
This obfervation made him doubt the exiltence of the caloric
propofed by Lavoilier, as a principle /ui generis, &c. and
prompted him to make certain unwarrantable queries re-
{petting the nature of fire; but he omitted to notice a very
material cireumftance ; namely, the compreffion which the
whole piece of metal fuffered in confequence of the boring ;
hence Mr. Dalton juftly fays, «¢ the heat excited does not
arife from the feales merely, elfe how fhould hammering
make a body red-hot without any lofs of feales? The fact
is, the whole mafs of metal is more or lefs condenfed by the
violence ufed in boring, and a rife of temperature of 70’,
or 100°, is too {mall to produce a fenfible diminution in its
capacity for heat. Does Count Rumford fuppofe, that if
in this cafe the quantity of metal operated upon had been
one pound, and the duit produced the fame as above, that
the whole quantity of heat evolved would have been the
fame ?””

The word fire has alfo been ufed both figuratively and in-
correctly. The allegorical expreffions of the fire of the ima-
gination, the fire of youth, the fire of contention, and fo forth,
do not fall under the cognizance of natural philofophy ;
but the fcientific ufe of that word for expreffing heat with-
out light, or light without heat, or laftly, things which have
neither heat nor light, is in want of correction. ‘Thus phof-
phorefcent fubftances, like certain pieces of decayed wood,
fifh, &c. are frequently faid to be on fire ; whereas they
are not attended with any degree of heat. Allo the heat of
fermenting fubftances, and of other kinds of chemical com-
binations, has eften been called their fre. But the mott fin-
gular ufe of that word is its being often employed for ex-
prefling the electric fluid, which in its quiefcent ilate thews
neither heat nor light. It is true that in a vait number of
electrical experiments fire is a€tually produced, and every
eleGtric fpark is capable of fetting tire to certaia inflammable
‘bodies.. Avery {mall fpark of eletricity, fuch indeed as

may appear not bigger than a pin’s head, is fufficient to

inflame, hydrogen gas. But it muft be confidered that the
effeéts of fire take place only when the electric fluid. is
obliged to pafs through certain fubftances which in fome
“meafure obitru& -its free motion. A Leyden phial fully
charged with electricity, and left infulated, does not _fhew
the leaft, perceptible mark of light or of heat, more than a

ot

fimilar phial not charged with electricity. Let the charged

phial be difcharged througha fubftance which refitts its paf-
iage, (and all fubftances obftrué the paflage of the eleétric
fluid more or lefs,) and the moft aftonifhing effects of fire
are produced; metallic bodies are fufed, and even difperfed
into f{moke, combuttible bodies are inflamed, hard bodies
are broken, &c. If the difcharge be made through the beft
vacuum which can be effected by means of an air-pump, the
light and the heat will hardly be perceptible, becaufe that
vacuum offers a very trifling refiftance to the paflage of the
eleétric fuid. In fhort it 1s univerfally true that the pro-
duction of fire, that is the evolution of light and heat, is, if
not exactly, at leaft nearly proportionate, to the obftraGion
which a given quantity of cleétric fluid meets with in its
paflage from one place to another. ‘Therefore, upon thefe
and other obvious confiderations, which would be ulfelefs to
mention in this place, inflead of looking upon the eleGrie
fluid as fire, would it not be more rational to attribute the
effects of fire, which are obferved in eleétrical experiments,
to the {core of fri@tion? In, the boring ef holes with hard
tools, in the driving of nails through wood, in the quick
paflage of a bullet through the air or through harder fub-
{tances, and in a great many other fuch like cafes, no one
hefitates to attribute the produétion of heat to fri€tion or
preffure ; and if the very rapid movement of the electric fluid
through bodies, and its immenfe elafticity be confidered, it
fhould feem that the effects of fire which are obferved in
electrical experiments, ought likewife to be attributed to
the above-mentioned caufe of fri€tion or preflure.

Fire, in Medicine and Surgery, is ufed in the fame fenfe
with cautery. See Caurery and Caustie.

Fire alfo gives the denomination to divers difeafes, as,

Fire, St. Anihony’s. It feems clear that the eryfipelas
was firft fo called in the fouth of France, and in the 12th
century, where and when this diforder was exceedingly pre-
valent, from the fuccefs of the monks of St. Anthony
(whofe profeffion it was to attend the fick, and who there-
fore carried the figure of acrutch upon the left fhoulder) in
curing it. They made great ufe of lard in thefe cures;
hence their pigs were allowed to range free through the
neighbouring grounds ; and that they might be diitinguifhed
from other pigs, bells were hung round theirnecks. Thefe
circumftances account for the figure of St. Anthony, the
Egyptian hermit of the 4th century, being reprefented with:
the pig, the bell, and the letter Tau upon his fhoulders
Paquot in Molanum, de imaginibus. ;

Tire, walking, called alfo Will-with-a-wifp, Jack-in-a-
lantern, ignis fatuus, &c. See lonts faiuus.

_ Fire, in Dheology, is frequently underftood of the punifh-
ment of the wicked after death. See Hexx. .

It is fuppoted the world will perifh at lait by fire. See
ConFLAGRATION. j

God has made feveral revelations of himfelf under the ap=
pearance of fire ; he appeared to Mofes under the form of a4
fire burning in a bufh; the Holy Ghoft defcended on \the
apoitles in tongues of fire ; and the camp of the Ifraclites
was guided and conduéted in the night time by a pillar of fire.

The Chaldeans had an high veneration for ‘fire, which
they accounted a divinity ; aad in the province of Babylon
there was a city confecrated to this ufage,. which was
called the city of Ur, or of Fire.

_The Perfians alfo adoved God under the image or repre-
fentation of fire, becaule it is fire that gives motion to every
thing in nature, They had temples, which they called
“« Pyrea,” fire temples fet apart folely for the prefervation
of the facred fire. . hey are faid to have in that empire
fires itill fubfifting, which have burat many thoufand years.
See Fine everlafling, Gases, and Maci. The worhipys

ot

ERE.

of the goddefs Vefta (fee Vesta) and of fire was brought
into Italy by /Eneas and the other Trojans, who landed
there; but the Phrygians themfelves had received it from
the eaftern nations. Tire was held in religious veneration
among the Gauls; and fimilar fentiments and practice have
prevailed in feveral countries of America.

The Hebrews kept up the holy fire inthe temple. This
holy fire defcended from heaven, firft upon the altar in the
tabernacle at the confecration of Aaron and his fous to
the priefthood, Lev. ix. 24. and afterwards it defcended
anew on the altar in the temple of Solomon, at the confecra-
tion of that temple, 2 Chron. vii.1. And there it was con-
{tantly maintained by the prieft day and night, without fuf-
fering it ever to ge out ; and with this all the facrifices were
offered that required fire. his fire, according to fome of
the Jewith writers, was extinguilhed in the days of Manaffeh ;
bat the more general opinion among them, 1s, that it con-
tinued till the deftruction of the temple by the Chaldeans ;
after that it was never more rettored ; but inftead of it they
had only common fire in the fecond temple.

The Vetftals were appointed expretsly to keep up the
facred fire of the Romans. See Visracs.

Vulcan was worfhipped among the ancients, and particu-
larly the Egyptians, asthe inventor of fire; and Boerhaave
has made it highly probable, that the Vulcan of the hea-
thens was the T'ubal-Cain of the Hebrews, the firft who ap-

ears to have known the ufe of fire, and to have applied it
in the fufion of metals and other preparations of chemiftry.
See PRoMETHEUS.

Fire, Divination by. See Prromancy.

Fire, in the Manege. To give the fire to a horfe is to
apply the firing-iron red-hot to fome preternatural {welling
in order to difcufs it, which is oftentimes done by clapping
the firing-iron upon the fkin without piercing through.
We give the fire to farcy knots, by running a pointed burn-
ing iron into the ulcers. We hkewife give the fire for
wrenches of the patterns. See FirinG-iron.

Fire, inthe Military Language, is f{ometimes applied to
the fires lighted in an army in the night-time.

But the term fire or firing is more frequently ufed for the
difcharge of the fire-arms, or the fhot made on the enemy
from the artillery, &c. And accordingly it is ufed
as a word of command to foldiers of all denomizations to
difcharge their fire-arms, grenades, cannon, &c. The
fire of the infantry is by a regular difcharge of their
fire-locks, by platoons, divifions, &c. that of the ca-
valry with their fufees and piftols; and that of the
place befieged from their artillery, See Exercise and
Firine.

In fortification, the frre of the place denotes the flank, or
that part of the curtain where the line of defence terminates
from whence they fire to defend the oppofite face of the
baition.

Fire-drms, a term attaching to all weapons, principally
of an offenfive nature, from which bullets, &c. may be im-
pelled by the force of gun-powder. Thefe are generally
divided into two fpecies, the one requiring much labour to
tranfport, and known by the names of artillery, orduance,
cannon, great-guu, &c. and again fubdivided into claffes,
fuch as the mortar, the howitzer, the culverin, the demi-
culverin, the royal, xc. &c; the other fpecies are made on a
portable principle, and comprife thote implements com-
monly called mufkets, carabines, match-locks, arque-
buffes, blunderbuffes, fulils, together with piltols of van-
ous fizes and defcriptions ; forming in the whole an ample
catalogue of inventions fuited to enabling the human race
not only to defend itfelf again beaits of prey, and to attain

provifions from among the feveral inhabitants of the earth,
the air, or the waters, but to deftroy each other whole-
fale ; as though we were afraid that our increafing population
fhowld ultimately condemn us either to ftarvation, or to
refort to the moft horrid means of fupporting exiftence, vix.
Cannibalifm.

Intreating of ArtTiiery, we have already explained the
nature of ordnance in general, and fhewn the proportions
feverally of the different natures, as the various fizes are
technically called; therefore, in this place our attention
will be chiefly dire@ted towards thofe matters relating to
fire arms in general; by which we mean to be underitood as
applying that term to thofe leffer weapons popularly called
“¢ {mall-arms, ’”

The feveral nations of Europe, among which the arts
have made fuch rapid progrefs, have long fince banifhed the
more rude and uncertain mode of igniting the powder in
the priming pan by mears of a match, which being formed
of fome fubttance that retains fire, but burns very flowly,
could merely, by the motion of a {mall lever, aéted upon by
a finger, be applied thereto. This method is, however,
very generally retained among the nations of the Eaft; where
the bark of the prau/s, an indigenous tree every where
abounding, fupplies the pa/eetah, or match, in very great
perfection ; merely by caufing the threds {tripped off from
the leffer branches to be beaten with a heavy iron mall, or
hammer, in the courfe of its drying, which it dogs in a few
days: the fibres are then twifted to about the thicknefs of a
f{wan’s quill, and toany length that may be judged neceffary ;
the {pare part being allowed to hang down at the fide of the
lock, or lever. The ufe of matches is net only attended
with great delay, but, in confequence of the neceflity which
exifts for blowing the pa/ectah previous to applying it to the
pan, muft, in many inftances, fubjeét the operator to danger,
or eventually to accidental contact, between the fparks and
the firing.

Match-locks, fuch as are in Hindooftan, which, including
China and Tartary, may be confidered their head-quarters,
are not applied to the fhoulder when about to be difcharged;
but having a long ftock, of a batten-form, are placed under
the arm. This takes off the recoil; or rather caufes it
not to be felt ; an objeét of fome importance when it is
known that thefe pieces are generally charged heavily ; and,
that on account of the fearcity of lead, malleated iron balls
are in general ule: thefe, being very rough, require to be
rammed down very hard, otherwife they would remain in
the upper part of the bore, and fubjeét the barrel to be
burtt, as very frequently happens in confequence of the im-
met {> refiftance the ball makes in its courfe through a long
barrel, every where prefenting an untinifhed furface. On
the other hand it is to be remarked, that match-locks
throw balls to great diftances ; and, owing to the deliberute
manner in which they may be difcharged, without any tug
at a (tiff trigger, or the fear of a dick from the butt, are
found to do immenfe execution ; molt of thofe perfons who
ufe them are, indeed, as expert as the generality of rifle-men.
Many of thefe pieces are fo long and heavy, as to require
moyeable refls : thofe mounted as wall-pieces, and called jin-
jauls, often throwing a ball near a mile, and weighing from
fifty to fixty pounds.

The mufkets in ute among the armies in Europeare far
more compaét, carrying a larger ball, and in every refpeé&
better finifhed. Thefe are provided with fpring-locks,
which impel the flint towards a fteel plate, called the ham-
mer, by which the {parks are dire@ed into the pan. It is
to be regretted that the flint ufuglly provided for our mili-’
tary are not of a better quality ; foas to infure their ftriking

FIRE.

fire with greater certainty. Our fire-locksare indeed far too
heavy, for which it is affigned as a reafon, that lighter pieces
would not fend the balls toa fufficient diftance ; but if we
confider the well afcertained fa&, that not one mufket
ball in an hundred ftrikes upon an oppofing”line of troops,
we certainly fhould fet our minds rather more at eafe, on
the fcore of impetus in a weapon fo very little contributing
to the fuccefs of the day. It may not be too much to
affert, that the decreafe of weight, whereby fatigue and
labour would be greatly leffened, would enable our brave
foldiers to at with greater promptitude in general, and to
ufe their bayonets, which are really efficient in their hands,
with more aétivity and vigonr.

Englifh firearms of every kind are made to the greateft
perfection ; their bores being perfeétly fmooth, and the
locks remarkably neat, ftrong, and active. The fizes of

the balls are all regulated whem for public fervice ; being
caft in moulds of particular diameters ; fo that no miftake
can be made, wnlefs through fhameful negleét, in fupplying
ammunition to the feveral corps.
follows :

The Britifh ftandard is as

Number of
Balls to one

Pound of Lead.

Diameter of
each Ball in
Inches.

Nature
of the Piece.

—

Wail Pieces - - 63 -89
Mukkets a pitem, tes 145 68
Carabines oy see S 20 -60
Piftols - - - 34 51
7 Barrel Guns - - 464 46

In order to preferve a regularity in the fupply of balls for
pieces not on any regular {cale, or eftablifhment, it is ufual
to afcertain what ball will ft the bore in a proper manner ;
fo as to allow of four folds of paper, (i.e. two on each fide,)
necefflary to wind around the ball when made into a cartridge.
The’ ball is then tried in a gauge, that is, a bar pierced with
holes, all declining in fize, in regular order, and numbered
from one, which fuits a wall-piece, to buck-fhot ; which is
ordinarily eftimated at about No. 39 or 32. Whatever hole
the ball may pafs through, but in fo clofe a manner, as to
ftop in the next {maller hole, gives the defignation of the
bore on the regifter. But it is more ufual to caft balls in
moulds, defignated according to the number of balls of that
fize made from a pound of lead. Therefore mufket balls
would be called No. 14, and carabine balls No. 20.

The mention of feven-barrelled-guns leads us to contem-
plate, with no flight admiration, the perfection to which
this branch of mechanifm has been brought! This perfec-
tion has naturally been produced by fucceflive ftages, each
of which has had numerous candidates, to whom public
liberality has been the inducement, and proved the reward.
When we confider that a man provided with a mufket
having feven barrels, yet but one lock, may difcharge feven
times in lefs than half a minute, without any intermediate
operations of priming or loading, we mutt yield our tribute
ef applaufe to the ingenuity of the inventor, though we
‘cannot refrain from reflecting on that purpofe to which it
is devoted. ;

‘As to piftols, &c. they are made upon various feales, and
for the particular purpofes of thofe who are to ufe them.
Thus, what we call horfe-piftols, are intended to occupy the
tholfters attached to faddles; duelling-piftols, which are
ufually provided with hair-triggers, that a€t upon the
flichteft touch, are deftined to the decifion of thofe knotty
pointe at which honour fo {peedily takes umbrage ; while the

pocket-piftol, made upon 2 diminutive fcale, may be in-
tended either for the ufe of the robber, or to repel his pre-
fumption. Whatever may be the purpofe of fire-arms,
whether for the military, for fporting, or for general
defence, nothing can be more improper than leaving them
loaded in places aceeffible to fervants, ftrangers, and efpe-
cially to children. We thould fuppofe that the immenfe
number of accidents that happen, and are publicly notified
in the daily prints, might operate as a flimulus towards the
fecuring of firearms, beyond thole ordinary means of ac-
ceffibility, which place them within the reach of every one
whofe ill-fated curiofity may induce to handle them. Strange
to fay ! we fhudder at the detail of one of thofe accidental
murders which too often occurs, yet negleét to benefit by
the melancholy leffon, until fome domettic calamity of the
fame nature may burthen the negligent proprietor with
fhame, affliftion, and remorfe.

Vire-arrow is a {mall iron dart furnifhed with fprings
and bars, together with a match impregnated in powder and
fulphur, which is wound about its fhaft. It is ufed by
privateers and pirates to fire the fails of the enemy, and for
this purpofe is difcharged from a mufket or a {wivel-gun.
The match being kindled by the explofion, communicates
the flame to the fail, againft which it is direéted, where the
arrow is faftened by means of its bars and fprings. As this
is peculiar to hot climates, particularly the Weit Indies, the
fails being extremely dry, are inftantly fet on fire, and the
fire is conveyed to the mafts, rigging, and finally to the
veffel itfelf.

Fire-da/l, a compofition of meal-powder, fulphur, falt-
petre, rofin, pitch, &c. about the bignefs of a handgranade,
made of an iron fheet, filled and covered over with feveral
coats of the above mixture, the laft coat being of grained
powder. ‘hick brown paper made into the form of a fhell
adapted to the fize of the mortar, and filled with an equal
quantity of fulphur, pitch, rofin, and meal powder, well
mixed and put in warm, will anfwer the purpofe as well as
any thing elfe. This is to be thrown into the enemy’s
works in the night-time, to difcover where they are; or to
fire houfes, galleries, or blinds of the befiegers. The balls
ufed for this intention are prepared with mealed powder;
falt-petre, fulphur, rofin, fteel or iron filings, fir-tree faw-
duft boiled in falt-petre ley, and birchwood charcoal, well
rammed into a fhell, having various holes filled with {mall
barrels, loaded with mufket-balls, and immerfed in melted
pitch, rofin, and turpentine oil. They are fometimes armed
with {pikes or hooks of iron, that they may not roll off,
but ftick or hang where they are defired to have any effe&t.
See Batts.

Fire-bare, in our Old Writers, is ufed for a beacon.-
“ Quod fine dilatione levari & reparari fac figna & fires
bares, fuper montes altieres in quohibet hundredo, ita quod
tota patria per illa figna, quotiefcunque neceffe fuerit, praee-
munire poteit.”? Ordin. Obfervand. Temp. Edw, IL.

Frre-barrels. See Barres, and Fire-/bip.

Fire-dlaf, a difeafe or accident to which the hop plant
is much expofed. It chiefly occurs towards: the later
periods of the growth of the creps. It is fuppofed by moft
hop-planters to depend upon the particular ftate of the air
or weather at the time ; but it is more probable that it may
be caufed by lightning, as it takes place very fuddenly at
thofe feafons when it moftly prevails, and generally affects
the moft forward and luxuriant binds. See Hops.

Fire, don. M. Mahudel has a differtation on the origin
of bon-fires, wherein he endeavours to make it appear that
they were unknown to the ancients, and confequently muft
be a modern invention.

He

HIRE,

- He does not deny that the ancients had rejoicings on oc-
cation of the conclufion of a peace oralliance, or the news
of a victory’s being cbtained againft their enemies, on the
birth-day, proclamation, or marriage of their prince; as
alfo when they recovered from a dangerous ficknefs ; but,
according to him, the fire on all thefe occafions ferved only
to burn the victims or the inceufe; and as thefe facrifices
were moftly offered in the night-time, the illuminations
were only intended to give light to perform the ceremonies.
Hitt. Acad. Inferip. tom. ii. p. 330, feq.

Firet-dote, aterm fienifying a quantity of wood bound
up for fuel, which, by the common law, the tenants may,
for neceflary firing, take out of the lands that have been
granted to them. 5:

Fiee-clay, is that particular kind of clay which is proper
for making bricks or veflels intended to ftand a high degree
of heat. The third coal fhale or feries of argillaceous coal
meafures, between the third and fourth grit reck, reckoning
from the mill-ftone grit upwards, which traverfes Derby thire
and part of Yorkfhire, and produces crow-/tone and foffil
reeds in great abundance, contains a very excellent fire-clay,
which is dug at Heaze-nether-end, Wheatcroft, Birkin
Lane, and other places. The fiffures of the fourth or lower
limeftone of this diftriG fometimes produce alluvial mafles
of fire-clay, of good quality, as at Miik-hill gate, near
Water-houfe, Staffordfhire, and near Newhaven-houile,

Derby thire.

It is found that clay, more or lefs fit for fire-bricks, is

found immediately beneath almoft every feam of coals, and
where it is not foft in the form of clay, the clunch and other
indurated fubftances compofing the immediate floor of coals,
will generally fall by expofure to the weather, into a brick
clay or earth. See Froor.

Fire-cocks. Churchwardens in London, and within the
bills of mortality, are to fix fire-cocks at proper diftances
in ftreets, and written marks near them, and to keep in
every houfe thus marked an inftrument or key for opening
the plug, anda large engine and hand-engine for extinguifh-
ing fire, under the penalty of 10/. The turn-cock whole
water fhall come firlt into a main-pipe at a fire, fhall have
10s. the firft engine that is brought fhall entitle to 30s. the
fecond to 20s. and the third to ros. 6 Ann, cap. 31.
12 Geo. III. cap. 73. To prevent-fires, it is required that
workmen in the city of London, &c. build all front and
rear walls of brick or ftone; and that the front walls be
18 inches above the gutter, and coped with ftone, tile, or
brick ; and party-walls between houfe and honfe, thiofe
belonging to houfes, the expence of building which is more

than 120/. to be of the thicknefs of 1 foot nine inches, or *

24 bricks in the loweft ftory ; and of 2 bricks, or i foot
53 inches. from thence to the garret floor ; and from the
garret upwards 1} brick, or 13 inches, and to be carried
up to the full height of 18 inches above the adjoining
gutters 5 and it 1s alfo required, that no timbers, except the
girders, binding and trimming joints, and the templets
under the fame, fhall be. laid into fuch party-walls ; and that
there fhall be 5 inches of folid brick-work left at or between
the ends of all lentils, wall-plates, and bond timbers. See
Buitpine, and ftat. 7 Anne, c.17. 11 Geo. I. c.. 28.
33 Geo. Il. cap. 30. and 4 Geo. III. cap. 14. And on
the breaking out of any fire, all the conftables and beadles
fhall repair to the place with. their ftaves, and be afliiting in
putting: ont the fame, and caufing people to work, &e.
No aétion fhall be had againft any perfon in whofe houfe or
chamher a fire fhall begm, 6 Anne, 10 Anne, c.14. But
if fuch fire happens through negligence of any fervant, fuch
fervant fhali forfeit 100/. to be diilributed among the fufler-

ers; or, in default’ of payment, fhall be committed to fome
work-houfe, and there kept to hard labour for eighteen
months. See Arson. Der .

All the laws relating to the prevention, &c. of fire, are
reduced into one ftatute, and former ftatutes repealed, by
12 Geo. III. cap. 73.

Fire-damp, in Natural Hiffory. See Damp.

Tire-cater. We have a great number of mountebanks
who have procured the attention and wonder of the publi¢
by eating of fire, walking on fire, wafhing their hands in
melted lead, and the like tricks. . :

The mott celebrated of thefe was our countryman Rich-
ardfon, much talked of abroad. His fecret, as related in
the Journals des Scavans of the year 1680, confifted in a
pure fpirit of fulphur, wherewith he rabbed his hands and
the parts that were to touch the fire, which burning and
cauteriling the epidermis, hardened and enabled the {kin
to refift the fire. } :

Indeed this is no new thing; Amb. Paré affures us he
had tried on himfelf, that after wafhing the hands in urine,
and with unguentum aureum, one may fafely wafh them
in melted lead.

He adds alfo, that by wafhing his hands in the juice
of onions, lte could bear a hot fhovel on them ae it
melted lard.

Tire; LkeGrical. See Evecrriciry.

Fixe-engine, is a machine for extinguifhing accidental
fires by means of a ftream of jet of water. The common
{quirting fire-engine confifts of a liftiug pump placed ina
circular or cylindric veffel of water, and wrought by two
levers that act always together. During the ttroke, the
quantity of water raifed by the pifton of the pamp fpouts
with force through a pipe joined to the pump-barrel, and
made capable of any degree of elevation by means of a
yielding leather pipe, or by a ball and focket turning every
way, {crewed onthe top of the pump. The veffel con-
taining the water is covered with a itrainer, which pre-
vents the dirt and filth poured into it with the water from
choaking the pump-work. Between the ftrokes of this
engine the ftream is difcontinued for want of an air-veflel.
However, in fome cafes, engines of this conftruGtion have
their ufe, becaufe the ftream, though interrupted, is much
{marter than when the engine is made to throw water ina
continued ftream. The beft engine of this latter kind is
that of Mr. Newfham, formerly an engine-maker in Lon-
don. A peripetive view of the whole engine, ready for
working, is reprefented in Plate IIl. Hydraulics, &e. fig. 4.
‘This engine confilts of a ciftem A B, about three times as
long as itis broad, made of thick oaken planks, the joints
of which are hned with fheet-copper, and eafily moveable
by means of a pole and crofs bar C in the fore part of the
eogine, which is fo contrived as to flide back under the
cover of the ciltern, and on four folid wheels, two of which
are feen at D and E. ‘The hind axle-tree, to which the
wheel. E and its oppofite are fixed, are faftened acrofs under
the bottom of the ciftern; but the fore axle-tree, bearing
the wheel D, &c. is put on a itrong pin or bolt, ftrongly
faftened in a horizontal {ftuation in the middle of the front
of the bottom of the ciftern, by which contrivance the two
fore wheels and the axle tree have a circular motion round
the bolt, fo that the engine may ftand_as firm on rough or
floping ground as if it was level. Upon. the ground next
to the hind part of the engine may be feen a leathern pipe
F, one end of which may be ferewed on and.off upon oc=
cafion toa brafs cock at the lower end of the ciftern: the
other end is immerfed in the water, fupplied by a pond,
fire-plug, &c. and the pipe becomes a fucking pipe for fur;

nifhing

FI RE.

aifhing the pumps of the engine by its working, without
pouring water into the ciftern. T'o the hind part of the
ciftern is faftened a wooden trough G, witha copper grate
for keeping out ftones, fand, and dirt, through which the
citern is fupplied with water when the fucking pipe cannot
beufed. The fore part of the ciltern is alfofeparated from
the refit of its cavity by another copper grate, through
which water may be poured into the ciftern. Thofe that
work the pumps of this engine move the handles vifible at
the long fides, up and down, and are affited by others who
ftand on two fufpended treddles, throwing their weight
alternately on each of them, and keeping themfelves fteady
by taking inold of two round horizontal rails, H, I, framed
into four vertical ftLands, which reach to the bottom of the
ciltern, and are well fecured to its fides. Over the hind
trough there is an iron haadle or key K, ferving to open or
fhut a cock placed under it on the bottom of the ciftern,
the ufe of which we fhall explain in the fequel of tiis ar-
ticle. L is an inverted pyramidal box or cafe which pre-
ferves the pumps and air veflels from damage, and alfo fup-
ports a wooden frame M, on which ftands a man, who, by
railing or depreffiug, and turning about the ipout N, direéts
the ftream of water as occafion requires. This {pout is made
af two pieces of brafs pipe, each of which has an elbow 5
the lower is ferewed over the upper end T (fee fig. 5.)
of the pipe that goes through the air-veflel, and the upper
part {crews on to the lower by a ferew of feveral threads,
fo truly turned as to be water-tight in every fituation. ‘I'he
conic form of the fpouting-pipe ferves for wire-drawing the
water in its paflage through it, which occafions a fri@ion
that produces fuch a velocity of the jet as to render it ca

pable of breaking windows, &c. whilft the valves and lea-
thern pipes of the engines have fufficient water-way to fup-
ply the jet in its greateft velocity. Leather pipes of con-
fiderable length may be {crewed at one end of the nofel of
the engine, and furnifhed at the other end with a wooden
or brafs pipe for guiding the water into the inner apart-
ments of houfes, &c. Between the pyramidal box L, and
the fore-end of the engine, there is a {trong iron bar O,
lying in an horizontal pofition over the middle of the cif-
tern, and playing in brafles fupported by two wooden
ftands; one of which, P, is placed between the two fore-
flands of the upper rails, and the other is hid in the in-
clofure over the hind part. Upon proper fquares of this
bar are fitted, one near each end, two itrong crofs bars,
which take hold of the long wooden cylindrical handles, by
means of which the engine is worked; and the treddles by
which they are aflifted are fulpended at each end by chains
ig the form of a watch chain, and receive their motion
jointly with the handles that are on the fame fide, by means
of two circular feétors of iron fattened together, and fixed
upon proper fquares of the middle horizontal bar ; the two
fore ones may be feen at Q; the two hind ones reprefented
ona large feale in fiz. 6. difler from the former only in
thicknefs; for the fore fe€tors are made to carry only one
chain each, faftened by one end to their upper part, and
by the lower end to the treddles; whereas the fole of the
two hind fetors is wide enough to carry two chains each ;
one fet faftened like thofe of the fore ones for the motion
of the treddles: and the other two chains are faftened by
their lower ends to the lower part of thefe feGors, and by
their upper ends to the top of the pitlon bars, in order to
give them motion. See fig. 6. in which the hind fectors
and their apparatus are reprefented as they would appear to
a perfon ftanding between the two fore-wheels, and looking
at the hind part of the engine. The fquare over the letter
A is the feétion of the middle bar, on which, right over

Vou. XIV.

the two barrels, are placed the two feStors BCA and DEA,
forged together. EGHK and fghk are the two pifton
rods ; and the openings between the letters G, H, aud gh,
are the {paces through which the hind parts of the two
treddles pafs. Land M reprefent two ftrong finds rivetted
on the other fide of the bars on which they are placed ;
and to each of thefe is faftened a chain like a watch-chain,
fixed by their upper ends to the upper extremities D and
B of the iron fe€tors, by which they are drawn up and down
alternately. Thefe feétors give alfo an alternate motion up
and down to the pifton-rods, by means of two other chains
left white in the figure, in order to diftinguifh them from
the others: thefe are faftened by their lower ends to the
lower extremities of the feG@ors E and C, and their upper
ends terminating in a male fcrew, are made tight to the pilton-
rods at I and f, by two nuts. The fhape of the pifton-
rods, and the Sze and fituation cf the chains that give
them motion, are fo contrived, that the vertical axis of the
piltons is exa@ly in the middle of the breadth of the per-
pendicular part of the chains, and the upper part of
the pifton-rod taken together. PQ reprefents one of
the two crofs bars through the ends of which pafs the
long handles to which the men apply their hands when the
work the engine ; thefe crofs bars are fitted on the middle
bar at fome diftance from the fectors.

The other parts of this ufeful engine may be underftood
by the help of fe. 5. which reprefents a vertical fe€tion
taken through the middle line of the hind part of the en-
gine, as alfo the fection of the air-veflel, and that of one
of the barrels, and likewife the protiles of the nind fec-
tors, and of feveral other parts. A B is the feGtion of
the bottom of the ciftern, and C that of the hindmoft axle-
tree. D Eis the vertical fection of a ftrong piece of catt
brafs or hard metal, fo worked 2s to have a hollow in it,
reprefented by the white part, and fixed to the bottom
of the ciftern: this reaches from the opening D through
the cock W, and afterwards divides itfelf into two
branches, fo as to open under the two barrels; one of
thefe branches is exhibited in the figure, and the other
is exactly behind this. Through this channel, which
may be called the fucking-piece, water is conveyed to the
pumps by the preffure of the atmofphere, either from
the ciftern itfelf, or from any place at a diftance, by
means of a leathern pipe F, Jig. 7, which ferews on to
the fucking-piece at D, fig. 5, under the hind trough Z,
the grate of which is reprefented by the horizontal ftrokes.
FG reprefents the vertical feétion of another piece of
eatt brafs or hard metal that may be called the communi-
cation-piece, having two hollows for conveying the water
from under the two piftons to the two openings of the
flanch of the air-veflel; one of thefe hollows appears
in the figure ; the other lies exa@ly behind this, though not
ina parallel direction. Between the feétion of the fuck-
ing-piece D E, and that of the communication-piece F G,
may be obferved the fe€tion of one of the plates of lea-
ther, which makes all tight, and forms one of the two
fucking valves, of which there is another jutt behind this
under the other barrel. R ST isthe fe@ion of the coppe
air-veffel, and TV that of the conduit-pipe ; this veffel is
{crewed on to the hind part of the communication-piece,
and at top is faftened by a collar of iron to a crofs piece of
timber. Between the flanch of the air-veffel and the
communication-piece may be obferved the fection of one
of the plates of leather, making all tight, and ferewins
one of the two forcing valves, of which there is another jufl
behind this, exadly over the other opening of the cor
munication from the air-veffel. Thefe valves are load

3N _

RS.

with a lump of caft iron or lead, having °a tail or teat
‘Jet through the flap of the valve and crofs-pinned under it 5
andit is to be obferved, tnat though both the valves are
reprefented open in the figure, they are never both opea
at the fame time; for when the engine is not at work
they are clofed down by the weights on their upper fur-
faces; and when the engine works, two are fhut, and
the other two are,open alternately by the motion of the
piftons and the aGtion of the atmofphere, together with
the re-aG@ion of the air contained in the air-veflel. H I
is the feétion of one of the barrels of the two pumps,
which are both fucking and forcing, as is evident from
the pofition of the valves and the ftruéture of the pil-
tons, each of whichis compofed of two iron plates, of two
wooden trenchers, and of two flat pieces of leather turn-
ing one up and the other down. LK reprefents one of
the pifton-rods edge-wife, behind which is one of the
chaius, the top fcrew of which, K, can only be feen. M
is the end of the middle bar, and N a {fection of the hind-
mott of the two middle ftands which fupport the middle bar.
© reprefents the end of the profile of one of the treddles,
paffing through the reGtangular holes of the pifton-rods, as
in fig. 8. "The weight on thefe treddles brings them and the
piitoa-rods down alternately, and they are raifed up again
by belp of the other fet of chains, one of which may be
feen edge-wile in this figure, placed on the fole of one of the
{egtors, &c. Seefig. 6. ,

P Qis part of the crofs bars which carry the handles
feen edge-wife, and XY reprefents an iron handle, by
the help of which the cock W_ may be placed in the
{everal {ituations requifite for the ufe of the engine. The
mechanifm of the cock W may be underftood by jigs.
g, 10, and rx, which repxefent the horizontal feétion of it
in three different fituations It has three holes that are
left white in thefe figures. In fg. 0. the pofition of the
cock is reprefented when the handle X Y or K isin a di-
rection parallelto D E, or to the middle bar, as in fg. 5.
and jig. 4. In this pofition, the water fupplied by the
fucking-piece enters at D, and proceeds ceases through
the cock W to the valve under the two piltons; and
there ig now no communication from the barrels with the
cavity of the ciftern. In fig. to. we have the pofition of
the’ cock when the handle X Y is turned one quarter of a
revolution towards the eye from the laft mentioned fitua-
tion, in which cafe there is no communication from the bar-
rels with the outer extremity of the fucking-piece, but the
water poured into the fore and hind trough, and pafling
from thence into the cavity of the ciftern, enters the cock
fide-wife at W, and, turning at right angles through the
cock towards I, proceeds to the barrels of the pumps.
Fig. 11. reprefents the cock W when the handle is placed
diametrically oppofite to its laft fituation, in which cafe
there is no communication from the under-fide of the bar-
rels with the cavity of the ciftern or the outward end of
the fucking-piece ; but this fituation affords a eommunica-
tion from the cavity of the ciftern with the outfide of the
engine, and the water left in the cavity of the ciftern may
by this means be employed when the engine has done
working. ‘Thefe engines are made of five or fix different
fizes. See Defaguliers’s Courfe of Exper. Philof. vol- ii.
p- 505—515.

The principles on which this engine atts, fo as to pro-
duce a continued ftream, are obvious; the water, being
driven into the air-veflel, as in the operation of common
fucking and forcing pumps, will comprefs-the air contained
in it, and proportionably increafe its {pring, fince the force
of the air’s {pring will always be inverfely as the fpace

which it poffeffes ; therefore, when the air-veffel is half
filled with water, the {pring of the included air, which
in its original ttate counterbalanced the preffure of the at-
mof{phere, being now compreffed into half the fpace, will be
equal to twice the preffure of the atmofphere ; and by its
action on the fubjacent water will caufe it to rife through
the conduit-pipe, and to play a jet of 32 or 33 feet high,
abating the effeét of fri@tion. When the air-veffel is two-
thirds full of water, the fpace which the air occupies is only
one-third of its firlt {pace; therefore its {pring being three
times as great as that of the common air, will project
the water with twice the force of the atmofphere, or to the
height of 64 or 66 feet. In the fame manner, when the
air-veffel is three-fourths full of water, the air will be com-
prefled into one-fourth of its original fpace, and caufe the
water to afcend in air with the force of three atmofpheres,

orto the height of 96 or og feet, &c. as in the following
table : :

Height of | Height of the | Proportion of Height to which
the water. | compreffedair. | the air’s fpring. | the water will rife.
: Taka a Nay 7

z 2 2 33 feet
z i; 3 66
ay "4
: ; 5 192
: = 6 165
y I
7 T 7 198
z x 8 231
: : ;
3 H 9 ans
Ts 13 Io 297

See Martin’s Philof. Brit. vol. ii. p. 69, &c.

The fire engine, by Rowntree, is a double-force pump,
of a peculiar conftruction, fimilar in its ation to the deer-
engine, but as it is on a much larger feale, its conftruétions

are of courfe varied. In this engine, figs. 1. and 2.
Plate 1V. Hydraulics, are two elevations at right angles
to each other, of the external part of the engine mounted
on four wheels. Figs. 3. and 4. are two fecioae per-
pendicular to each other, of the body of the engine or
pump ; fgs. 5. and 6. are parts of the engine. The fame
letters are ufed as far as they apply in all the figures,
A,A, A, A; fig. 3. and 4. is a caft-iron cylinder truly
bored, ten inches diameter and fifteen long, and having a
flanch at each end whereon to ferew two covers, with
ftuffing boxes, a, a, in their centres, through which the
{pindle, B, B, of the engine pafles, and being tight packed
with hemp rouid the collar, makes a tight joint ; the piton,
D, is affixed to the fpindle within the cylinder, and tits it
tight allround by means of leathers; at E, fig. 4. a parti-
tion, called a faddle, is fixed in the cylinder, and fits againft

the back of the fpindle tight by a leather.
awe have now a cylinder divided by the faddle, E, and
pifton, into two parts, whofe capacity can be increafed and
diminifhed by moving the pifton, with proper paffages and
valves to bring and convey away the water: this will forma
pump. ‘Thefe'paffages are ca{t in one piece with the cylin-
der: one, d, for bringing the water is fquare, and extends
about td round the cylinder ; it conneéts at bottom with a
pipe, e 3 at its two upper ends it opens into two large cham-
bers, /,¢, extending near the whole length of the cylinder, and
clofed by covers, 4, 4, {crewed on; i, £, are iquare openings
(thewn by dotted {quares in fig. 3,) in the cylinder commu-
nicating with the chambers : fg, /m, are two valves, clofing
their ends of the curved paflage, d, and preventing any
2 water

FIRE.

water returning down the paflage, d; n,0, are two paflages
from the top of the cylinder to. convey away the water ;
they come out in the top of the cylinder, which, together
with the top of the chambers, f, g, form a large flat furface,
and are covered by two valves, p,q, to retain the water which
has pafled through them. A chamber, K, is ferewed over
thefe valves, and has the air-veffel, h, figs. 1. and 2. {crewed
into its top; from each fide of this chamber a pipe, wy,
proceeds, to which a hole is {crewed, as fhewn in fig. 1.
Levers, x, x, are fixed to the {pindleat each end, as fhewn in
Jig- 1, and carry the handles, H, H, by which men work the
engine. When the pifton moves, as fhewn by the arrow in
Jig. 4. it produces a vacuum in chamber, f, and that part of
the cylinder contiguous to it ; the water in the pipe, e, then
opens the valve, m, and fills the cylinder. The fame motion
forces the water contained in the other part of the cylinder
through the valve, g, into chamber, K, and thence to the
hofe through the pipe, w ; the pifton being turned the
other way, reverfes the operation with refpe to the valves,
though it continues the fame in itfelf. The pipe, ¢, is
{crewed bya fiaunch to an upright pipe, P, fig. 5. connected
with another {quare iron pipe, faftened along the bottom of
the cheit of the engine; a curved brafs tube, G, comes from

this pipe through the end of the cheft, and is cut into a.

{crew to fit on the fu€tion hofe when it can be ufed; at
other times a clofe cap is {erewed on, and another brafs cap
at H, within the cheit, is ferewed upwards on its focket, to
open feveral {mall holes made in it, and allow the water to
enter into the pipe ; in this cafe the engine cheft mutt be
kept full of water by buckets. The valves are made of
brafs, and turn upon hinges. The principal advantage of
the engine is the facility with which it is cleaned from any
fand, gravel, or other obftructions, which a fire-engine will
always gather when at work.

The chambers, f, 7, being fo large, allow fufficient room
to lodge a greater quantity of dirt than is likely to be accu-
mulated in tke ufe of the engineat any one fire, and if any
of it accidentally falls into the cylinder, it is gently lifted
out again into the chambers by the pillon, without being
any obftruétion to its metion: to clear the engine from the
dirt, two circular plates, r,7, five inches diameter, are un-
{crewed from the lids, 4,4, of the chambers, f, 7, and when
cleaned are {crewed on again: thefe {crew covers fit per-
feQly tight without leather, and can be taken out, the en-
gine cleared, and enclofed again ina very fhort time, even
when the engine is in ufe, if found neceffary.

The two upper valves, p,¢, and chamber, K, canalfo be
cleared with equal eafe, by bocetitut out the air-veffel, £4,
Jig. t. which opens an aperture of five inches, and fits air-
tight, without leather, when clofed. The valves may be
repaired through the fame openings. The ufe of the air-
veffel, £2, figs. t. and 2. is to equalize the jet from the en-
gine during the fhort intermittance of motion at the return
of the pifton ftroke; this it does by the elafticity of the
compreffed air within it, which forces the water out con-
tinually, though not fupplied quite regularly from the engine.

The engine from which our drawing was taken was made
forthe Sun Fire Infurance Company, in London, and from
fome experiments made by their agent, Mr. Samuel Hubert,
appears to an{wer every purpofe.

Fire-engine is alfo aname frequently given to amachine
for railitfg water by fteam, more properly called /ean-en-
gine, which fee.

Fire-efeape, a machine for efeaping from windows when
houfes are on fire. Various machines of this kind have been
invented by different perfons ; the following feems tobe well
adapted to the purpofe for which it was defigned. It was ori-

ginally invented by the late John Daniel Maferes, efg.; and
B. M. Fortter, efq. has communicated to the public a defcrip-
tion of it, with fome improvements by himfelf, in the Phi-
lofophieal Magazine. The principal parts of this machine,
which is called the “ fling fire-efcape,” are as follows :
1. The fufpenfion iron A, (Plate XII. Mifcellany, fig. 12.),
which is formed like a ram-head commonly nfed for fling-
ing goods from warchoufes, with this difference, the bottom
haoks are turned up clofe to the upright part, to form two
clofe rings or eyes; the length of this iron is about four
inches and a half, thicknefs of the iron out of which it is
hammered is about half an inch.

2. Therope B. This is made of flax, and platted ina
peculiar manner, for which there was a patent taken out,
It is fold by Armftrong, St. John’s-fquare, Clerkenwell,
and meafures about three-eighths of an inch in diameter.
The rope mutt be in length fomewhat more than twice the
height of the window from the ground.

3. The regulator C. This is an oblong piece of beech
wood, fix inchesand a half in length, three inches anda
quarter bread, and about feven.eighths of an inch thick ; in
this there are four holes pierced for the rope to pafs through ;
one of thefe is open at the fide; there is aifo a notch at the
top of this piece of wood, and an oblong hole about feven-
eighths of an inch from the bottom.

4. The upper belt D is a ftout leathern ftrap, about four
feet three inches long, and one and a half broad, with a
buckle to it.

5- The lower belt E isa ftrap of the fame fort as the
other; but the end, after being put through the buckle, is
fewed down : this is for the purpofe of fecurity, in cafe the
tongue of the buckle fhould by accident break.

6. The union itrap F, fo called from its conneéting the
regulator to the other parts of the machine. This is lea-
thern, aad is about a foot and a half long, and aninch anda
quarter broad; it has, like the others, a buckle to it. It
is ftained black, which difiinguifhes it from the other leathern
ftraps.

The method of putting together all thefe parts of the
machine is, firlt to pafs one end of the rope through the
holes in the regulator, then through the two lower rings of
the fufpenfion iron; the upper belt is then to be pafled
through a doubling of the union ftrap ; after which the rope
is to be tied to that belt, and the knot fecured by a ftring
from flipping (which ftring is to pafs through two {mall
holes in the leather); asd at about a foot below the rope is
to be tied to the lower belt in like manner. Next, the union
ftrap is to be put through the oblong hole in the regulator,
and buckled; by which the upper belt and the regulator
will be connected. The other end of the rope may be kept
wound ona wooden roller, to prevent it from getting en-
tangled.

Perfons who purchafe thefe machines fhould havea very
ftrong iron hook, witha {pring-catch, fixed to fome fecure
partvof the window-frame, or elfewhere ; on this hook the
fufpenfion iron is tobe hung by the upper ring, when any
one wifhes to defcend from the window. The next opera-
tion is to ftep inte thé lower belt with both feet, and draw
it up fufficiently high, fo as to forma kind of {wing to fit
in: the part of the trap which its through the buckle is to
be laid hold of with the left hand; and the buckle, with
the right hand, is to be flipt to its proper place, according
to the fize of the perfon; the tongne 1s then to be put inte
one of the holes, as in buckUag common itraps. After
this is done, the upper belt is to be fomewhat loofely
buckled round the cheft, and then the rope whichis on the
roller is to be thrown out of the wmdow on the ground.

3N2 Now

FI

Now all being ready for defcending, the perfon is to
get out of the window, grafping tight with one or with
both hands, the rope at fome convenient part, taking efpe-
cial care not to meddle with the fufpenfion iron until quite
outof the window ; after which the rope below the regulator
is to be laid hold of with the right hand, and to be let to
run through the holes as faft as there may be eccafion ; for
which purpofe, if neceflary, it may be eafily flipped out of
the open hole; it will then have the check of only three
holes: if the motion is wanted to be retarded, the rope
is to be put into the notch at the upper part of the regula-
tor.

When one perfon has defcended, and there is a neceflity
for a fecond immediately to follow, the union ftrap is to
be unbuckled ; when the regulator will be feparated from
the upper belt : the belts may then be very eafily drawn up,
having the friction of the fufpenfion iron only, and the
perfon above is to put on the belts as the other did, and is
to be let down gradually, partly by the one below, and part-
ly by managing the rope as the firit did: in this cafe great
care mutt be taken, as the check occafioned by the regulator
is gone.

Obfervations and Cautions.

It is not eafy to lay down exact rules for what number
of holes the rope muit pafs through, as this muft vary ac-
cording to the weight of the perfon, and other cireumftances.
It would be well, before the perfon gets out of the window,
to examine, firlt, (abfolutely neceflary,) whether the fufpen-
fion iron is on the hook; then, that the three buckles are
faft, the two knots tied, and that the rope is in the hole of
the regulator which has the opening. Great care mutt be
taken that there is not any impediment to the free running
of the rope ; for which the wall of the houfe muft be exa-
mincd, and any nails or hooks which may chance to be there
removed ; alfo iron fcrapers, and every thing wherein the
rope may be likely to hitch.

Mr. b.M. Forfter has, in fome refpe&s, fimplified Mr.
Maferes’s machine, particularly in fubitituting the ram-head
fufpenfion iron in the place of a more complicated, and, in
his opinion, lefs fecure piece of mechanifm. (See fg. 13.)
It confifts"of a folid metal (in the latter improved ones)
grooved cylinder, round which the rope coiled two or three
times, by which a confiderable degree of fri€tion was pro-
duced, and the rapid defcent prevented, which would other-
wife happen. The metal cylizder is fupported on an iron
frame, and fufpended by a ring, which ring 1s moveable in
the focket. A isthe moveable ring in the upper part of
the frame; B is the frame, enclofing a grooved cylinder ;
and Cis a metal bar to hold the cheeks together.

Fire, Lverlafing, in Pagan Theology, isa kind of re-

uted facred fire worfhipped by the Gavers or Gabres in
Perfia. Dr. Mounfey, tormerly phyfictan to the czarina’s
army, has given the following account of it: this perpe-
tual fire rifes out of the ground inahe peninfula of Abfche-
ron, about twenty mles from Baku, and three miles from
the Cafpian fhore. The ground is rocky, over which is a
fhallow covering ofearth. Ifa little of the furface be {craped
off, and fire be applied to the hollow, it catches flame imme-
diately, and burns without intermiffion, and almcit with-
out confumption ; nor is it ever extinguifhed uulefs fome
cold earth be thrown over it, by which it is eafily put out.
There isa fpot of ground, about two Enghith miles in ex-
tent, which has this property, where the earth continually
burns; but the moft remarkable part of it is a hole about
four feet deep, and fourteenin diameter. This fire is wor-
fhipped, and 1s faid to have burnt many thouland years. The

RI,

cracks inthe walls of the caravanfera, inhabited by the re-
ligious, are covered with flame, if a candle be held to them 5
and when there is occafton for a fmall light, no more is ne-
ceflary than to ftick one end of a piece of reed in the ground,
and apply alighted candle to the other ; a flame will kindle
at the top of the reed, and burn till it is extinguifhed by
covering it. They burn ftones into lime, by filling a hole
in the ground witha heap of them, and bringing a lighted
candle to the hole, upon which the fire kindles, and in about
three days burrs the ftones fufficiently. ‘The flame yielded
by this fire, has neither {moke nor fmell. This facred and
adored phenomenon is nothing more than an inflammable
vapour, which iffues in great quantity out of the ground in
this place, and is fupplied by the naphtha with which the
adjacent country abounds, Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. for 1748,
- 296.
‘: Fire, Lxtinguifbing of. The world has long been of
opinion, that a more ready way than that in general.ufe,
might be found for extinguifhing fires in buildings, and it
has generally been attempted upon the doétrine of explofion.
Zachary Grey] was the firft perfon who put this plan into
execution with any tolerable degree of fuccefs. He con-
trived certain engines, ealily manageable, which he proved
before fome perfons of the firlt rank to be of fufficient effi-
cacy, and offered to difcover the fecret by which they
were contrived, for a large premium given either from the
crown, or raifed by a fubfcription of private perfons. But
this {cheme meeting with no better fuccefs than things of
this nature ufually do, he died without making this dif-
covery. Two years after this the people who had his pa-
pers found the method ; and it was fhewn before the king
of Poland and a great concourfe of nobility at Drefden,
and the fecret purchafed at a very confiderable price. After
this the fame perfon carried the invention to Paris and many
other places, and praétifed it every where with fuccefs.
The fecret was this: a wooden veffel was provided holding
avery confiderable quantity of water; in the centre of this
there was fixed a cafe made of iron plates, and filled with
gun-powder ; from this veflel, to the head of the larger vef-
fel containing the water, there proceeded a tube or pipe,
which might convey the fire very readily through the water
to the gun-powder contained in the inner veffel. This tube
was filled with a preparation eafily taking fire, and quickly
burning away; and the manner of ufing the engine was to
convey it into the room or building where the fire was,
with the powder in the tube lighted. ‘The confequence of
this was, that the powder in the inner cafe foon took fire,
and, with a great explofion, burtt the veffel to pieces, and dil-
perfed the water every way: thus was the fire put out in
an inftant, though the room was flaming before in all parts
atonce. The advantage of this invention was, that at a
{mall expence, and with the help of a few people, a fire”
in its beginning might be extinguifhed; but the thing
was not fo general as it was at firit expected that it would
prove; for though of certain efficacy in a chamber or
clofe building where a fire had but newly begun; yet
when the mifchief had increafed fo far, that the houfe was
fallen in, or the top open, the machine had no effeét.
This was the contrivance firft difeovered by Grevl, and
from which our chemift Godfrey took the hint of the ma-
chine, which he called the water-bomb, and would fain have
brought into ufe in England. A@. Eruditor. ann. 1721.
p- 183. (See Warer-Bomb.) Dr. Hales propofed to
check the progrefs of fire by covering the floors of the ad-
joining houfes with earth. The propofal is founded on an
experiment which he made with a fir board, half an inch
_thick, part of which he covered with an inch depth of

5 damp

FIER‘ E,

damp garden mould, and then lighted a fire on the furface
of the mould; though the fire was kept up by blowing,
it was two hours before the board was burnt through, and
the earth prevented it from flaming. The thicker the earth
is laid on the floors, the better; however, Dr. Hales
apprehends, that the depth of an inch will generally be
fufficient ; and he recommends to lay a deeper covering on
the ftairs, becaufe the fire commonly afcends by them with
the greateit velocity. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. for 1748,
277

: Me Hartley made feveral trials in the years 1775 and
1776, in order to evince the efficacy of a method which
he had invented for reftraining the fpread of fire in build-
ings. For this purpofe thin iron plates are well nailed to
the tops of the joifts, &c. the edges of the fides and ends
being lapped over, folded together, and hammered clofe.
Partitions, ftairs, and floors, may be defended in the fame
manner ; and plates applied to one fide have been found fuf-
ficient. The plates are fo thin as not to prevent the floor
from being nailed in the joiftsin the fame manner as if this
preventative were not ufed: they are kept from ruft by
being painted or varnifhed with oil and turpentine. The
expence of this addition, when extended through a whole
building, is eftimated at about five per cent. Mr. Hartley
had a patent for this invention, and parliament voted a
fum of money towards defraying the expence of his nume-
rous experiments. (14 Geo. III. cap. 85.) The fame pre-
fervative may alfo be applied to fhips, furniture, &c.

Lord Mahon (now earl pa ae alfo difcovered
and publifhed a very fimple and effectual method of fe-
curing every kind of building againft all danger of fire.
‘This method he has divided into three parts, viz. under-
flooring, extra-lathing, and inter-fecuring. The method
of under-flooring is either fingle or double: in fingle under-
flooring, a common {trong lath of oak or fir, about one-
fourth of an inch thick, fhould be nailed againft each fide
of every joift, and of every main timber, fupporting the
floor which is to be fecured. Other fimilar laths are then
to be nailed along the whole length of the joifts, with their
ends butting againfteach other. The top of each of thefe
Jaths or fillets ought to be at 13 inch below the top of the
joifts or timbers againft which they are nailed; and they
will thus forni a fort of {mall ledge on each fide of all the
joifts. Thefe fillets are to be well bedded in a rough plaf-
ter hereafter mentioned, when they are nailed on, {fo that
there may be no interval between them and the joifts ; and
the fame plafter ought to be fpread with a trowel upon the
tops of all the fillets, and along the fides of that part of
the joifts which is between the top of the fillets and the
upper edge of the joifls. In order to fill up the intervals
between the joifts that fupport the floor, fhort pieces of com~
mon laths, whofe length is equal to the width of thefe in-
tervals, fhould be laid in the contrary direétion to the joitts,
and clofe together in a row, fo as to touch one another:
their ends muft reft upon the fillets, and they ought to be
well bedded in the rough platter, but are not to be faftened
with nails. They mult then be covered with one thick
coat of the rough platter, which is be fpread over them
to the level of the tops of the joifls; and ina day or two
this platter fhould be trowelled over, clofe to the fides of
the joifts, without covering the tops of the joiits with it.

Tn the method of double flooring, the fillets and fhort
pieces of laths are applied in the manner already defcribed ;
but the coat of rough platter ought to be little more than
half as thick as that in the former method. Whilit this
rough platter is laid on, fome more of the fhort pieces of
laths above-mentioned mutt be laid in the intervals between

the joifts upon the firft coat, and be dipped deep in it,
They fhould be laid as clofe as poffible to each other, and
in the fame direGion with the firft layer of fhort laths.
Over this fecond layer of fhort laths there muft be {pread
another coat of rough platter, which fhould be trowelled
level with the teps of the joifts, without rifing above them,
The rough platter may be made of coarfe lime and hair ;
or, inftead of hair, hay chopped to about three inches in
length may be fubftituted with advantage. One meafure of
common rough fand, two meafures of flacked lime, and three
meafures of chopped hay, will form in general a very good
proportion, when fufficiently beat up together in the manner
of common mortar. The hay fhould be put in after the
two other ingredients are well beat up together with water.
This plafter fhould be made {tiff ; and when the flooring
boards are required to be laid down very foon, a fourth
or fifth part of quick-lime in powder, formed by dropping
a {mall quantity of water on the lime-itone a little while
before it is ufed, and well mixed with this rough platter,
will caufe it to dry very faft. If any cracks appear i the
rough plafter-work, near the joiits, when it is thoroughly
dry, they ought to be clofed by wafhing them over with a
bruh wet with mortar wafh: this wath may be prepared
by putting two meafures of quick lime, and one of common
fand, in a pail, and ftirring the mixture with water till the
water becomes of the confiftence of a thin jelly.

Before the flooring boards are laid, a {mall quantity of
very dry common fand fhould be ftrewed over the plalter
work, and {truck fmooth with an hollow rule, moved in
the direGtion of the joifts, fo that it may lie rounding be-
tween each pair of joifts. The plaiter-work and fand
fhould be perfe@ly dry before the boards are laid, for fear
of the dry rot. The method of under-flooring may be fuc-
cefsfully applied to a wooden ftair-cafe ; but no fand is to
be laid upon the rough plafter-work. The method of
extra-lathing may be applied to cieling joifts, to floping
roofs, and to wooden partitions.

The third method, which is that of inter-fecuring, is
very fimilar to that of under-flooring ; but no fand is after-
wards to be laid upon it. Inter-fecuring is applicable to
the fame parts of a building as the method of extra-lath-
ing, but it is feldom neceflary.

Lord Mahon has made feveral experiments in order to de-
monftrate the efficacy of thefe methods. In moft houfes,
it is only neceffary to fecure the floors; and the extra-ex-
pence of under-flooring, including all materials, is only
about nine pence per fquare yard; and with the ufe of
quick-lime a little more. The extra-expence of the me-
thod of extra-lathing is no more than fix pence per f{quare
yard, for the timber, fide-walls, and partitions ; but forthe
ceiling, about nine pence per fquare yard. But in moft
houfes, no extra-lathing is neceffary. Phil. Tranf, vol. lxviii.
for 1778, part ii. art. 4c. p. 884, &c.

Fireflaire, in Ichthyolozy. See Raja Paftinaca.

Fire-fies, in the Hiftory of Infe@s. See Lampyris.
Awong the flies of Guiana, there are two fpecies of fire-
flies. The largeft is more than one inch in length, having
a very large head conneéted with a body by a joiat of a par-
ticular ftru€ture, with which, at fome times, it makes a
loud knock, efpecially when Jaid on its back. This fly
has two feclers, or horns, two wings, and fix legs. Under
its belly, is a circular patch, which, in the dark, fhines
likea candle; andon each fide of the head, near the CYCSys
is a prominent, globular, luminous body, in fize about one
third larger than a muftard feed. Each of thefe bodies is
like a rifing ftar, emitting a bright, and not fmall light 3...
fiace two or three of thele animals, put into a glafs veffel,

alford

FIRE,

afford Heht fufficient to read without difficulty, when

laced clofeto abook. “When the fly is dead, thele bodies
will {till afford confiderable light, though lefs vivid than be-
fore; and if bruifed, and rubbed over the hand and face,
they become luminous in the dark, like a board {meared with
phofphorus. They have a reddifh-brown colour, and live
In rotten trees in theday, but are always abroad in the night.
The other kind are not more than half as large as the for-
mer, and their light proceeds from under their wings, and
is feen only when they are elevated, like {parks of fire, ap-
pearing and difappearing every fecond. OF thefe the air
1s full in the night, though they are never {een in the day.
They are common, not only inthe fouthern, but northern
parts of America, during the fummer. In Siam, the trees
on the banks of the river Main in fummer are beantifully
illuminated with {warms of fire-flies, which emit and con-
ceal their light as uniformly as if it proceeded from a ma-
chine of the moft exaé contrivance.

Fire, Line of; the direction in which balls, &c. are im-
pelled from cannonand mufketry, is called ** the line of
fire,” and this again is divided, when {peaking of the dif-
charge of fhots from cannon, againft any fortified place, as
in fieges, into two diftiné branches ; namely, the plongant,
or dire€t fire, which plunges intoa wall, &c. at right an-
gles therewith ; and the razant, or grazing fire, which
ftrikes fuch wall at a greater or lefler angle, in proportion
as the piece from which the fhot proceeds, may be more or
lefs obliqued from a direét fire. It feareely need be point-
ed out, that the direét fire is by far the molt deftrudtive to
that obje& againft which it is peremptorily pointed ; it is
therefore a defideratum always to be able to take up fuch a
pofition with the breaching-batteries as may admit of this
forcible mode of attack, the effeéts of which foon become
vifible. Nor can it be lefs obvious that the force with
which a thot obliquely direGted againit any work, will gra-
dually dimimifh according as the line of fire may approach
to a parallel with the face to be battered; therefore the
grazing-fre is fuited ouly to particular purpofes, fuch as
where an enfilade cannot be made direé, that is, in the
exat line with the platforms on the battery to be entiladed,
but rather in reverfe ; that is towards its rear.

Now it is evident that grazing-/hots will do little fervice
when they make an angle of lefs than 60° with the wall to
be battered, efpecially if reveted with mafonry. They will
however, do great execution, provided they touch on the
merlons above the cordon, and efpecially if they fall within
the embrafure, which at fuch an angle mutt afford a front
nearly at right angles with fuch otherwife oblique tive, and
of courfe, owing to that obliquity, render it a direé? one in
fuch particular fituations. This, however, will only hap-
pen infront of the merlon; in its rear the obliquity will
be rather encreafed, whereby the fhot will have {till lefs
power. But, as fhewn under the head of Enrizane, fuch
fhots as may be thrown juft over the epaulement at the angle
of a baftion, &c. at an angle not exceeding five or fix de-
grees, (or perhaps a little more,) in reverfe, will generally
do full as much damage, as when the entilade proceeds from
a direét line of fire ; and this will be confiderably aided by
the parapet being reveted with mafonry, from which, not
only willfplinters be knocked off, but the fhois will be
thrown in fuch dire¢tion as may fuffice to render the battery
untenable: unlefs, indeed, numerous buttrefles, called tra-
werfes, be thrown up for the purpofe of arrefting the pro-
grefs of all fuch ediilading vilitors.

In viewing the exterior of a work, we generally confi-
#er each face or battery as having its line of fire direétly at
sight angles with jtfelf: that is, that the cannons fhould fe-

verally be brought asfquare to genowlieres, againft which
they reft, when brought forward to the embrafures. It is
true, that, forthe fake both of allowing greater {cope to
the direétion of each piece, as well as for avoiding the
{hock which would attend the formation of narrow embra-
fures with parallel fides, they are made to diverge perhaps
to the extent of r2° on each fide, the line of fire may be
inclined five or fix degrees towards either fide; but, in fuch
cafe, the revetement would fvon be deltroyed : in fafeine re-
vetements, not only would the percuftion be felt, but flames
foon make their appearance,

Tie defeG&is attendant upon embrafures would long fince’
have caufed them to be exploded, were it not that the mer«
lons afford fo excellent a thelter for the men at the guns ;
in every other refpe€t, parapets on a low coattruétion,
over which the muzzles of the feveral pieces can be lald, at
the fame angle of depreffion as the fuperior flope, have the
preference ; as they allow the dine of fire to be changed full
tifteen degrees towards either fide of the direé line of fire 5°
whence, efpecially in a tide’s way, where a fhip may be
pafling, the molt important advantages may be gained. "This
kind of battery is bett fuited to fituations not liable to be
attacked by mufketry, particularly from the poops and
tops of fhipping, nor within the ordinary reach of grape or
cale-fhot. Guns thus laid over parapets are faid to be “en
barbet.’”

Vixe-dch, in tri€tnefs applies to every {pecies of fire-arms, *
which are difcharged by means of locks containing fprings,
&c., that impel a flint fixed in a {pecies of vice, at the head
of that part called the cock, againftacurved fte+l plate,
called the Jammer, fo as to produce from their collifion
fuflicient fire, in the form of {parks, or feintillations, which —
beiug by the aétion of the device direéted intoa hollow
called the pan, before covered by the hammer, caule the gun-
powder depofted in that hollow, and which is called the
priming, (it being the firlt portion of that combuftible to be °
ignited, )to take fire, and of caurfe, by means of the fouch-
hole, which opens into the pan, to explode the charge that
is rammed into the bottom of the barrel. The detfignation |
fire-lock wasin confequence of this ingenious contrivance
attached to all pieces ating upon the above principle, in
contra-diftinction to match-locks, which derive their appel-
lation from the circumitance of the powder in their pans
being ignited by the application of a match. See Firs-
arms, and Marcu-Lock.

The fre-locks ufed by the Britith are rather fhorter than
thofe in general ufe on the continent ; yet are the former
fomewhat the heavieit; and that too, notwithftanding the
Trench, in particular, brace their barrels to the ftocks by
means of brafs collars, two, three, or even four in number,
whereas we affix them merely by wire pins paffing through
eye-loops attached under the barrel.

The fire-lock confilts of the following parts. The bar-"
rel, which is commouly about go inches in length, and
carries a ball of fourteen tothe pound. The charge being
fix drachms of powder ; fo that including the ball, the pa-
per, and the twine, the entire weight of the cartridge
fhould be 10z. gdr. 11gr. This barrel is affixed to the flock,
not only by the pins above defcribed, but by a flat projec.
tion at its butt, about two inches long, through which a
very fubflantial flat-headed ferew paffes into the more fub-
ftantial part of the ftock ; which is moftly made from the
belt walnut wood ; obferving that the grain follows the
curve of the ftock where it bends between the gripe, that is
where held by the right hand. and the ttraight part, which
receives the butt and lock, and pafles all the way under the
barrel, to within about three inches of the muzzle. The

ftock

FI

itock is furnifhed at its butt with’ a ftout brafs plate, a little
concave, fo as to fit eafy in the hand, when the piece is
fhouldered. ‘The part under the ¢rigger is covered by a
guard made of brafs, which allows accefs to the finger, but
ferves to prevent the trigger from being adventitioufly
hitched by boughs, &c. The /ock is faftened to the right
fide of the barrel, in a pofition not to obftru& the fight
along the barrel, whereby aim is taken, and at the fame
time is ina convenient polition for all the operations attend-
ant upon priming, cocking, half-cocking, &c. The mode
of faftening is by two fcrews, which having wood heads, pals
under the butt of the barrel, from the left fide of the ftock,
and are received by two female fcerews, formed inthe main

late, on which the feveral parts of the lock are faftened.

he ram-rod, which is of iron, and, of the fame length as
the whole of the barrel, fits into three or four fmall brafs
tubes, faftened to the ftock, called pipes, and tail-
pipes: at its endit isturned into a male fcrew, for the pur-
pofe of fitting toa worm, by aid of which the charge
may be drawn, and the piece cleaned. ‘The bayonet fixed
at the muzzle with great eafe, being fecured in its place,
with fufficient firmnets, by a ftrong ftud on the upper line of
the barrel, which, being ufed to direct the aim, is called
the fight.

It being fometimes neceffary for foldiers, and efpe-
cially artillery-men, to be liberated from the handling of
their arms, yct without totally relinquifhing them, each
frre-lock is furnifhed with a leathern fling, which affixes to
two {wivels placed under the fore-part of the guard, and
the fore-part of the ftock ; this fling is eafily braced up, fo
as to lie flat under the ftock, when not required to be paffed
over the foldier’s breaft, in form of a belt paffing over the
left fhoulder, and cauling the piece to be fufpended in an
oblique dire&tion over the back. ‘The value of a fire-lock
compleat may vary from 15 to 40 fhillings.

Fire-majier, in our Train of Artillery, is an officer who
gives the direétions and the proportions of the ingredients
for all the compofitions of fire-works, whether for fervice
in war, or for rejoicings and recreations. He has a mate
to affit him.

His orders are given to the fire-workers and hombardiers,
who are obliged to execute them.

Fire-ofice, an office of infurance from fire.
SURANCE,

Vire-ordeal. See Orprat.

Fire-philofophers, or Philofophi per ignem, a fanatical
fe& of philofophers who appeared towards the clofe of the
fixteenth century, and made a figure in almoft all the coun-
triesof Europe. The aniinguiihtiag tenet from which they
derived this appellation was, that the intimate effences of
natural things were only to be known by the trying efforts
of fire, directed in a chemical procefs. They were alfo
called Theofophifs, from their declaring againft human
reafon es a dangerous and deceitful guide, and reprefenting
a divine and fupernatural illumination as the only means of
arriving at truth ; they were likewife denominated Paracel-
fifisy from the name of Paracelfus, the eminent phyfician and
“chemift, who was the chief ornament and leader of this ex-
traordinary feét. It was patronized in England by Mr.
Robert Flood or Fludd, who endeavoured to illuftrate the

hilofophy of Paracelfus in a great number of treatifes; in
eins it was zealoufly propagated by Rivier; in Denmark,
by Severinus; in Germany, by Kunrath, an eminent phy-
fician of Drefden ; and in other countries by warm and fuc-
cefsful votaries, who affumed a ftriking air of piety and
devotion, and propofed to themfelves no other end than the
advancement of the Divine glory, and the reftoration of

See In-

R FE,

peace and concord in a divided church ; accordingly they
were joined by feveral perfons eminent for their piety, and
diftinguifhed by their zeal for the advancement of true reli-
gion. One of the moft celebrated of thefe was Daniel
Hoffman, profeffor of divinity in the univerfity of He!
fladt, who, availing himfelf ef fome unguarded paflace
the writings of Luther, extravagantly maintained, thet plu-
lofophy was the mortal enemy of religion ; that truth was
divifible into two branches, the philofophical and theologi-
cal ; and that what was true in philofophy was falfe in thea-
logy. Hoffman was afterwards obliged, by the interpofi-
tion of Henry Julius, duke of Brunfwick, to retract his
invectives again{t philofophy, and to acknowledge in the
moft open manner the harmony and union of found philofo-
phy with true and genuine theology. Motheim’s Eccl.
Hilt. by Maclean, aa iv. p. 17, 15. 8vo. edit. 1768.

Fire-places are contrivances for communicating heat ta
rooms, and alfo for anfwering various purpofes of art and
manufadiure.

For the Jatter kind, fee Furnace and Stove. The
principal objects with regard to the former are leflening the
charge of fuel, and augmentlng the benefit of fire. The
general properties of air and fire, on which their conftruétion
chiefly depends, are the following, viz. that air is rarefied
by heat, and condenfed by cold ; i.e. the fame quantity of
air takes up more fpace when warm than when cold ; air
rarefied and expanded by heat is fpecitically lighter than it
was before, and will rife in other air of greater denfity ; fo
that a fire being made in any chimney, the air over the fire
is rarefied by the heat, becomes lighter, and immediately
rifes in the funnel, and goes out; the otherair in the room,
flowing towards the chimney, fupplies its place, is raretied
in its turn, and rifes likewife ; and the place of the air thus
carried out of the room, is fupplied by fresh air coming in
through doors and windows, or, if they be fhut, through
every crevice with violence ; or if the avenues to the room be
fo clofed up, that no frefh fupply of air can be obtained,
the current ap the funnel mutt flag; and the fmoke, no
longer driven up, float about in the room. Common fire
throws out light, heat, and fmoke; the light and heat
move in right lines with great {wiftnefs, but the fmoke is
but juft feparated from the fuel, and moves only as it is
carried off by the ftream of rarefied air; and without a con-
tinual acceffion of air, will remain crowded about the fire,
and ftifle it. Heat may be feparated from the {moke and
light, by means of a plate of iron ; and the greateft feafible
heat is direétly over the fire, where, befides the rays of
heat fhot upwards, there is a continual rifing ftream ef hot
air, heated by thofe rays that are fhot round on every
fide.

The fire-places moft in ufe are, 1. The large open fire-
places, that were commonly ufed in former times, and are
ftill continued in the country, and in kitchens. Thefe
require a large funnel, confume a great quantity of fuel,
generally fmoke, if the door be not left open, and contribute
little to warmaroom. Their fpacioutnefs ie their greateit
convenience,

2. Inftead of thefe old-fafhioned chimnies, the modera
fire-places, efpecially in towns, have been conftruGted with
low breaits and hearths, narrowed by jambs. Fire-places
of this contracted form will keep rooms ge ly free from
{moke ; but the funnel requires a confiderable quantity of
air, which rufhes in at every crevice, fo as to render the
fituation of perfons continually expofed to it uncomfortable
and dangerous. Many of the difeafes proceeding from
colds may be afcribed to itrong drawing chimnies, whereby,
in fevere weather, perfons are fcorched before, while they

are

FJ

are frozen behind, Thefe fire-places are of little ufe in
warming a room; becaufe the air round them, which is
warmed by the direct rays of the fire, does not continue in
the room, but is continually colle@ed into the chimney, by
the current of cold air coming behind it, and is prefently
carried off. Befides, the greateft part of the fire is loft,
being abforbed by the back jambs and hea:th, which are fo
dark and porous as to reflect very little, and the upright
heat flies direGtly up the chimney. To remedy this incon-
venience the Sieur Gauger, in his book entitled La Mecha-
nique de Feu, publifhed in 1709, and fince tranflated by
Dr. Defaguliers, (fee Curmney) propofed feven different
conftru@ions of, 3. A third fort of chimnies, in which there
are hollow cavities made by iron plates in the back, jambs,
and hearth, through which plates the heat paffing, warms
the air in thofe cavities, which is continually coming into
the room frefh and warm, This conitruction had many
obvious advantages ; but the expence and difficulty attend-
ing it difcouraged the propagation of the mvention. How-
ever, the upright heat was almoft wholly loft in thefe as in
the commonchimnies. 4. Another kind of fire-place is the
Holland iron-{tove, with a flue proceeding from the top, and
a {mall iron door opening into the room. Thele ferve to
warm a room, fave fuel, and produce a conftant change of
air. But the fire is not feen, and little ufe can be made of
it befides that of warming the room. It is therefore rarely
ufed in England, except in fome work-fhops.

5- The German ftove is compofed of five iron plates
{crewed together, and fixed fo as that the fuel may be put
into it from another room, or from the outfide of the houfe.
It is a kind of oven reverfed, its mouth being without, and
body within the room that is to be warmed by it. This
ftove warms a room with little fuel, and is attended with no
danger from the irruption of cold air; but the fire is not
feen, and there is no change of air inthe room heated by it.
For an account of the Chinefe ftove, fee Kane.

6. Another kind of convenience for warming rooms is
a charcoal fire kindled in pots and chafling difhes. ‘This is
chiefly ufed in the fhops of handicraftf{men. But the ful-
phureous fumes arifing from the coals render this mode of
giving heat difagreeable and dangerous, and ina clofe room
fometimes fatal.

The ingenious Dr. Franklin, whofe name we have had
frequent oceafion of recording in this work, having re-
counted the inconveniences and advantages of fire-places in
common ufe, propofes a new contrivance for this purpofe,
called the Pennfylvania fire-place. 1 This machine confifts
ofa bottom plate or hearth-piece (fee Plate XIV. Mij/cellany,

Jig. 2.) with a rifing moulding before for a fender, two
perforated ears F, G, for receiving two {crew-rods ; a long
air-hole aa, through which the outward air pafles into an
air-box ; and three fmoke-holes reprefented by dark {quares
in BC, through which the fmoke defcends and paffes
away ; befides double ledges for receiving between them
the lower edges of the other plates. 2. A back plate
without~holes, and furnifhed with a pair of ledges to re-
ceive 3. The two fide-plates, each of which has a pair
of ledges to receive the fide-edges of the front plate, with a
fhoulder on which it refts; two pair of ledges to receive
the fide-edges of the two middle plates which form the air-
box, and an oblong air-hole near the top, through which
the air warmed in the box is difcharged into the room, and
a wing or bracket, as H, and a {mall hole, as R, for the
axis of the regiftertoturnin. See fig. 3. which reprefents
one of thefe plates. 4. An air-box, compofed of the two
middle plates D E and FG, figs. 4. ands. The firft has
five thin ledges or partitiens cal on it, the edges of which

R FE.

are received into fo many pair of ledges caft in the other:
the tops of all the cavities formed by thefe thin deep ledges
are alfo covered by aledge of the fame form and depth cat
with them ; fo that when the plates are put together, and
the joints luted, there is no communication between the
air-box and the fmoke. Inthe winding paflages of this
box, frefh air is warmed as it paflesinto the room. 5. A
front plate, which is arched on the under fide, and orna-
mented with foliages, &c. 6. A top plate, witha pair of
ears M, N, (fg. 6.) anfwerable to thofe in the bottom
plate, and perforated for the fame purpofe. It has alfo a
pair of ledges running round the under fide to receive the
top edges of the front, back,-and fide plates. The air-
box does not reach up to the top plate by 24 inches.

All thefe plates are of caft iron; and when they are all
in their proper places, they are bound firmly tegether by a
pair of flender rods of wrought iron with {crews, and the
machine appears as in fig. 6. There are alfotwo thin plates
of wrought iron, viz. 7. The fhutter, which -is of fuch
a length and breadth as to clofe well the opening of the
fire-place, and ferving to blow up the fire, and to fecure
itin the night. It is raifed or deprefled by means of two
brafs nobs, aud flides in a groove left between the foremoft
ledge of the fide plates and the face of the front plates,
8. The regifter, which is placed between the back plate and
air-box, and furnifhed with a key ; fo that it may be turned
on its axis and made to lie m any pofition between level
and upright. The operation of this machine, and the mes
thod of fixing it, may be underltood by obferving the pros
file of the chimney and fire-places in fig. 7. M is the
mantle-piece or breaft of the chimney; C the funnel; B the
falfe back, made of brick-work in the chimney, four inches
or more from the true back, from the top of which a
clofing is to be made over to the breait of the chimney,
that no air may pals into the chimney except that which
goes under the falfe back, and up behind it; E the true
back of the chimney ; [the top of the fire-place; F the
front of it; A the place where the fire is made; D the
air-box ; K the hole in the fide-plate, through which the
warmed air is difcharged out of the box into the room; H the
hollow, formed by removing fome bricks from the hearth
under the bottom plate filled with frefh air, entering at the
paflage I, and afcending into the air-box through the air-hole
in the bottom plate near G, the partition in the hollow, de-
figned to keep the air and fmoke apart ; P the paflage under
the falfe back, and part of the hearth for the f{moke; and the
arrows in the figure fhew the courfe of the fmoke. The
fire being made at A, the flame and fmoke will afcend,
itrike the top T, and give it a confiderable heat ; the {moke
will turn over the air-box, and defcend between it and the
back plate to the holes near G, in the bottom plate, heat«
ing in its paflage all the plates of the machine; it will then,
proceed under and behind the falfe back, and rife into the
chimney. The air of the room contiguous to the feveral
plates, and warmed by them, becomes {pecifically lighter
than the other air in the room, and is obliged to rife; but,
being prevented by the clofure aver the fire-place from going
up the chimney, 1s forced out into the reom, and rifing
by the mantle-piece to the cieling, is again driven down,
gradually by the fteam of newly-warmed air that fol-
lows ; and thus the whole room becomes ina little time
equally warmed. The air, alfo, warmed under the bot-
tom plate and in the air-box, rifes and comes out of the
holes in the fide plates, and thus warming and continually
changing the air of the room. In the clofing of the chim-
ney a {quare opening for a trap-door fhould be left open for
the fweeper to go up: the door may be made of flate or

ting

ERE.

tin, and fo placed, that by turning up againft the back of
the chimney when open, it clofes the vacancy behind the
. falfe back, and fhoots the foot that falls in {weeping out
upon the hearth. It will alfo be convenient to havea {mall
hole about tive or fix inches fquare, cut near the cieling
through into the funnel, and provided with a fhutter, by
occafionally opening which, the heated air of the room and
fmoke of tobacco, &c. may be carried off without incom-
moding the company. Fora farther account of the man-
ner of ufing this fire-place, the advantages attending it, an-
{wers to objeCtions and diretions to the bricklayer in fixing
it, the curious reader may confult Franklin’s Letters and
Papets on Philofophical Subjeéts, p. 284—318. edit. 1769.
For a farther account of improved fire-places, fee CHIMNEY.

Fire-pofs, in the Military Art, are {mall earthen pots
into which is put a grenade, filled with fine powder till the
grenade be covered ; and then the pot is covered with a
piece of parchment, and two pieces of match laid acrofs
and lighted. ‘This pot being thrown where it is defigned to
do execution, breaks and fires the powder, and thereby fires
the powder in the grenade, which ought to have no fuze,
that its operation may be the quicker.

Fire, Razant, or rafant, is a fire from the artillery and
fmall arms dire&ed in a line parallel to the horizon, or to
thofe parts of the works of a place that are defended.

Tire, Running, is when a rank or ranks of men drawn up
fire one after another; or when the lines of an army are
drawn out to fire on account of a victory ; in which cafe
each {quadron or battalion takes it from that on its right,
from the right of the firft line to the left, and from the left
to the right of the fecond line, &c. 7

Fire/iip, is a veflel fitted up with combuftible appa-
ratus, fo arranged as to appear {uddenly in a blaze, at any
given time, or fituation. It is cbferved by Anderfon in his
Hiftory of Commerce, vol. i. p- 432, that fome Englifh
veffels, filled with combuttible matter, and fent among the
Spanith fhips compofing the Invincible Armada in 1588,
are faid to have given rife to the terrible invention of fire-
Ships. However, Livy informs us, that the Rhodians had
invented a kind of fire-(hips which were ufed in junction with
the Roman fleet in their engagement with the Syrians, in
the year before ‘Chrift 190; canldrons of combuttible and
burning materials were hung out at their prows, fo that
none of the enemy’s fhips durft approach them: thefe fell
onthe enemy’s gallies, itruck their beaks into them, and
at the fame time {fet themon fire. Liv. lib. xxxvii. cap. JO.
tom. ili. p. 322. Ed. Crevier.

There is nothing peculiar in the conftruétion of a modern
Sire-fhip, except the apparatus by which the fire is inftantly
conveyed from one part to another, and from thence to the
enemy: for this purpofe the fire-room, in which the com-
buttibles are inclofed, is built between decks, and extends
from the bulk-head at the forecaftle to a bulk-head railed
behind the main-maft. The train inclofed in this apart-
ment is contained in a number of wooden troughs which
interfeét each other in different parts of the fhip’s length,
heing fupported at proper diftances by crofs pieces and
itanchions, On each fide of the thip are cut out fix or feven
port-holes, in fize about fifteen by eighteen inches, with
their lids opening downware, and clofe caulked up. ‘Agaiuit
each port is fixed an ivon-chamber, which, when the {hip is
fired, blows out the port-lid and letsout the flame. Under
the mainimd fore {hrouds is fixed a wooden funnel, one end
of which communicates with a fire-barrel, and defigned to
convey theilames to the fhrouds, Between the funnels,
called alfo fize-tranks, are two feuttles or {mall holes in the
upper deck; ferving alfo to let out the flames. Both fan-

Vor, XIV.

!

nels and fcuttles muft be ftopped with plugs, and have fai’.
cloth or canvas nailed over them, to prevent any zccident
happening from above to the combuttibles below. The port-
holes, funnels, and feuttles, ferve not only to communicate
the flames to the outfide and upper warks of the fhip and
her rigging, bat likewife to open a paflage for the inward
air confined in the fire-room, fo that it may expand itfelf
without blowing up the decks. Oncach fide of the bulk-
head behind is cut a hole big enough to receive a trough
of the fame fize as the others; leading troughs whofe
foremoft ends commuuicate with other troughs within the
fire‘room, extend obliquely from thefe openings to fally-
ports cut through the fhip’s fide: the decks and troughs
are well covered with melted rofin. When either of the
leading-troughs is fired, the flame is immediately conveyed
to the oppofite fide of the fhip, and both fides burn to-
gether.

The cabins’of the lieutenant and mafter are behind the
fire-room, one on the ftarboard and the other on the lar-
board fide. The captain’s cabin is feparated from thefe
by a bulk-head.

Of thefe fire-thips we have two forts, wiz. the con-
Sflograting and the exploding. The former have been long
in wie, but the latter appears to be of rather Jater adoption.
The veffels employed may be from 60 to 200 tons, or more ;
their fize being ufually adapted to the fervice they are to
perform. The following detailed account of the prepara-
tions and proportions of the requifite materials will give our
readers a perteét idea of this horrible contrivance.

Proportion of combuftible Stores for a Fire-Ship of 150 Tons.

Fire-barvels, filled with compofition - 8
Iron chambers to blow open the ports - 12
Compofition for priming - barrels = 34
Quick match - - ditto I
Curtains, dipped - - 48
Reeds, long, tingle dipped - 150
: Single dipped - 75
Ditto, fhort, { Dosble dpa 6 a5
Bavins, fingle dipped - - 250

The fire-barrels are about 2 feet 4 inches high, and
1 foot 6 inches in diameter. Each barrel muft have 4 holes
of about 6 inches fquare cut in its fides; and thefe holes
mult have a {quare piece of canvas nailed over them quite
clofe.. They are then filled with the fame compofition as
for carcafes; and 4 plugs of about 1 inch ia diameter and
3 long, and well greafed, are thruft into the top, and then
left to dry. When dry, the plugs are takea out, and the
holes filled with. fufe compofition, with quick-match at the
top. After this, the whole is fmeatd over with mealed
powder, mixed with {pirits of wine. When dry again, a
fheet or two of brown paper is laid over the top, and then
one of the canvas covers, which is made fecure by the upper
hoop of the barrel.
The compofition for dipping reeds, bavins, and curtains,
conlilts of J
Rotin -

- 120 Ib.
Coarfe fulphur “ 90
Swedith pitch - Go
Tallow - - e}

Mealed powder -

This will dip about roo reeds and 2¢
Fach curtain contains 1 fquare yard of barras; and each
cover for fire-barrels, 1 {quare yard of facking. Inimed
ately that the curtains, covers, &c, are dipped, tl
be itrewed over with tine brimftone, before n
erews cold. The irow chambers for blowmg open’ the

0 8

are to

the ofl

. ion
ie COMpoNntic

ports,

B.LLLR E.

ports, hold from 9 to 11 ounces of powder. They are
fixed in fuch manner as to prevent their recoil, and to in-
fure the ports being blown open. The vents are ufually
corked up, and covered with a piece of barras, till required
to be primed, for which the following compolition is pre-
-pared:

Saltpetre pulverized 5 224 |b.
Rofin ditto - 2
Sulphur ditto - 18
Mealed powder - Ad
Linfeed oil - - I pint.

The fhip fhould not be primed when fitted out, but only
when intended to be fireé. The mode of fitting out is this:
The whole breadth of the fire-room is to be divided into
nine parts; and troughs, about 4 inches wide and as many
deep, are laid both along the whole length of that room, and
acrofs; fo as to form a general communication, and to infure
that the whole of the combutftibles may be ignited nearly at
the fame moment. The eight fire-barrels are ranged along
the two fides ; and over them are two fire-fcuttles, or open-
ings with fire-trunks, by which the flames are directed up-
wards, towards the reft of the apparatus. ‘The reeds and
bavins are tied down to the troughs, to prevent their rolling
out of their places, as the fhip may roll or pitch; and the
curtains are nailed up to the beams, equally throughout the
fire-room,

When the veffel is about to be fired, all the reeds and
bavins are to be taken up, and a little of the priming com-
pofition fprinkled in the bottoms of the troughs: the reeds,
&c. are then to be lightly tied down as before. Quick
match, of fix or eight threads, doubled, mutt be laid along
on the tops of all the reeds, &c. and abundance of priming
compofition ftrewed over it, as well as over all the fire-room.
The covers of all the fire-barrels muf& be cut open, and made
to hang-down on the fides of the apertures. Leaders, of
ftrong quick-match, muft be laid from the reeds to the bar-
rels, and to the iron chambers; tying them to the feveral
yents, to infure their not falling off. Strong leaders of
quick-match, four or five times doubled, mutt be laid from
the reeds to the fally-ports ; and thefe laft muft be connected
by quick-match, that the whole may take fire at once.

The following mode is now in ufe for producing an ex-
ternal fire, in addition to that kindled within. Fire-boxes,
filled with carcafe-compofition, are diftributed in the fol-
lowing manner in a fhip with three mafts :

Boxes.
i box is fufpended from each of the cat-heads ane}
davits, on each fide of the bow, inall - 4
8% flung acrofs the bowfprit - - 8
4 Bi eacli of the out-riggers abaft - 8
2 from the graplins of each of the lower yard-arms 12
1 from the dead-eyes on each fide of the tops 6
1 from the middle of the infide of the fore, main, 6
and mizen fhrouds - - -

Total boxes of compofition 44

Thefe boxes are fufpended by chains and hooks; but
thofe thrown acrofs the bow{prits and out-riggers are fixed
by ftaples. The two inner ones are laid with leaders of
quick-match, which fire inftantly ; or elfe with port-fires,
cut to burna given time: they communicate with the outer
ones by reeds tied down on the bowfprit.and out-riggers.
The bexes that hang from the dead-eyes and fhrouds are
fired by curtains fuieended from the fhrouds; the lower
onss hanging immediately over the large fire-barrels, The

two boxes on each yard-arm are hung the one over the
other; the upper one having a leader of quick-match carried
along the yard from the fhrouds: this in burning will
doubtlefs fire the lower one. Befides the boxes, there are
fire-harrels arranged as follows: Two half-barrels on the
fore-caltle ; two abaft the main-deck, and four on the main
deck ; two in each top, placed againit the malts; and four
large fire-barrels, under fire-trunks, to convey fire to the
curtains on the fhrouds.

All theie fire-barrels and boxes are to be fired by feparate
leaders of quick-match or port-fire, fo that every part of
the fhip may be fired, and envelope her in fmoke during her
approach to the enemy; while the refidue need not be ig-
nited until the crew may be quitting to efcape in their
boats. This is certainly a very hazardous duty; the atten-
tion of the enemy being always attra¢ted by fuch fire-fhips
as appear likely to take effect: hence the boats are manned,
and every endeavour is made by long poles, like boat-hooks,
to get hold fo as to tow away into a contrary direétien ; or
long-boats, &c. are moored with chains extending upon
the furface of the water, for the purpofe of arrefting the
progrefs of the flaming vifitor. Whether it be from a re-
fined idea, or fiom the moft determined refentment towards
thofe who a¢t in tire-fhips, may be difficult to judge; but
there is rarely any quarter given to fach as fall into the
enemy’s power. However, under ordinary circumiftances,
the evacuation is not attended with much difficulty, ualefs
there be much fwell, by which the boat’s return may be
greatly impeded, thereby fubjeGting the crew to a heavy
fire from every quarter. When we under{tand that twe
men, turnifhed with lighted port-fires, can fet fire to the
whole of the leaders on the deck, &c. in lefs than a minute,
we may collet that after once the veflel has got into a pro-
per dire€tion, within a few minutes fail of the enemy, no
occafion for remaining in her, fo as to rifk the crew, need
ever exift. In general, the fire becomes univerfal in the
courfe of five minutes; the ports being blown open by the
chambers, and allowing the flames to rufh out in the moft
awful manner ;—in fucha manner as to preclude the poffi-
bility of approach in boats, which cannot aé when the fire
has become general.

Exploding fire-fhips are conftruéted on a fimilar principle ;
adapting it to the explofion, at a given time, of an immenfe
trough of powder running the whole length of the veffel,
for the purpofe of burfting her to pieces, and of deftroying
whatever veflels may be within reach of the fhock.

Fire-ffone is a coarfe, harfh, dutty free-ftone, of a mo-
derately compact texture, of a pale greyifh colour, nearly
white, with a very flight greenifh tinge. This ftone is mo-
derately hard and heavy, and flightly colours the hands ; it
is compofed of a fmall fine angular grit, cemented by an
earthy {parry matter, intermixed with numerous {mall
{pangles ofa filvery mica: it will not ftrike fire with fteel, and
in the fire changes to a flight reddifh hue. It is called alfo
Ryegate-ftone, from the place whence it is chiefly brought ;
it bears the fire and a high degree of heat, without melting
or exfoliating ; and is much ufed for chimnies, hearths
ovens, ftoves, &c.

It does not bear the weather, and is therefore unfit for
building.

The bett fire-ftone that England affords, is perhaps that
obtained from the mill-ftone grit itrata, from a bed with
globular ochry {tains in it, and which is ufed for lining the>
iron furnaces of Derbythire and other diftri€ts ; it is dug at
the Rooks quarry, in Afhover, on Stanton Moor, and ate
places. Of late years a good fire-ftone has been ufed at
Butterly furnace, by Mr, Jeflop, junior, from the, fine micas

ceous

FIR :

ceous grit-ftone im the fhale, (thale free-flone) at Bull
Bridge, near Crich. The loweft and moft filicious beds of
the chalk ftrata anfwer the end of a fire ftone, for which
purpofe they are dug at Ryegate, Godftone,. and other
places on the fouthern fkirt of the North Downs, in Surry,
for the ufe of the metropolis: the celebrated free-ftone at
Tottenhoe, in Bedfordfhire, is of thie flratum, and makes a
tolerable tre-ftone.

Fire-water, a name given toalkaheft. See Icnis aqua.

Fire, wild, is a kind of artificial or faGtitious fire, called
by the Greeks the liquid, or maritime fire, which burns
aye under water, and that with greater violence than out
or it.

Tt is compofed of fulphur, naphtha, pitch, gum, and
~ bitumen ; and it is only extinguifhable by vinegar, mixed

with fand and urine, or by covering it with raw hides.

Its motion or tendency is faid to be contrary to that of
natural fire, and always following the dire@tion in which it
is thrown, whether it be downwards, fidewife, or other-
wile. For the anpoyance of the enemy, it was employed
with equal eifeG by fea and land, in battles or in fieges. It
was either poured from the rampart in large boilers, or
launched in red-hot balls of {tone and iron, or darted in
arrows and javelins, twifted round with flax and tow
which had deeply imbibed the inflammable o'l: fometimes it
was depofited in fire-fhips, and was moft commonly blown
through long tube- of copper, which were planted on the
prow of a galley, ard fancituily fhaped into the mouths of
favage monfters that feemed1o vomit ftreams of liquid
and confuming fire.

The French call it Greeé Jire, or feu Grecois, becaufe
firft ufed by the Greeks about the year 660, as is obferved
by the Jefuit Petavius, on the authority of Nicetas,
Theophanes, Cedrenus, &c.

The inventor according to the fame Jefuit, was an en-
gineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, named Callinicus, who frit
applied itin the fea-tight commanded by Conitaatine Pogo-
nates againft the Saracens, near Cyzicus, in the Hellefpont ;
and with fuch effeét, that he burnt the whole fleet there-
with, wherein there were thirty thoufand men.

But others will have it of a much older date; and hold
Marcus Gracchus the irventor ; which opinion is fupperted
by feveral paffages, both in the Greek and Roman writers,
which thew it to have been anciently ufed by both thefe na-
tions inthe wars. See Scaliger againft Cardan.

Conftantine’s fucceffors afd it on divers oceafions, with
equal advantage as himfelf; and what is remarkable enough
is, that they were fo happy as to keep the fecret of the
compofition to themfelves, as the palladium of the ftate,
though their gallies and artillery might occafionally be lent
to the Romans, fo that no other nation knew it in the year
960.

Hugh, king of Burgundy, demanding fhips of the em-
peror Leo for the fiege of Frefne, defired likewife the
Greek fire. Chorier, Hift. De Dauph.

By various precautions, the fecret was confined above
400 years to the Romans of the Eaft, and at the end of the
11th century, the Pifans, to whom every {cience and every
art were familiar, fuffered the effe&ts, without underftanding
the compofition of the Greek fire. It was at length either
difcovered or {tolen by the Mahometans, and inthe holy wars
of Syria and Egypt, they retorted an invention contrived
againft themfelves, on the heads of the Chriftians.

F. Daniel gives us a good defcription of the Greek fire,
in his account of the fiege of Damietta, under St Louis.
Every body, fays that author, was aflonifhed with the
Greek fire which the Turks then prepared, and the fe.

FIR

cret whereof is now loft. They threw it out of a kind
of mortar; and fometimes fhot it with an odd fort of
crofs-bow, which was ftrongly bent by means of a han-
dle, or winch, of much greater force than the bare arm.

That thrown with the mortar fometimes appeared in the
air of the fize of a tun, witha long tail, and a noife like
that of thunder. It came flying through the air, fays
Joinville in his « Hiftoire de St. Louis,’ like a winged,
long-tailed dragon, about the thicknefs of an hogfhead, with
the report of thunder and velocity of lightuing ; and the
darknefs of the night was difpelled by this deadly illumi-
nation. The ufe of the Greek, or, as it might now be
called, the Saracen fire, was continued to the middle of the
14th century, when the fcientific or cafual compound of
nitre, fulphur, and charcoal effeGted a new revolution in the
art of war and the hiftory of mankind. Leonard da Vinci;
in his MSS., publithed by Venturi, defcribes the compofi-
tion of the Greek fire as formed by mixing over the fire,
the charcoal of willow, nitre, brandy, rofin, fulphur, pitch,
and camphor. A woollen cord is then plunged in the mix -
ture, and made into balls, which may afterwards be provided
with fpikes. Thefe balls, being fet on fire, are thrown into
the enemy’s veffels. A fimilar compofition has been given
by Baptiila Porta, in his «« Mag. Natur. l. xii.c. 2.” The
modern difcoveries refpeting combuftion have difclofed
the whole fecret of compofitions which burn without accefs
to the atmofphere, but by means of oxygenafforded from nitre.
The balls deferibed by Frezier, (Des Faux d? artifices)
which thine on the furface of water are nothing eife but the
Greek fire.

Fire-works, or artificial fires, are preparations made of
gunpowder, fulphur, and other inflammable and combuftible
ingredients, ufed on occafion of public rejoicings, and other
folemnities.

The principal of thefe are rockets, ferpents, ftars, hail,
mines, bombs, garlands, letters, and other devices. See
Rockets, Star, Boma, &c.

The invention of fire-works is by M. Mahudel attributed
to the Florentines and people of Sienna; who found out
likewife the method of adding decorations to them of ftatues,
with fire iffuing from their eyes and mouths.

The art of preparing and managing fire-works is called
Pyrotechny.

The making or felling of fire-works, or {quibs, er throw-
ing them about in any ftreet, is, on account of the danger
that may enfue to any thatched or timber buildings, declared
to bea common nufance, by g and ro W. III. cap. 7. and
punithed by a fine of 2o05.

Fire-workers, were formerly fubordinate officers to the
fire-mafters, who commanded the bombardiers, but they
are now fecond licutenants to the royal regiment of
artillery.

Thele receive the orders from the fire-mafters, and {ee
that the bombardiers execute them.

Fire, Jfland, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Indian
fea, near the coa{t of Africa ; S. lat. 17° $0’.

FIRENZUOLA, Acwo to, in Biogrephy, an Italian
poet, born at Florence in 1493, was fon of Baftiano de’
Giovannini, a perfon of confiderable note in his own country.
He ftudied at Sienna and Perugia ; and in the latter place he
contracted an intimacy with the famous Peter Aretin, whom
he accompanied to Rome. He was intended for the pro-
feflion of the law, and exercifed the duties of an advocate,
which he at length quitted to enter the congregation of
monks of Vallembrofa, with the expedation of attaining
fome preferment in the church. He died at Rome about the
year 1545, having pafled much of his live in ill health. Hie

3 Oz wntiog

Fin’

writings rank among the lighter produGtions of Italian liter-
ature. "They have been frequently priated ; and were cof-
leGted in three volumes at Florence in the year 1763. Thefe
confift of works in verfe and in profe ; of novels ; amorous
difcourfes ; a piece againft the new letters introduced into
the Italian by Triffino; difcourfes in natural hiltory ; two
comedies ; a tranflation of the Golden Afs of Apuleius,
adapted to himfelf and the circumftances of his own time.
In almoft all his pieces he exhibits a cultivated aad elegant
tafte, but is often more free in his manners than became the
clerical chara€ier. Moreri.

FIRGOS, ia Geography, a town of the ifland of Samos ;

miles W.N.W. of Cora.

FIRING, inthe Afanege, denotes a kind of correction or
difcipline of thewhip, ufed by horfe-dealers ; and which they
cruelly praGtife in order to terrify a horfe, and thus to
roufe his mettle, that he may appear to the belt advantage.
Whereas this object is moft honettly and moft efieGiually at-
tained by a moderate ufe of the whip.

Firins, in the Military Ariz, denotes the difcharge of
the fire-arms ; and its objet is to do the utmoft execution
to the enemy.

‘Lhe prefent method of firing by platoons is faid to have
been invented by Guftavus Adolphus, and firft ufed about
the year 16183 the reafon commonly given for this method
is, that a conftant fire may be always kept up. There are
three different ways of platoon firing ; viz. ftanding, ad-
vancing, and retreating. But previous to every kind of
firing, each regiment or battalion muft be told off in grand
divifions, fubdivifions, and platoons, exclufively of the
grenadiers, which form two fubdivifions, or four platoons,
of themfelves. In firing itanding, ether by divilions or
platoons, the firft fire is from the divifion or platoon on the
right; the fetond fire, from the left; the third, from the
right again ; and fo on alternately till the firing comes to
the centre platoon, which is generally called the colour
platoon, and does not fire, remaining asa referve for the
colours. Firing advancing is performed in the fame manner,
with this addition, that before either divifion or platoon
fires, it advances three paces forward. Firing retreating
varies from either of the former methods; for, before either
fivifion or platoon fires, if they are marching from the
enemy, it muft go to the right about, and after firing, to
the left about again, and continue the retreat as flow and
orderly as poflible. j

In hedge-tiring the men are drawn up two deep, and in
that order both ranks are to-fire ftanding. Oblique firing
is either to the right and left, or from the right and left to
the centre, according to the fituation of the object. The
Prufhans have a particular contrivance for this purpofe 3 if
they are to level to the right, the rear ranks of every pla-
toon make two quick but fmall paces to the left, and the
body of each foldier turns one-eighth of a circle, and vice
verfa, Parapet firing depends en the nature of the parapet
over which the men are te fire, and alo upon that of the
attack made to poffefs it. This method of firing is fome-
times performed by fingle ranks ftepping on the banquette
and firing ;,each man inftantly handing his arms to the
centre rank of. the fame tile, and taking his back in the

room of it; andthe centre rank giving it to: the rear to.

load, and forwardije the arms of the rear to the front ranks
by which means the front rank men can fire fxpor feven
rounds ina minute, with exa@trefs.. Parapet firing may alfo
be executed two deep, when the banquette’ is three feet
broad, erin field works, where no banquettes are made.
Square firing is performed by.a regiment or body of men
drawn up ia a hollow iquare, in which cafe each front. is

FIR

generally divided into four divifions or firings, and the flanks
of the fquare, being the weakelt part, are covered by four
platoons of grenadiers. ‘The firtt fire is from the right di-
vifion of each face; the fecond from the left divifion of
each face, &c. and the grenadiers make the laft fire. Street
firing is praétifed in two ways; either by making the divi-
fion or platoon that has fired to wheel by half-rank to the
right and left outwards from the centre, and to march im
that order by half divitions down the flanks on each fide of
the column, and to draw up in the rear, and goon with
their priming and loading ; or, to make the divifton or pla-
toon, after firing, to face to the right and left outwards
from the centre, and one half rank to follow the other ; and
in that orderto march in one centre file down on each fide
of the column into the rear, and there draw up as be-
fore.

FirinG iron, in the Manege, is a piece of copper or iron,
about a foot long, one end of which is made flat, and forged
like a knife; the back of it being half an inch thick, and’
the fore-edge about the fifth or fixth part of this. ° When
the farrier has made his firing-iron red hot in his forge, he
applies the thinneit part to the horfe’s fkin, and fo gives
the fire to the hams, or fuch places as ftand m need of
it,

The utility of firing, or of applying the a@tual cautery in’
itrains is doubtful. Mr. Lawrence tried it without fuecefs.
Its ufe is faid to be to difculs fwellings by promoting ab-
forption, and by contracting the fkin to form a conftant
bandage round the finews, both dering the cure, and ever
afterwards: when the paltern-joiuts are exceedingly full and
{fwelled, the legs gorged, the tendons enlarged, and, in-
deed, the parts indurated,’ bliftering and firing feem to be-
abfolutely neceffary, when no other meafures will be
fufficiently ufeful. In the Veterinary college, it is the
practice, in this operation, to draw the lines vertically round
the affe&ted limb ; the contraction of the fkin in that direGtion.
forming the molt effectual and uniform bandage on the part:
See Spavin, RinGpone, &e. A

TFIRKIN, an Englith meafure of capacity, for things li-
quid, containing the fourth part of the barrel.

The firkin of ale contains eight gallons; and that-of-beer,
nine; two firkins of beer make the kilderkin; two ktlder-

kins the barrel; and two barrels the hogfhead.. In the

country a firkin of ale and beer is 84 Winchetter gallons.

The firkins of herrings, foap, aud butter areon the foot=
ing of the firkin of ale ; viz. a gallon per firkin lefsthan that,
of beer.

FIRLAYENKA, in Geography, a town of Poland; in:
the palatinate of Lemberg; 48 miles E. N.E. of Lem-
berg.

FIRLOT, in Agriculture, is a term which is generally
applied to a dry meafure of grain in the northern parts of
the kingdom; but which differs in fize, according to Mr..
Sommerville, in the proportion of 21, 25 to 3%. ‘There is
therefore a /mall and a laxge frlot. Wheat, rye, beans,
and peas are ufually fold by the fimall firlot; but ma‘t,
barley, andoats by the large firlot. Tour fmall firlots are;
according to the fame writer, 4.087276 Winchelter bufhels ;
four large ones. 5,96263 Winchelter bufhels. Four firlots
make a boll. See Weicuts and Measures. The firtot
is tkewile diftinguifhed into the oat and the wheat kinds.
The oat firlot, which contains twenty-one and a querer
Scotch pints, is nineteen anda half inches in diameter, both:
at the top and bottom, being of a perfeétly cylindrical form,
and feven and a-half inchesin depth. The wheat firloteen-
tains about 2211 cubical inches, and that for barley thirty-
one itandard pints ; it deems therefare thatthe Scoteh wheat?

fastot

‘

FIR

finite exceeds the Englifh bufhel, by thirty-three cubical
inches.

FIRMAMENT, (from the Latin jirmamentum.) This’

word has been ufed with great latitude by facred writers,
by aftronomers, by poets, and other writers. When
Ptolemy of Egypt endeavoured to reconcile the phenomena
of the celeftial bodies with the prevailing philofophy of the
times, he fuppofed that the earth was immoveably fixed in
the centre of the univerfe, aud shat the moon, mercury,
venus, the fun, mars, jupiter, and faturn, were carried round
the earth by different {pheres ot folid but tranfparent mat-
ter. Beyond them he fuppofed the exiftence of an eighth
{phere whereon the fixed {tars were fituated, and this he
called the firmament of thé fixed flars; and beyond this
firmament be placed the primum mobile, and the ca/lum
empyreum. In procefs of time the abfurdity of this aftrono-
mical hypothefis was clearly demonftrated, in confequence
of which the Ptolemaic fpheres were utterly difregarded ; yet
the word firmament {till remained in ufe ; its meaning, how-
ever, became lef{s limited; fo that fometimes it was ufed to
exprefs the region of the fixed ftars; at other times it
denoted a peculiar region; or fome peculiar regions of the
heayens, as may be deduced from the expreflions, he middle
jmament ; the various firmaments. It has alfo been ufed to
fignify .the fly, or the whole expanfe of the heavens.
Derham fays (in his Aftro. Theol.) ** what an immenfe
{pace is the firmament, wherein a great number of ftars are
feen with our naked eye?” Dr. Keill, in his A ftronomical
Lectures; fays, “a {petator therefore living in the fun,
when he looks towards the heavens, will obferve its furface
to be fpherical-concave, and concentrical to his eye, in
which furface he will obferve an innumerable multitude of
ftars, which we call fixed, every where difperfed through-
out the whole heavens, which like fo many gilded ituds,
with a bright luftre, adorn the firmament.”

In various parts of the fcripture, the middle region of
the air is called the firmament. '

It is curious to obferve that whilft moft writers, ancient
no lefs than modern, feem to confider the firmament as fome-
thing aerial, or fluid; others, with Ptolemy, have con-
fidered it as folid and tranfparent like cryital. Indeed, upon
the leaft reflection, this laft ideafeems to be more confonant
with the nature of the word, which fuggells the idea of
fomething firm and fubflantial, a fort of toundation fit to
{upport great, heavy, and magniiicent’ objects. In fa&,
fome writers of note have ufed it in this fenfe, and entirely
independent on aflronomy. Thus Bacon (in his Advance-
ment of Learning) {peaking of the principles of every fub-
jet, which human induftry always endeavours to find out,
fays, ‘The mind of man doth wonderfully endeavour, and-
extremely covet this, that it may not be penfile; but that
it may light upon fomething fixt and immoveable,.on which,
ason afirmament, it may {upport itfelf it its {wiit motions
and difquifitions.’?

Confidering that ftriking circumftance of the fixed ftars.

conttantly: preferving their relative fituations ; it muft be
allowed, that Ptolemy was, not without apparent reafon,
induced to confider the firmament of the itars, as fomething
folid and permanent. . Previous toythe very, recent mott

accurate obfervations, which have fhewn that very flight.

alterations of diftances do a€tually take place among the
flars, it was not even fufpected that any fuch thing exiited ;
_ and the daily movement which they were obferved to-have,
was confidered as the common movement of them all, or
rather of their firmament, which appeared to revolve round
the earthionce in each 24 hours:
_ Befidesthis appavent daily motion, it, isto be remarked

FIR
.

that the fun returns to the equinox every year before it re~:
turns to the fame point in the heavens, hence the equi.oe-
tial points havea retrograde motion, which, though’ very
f{mall, in procefs of time amounts to fomething confiderable,

and it will complete a whole revolution, fo as to return to

the fame point, afier a great number of years. (This is

called the Precession of the equinoxes, which fee ; and

the whole revolution round the ftarry firmament is called the

great year, or annus magnus.) This circumftance did nog

efcape the notice of ancient altronomers, and their calcula-

tions refpeting the quantity of the annual preceflion, or of

the whole revolution, were not much lefs accurate than

thofe of latter times. Ptolemy reckoned the annus magnus,

or the grand revolution of his ftarry firmament, equal to

36,000 ordinary years. Hipparchus came to the fame con-

clufion, Tycho Brahe reckoned it equal to 25,412 years.

And the more modern aflronomers, though not quite agree=-
ing among themfelves, generally reckon it equal to about

26,000 years.

FIRMAN, in the Eaft. Indies, and particularly in the
erritories of the Great. Mogul, is the paffport, or per-
mit, granted to foreiga veflels, to trade within their jurif-
diction.

FIRMICUS, Marernus, Jurius, in Biography, ar
ecclefiaftical writer, flourifhed about the middle of the
fourth century. He is faid to be a Sicilian by birth; to
have praGifed for fome time as an advoeate in the-
Forum at Rome; and, in his old age, to have become a
convert from heathenifm to Chriftianity. He was author”
of a treatife, “ De Errore profanarum Religionum,”” which
was addrefled to the emperors Conftantius and Conftans.
It isa learned and well-written performance, and fets forth,
by way of contraft, the reafonablenefs and excellence of the
Chriftian fyftem, in comparifon with the abfurd'and immoral
tenets of the Gentile creed. It had been well had he been
fatistied with demonftrating by argument the fuperior ex-
cellence of his religion; but unfortunately he called upon
the civil power to propagate it by force, and by fevere
ediéts to crufh and overahelm the abettors of error. This
work has often been reprinted ; and in the year 1666 it was
publifhed at Paris, at the end of Cyprian’s works; and it is
inferted ia the zth-volume of the ‘ Bibliotheca Patrum.””
A mathematical, or; perhaps, more properly, an aftro-
logical treatife, entitled, ‘ Aitronomicornm, icn de Ma-
thefi, lib. viii.?? is afcribed to Firmicus, though not with-
out difpute. It was fir pubdlifhed at Venice, in 1497, m
folio, from a copy brought by Pefcennius Niger from Con-
ftantinople ; and has been frequently reprinted fince, to-
gether with the works of Manilius, and the aftronomical
pieces of Ptolemy. It treats of the power and influence of
the ftars, according to the doétrine of the Egyptians and
Babylonians ; and contains a curious mixture of mathe-
matical fcience with the reveries of judicial. aflrology.
Moreri.

FIR MILIAN, an eminent’ Chriftian bifhop, -who flou-
rifhed in the third century, was defeended from an honourable
family in Cappadocia... He was ordained bifhop of Czefarea
about the year 233, and was held in the higheit eftimation
for learning and for the excellence of his moral charaGter’ by
his contemporaries... In all the important eccletiaftical mat-
ters that were agitated in his time, the opinion of Firmilian
was looked up to with profound refpe& and veneration. He
was prefent at the council of Iconium, held in 2353 at the
council of Antioch, in 252, convened on the fubject of
Novatian’s fehifm;-he was alfo prefident of the council
held, fome-years after, at the fame place, to examine into
the.opinions of Paul of Samofata. He was.again invited ie

tac

FIR

the council held at Antioch, in the year 270, by which
Paul was condemned and depofed; but died at Tarfus, on
his journey, about the end of the year 269. ‘This was an
unfortunate event for Paul, who had already been faved by
his influence, and who would probably have again expert-
enced his kindnefs in this new attack on his principles and
charaéter, had he lived to argue the matter in council.
Firmilian was not much diftinguifhed as an author ; yet his
merits, moderation, and candour, entitle his memory to the
refpect of pofterity. Theodoret charafterized him as ‘ an
illuftrious perfon, equally matter of human and divine know-
ledge.”? He was united in ftriét friendfhip with Origen,
whom he invited into his own country, and to whom he
paid feveral vifits, for the fake of improving by his inftruc-
tions in divine knowledge. He took the part of St. Cy-
prian, in the difpute about baptifing heretecs that returned
to the catholic church; and wrote a long letter to St. Cy-
prian on the fubjeét, in which he expofed the inhymanity,
pride, and: infolence of Stephen, bifhop of Rome. St.
Bafil mentions with refpe@ the works of Firmilian, but
without exprefsly naming them. He was a man zealoufly
attached to the truth, but candid and liberal to thofe who
differed from him, and anxioufly defirous that they fhould
never be molefted on account of their opinions. Moreri.
Lardner.

FIRMIN, Tuomas, was born at Ipfwich, in Suffolk,
in the year 1632, where he was educated under the eye of
his parents, who were {tri€tly religious; and with regard
to this world’s goods, they were refpeétable but not rich.
“© God gave them,’’ fays the friend and biographer of Fir-
min, the wifh of Solomon, ‘ neither poverty nor riches,
but that middle eflate and rank, which contains all that is
valuable and delirable in wealth, without the parade, va-
nity, and temptations that. generally adhere to riches.’
When Thomas was of a proper age, he was bound appren-
tice to a tradefman in London. In this fituation he was
remarkable for his diligence and aétivity, as well as for his
amiable and obliging man: ers. With his matter he ufually
attended _the fermons of the celebrated Arminian preacher,
Mr. John~Goodwin: by this he became an early convert
from Calvinifm, in which he had been brought up, to the
principles of Arminius. At tke expiration of his appren-
ticefhip he entered into bufinefs on his own account, with a
capital of roo/. only, which in 1665 was increafed by an
addition of soo/. that he received with a citizen’s daughter
whom ke married. By {kill and induftry he foon acquired
property ; but, what was of infinitely more importance, he
became eminently known for the excellence of his difpofi-
tion, the integrity of his dealings, his folicitude to promote
the happinefs of others, and his kind and conftant-exertions
for alleviating the diftrefles of the poor and unfortunate.
He was, from his firfk commencement in bufinefs, defirous
of obtaining the friendfhip of perfens eminent for moral
worth, foreigners as well as his own countrymen, and par-
ticularly of the clergy of different denominations. From
thefe connetions he, in future life, was enabled to derive
effential affiltance in promoting the benevolent and ufeful
defigns for which he afterwards became fo eminently diftin-
guifhed. Among other perfons, he was intimately ac-
quainted with Mr. John Biddle, who confirmed him in his
Arminian fentiments, and made him a profelyte to Uni-
tarianifm, for the fake of which Biddle himfelf was perfe-
cuted and banifhed. (See Bippre.) Firmin was not to
be diverted from his kind intentions, becaufe the tyranny of
Cromwell fell heavily upon him: he fhewed him every at-
tention while here; and when he was fent, by the protetor,
a prifoner to the Scilly ifles, he procured for him a penfion,

FIR

which Cromwell had virtue enough to allow hint to receive
during his banifhment. Mr. Firmin enrolled among his in-
timate friends Dr. Whichcote, Dr. Worthington, Dr.
Tillotfon, and Dr. Wilkins. By the intercourfe which he
thus maintained with the clergy, and the great confidence
placed in his judgment to recommend men of abilities and
worth to fituations for which they were adapted, he was
enabled to ferve the interefts of many promifing young
preachers and fcholars, who were candidates for le€turefhips,
{chools, &e. Inthe year 1664, Mr. Firmin, being a wi-
dower, married again ; and with his wife he hada very con-
fiderable fortune. In 1666, his houfe was deftroyed by tlie
great fire of London; but his charaéter as a tradefman was
new fo well known, that by the increafe of bufinefs he foon
repaired the lofs which he fuftained by that event, and
might have amaffed much property, had not his heart
prompted him to devote a great proportion of his profits to
benevolent and humane purpofes. In the year 1676, he
erected large premifes, and eftablithed a linen manufaéture,
for the fake of affording employment to a number of poor
children, who were ufelefg to. and a burden on, the com-
munity. Here he found conitant work for many hundreds,
who were either acquainted with the different branches of
the bufinefs, or were willing to be inftruéted in them. The
returns proved, as he expected, very inadequate to the ex-
pences incurred; yet, from his own funds, and from the
affittance which he obtained from well-difpofed perfons, he
was enabled to bear the lofs, and to give away occafional
fums of money, more than their earnings, and to diftribute
fuel and clothing among the poor manufaéturers in fevere
feafons. In the year 1678, he publifhed ** Propofals for
employing the Poor, elpecially in and about the City of
London, and for the Prevention of Begging, &c. in a
Letter to a Friend.’? In this traét he defcribes the pro-
grefs and good effeéts of his inftitution, and makes a num-
ber of valuable obfervations relative to the moft proper
means of providing for the neceffities of the peor. After
this he attempted to fet up a woollen manufaéture ; but the
lofles which he fuftained, through the ignorance of the
perfons employed, obliged him to relinquifh his project.
He ereGted a large warehoufe on the banks of the Thames,
in which he depofited corn and coals, purchafed in the
cheapett feafons, to be fold at prime coft, in times of fcar-
city, to the poor, Mr. Firmin was fignalized by the zeal
and aétivity which he difplayed in liberating poor debtors
from prifon, and in providing for the more comfortable fub-
filtence of others whom he was unable to redeem. He was,
however, the means of opening the prifon doors to many, |
whofe families were ready to perifh for want; and his re-
commendation and influence are faid to have had great
weight with fome leading members of parliament, in the
pafling of certain aéts of grace in behalf of poor debtors.
Mr. Firmin was one of the governors of St. ‘Thomas’s hof-
pital, and extremely active to render it as ufeful as poffible :
he was alfo a governor of Chrift’s hofpital, of which he
proved himfelf a great benefa€tor and conftant fuperintend-
ant. When the French proteftants fled into England, to
efcape the perfecution of Louis XIV., Mr. Firmin was
active in providing for their relief; and feveral thoufand
pounds were entra to his care and management, for the
benefit of the refugees. He was equally zealous in behalf
of thofe who fled from Ireland to England, to efcape the
perfecutions of James II. He was, in fhort, a tok affi-
duous aflertor of the civil and religious liberties of man-
kind; and in no inftance did he ftand by to witnefs oppref-
fion, without endeavouring to affert the rights of the
oppreficd. By the diftribution of publications written in

defence

FIR

defence of publie freedom, he endeavoured to roufe his
countrymen to a vindication of their rights, in oppofition to
the king (James II.) and he may be regarded asa zealous
promoter of the revolution in 1688. After that event, he
gave evidence that his benevolence was attached to no party,
bet was active in relieving thofe who were fuffering for
eonfeience fake. The high charaéter which this excellent
man fuftained attraéted the notice of the queen, who ex-

yefled a deep concern that fo good a man was not orthodox
in his religious fentiments ; and intreated archbifhop Tillot-
fon to endeavour to convince him of his error. The prelate
replied, that he had already made the attempt; but that
Mr. Firmin’had been too early and too deeply impreffed
with Unitarian principles, to admit now of contrary im-
preffions. After this, Dr. Tillotfon publifhed fome fer-
mons on the points in difpute, and fent one of the firlt
copies to Mr. Firmin; who immediately drew up an anfwer
to them, which he prefented to the archbifhop: ftill, how-
ever, their friendfhip for one another did not abate, With
Dr. Compton, bifhop of Tendon, Mr. Firmin was equally
in favour; and it muft not be forgcetten, that the annual
colleGliions for the poor, which are made in and about
London at Chriftmas, under the authority of the king’s
letter, were fet on foot by Mr. Firmin, who had the direc-
tion of the bufinefs feveral years. This excellent man died,
December 20th, 1697, in the 66th year of hisage. He
was interred, according to his own defire, in the cloyfters
belonging to Chriit’s hofpital, where the following infcrip-
tion was erected to his memory. =

“Under that ftone, near this place, lyeth the body of
Thomas Firmin, late citizen of London, a governor of this
and Saint Thomas’s hofpital; who, by the grace of God,
was created in Chrift Jefus to good works, wherein he was
indefatigably induftrious, and fuccefsfully provoked many
others thereto ; becoming alfo their almoner, vifiting and
relieving the poor at their houfes, and in prifons, whence
alfo he redeemed many. He fet hundreds of them at work,
to the expending of great ftocks. He rebuilt, repaired,
and added conveniences to hofpitals, weekly over-feeing
the orphans. The refugees from France and from Ireland
have partaken largely of his charity, pains, and earnett foli-
citation for them. He was wonderfully zealous in every

ood work, beyond the example of any of ourage. Thus
fhewed he his faith by his works, and cannot reafonably be
reproached for that which brought forth fuch plenty of
good fruits.” Life of Firmin in Unitarian Traé&s, vol. v.
1806.

Firmin, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
* partment of the Rhdéne and Loire; 5 miles W. of St. Eti-
enne.

Firmin, St a town of France, in the department of
the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
triét of Gap: the place contains 851, and the canton 4477
inhabitants, on a territory of 2224 kiliometres, and in g
communes ; 13 miles N. of Gap.

FIRMITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit-
meritz; 8 miles N.W. of Leitmeritz. :

FIRMNESS, Firmiras, iu Philofophy, denotes the
confiltence of a body; or that ftate, wherein its fenfible
parts cohere, or are united together, fo that the: motion of
One part induces a motion of the reft. In which fenfe,
firmnefs ftands oppofed to fluidity.

Some authors confound firmnefs with denfity ; as think-
ing the fame ftate or property of body implied by both; or
at leaft, that firmnefs follows denfity: but this is a miftake.
Fer mercury, the denfeft body ee nature excepting gold, is

FIR

yet one of the moft fluid; and even gold itfelf, with all ite
denfity, when fufed, wants firmnefs, or cohefion.

Many of the Cartefians, and others, hold firmnefs to con-
fift in the mere quiet of the particles of the body, and their
mutual immediate contact; urging, that a feparation of
parts can only arife from fome matter interpofed between
them, which is excluded by the motion of contiguity.

But the infufficiency of this hypothefis is evident: for
mere fimple reit has no force, either to a& or refift; and
confequently two particles only joined by reft and contiguity,
would never cohere fo as that a motion of the one fhould
induce a motion of the other. This is obvious in the cafe
of two grains of fand, which, however contiguous, and at
reft, will never conftitute a firm coherent body.

The firmnefs of bodies, then, depends on the connexion
or cohefion of their particles. Now, the caufe of cohe-
fion, fir I. Newton, and his followers, hold to be an
attraCtive force, inherent in bodies, which binds the {mall
particles thereof together; exerting itfelf only at, or ex-
tremely near, the points of contaét, and vanifhing at greater
diftances.

The firmnefs of bodies, therefore, follows the laws of the
cohefion of bodies. See ConEsion.

Hence, firmnefs in all bodies muft be as the furfaces and
conta&ts of the component parts: thus a body, whofe parts
are by their peculiar fhapes capable of the greateit centaéts,
is moft firm; and that, whofe parts are capable of the leaft
contaét, will be moft foft.

In the former, the greateft requifite is to be as near to
cubes as poffible, and in the latter to fpheres. And in the
fame manner are to be accounted for, not only all the inter-
mediate degrees between the moft firm and the moft foft
bodies, but thofe different confiftencies, which are diftin-
guifhed by other names, as friable, tenacious, glutinous,
and the like; for the greater are the folidities of the com-
ponent parts of any body, in proportion to their furfaces,
though that body, by the aptitude of the contaéts, may be
what we call very hard ; yet it will be moft friable or brittle.
And where the furfaces of the component particles are
much extended upon a {mall quantity of matter, the bodies
they compofe, though they may be light and foft, yet they
will be tenacious or glutinous; for although the flexibility
of their compounding parts admits of their eafy changing
of figure by any external force, yet by their touching
one another in fo many points, they are very difficultly
feparated.

The former is the cafe in cryftallized falts, refins, and
the like; the latter in turpentines, gums, and all of that
fort.

FIRM-ORE, a kind of lead-ore.

FIRMUM, in Ancient Geography, Fermo, a town of
Italy, in Picenium, nearly S. of Potentia; fituated at
fome diftance from the fea. Inthe courfe of the Punic
war, it fent fuccours to the Romans againit Hannibal. It
was taken by Totila, in the year 544.

FIROSAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoof-
tan, in Mewat; 13 miles W. of Cottilah. See alfo Fr-
ROSAPOUR.

FIROUSABAD), a town of Perfia, in the province of
Mecran; 60 miles N.W. of Ermajal.

FIROUZABADI, Israyim Anov IsHax, in Bio-
graphy, a Perfian doGor of high reputation for knowledge
of the principles of the Mahometan law, who flourifhed in
the eleventh century of the Chriftian era, and was born at
Firouzabad, a town near Shiraz. Here and at Baffora he
received the fundamental principles of his education. From

Baffora.

FIR

Baffora he repaired to Bagdat, at that time the imperial
city and refidence of the caliphs, where he placed himfelf
under the ableft inftru€tor, and was afterwards invited by
the illuttrious Nezam Molk, grand-vizier, to undertake the
dire&tion of the fince celebrated college, which had juft
been erected at his expence. The duties of this important
office, which at firft he would gladly have declined, he per-
formed with honour to himfelf, and to the great advantage
of thofe who were committed to his charge, till his death
in the year 1083, when he was in the 82d year of his age.
His lofs was fo generally regretted, that his difciples went
into mourning for his death ; and the college over which he
had prefided was ordered to be fhut.up for a whole year, in
teltimony of the public forrow which was univerfally felt.
He was author of a work, which is highly efteemed by the
Mahomertans, entitled, «¢ Al anbih,’’ or “ General In-
formation ;”’ in which the principal rites and obfervances cf
the Muffulman law are fully treated of and explained.
Gen. Biog.

Frrouzasadi!, Mecpeppin Asou Tuoarer Monam-
mrp Ben Jacos, a learned Oriental lexicographer, was
born in-the year of the hegira 729, or in 1328 of the
Chriftian era. We had the high honour of being noticed,
on account of his great learning, by the moft celebrated
potentates of his time, particularly by Ben Abbas, Tamer-
lane, and Bajazet, frit emperor of the Turks, who at dif-
ferent times made him many valuable prefents. He died at
the age of 88, in the year 817 cf the hegira. His works
ave a diCtionary of the Arabic language, entitled, “¢ Camus,”
or “the Oceans’? it confifted of two volumes. He was
author likewife of a work entitled, ‘* Ahaflan al Lathaif,”’
which is a collection of pleafantries and witty fayings; and
of another, “ On the Means of being happy.’”? Moreri.

FIROZABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the foubah of Agra; 16 miles E.S.E. of Agra.

FIROZEPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Sumbul; 5 miles N E. of Sumbul.

FIRST Mover, in the dncient Affronemy.
mim J7obile.

Firsr-fruits, Annates or Primitia, the profits of a bene-
fice for the firlt year after avoidance. See AnNaTeEs and
Primitre.

The firl-fruits were formerly eftimated according toa
rate or valur made under the direction of pope Innocent IV.
hy Walter bifhcp of Norwich; in 38 Hen. III. and after-
wards advanced in value by commiflion from pope Ni-
cholas III. A.D. 1292, 20 Edw. I. which valuation of
pope Nicholas is ftill preferved in the exchequer; and the
tenths or decime were the tenth part of the aimual profit of
each living by the fame valuation: claimed by the holy fee
on the authority of the precept recorded in Numb. vur. 26,
Thefe papal ulurpations were firft introduced into this king-
dom by Paudulph the pope’s legate, during the reigns of
king Johu and Henry III. in the fee of Norwich, and
afterwards attempted to be made univerfal by the popes
Glement’'V. and John XXII. about the beginning of the
fourtcenth century. Thefe claims were often oppofed b
the Englifh parliament ; but they continued till the reform-
ation ta the reign of Henry VIII. at which period it was
computed, that in the compafs of 50 years, 800,000 ducats
had-been fent.to Rome for firt-fruitsconly. “Phis revenue
was annexed to the crown by 26 Hen. VIII. cap, 3. con-
tvmed by 1 Eliz. .cap. 4. and a new valor beneficioruin was
taen made, by which the elergy are at prefent rated. By
thefe tatutes all vicarages under ten pounds a-year, andoall
relories under ten marks, anc difcharged from the payment

i

See Pri-

FILS

of firft-fruits; and if the incumbent lives but half a year,
he fhall pay only one quarter of his firft-fruits; if one whole
year, half of them; if a year and a half, three quarters;
and if two years, the whole. By ftat. 27 Hen. VIII.
cap. 8.. no tenths are due to be paid for the firft year; and
by other tta\utes of queen Anne, in the fifth and fixth years
of her reign, if a benefice be under fifty pounds per annum,
clear yearly value, it fhall be difcharged of the payment of
firft-fruits and tenths. Queen Anne granted her. royal
charter, confirmed by fat. 2 Ann. cap. 11. whereby the
whole revenue of firft-fruits and tenths is vefted im truftees
for ever, to form a perpetual fund for the augmentation of
poor livings, ufually called queen Anne’s bounty. Blacktt.
Comm. vol.i. p.284, &c. See AuGMENTATION.

First-Fruits, Office of, is-kept in the Temple, under
the direétion of a remembrancer, receiver; and comptroller,
and their deputies and clerks.

FIRUZABAD, Firous-asap, or Giaur, in Geogra-
phy, atown of Perfia, in the province of Farfiflan ; 65
miles S.S.W. of Schiras. N. lat. 28° 49’, E. long. 51°?
58/.—Alfo, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
12 miles W.N.W. of Nehavend. .

FIRUZINUS Co or, a term that frequently occurs in
{ome of the old writers on gems, and has been miftaken by
many to mean a rufty brown; and by others, black ; but
thefe are not colours to be fought after among the gems,
and yet it is to thofe that this epithet is ufually applied.
We find .it ufed for a blue kind of jafper by fome au-
thors, the fame with the jafpis boreas of Pliny and Dio-
{corides, and by others for the fapphire, which fome of
the ancients, particularly Theophraitus, having called it
peavey that is, black in its deepelt colour, authors have
been led to fuppofe that this word ftood for black; but
as there are not, nor ever were, any black fapphires, it is
certain from this, as well as many other mftances, that
the ancients ufed this word, pra, for a deep blue, and
in that fenfe, firuzinus color does fignify the fame thing ;
it being the aerinus color of the ancients, or what we
call fky colour, ora fine blue: fuch as the colour of the
fineit fapphires.

FIRUZKOH, in Geography, a fortrefs of Greater Bu-
charia, on the mountains that feparate Balk from Segeitan,
takenin 1404, by Timur Bec ; 30 miles S. of Gaur.

FIS, German, a fharp in multe.

_FISA, in Geography, a town of South America, in the
province of ‘Tucuman; 25 miles N. W. of St. Fernan-
Go.

FISANELLE, in Ornithology, a name given by the
Venetians to a water-fowl of the colymbus kind, called by
authors the colymbus major, or great diver. Very common
inthe markets of Italy. See Cotymaus.

FISC, Fiscus, in the Civil Law, the treafury of a
prince, or ftate ; or that to which all things due to the pub-
lic do fall.

The word is derived from the Greek Qicxo;, a great bafket,
ufed when they went to market.

By the civil law, none but a fovereign prince has
a right to have a fife, or public treafury. See Aira-
RIUM. ;

FISCAL, fomething relating to the pecuniary intereit of
the king, the public, or a private perfon.

The emperor Adrian erected the office of fifcal advocate
in the Romaa empire.

FISCARD, or Fisucarp, in Geography, is a {mall
market and tithing town in the hundred of Cemmacs,
Pembrokethire, South Wales, diftant from London 1504

“ * “miles,

FIS

wiles, and by the refurns made under the population a&,
contained, in 1801, 344 houfes, and 1505 inhabitants. The
town is fituated on the declivity of a high cliff, near where
the river Gwayne, which feparates the hundred of Cemmaes
from the hundred of Pebidiog, falls into the fea, forming a
convessient road with good anchorage, veflels lying fafely
in five and fix fathom water. The church is remarkable for
little, but being deititute ofa fteeple. In the town are two
other places of worfhip, one for baptifts, and another for
methoditt diffenters. There are very few good houfes, and
the narrow, unpaved, filthy ftreets are ftrongly contrafted, by
the cottages being wholly white-wafhed, both walls and
roufs. The town is however in an improving ftate, and
lately it has received the advantages of a poft-office, and a
weekly market held on Fridays, which is well fupplied with
corn and other provifions, cloth, flannels, ftockings, &c.
Yet itil its public accommodativns are fo few and indiffer-
ent, that Mr. Malkin’s advice to travellers, “ that they
fhould aim to avoid pafling a night here,” is {till eligible.
A road cut through a rock, forming a communication be-
tween the upper and lower parts of the town, opens a fine
view tothe bay. he harbour, having been recently affift-
ed by theereétion of.apier, is of great advantage to the
Trith trade, as Fifhgardis the only port on this part of the
Welth coalt, unincommoded with thofe dangerous fands,
denominated bars ; and its fituation to the north of Mil-
ford renders it a fafe retreat for fhips in blowing weather,
unable to get round St. David’s head. ‘he port has a
{mall coafting trade, which employs about fifty veflels, from
20 to 1co tons burthen in the conveyance of butter and
corn. A manufacture of coarfe cloth is carried on in the
town, but the principal part of the inhabitants is occupied
in the herring-fifheries, quantities of which in the feafon are
caught and cured here, particularly what are termed red
herrings, by the procefs of {moking. Several fmoking-
houfes are in the vicinity, and from fern being ufed for the
purpofe of drying, the fifth are efteemed for their fuperior
flavour. rom the north-eaft wall of the church is a re-
markable echo, which repeats fentences diftin@tly three
times. Ina dingle below the church is a {trong chalybeate
fpring, celebrated for its fanative virtues : and between the
church and the river is a vaft ftone, calculated to weigh
more than nine tons, flat at top, meafuring nine feet in dia-
meter, and refting upon three others placed in the ground,
evidently one of thole Britifh Druidical monuments, deno-
minated cromlecheu. :
This place was brought into general notice a few years
fince, by the circumftance of two holtile frigates appearing
off the port, and afterwards landing at Llanano, in the
neighbourhood, 1409 French invaders, who, after alarming
the whole kingdom, and keeping poffeflion of this part of
the country a few days, were oppofed by the fea-fencibles,
anda troop of yeomen cavalry, amounting to 656 effective
men, under the command of lord Cawdor, to which infe-

rior force, after a fmall refiftance, they furrendered, and .

were marched prifoners to Haverfordweit. A curious inci-
dent on that occafion deferves notice. ‘T’o the fpeedy and
favourable termination of this, at firft, formidable ag¢reffion,
it appears the females contributed. Numbers aflembled
upon the furrounding heights, clad in their fearlet whitrles,
(long mantles), and drawn up in ranks, the enemy took
them for additional forces,

“FISCEL, a town of Spain, in Arragon; 15 miles N.W.

‘of Ainfa.

FISCELLUS Mons, Mount Fi/callo, a mountain of
Italy, between the country of the Sabines and Pice-
zum.

-FISCHAMUND, atewa of Auftria, fituated at the

Vou. XIV.

Fis

jun&tion of the river Fifcha with the Danube; 12 miles
E.S.E. cf Vienna.

FISCHAUSEN, atown of Pruffia, in the Frifch-hoff,
anciently the refidence of the bifhop of Samland ; 5 miles
W. of Konigherg. N. lat. 54° 45’. E. long. z0° 2’.

FISCHBACH, the name given to feveral towns of
Germany, in the bifhopric of Bamberg, in the territory of
Nuremberg, and inthe principality of Bayreuth —Alfo, a
town of Swabia, in the county of Limburg.

Fiscusacu, or Vi/p, a town of Switzerland, in the
Vallais ; 27 miles E. of Sion.

FISCHBRUN, atown of Germany, in the territory of
Nuremberg: 4 miles N.E, of Herfbruck.

FISCHER, Joun Curistian, in Biography, the moft
pleafing and’perfeé performer on the hautbois, and the moft
ingeniouscompofer for that inftrument that has ever delighted
our country during full fixty years, that is to fay, fince Batifta
San Martini ceafed to be heard. Fifcher was born at Fri-
burg, and brought up at one of the common reading {chools
ina village in Bohemia, where all the children learn mufic,
with reading and writing, as athing of courfe. The firfl in-
ftrument put into his hands was the violin, but after he had
made fome progrefs in it, taking up the hautbois in fport,
he fancied he could exprefs his feelings better with the reed
than the bow ; he therefore attached himfelf to that inflru-
ment, and became, early in life, fo excellent a performer on
it, that he was appointed one of the king of Poland’s ce-
lebrated band at Drefden. Here he remained till its diffo-
lution, when he went to Berlin, without any intention of
continuing there ; however, arriving at a critical time, he
was retained, and had the honour, during a month, to ac-
company his majefty, Frederic the late king of Pruffia, alone,
four hours every day. This circumftance was occafioned
by an offence having been given by C. Ph. Em. Bach, who,
in going with the reft of the band from Potzdam to Sans
Souci in winter, had been fo frightened by the badnefs of the
road, as to exclaim to one of the houfehold on his arrival, in
rather {trong terms; “ tell our matter, fir, that no honour
or profit will be a fufficient compenfation to us for fuch
dangerous fervice; and unlefs the roads are rendered fafer,
we” ({peaking in the name of the whole band), “ can come
hither no more.” It is true that the roads were very bad, and
it isas truethat Bach was extremely frightened in pafiing
them. But cowardice fometimes is defperate; fituations
give a courage in remonitrance, of which the greateft heroes
are not in pofleffion; for Bach’s boldnefs in this particular
not only furpaffed that of all his brethren, but of the molt
intrepid generals, and great captains in the Pruffian army ;
none of whom, however they might have withed it, had
the audacity to complain of this dangerous pafs ere they
could arrive at Sans Souct. But a court is at all times, and
in all countries, of difficult accefs! The confequence of the
tranfport that had efeaped Bach was temporary difgrace
and banifhment from court ; and this accounts for Pilcher
being the only mufician allowed to accomp his Pruffian
majefty in his retirement and mufical recreations. From
Berlin he went to Manheim, to hear and be heard, and
thence to Paris, where he performed at the ‘* Concert Spis
rituel ;?? and of the fenfation which his performance pro-
duced there, an enthufiaftic account is given in the Mer-
cure de France. As Fifcher, like Abel, was obliged to work
his way hither by concerts, as foon as he had a little re-
plenifhed his pure, he came over to England, where it was
always his intention to fettle, and where, as foon as he
had been once heard in public, at a benefit concert, no
other concert, public or private, was thought complete
without his performance ; and being engaged to piay a con-
certo every night at Vauxhall, he drew thither all lovers of

a 9 raulic,

ries

mufic, but particulaly profeMors, among whom the elder
Park, who played the hautbois at. Drury Lase theatre,
ufed to quit his poll, aud.forfeit half his night’s falary im
order to run to Vauxhall to hear him; which he didnot
unprofitably, for no tone approaches fo near to that of
Filcher, in richnefs aad power, as that of the elder Park.
Whiea the queen’s band was, formed, Fitcher was appointed
one of her majefty’s chamber mufictans ; and when Bach and
Avbel; uniting, effablifhed a weekly fubfcription concert at
_ Hanover-fquare, where, for a long time,;.no mpfic was
heard but that of thele excellent’ mafters, Fifcher was’ al-
lowed to compofe for himfelf, and ina ftyle fo new asd fan-
ciful, that in point of invention, as well. as tone, talte, ex-
preflion, and neatnefs ofexecution, his piece was always re-
garded as one.of the higheft treats of the night, and heard
with proportionate rapture. Here Cramer, Crofdil, Cer-
vetto, and other eminent profeffors, eftablithed their repu-
tation, and by every new performance mounted ftill higher
in the favour of the public.

In all mufical performances at the univerfities, the triennial
meetings at, Worceiler, Hereford, and Gloucefter, at Sa-
hifbury; Winchetter, and other provincial towns, Fifcher’s
concertos were eagerly expected. and heard with rapture.
Fifcher’s tone was not only uncommorly fweet, but fo
powerful, that Giardini, who nevercould praifea German
but through the medium of abufe, ufed to fay that he had
fuch an impudence of tone as no other inftrument could con-
tend with. ‘Then his execution was quite as much as the
inftitument would bear to produce an agreeable effe&t. His
tafte and chiaro-f{curo were exquifite, and he had his reed
under fuch command, as more’ feldom to canarder or
cackle like a duck, than any player we ever heard. And
as to his compolition, though it was infinuated by Bach and
Abel that he had not. itudied regularly, and was no very
profound theotifi, he was always fo original, interefting and
pleating, that he may be pronounced one of the few intui-
tive muficians who had powers which he knew not how he
acquired, and talents at which {ludy alone can never arrive.
A certain mufical traveller Las drawn a parallel between the
performance of Fifcher and Berozzi of Drefden, nephew to
the two celebrated Berozzis of Turin, on hearing him play

avery difficult concerto on the hautbois in a very Plcalingy
3

and mafterly manner ; owning, at the fame time, that the le
he thought of Fifcher, the more he was delighted with Be-
rozzi. However, he tried to difcriminate, and to difcover
in what each differed from the other: and firft, Fifcher
feemed the moft natural, pleating, and original writer of
the two for the inftrument, and was the moft certain of
his reed; which, whether from being in lefs conftant prac-
tice, or from the greater difficulty of the paffages, he knew
not, failed Berozzi, in rapid divifions, more frequently than
Vifcher; however, Berozai’s fwell, or mefla di vece, was
prodigious ; indeed he continued to augment the force of a
tone fo much, and fo jong, that it was hardly poffible not
to fear for his lungs.

His tafte and ear were exceeding delicate and refined ; and
he feemed to pofiefs a happy and peculiar faculty of tem-
pering a continued tone to different bafes, according
to their feveral relations: upon the whole, his perform-
ance was fo capital, that a hearer mult be extremely faftidious
not to receive fromit a great degree of pleafure.

Fifcher left England in 1786, and in the beginning of
the next year had not been heardof. His majelty enquired
feveral times, with lome folicitude, whether he had written to
any of his frieuds in England, and was anfwered in the ne-
gative; one cf them underftood, by report, that he was at
Strafburg. He returned, however, at the end of 1787, and
gontinued in England during the reit of his life. About

FIS

the year.1777 he had, married a daughter of the admirable
painter, Gainfborough, an enthufaftic lover of good mofic
and performance, and Gf none fo much as Fifcher’s ; indeed
he enchanted the whole family with his ftrains, which were
beyond meatfure captivating, and he ftood fo well at. his in-
ftrument, that his figure had all the grace of a Tibian at the
altarof Apollo. But, alas! fomething elfe befides a fine
fizure ard fine mufic are neceffary to conttitute domeftic
happinefs. The marriage was not aufpicious; the minds
were not in tune together, the temperaments were diffonant,
and the coincidence .teo infrequent to produce harmony.
But we wish not to “ draw their frailties from their dread.
abode ;’? fhe had external beauty, grace, and aceomplifh-
ments; but he, with a good perfon, and fuperior. genius
for his art, was extremely deficient ia colloquial eloguence,
and in all thofe undefinable charms of converfation which
engage the attention, and endear the {peaker. He had not
a grain of fenfe but what he breathed through his reed ; he
never fpoke more than three words at a time, and thole
were negatives or affirmatives. But peace to his athes.
Though he had few charms for a friend or companion, he
delighted the public at large in a higher degree than is al-
lowed to any but gifted mortals. This admirable mufician
was feized with an apopleétic it during the performance of
a folo at the queen’s houfe, at his majetty’s concert. Prince
William of Gloucefter, obferving his fituation, fupported
him out of the apartment, whence he was conveyed tohis
refidence in Compton-flreet, Soho, where he expired about
an hour afterwards. he
Fiscuer, Joun Anprew, a phyfician of Erfurt, was
born on the 28th of November, 1667, his father was a ce-
lebrated apothecary of that place. He graduated in the
univerfity of his native city, in April, 1691. He was-ap-
pointed profeflor extraordinary in the faculty of Erfurt in
1695, and profeffor of logic in the Evangelical. Collzge in
1699 ; but he relinquished both thefe appointments in 1718,
in order to affume the duties of the profefforfhip of patho-
logy and of the practice of. medicine, to which be had been

:nominated three years before.» Filcher acquired confi~

derable reputation at Erfurt, and in the courts in the
vicinity of that city. He had been ten years phyfician to
the court of Mayence, when he died on the 13th of Februa-
ry 1729 He has left feveral effays in the form of inaugu-
ral thefes; which were publifhed between the year 1718,
and that of his death ; but he was alfo author of fome more
important works: viz. 1. Confilia Medica, que in ufum
practicum et forenfem, pro fcopo curandi et renunciandi
adornaia funt.’” Three volumesof this work were publithed)
fucceflively at Francfort, in the years 1704, 1706, and 1712.
—2..‘* Thas in. nuce, feu Medicina Synoptica,”?” Erfurt,
1716.—3. ‘“ Refponfa Practica,” Leipfies 1719.— Eloy.

Fiscuer, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Cars
niola; 17 miles S.E. of Stein. i

FISCHERLIN, in Ornithology, aname given by many
of the northern nations to a {mall fpecies of the larus or
guli, called by Mr. Ray darus pifcator, by Linnzus urns
minuta, and in the: Englifh, the lefler, fea-fwallow. See
Lagus.

P FISCHGEYER, a name given to the falco rufus ; which
ce. f }

FISCHIARE, Jial. to hifs. Fi/chiata, hifled,

FISCHIETTO, /tal. a whiftle, a hifs, a cat-call.

FISCHOTTER, in Zoology, a name given by Ridinger
to the ntu/fcla /utra ; which fee. é a

FISGARD. See Fiscarp.

FISH, in Zoology, a clafs of animals which have either a °
naked or {caly body, always having fins, but without = ,
For a further defcription of the characters of this clafs, and

2 ¥

Fis H.

“of tle different orders into which it is diftributed; fee
‘Piscss. Seealfo [cHTuxvorocy.

Fisu, or Fisues, Anatomy of; has engaged much of the
attention of phyfiolozitts, on account of its affording many
examples of organs on a fimple plan, or palpable feale, which
$n other animals poffefs either an obfenre or minute ftreGure.
The brain, the ear, the organ of {mebhiing, the digeftive and

_ abforbent fy (tems, have been-efpecially ftadied in this clafs,
with the view of illuilrating their anatomy and funGtions jin
other creatures.

The continual rsfidence and progreffion of fithes in fo
@enfe a medium as water, neceffarily oecafion remarkable pe-
culiarities ia their organs of motion, as well as a different
mode of expofing the blood to the influence of the air, and
confequently a difitrent arrangement of the circulating vef-
Hels than is ufually met with in other animals; thefe parts of
the anatomy of fifhes are inftru€tive both to the natural hif-
torian and to the phyfiologilt.

Lhe very extraordinary property which Some fithes poffels
of communicating an ele&ric frock, forms one of the mot
interefting fubjc Gs in the hillory of the animal economy.

In compoling the prefent article, we have drawn our in-
formation, as far as our opportunities permitted, from a@tual
difletion and obfervation ; frequent references to the writings
of other anatomifts are therefore not introduced. It is ne-
ceflary, however, to acknowledge, that we have derived
great affiftance from the comprehenfive fyftem of M. Cuvier,
particularly with refpeét to the anatomy of the rare and
exotic fpecies of fifhes; and that we are indebted for feveral
interetting faGts to the very valuable, though compendious
work, of prof:ffor Blumenbach on comparative anatomy,
tranflaced by Mr. Lawrence.

‘Organs concerned in the exercife of the vital fundions.

- The mouth and its contained parts.—Vhe pofttion of the
mouth of fifhes is fomewhat various. It may be tated ge-
nerally, that it is fituated under the fnout in the chondrop-
terygii, inthe furgeons (acipenfer), and the pegafus. Lu other
fifhes it is placed at the end of the {rout

The orifice of the mouth in fifhes has ufually the appear-
ance of a tran{verfe flit, as in mammalia; but in feveral {pe-
cies, particularly amongtt the abdominal fithes, the aperture of
the mouth.is made by a fiffure paffing obliquely downwards
and backwards. In the /amprey (petramyzon) the mouth is
nearly round, and refembles a fucker.

Fifhes canwot, with propricty, be faid to poffefs /ips.
Many of them have fome folds of the integuments, which
overlap and conceal the edges of the jaws and teeth; but
thefe parts poflefs neither the fru€ture, nor perform the
funGtions, of the lips in mammal, Is feveral fifhes with
large feales no foft parts are d'fcoverable about the edge of
the mouth.

The cavity of the mouth of fifhes is ufually very great,
in proportion to the fize of the animal; a circumllance
highly neceffiry to them on account of the manneria which
thefe acimals take their prey : for the fame reafon alfo, the
mechapilm of the jaws is fuch as to allow the mouth to be

- protruded or pufhed forwards, and opened to a great exten’.
In fome {pecies the mouth is capable of being opened fn fii-
ciently wide to take in a body even larger than that of the
fifh to which it belongs. The great capacity of the mouth,
and the peculiarity in the motions of the jaws, depend upon

-the bumber of bones “or cartilages which enter into the
compofition of the face of fifhes, and upon the exiftence of
certain mufeles. Thefe parts will be deferibed along with
the other organs of motion.

“The: internal furface of the mouth ia fifhes bears con-

‘filver hue, tinged with blue,

fiderable refemblance to the common fin’: it is, however,
divefied of fcales, and is generally white, although in fome
fithes it partakes of the colour of the furface of the body;
in the maclarel (feomber feombrus) for inftance, it ts of a

Every part of the mouth‘is covered with a very tenacious
flime, or mucus; the gland s which fecrete it are notin general
ealily feeu, and do not commonly appear to be congregated in
particular carts of the morth’or pharynx, as tn mammalia.

As fifies do not chew their food, they ‘do not require an
extentive motion of the fongue; in moft fpecies this organ
performs no movement, €x--cpt what 's I 7 t
parts with which it is‘con Chvier kz
mufoles of the tongue in Leer ced (murena c
losous to dyoe and {ome tranfverlé fibres extenc

the ed.ses ta th fame fifh. We
have not-difcovered any mufcles correfponding to thefe in
fome other fpecies we have examined. Tf the tongue

E
fithes weregeneraily provided with muftics, it ufuelly forms fo
inconfiderable a proj<Gion into the cavity of the mouth t!
it could not ferve ag ap organ-of mattication ; in many fpe-
ciés it is {carcely to-be diftinguifhed from the other parieres of
the mouth, and in ‘the ray penusthere is, properly {peaking,
no tongue, the place of tht lingual-bene being fupplied by a
mere rim of cartilage.

Salivary glands do not appear to exift in the clafs of fifhes,
with the exception of the carp (cyprinus), in which there is a
glandular body of confiderable fize placed under the bafe of
the cranium, exe@iy before the grinding tecth ; the cland is
of an uniform ftrn@ure and a ycllowifh red colour, i: adheres
firmly to the membrane of the palate which covers it. In
this genus the teeth of the phatynx are confiruéted for di-
viding or triturating the food. L

In the fRate, thornback, and others of the ray genus, there
are many glandular bodics, about the fize of pins” heads, lying
under the membrene of the palate, upon the mufcles for de-
preffing the lower jaw: their internal {tru@ure is ‘cellular,
and they appear to fecrete the mucus with which the mouth
of thefe fishes is fo abundantly fupplied.

The teeth of fihes are very remarkable, whether we confidcer
them with refpe& tothe number, fituation, or figure.

In thofe inftances where the teeth are fufficient'y large to
be diftinély feen, fom= hundreds have been reckoned in a
fingle fifh; the whie fhark has upwards of two hundred
around the aperture of the mouth, and when the teeth are
minate and ciofely fet, asim many of the offeous fifhes, their
number exceeds a!l calculation. .

The fituation of the teeth in fifhes is extremely fingular;
they are not confined tothe jaws, but are found aif in the
palatine arches, dn the bone unildgous to the vomer, fo hich
défeénds from the cranivm to form the middle of the roof
of the mouth, on the lingual bore, on the intérnal
cave furface of the arches which ful
and upon thole bonés which are
commencem=-tt of the elophagt
pike, have teeth in ali thef
2h, want the
uranofcopus has None oa the tongn
latine and ‘linzual teeth dre &
gadus, the gurnard.
turbot, fole, ad dory. “The
illary, branchial, and pharyngeal teeth. ‘Lhe
is Without all, except the brariéhia! add p
lait kind of teeth on-y are found in the carp.
getera have the maxilary a’one. “The.
thé only fh Which is ent rely deprived of teeth.

The /bape of the teeth an fifhes is very various.

I»

3 f

at

;
Genus dat

Cuvier
bay

FES H.

‘has, however, eftablifhed four principal forms to which he
thinks all the cthers may be referred: the firft are the
_ hook-/baped teeth, which kave fharp points bent towards the
back part of the mouth ; thefe are ufually of a {mall fize,
and are very numerous, they are by fer the molt common ;
moft fifhes have them in fome part of the mouth. The fe-
cond kind of teeth are truly conical in their form ; the an-
terior teeth of the anarrhichas lupus afford the beft examples
of thefe, The third fort have the crowns either flat or
blunt, and rounded ; the pharyngeal teeth of the carp (cypri-
nus carpio) are broad and flat, like plates, and as initances of
thofe with round crowns may be mentioned, the pofterior
teeth of the dorado and others of the genus /parus. The
fourth divifion of Cuvier includes the teeth with a cutting
edge, or the qwedze-/haped ; thefe may either have the edge

lain, as in the plat/e (pleuroneéies plateff2), or denticulated, as
in the ¢euthis.

Different {pecies of teeth frequently exift in different parts
of the mouth in the fame fifh; thus, the genera feuthis, offra-
éion, and baliftes, have hook-fhaped teeth poiteriorly, and in-
cifive in the front of the mouth. In the anarrhichas lupus,
and fome of the genus /parus, there are hook-fhaped teeth
behind, plates or flat-crowned in the middle of the mouth,
and conical teeth before; the /parus fargo, and fome others,
have the front teeth incifive, the middle flatecrowned, and
the pofterior hook-fhaped.

Cuvier has given a defcription of the form and fituation of
the teeth in moft of the principal genera of fifhes; but, as
much minutenefs or detail on this fubje@ cannot prove
interefting in an anatomical point of view, we fh:ll confine
eurlclves to the more ftriking varieties in the teeth of fithes.

In the genus raja the jaws are befet with anumber of teeth
arranged in the manner of a pavement; thefe are ufually
of the fame fize, and difpofed in {quarcs clofely fet to each
other. In fome fpecies, efpecially in the foreign rays, the
middle teeth are the largeft, and run in bands acrofs the jaws :
in fome of thefe alfo this pavement of teeth is prolonged
towards the palate ; in the torpedo, and fome other {pecies of
raja, each of the teeth is elevated in the middle into a {pine
or tharp point.

In the fhark genus (/qualus) there are feveral rows of
teeth ; thofe of the front row are the largeft and oldeft, and
ftand up on the jaw; the fucceeding rows are of later
growth, and are laid down wich their points turned towards
the mouth ; the number of the rows that are turned inwards
varies even mm the fame fpecies. The form of the teeth in
this genus is ufually that of @ triangular plate; they are
attached at their bafe, and the other edges are more or lefs
denticulated or grooved.

Amongft the Jbranchioflegi there is very confiderable
variety. The genera daliffes and offracion have eight teeth
upon each jaw ; in the former they are wedge-fhaped, broad,
and flat, and with oblique edges; in the latier they are
comprefled upon the fides. The pharynx of the dali/es is
furnifhed above and below with two rows of fine, conic,
clofe-fet teeth.

The Jump fib (cyclopterus lumpus) has one or two rows of
{mall pointed teeth upon the jaws and the pharyax.

The frog-fi/h (lophius pifcatorius) has two rows on each
jaw, a {mall one on each fide of the palate, and the four
plates of the pharynx furnifhed with tolerably flrong
hooked teeth.

In the /patularia there are a number of very minute
teeth upon the jaws and lateral parts of the palate.

In the furgeon (acipenfir) thereare no teeth of any kind found.

In the chimera the lower jaw furnifhes two naked pro-
jeGions, which are {{riated and fharp-edged, gnd the upper

jaw. bas two others of nearly a fquare figure, which core
refpond to thefe. In the pslate there are two triangular
offeous plates.

Cuvier thus defcribes the fingular formation of the jaws,
which fupplies the place of teeth, in the genera diodon aud
tetraodon. e

The lower jaw of a diodon prefents two eminences,
which are ufed for maftication, i. e. the border of the jaw,
which is parabolic, and a round difk in the middle.

A large canal runs in the interior of the bone, and
feparates the maf{s of the difk from that of the border, and
tran{mits to both thefe parts their nerves and blood-veffels.
The triturating furface of the difk exhibits fome tranfverfe
and parallel ftrie; on cutting it in a vertical direétion
each of the ftriz is perceived to be the termination of a plate
or lamina, which afcends a little pofteriorly from the canal
to the difk. Thefelaminz are ali laid one upon the other,
and by this pofition the {upsrior lamin are moft expofed to
friGtion, and confequently the fhorteft. They are evidently
alfo the oldeft ; they are hard and confolidated together, in
proportion as they defcend they are fofter and more fepa-
rate from each other. Tne lowelt do not reach the triturat-
ing furface, but are covered by the bone of the jaw; thele
are quite diftinét from each other, and fhew the original and
proper ftruéture of the plates.

Each of thefe laminz is divided by a fiflure in its middle.
The inferior and potterior furface is tolerably fmooth, but
the oppalite one exhibits, when viewed through the micro-
{cope, an extremely fine net work of little canals; this is
occafioned by the impreflions left by veffels which have run
upon it, and which came from the large canal where the bafes
of the laminz reft ; in faét, the parietes of the canal are pre«
ceded by an infinite number of fmall holes, which lead into
the intervals between the lamin.

The border is alfo furnifhed with lamine which incréafe
in an oppofite order to thofe of the difk; the anterior
lamin being inferior and of the lateft growth. The laminz
alfo are parallel with the furface of the mafticating border.
The firlt lamina which is ufed prefents its flat furface, and is
confequently entirely worn before the one which fucceeds it.

The defcription here given of the lower jaw of the diodon
applies equally to the upper jaw, provided the names of the
lamine are changed according to their diffcrent pofition, as
{uperior for inferior, and vice ver/a.

The genus ¢etraodon refembles the diodons, in having the
laminated borders, but wants the triturating difks. Each of
their jaws is divided mto two pieces by adenticulated future.

Fig. 1. Plate 1. Anatomy of Fifbes, exhibits the lower
jaw of a diodon, cut through longitudinally ; a, the central
plate, or triturating furface ; 3, the feGion of the laminz,
the edges of which conftitute the triturating furface
¢, the large canal through which the veflels and nerves of
the laminz are tranfmitted; d, the border of the jaw;
e, the laminz which form it; f,-a {maller canal for accom.
modating their veflels and nerves.

Amongtt the apodal fifhes, the anarrhichas lupus has the
teeth of the front of the jaws very ftrong, and conical in
their figure ; thofe of the fide, and on the vomer, form large
hemifpherical tubercles; the internal row of each palatine
arch is fimilar to the fecond, and the external to the frit ;
the pharynx is fet with {mall conic teeth.

The murena helena has the teeth compreffed, with thin
edges, and fharp-pointed ; thofe of the common ee/ and the
conger (murena anguilla and the conger) are {mall, ftraight,
{trong, blunt, and clofe fet; the firlt teeth of the vomer in the
elena is at a diftange from the others, which it alfo much:
exceeds in fize,

The

EES Ho.

The jugular order of fithes alfo exhibits confiderable varie-
tics in the torm and number of the teeth.

The blennius fuperciliofus has a very regular clofe row on
each jaw of long narrow teeth: the dlennius ocellaris has
belides a trong hooked tooth placed at the back part of
each jaw.

The ¢rachinus draco poffeffes teeth in all the different fitu-
ations except the tongue; they are very minute and clofe-
fet, relembling the pile of ve'vet:,

Vhe uranofcopus /caber bas twelve or fourteen teeth, of a
hook fhape, on the lower jaw, and numerovs minute tecth
on the upper jaw and pharynx, and two little lateral plates
on the fore-part of the vomer.

In the thoracic fifhes there is perhaps ftill greater variety
than in the preceding orders; the individuals of the fame
genus often differing from each other.

The flying gurnard (trigla volitans) has only fome {mall blunt
tubercular teeth upon the jaws; the armed guxnard (trigla
cataphrada) has fome clofe-fet teeth, like villi, upon the
branchial arches and vomer, and none at any other place.
The common gurnards have fine teeth upon the jaws and
branchiz, and a little plate on the anterior part of the
vomer.

The dory (zeus faber) has fome {mall hooked teeth upon
each jaw, the vomer, and the branchial arches.. The zeus
vomer has on the lower jaw only a row of teeth, fo fine as
{carcely to be felt. 2 »

In the genus pleuroneZes there is confiderable variety with
refpect to the form and fituation of the teeth.

The chetodons have upon the jaws long, fine, fetaceous
teeth, lke the briftles of a brufh.

The pharyngeal teeth of the genus /abrus are broad and
hemifpherical, and are difpofed exaély like pavement ;
the anterior teeth vary in the different {pecies.

The labrus niloticus, however, differs remarkably from the
reft of the genus; the jaws are furnifhed with feveral rows
of long, flender teeth, which have two or three points;
the teeth of the pharynx are ftraight, flender, fharp, and
very long.

In the genus /parus, the lateral teeth of the jaws are
arranged in the manner of a pavement, in two or more
rows. In fome fpecies two of thefe teeth are diltinguifhed
from the reft by being larger, and of a more flattened oval
Pais 3 the anterior teeth vary much with refpeét to their
orm.

Lhe perches, and the genus holocentrus, in general have
Numerous minute teeth, like vill, upon the two jaws, the
anterior part of the vomer, each fide of the palate, the
tongue, and the pharynx.

The jaws of the genus /carus are naked, and project fome-
what like the beak of a parrot ; each mandible is divided by
a middle future; the border is furnifhed with fome little
fhort cutting teeth, which are very clofely applied te each
other. ,

_ In the genus cepola there is a fingle row of teeth to
each jaw. Thofe of the lower jaw are remarkably {pread
out.

In the abdominal order of fifhes, the genera filurus and
falmo exhibit great variety with refpect to their teeth ; in
the latter genus particularly the differences are very re-
markable.

The filurus clarias has the teeth of the upper jaw ftraight,
flender, and fharp, but thofe of the lower jaw are bent into
the form of an overturned italic © ; they are long, comprefled,
and terminated by a point.

The common falmon and trouts (falmo falar, and falmo
Jario) have hook-fhaped teeth in all the parts of the mouth

where they are met with in other fifhes, and likewife
upon the arches which form the extenfile lip of fifhes.

The falmo dentex has ten or twelve large hook-fhaped
teeth upon the jaws; thofe of the pharynx are fine, like
villi.

The falmo nefafch has the maxillary teeth fetaceous, like
thofe of the chefodon, but forked at the extremity, and the
pharynx covered like ve'vet

The maxillary teeth of the nilotic falmon are thick end
truncated, and have the crowns furnifhed with two or three
conic tubercles, like the molar teeth of fome quadrupeds.

The ferraJalmo of La Cépede has tenor twelve teeth on
each of the jaws, in the form of {harp wedges, with three or
five notches on the edge.

The jaws of the /a/mo rhomboides have very fmall, fhort,
flexible, fetaceous teeth.

None of the laft mentioned five {pecies have the interior of
the mouth furnifhed with teeth in the fame manner as the
common faimons and trouts.

The whole of the genus cyprinus poffels only teeth in the
pharynx. The fuperior pharyngeal bone prefents a fingle
plate ; and the two inferior bones of the pharynx are each
furnifhed with very thick, ftrong teeth, which vary in num-
ber and form in the different {pecies.

The carp (cyprinus carpio) has four ar five of thefe teeth;
the three or four pofterior and fuperior of which are flat-
crowned and tranf{verfely grooved; the one moft anterior is
round, with a little point in the middle.

Some other {pecies of cyprinus, as the auratus, the bipun@a-
tus, the bream, tench, and rud, have the teeth compreffed, and
their edge applied obliquely to the fuperior pharyngeal
bone.

The barbel (cyprinus barbus) has nine pharyngeal teeth,
four below, three in the middle, and two above; they are
club-fhaped, and end in points a little bent.

The cyprinus dobula has feven teeth in two rows, all
pointed, and a little like hooks.

The cyprinus nafus has twenty-one compreffed teeth.

In the wilotic carp there are eleven of thefe, the points of
which are worn down by fri€tion againft the plate of the
fuperior pharyngeal bone.

The genus ¢/ox are well fupplied with teeth. The com-
mon pike (¢/ox /ucius) has teeth in all the parts of the mouth
where they are found in other fifhes ; thofe of the vomer are
tubercular, the others are hook-fhaped ; the ¢/ox delone has
the maxillary teeth ftrong, hook-fhaped, and in one row ;
it wants the lingual teeth.

There are three different /rudures to be obferved in the
teeth of fifhes.

The firft kind of ftru@ure exilts in the conic and hook-
fhaped teeth, which are generally found in che offeous fifhes 5
their teeth are implanted in alveoli, as the teeth of mam-
malia; they confiit of offeous fubftance, covered externally
by a layer of enamel: after the eruption of the crown or
external part, the roots of their teeth become anchylofed
with the bone which contains them fo firmly, that they can-
not be feparated without a fracture of the latter. The
growth of the teeth fituated in fockets is effe&ted by the
developement of internal offeous layers.

The fecond kind of itru€ture is found in the teeth of the
genus /gualus. Thefe are not immediately connected with
the jaws, but are contained in the gums, or foft parts cover-
ing them. They increafe in the manner of the epiphyfes of
bones: their offeous part is at firft foft and porous, and
afterwards acquires throvghout the denfity and hardnefs of
ivory.

The third fort of ftru&ture belongs to the flat or blunt

6 teeths.

& IS) BL

tecth, which are arranged in the mariner of a pavement, as
thafe ou the jaws in the ray genus, and in the palates of
feveral other fifhes. They ere compofed of a number of
minute offeoustubes, arranged in the dire€tion of the teeth,
intimately conneéted together, and covercd upon their ex-
ternal extrem‘ties by a common layer of enamel. From
this itruGure Cuvier has diflinguifhed thefe teeth by the
term compound. They are not implanted ia the fubftance of
the bone, but adhere to the membrane which covers it;
they evidently, however, confit of two parts correfponding
tothe root end crowa; the former is marked by regular
and clofe furrows, aud contains a number of pores, which
receive and tranfmit the nerves aad blood-veflels of the teeth;
the tubes of the crown are more denie in their ftruétare than
the reft of the tecth.

The jaws of the anarrhichas lupus are furnifhed with anum-
ber of dentiform eminences, which are compofed of off-ous
tubes, or fibres that run from the bafe to every point of the
furface. The bafe adheres to the jaw by its circumference
only; this circumference exhibits many foramina, through
which the veflcls and nerves pafs to the tubes when in a itate
of growth. All thefe emigences are placed upon a fub-
ftance much more fpougy than the reft of the jaw, which
ferves as the medium by which they are united. On the
middle of each eminence a little tooth grows, but is calt off
very early, fo that, except when the ffh is young, the denti
form eminences alone feem to {upply the place of teeth.
Fig. 2. of Plate 1. of the Anatomy of Fifbes: a is the
dentiform eminence; J, the {mall teeth ov it. Fig. 3. of
Plate I. thews the furface on which the eminence is tixed.

The triturating farfeces of the jaws in the genera diodon
and tetraodon might be confidered as compound teeth ; the
lamine are analogous to the tubes, and are covered, like them,
by enamel. ‘ / net
» The mode of /ucceffion of the teeth of fifhes varies accord-
ing to theix ftrudture. Thofe that grow in fockets are re-
placed by others which form at their roots, when the root of
the old tooth becomes confolidated with the focket which
contains it; it is nourifhed like the reft of the bone, and
acquires a cellular ftru€ture, which it did not originally pof-
fefs. In proportion as the new tooth increafes, the iub-
dtance of tthe juw grows into the cavity of the old one, which
it fills up to the crown. This then feparates from the reft
of its root by a regular fra€ture which exhibits fome radiated
lines. F

The new teeth in many f{pecies penetrate the cellular
offeous fubftance, which filis up the cavity of the root, and
exadily oceupies the fituation of the tooth that 1s caft off.
In the large, pointed teeth, fuch as thofe of the genus ¢/ox,
&¢. the eruption of the new tooth is on the fide of the one
that is fhed.

In the aaarrhichas lupus, not only the teeth are fhed, but
thofe fingular eminences on which they grow are alfo caft
off, and replaced by others. Thefe eminences appear to
refemble in {trudture and mode of growth the horns of the
deer ; they ave hed precifely in the fame manner; tole
which fecceed grow on the tide of the eminences they
replace, and do not, until they increafe in fize, fill the
vacancy left by the latter.

When the flat tecth.of the rays are loft they appear to be
replaced by others, which grow in the fame fituation.

The cutting teeth of the Bards, as already mentioned, are
in feveral rows, the anterior of which only is ufed by the
animal; the polterior rows are of fucceflive growths, and
zre deligned to fupply the place of thofe in the front row,
in the fame manner as the venomous teeth of /erpents are
Sneceéded by thole of a later growth fituated behind.

The lamin which ctmpofe the triturating furface of the
jaws of the diodons and tetracdons ave replaced in a manner
analogous to the cutting teeth of the fharé 3 thefe laminge
grow and come into ufe:facceflively, by which means the
matticating funface is always preferved.

In the genus /farus the tecth are replaced by others grow=
ing from behind, but which do not make their appearance
until they are wanted. On examining the jaws of ome of
this genus, a number of tabercies are obferved 6n the fore=
part, which are the remains or roots of the teeth that have
been worn down; and if the jaw be divided, a multitude of
the germs of teeth will be difcovered internally, which are
afterwards to come into ufe.

The mechanifm of the jaws, the fmall fize and immo-
bility of the rongre, the want of {slivary glands, and the
ufual form and pofition of the teeth, io fithes, al! confpire to
point out the manner in which thefe antmals take their food,
and that they do nat, but with very tew exceptions, mafticate
it, or even in any degree divide it previous to its being res
ceived into the ltomach.

Pharynx and afophagus.

The pharynx of fifhes is rather diftinguifhed from the
reft of the celophagus: by analogy of fituution, and for the
convenience of deicription, than from any refemblance it
bears to the pharynx of mammalia.

The paflage from the potterior part of the mouth into the
cfophagus is diminifhed by the exiltence of certain bones,
which are attached to the baivs of the branchial arches, and
enter into the compofition of the parietes of the commence-
ment of the alimentary canal. .

Thefe are very properly called the pharyngeal bones; they
are ufually befet with teeth, as already mentioned ; the laft
branchial arches and the pharyngeal bones can be approxi-
mated by certain mu{cles, fo as nearly, if not entirely, to fhut
up the communication between the mouth and cefophagus :
immediately behind the branchial arches and pharyngeal
bones there is a very {trong fphin@er mufele, which fur-
rounds the origin of the celophagus, and appears to be the
continuation of thofe fibres which clofe the branchial arches.
This mufcie feems to have the power of perfedtly fhutting
the pharysx. The delign of this mechanifm is evidently to
enable the fifh to convey its prey, without any preparation,
and while it is ftillalive, into the ttomach. The teeth fituated

on the pharyngeal bones, and on the infide of the branchiz,

are well calculated for affiting in this operation: to under.
{land the effect of the teeth of a fihh in the a& of deglutition,
it is only neceflary to introduce the hand into’the back part
of the mouth, even after the animal is dead, when it will be
found that the retreat of the hand is oppofed by the points
of a number of teeth at all fides. The conftrudtion of the
interior parts of the mouth and pharynk appears to be
entirely fubfervient in fifhes to the performance of deglu-
tition. ;

In Plate I.of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fg. 4. exbibits a view
of the back part of the mouth of pharynx of the carp (cy-
prinus carpio); a, the inferior pharyngeal bones befet with
itrong giinding tecth; 4, the {fuperior pharyngeal bones
with flat furfaces; ¢, the fuperior parietes of the mouth ;
d, the tongue; e, e, the branchial arehes of each fide; f* the
aperture ic/t between thefe parts which leads into the efo-
phagus. ' .

The efophagus of fifhes is commonly very fhort ; in fome
inftances the mouth might almolt be feid to open into the fto-
mach; it is by no means unfrequent, on feparating the jaws
of a ifh extenfively, to bring into view the contents of that

cavity.
The

——

FIS 4.

The cefophagns is generally very wide, often of the fame
capacity as the flom=ch itfelf. A free paflage into the: foe
mach becomes nec flary to thofe avimals, on account of the
fize of the fifhes they prey upon, and their voracity in
catching them. Fifhes rufh upon whatever appears to be
their prey impetvoufly, and fometimes without dilerimina-
tion. In this’ manner they fometimes {wallow other fub-
ffances along with, or in place of. their proper food. We
lately took a large ftone out of the ftomach of a dory (zeus
faber), which bore all the marks of having refided there {ome
times it was from a knowledge of the rapacious habits of
this fh, that the ftory of St. Pcter’s taking the tribute
money out of its mouth probably originated.

The cefophagus is covered internally, asin other animals,
by cuticle, which terminates abruptiy at the ftomach in fome
fifhes ; this however is not perceptible ; in which cafes it is
difficult to determine exactly the limits of thefe two portions
of the alimentary canal. The internal membrane is ufually
white and fmooth, and forms fome longitudisal wrinkles,
folds, or fpicule. In feveral of the ray and fhark genera
this ftru€ture is very evident, although Cavier defcribes the
internal furface of the efophagus and ftemach in thefe fihes
to bealike. In the maid (raja clavata) the difticGtion between
the ftru@ture of the cefophasus and that of the ftomach is
ftrikingly plain. In the dog-f/h, the laminz of the internal
membrase of the cefophagus are numerous, prominent, and
terminate in points which are direéted backwards. Thefe
diminifh the capacity of the cana), and thus ferve to detain
any fifh the animal may {wallow; but the molt remarkable
contrivance of this fort is that lately difcovered by Mr.
Home in the bafking fhark (/qualus maximus). In this fith,
in addition to the fpicule obferved im the other Species of

Squalus, thé efophagus produces, around its termination in the
ttomach, a number of fringed proceffes, very much refem-
bling fhoulder-knots ; thefe appear to be mufcular internal’y,
and probably are capable of entircly ciofing the entrance of
the cefophagus into the ftomach. In fg. 5. of Plate I. of
the Anatomy of Fifbes, the ftomach and efophegus of the
bafking foark (fqualus maximus) is reprefented upon a very re-
duced feale: a fhews the {piculated part of the efophagus ;
b5, the fringed termination of that cana}.

In the /patularia, the parietes of the cefophagus have three
ftrong longitudinal ruzz, and fome others between them of
afmaller fize. In the furgeon, the internal membrane pro-
duces fpines like thole of the dog-fith; which, when mi-
nutely examined, are feen to be reticulated upon the furface.
The /ygnathus pelagicus, and /parus figanis, have large longitu-
dinal folds in the celophagus. The latter has likewife an cefo-
phagus of fome length: at the place where it joins the tto-
mach, it forms a cxcal procefs or cul-de-fac of a conical
figure, the end of which is turned forwards.

“In the offracion cubicus, and fome other fifhcs, there is a cir-
cular fold of the internal membrane, which clearly marks
out the termination of the cefophapus; in other inftances,
this part may be diftinguifhed from the ftomach by the
ftrength and arrangement of its mufeular fibres, but in every
inftance, if the blood-veffels of thefe parts’ have been pre-
vioufly inje&ted with a coloured fluid, there will be no afi.
culty in determining which is the cefophagus and which is
the ftomach, the former being always lefs vafeular.

The’ cefophagus in fthes is particularly well fupplied with
mucus, to facilitate the paflage of any body through it ;

’ ghis mucusis furnifhed by follicular glands, which are Htuated
behind the internal membrane ; they are more numerous in
fome fifhes than others: we h=ve found them very plain and
arranged in clufters round the efophagus of the mudlet,

There is on the cefophazus of the torpedo a very remarkable
giandular apparatus for the fecretion of mucus.

Of the Abdominal Cavity.

The abdomen of fifhes is a diftin& cavity, containing only
the vifcera proper to that part; it differs therefore from the
common cavity of the body in birds end reptiles: it however
ufually occupies the greater pert of the trusk in fifhes in
wich it does not refemble the ablomen of max aoeeits
parietes are chiefly compofed of the portion of the great
lateral mufeles which are fpread upon the fides of the body,
the ribs being too fhort in Sfhes to form a f-ame for the abdo-
men; the cavity is every where covered with peritoncum, ex-
cept next the [pine, where that membrane is rec G@-d acrofs
the air-bladder and kidnies, leaving thofe parts on the out-
fide of the peritoneum. The r-fle€ons of this membrane,
which embrace the different 2bicminal vifcera, are very thin,
but the part which lines the 2b?omen is fufficiently ftrong.
In the moon fifo (tetraodon mol), and in many other te-
traodons, it is {tated by Cuvier to be thick, foft, and as it
were gelatinous ; 2!though in the flurgeon, and others of the
branchioflegi, its texture is firmand tendiacus looking.

The partion of peritonenm which lines the muferlar

" parictes of the cavity very frequently partakes of the colour

of the external furface of the body, in confequenceé of there
being a pigment placed behind it. In the plaife (pleurone@es
plateffo) the two fides are of different colours, corr: fponding
to the brown and white fides of the body ia that fith.

In fome fifhes there are proceffes of the peritoneum which
go oneach fide of the inferior fpinous bones of the tail, under
the lateral mufcles ; thefe form facs for containing ufually
the organs of generation and part of the kidnies, and in
fome inftances a convolution of the infeltines: thus the bag
which gocs outon the dark fide of the /ole receives a long coil
of the inteftinal canal.

There are fome very remarkable circumftances to be no-
ticed in the abdomen of the ray kind and the Jfturgeon (aci-
penfer): there have long been obferved in the former two
foramina, one on each fide of the anus, which lead by a
fhort oblique canal into the cavity of the abdomen ; they are
wide enough to admit a goofe-quill inalarge fkate, but con-
tain within them a femilunar fold, which aéts as a valve
in obttru@ing the paflage of the water into the abdomen,
but does not prevent fluids to pafs out of this cavity. Dac-
tor Morroe; who affumed the difcovery of thefe foramina,
was inclined to fuppofe that the fea water occafionally was
admitted by them; he fays, “ the great quantity,and evidently
fait tafte cf the liquor of the abdomer, lead him to look for
pafflages by which the fea water might gér into the cavity.’?
In’one inltance, he had the fluid snalyfed, when he found
that it contained about one feventy ith part of falt,
which, however, he admits to be not lf the quantity
that exifts in common fea water. “ Further,’? be f «1
difcovered that in the /eate, the bottom of the pericardium
is lengthened into the fhape of a funnel, which divides into
two branches which are tied ciofely to the lower part of the
eefopiiages, and open into the cavity of the abdomen:
fromthe obliquity of thefe branches, and their intimate ad-
hefion to the afoptagus, reither air nor water can be forced
into them from the abdomen.

which is highly
ferve to convey tl
of the abdomen.”

} Fithes, p.
In the frurgeon (acipenfér Purio) Dolor Montece has alfo
deferibed

Monroe’s Phyfiolugy of

FIS H.

defcribed and figured two openings near the anus, fimilar to
thofe found in the /Zate, and further, he difcovered in the
flurgeon a large membranous funnel, fituated upon each kid-
ney, into the middie of tlie pelvisof which its bottom opens
by-a wide orifice. ‘* We can have little or no doubt,” he
fays, “that the liquor of the abdomen of the flurgeon pafles
into the pelvis of the kidney, for we cannot fuppofe that the
urine paffes through the holes defcribed into the cavity of
the abdomen, as the pelvis has large openings into the com-
mon cloaca, as in other fifhes.?? (Monroe, loc citat.) He con-
eludes by exprefling his opinion, that the defign of the holes
on the fide of the anus is to admit the fea water, and that
the funnels connected with the kidney are for the purpole of
difcharging it again. From the circumftance of the water
of the abdomen containing fo much lefs falt than fea
water, and even lefs than that found within the cranium of
fifhes, which isa fhut cavity, he is difpofed to admit that it
is in part a fecretion from the arteries. In our opicion, it ap-
pears more reafonable and confiltent with general analogy to
{uppofe, that all the fluids moiftening the cavities of thefe
fifhes are produced in the ufual way, and that the openings
are merely for carrying the fuperabundant liquor out of the
body, than to imagine that an extraneous fluid fhould be ad-
mitted to fupply the place of a peculiar fecretion ; confidering
the matter in either point of view, however, the anatomical
fact of a communication between the interior cavities of the
body and the external element, is not only highly curious,
but without example in any other clafs of animals.

Stomach.

This cavity is commonly fituated immediately behind the
feptum which f-parates the heart and branchiz from the
abdominal vifcera to which it is attached, as well as to the
furrounding parts by reflections of peritoneum.

The form which the ftomach of fifhes mo{t commonly pof-
fcfles has been very aptly compared to the head of the chemi-
cal veffel, called an alembic, {uppofing it to be inverted anda
Intt!e elongated ; the large opening correfponds to the cefo-
phagus; the {mall or lateral part to the contra€ted portion,
which ends at the pylorus, and the bottom to the cul-de-fac
of the ftomach. . The moft common deviations are produced
by the bottom of the cul-de-fac, or cecal portion of the
ftomach, being either longer or fhorter than what has been
propofed as the ftandard (hape. ‘There are alfo other varie-
ties in the figure cf this vifcus which will be noticed in the
following defcription.

The mufcular coat of the ftomach varies very much in
thicknefs, and likewife with re{pe& to the diftin@tnefs and
arrangement of its fibres.

Between the mufcular and internal coats there is often
found a layer of mucous follicles.

The internal membrane varies very much as to thicknefs,
and its furface is either {moo:h, reticulated, or plicated.

The ftruCture of the ftomach in fifhes does not correfpond
with any natural claffification of thefe animals, and therefore
does not admit of a fy {tematic defcription.

The rays have the ftomach nearly of the common form.
There are fome folds of the internal membrane ; in the maid
(raja clavata) it is a thick fpongy mafs, which peels off
eafily after maceration.
look like the ruge of the human ftomach, they are not
however produced by the folding of the coat, but by the
thinnefs or a&tual deficiency of fome parts of “it, we oblerved
very thinly fcattered over it thofe {mall round depreflions
which Mr. Home has conceived to be the glands for fe-

creting the gaftric juice; in this as well as other in{tances

The irregularities of the furface —

thefe glands bear no fort of proportion to the quantity of
the fluid which phyfiologifts have hitherto fuppofed requifite
for digzeftion.

The ftomach in the /karks covfilts of two portions; the
firft is much longer and wider than the fecond, which is
ftraight, and has the appearance of an inteftine; the two por-
tions communicate by a fmallopening, which will only pers
mit fubitances to pafs intothe fecond ftomach, that are re-
duced into a {mooth and fluid ftate. ‘Chere are well marked
longitudinal ruge in the firfl ftomach, but thofe in the fee
cond are but little apparent. ~ > ;

In the Lafking fhark (fqualus maximus) the firt flomach
is reticulated at the beginning, and towards the pylorus has
very prominent, longitudinal folds, and there is a globular
cavity interpofed. between the pylorus and the inteftine,
which communicates with each by a very contraéted aper-
ture.

In the greater dog-fifh (/qualus canicula) the mufeular fibres
of the fiomach are moftly Jongivudinal; they are numerous
at the cardiac and pyloric extremities, but not wel! marked
elfewhere. The mufcles of the ftomach are mych ftronger
in the greater cat-fifh (/qualus fellaris) than in many other
{pecies ; they are extended over the whole of both portions;
their courfe is longitudinal. The internal membrane in this
fpecies forms large and numerous folds, which have different
direétions ; behind the internal membrane of the large por-
tion of the ftomach there is a glandular layer of a greyifh
colour and fome thicknefs, f

The /gualus nafus has two forts of ruge in the firft fto-
mach ; the oneare longitudinal, and lie parallel to each other ;
the fecond are tranfverfe, and perpendicular to the firft.

The internal membrane of the firlt portion of the ftomach
in the jaw fhark (fqualus priflis) has twelve or fourteen
very large longitudinal and parallel folds, which are grooved
tran{verfely ; the fecond itomach in the fame fith is perfe@ly
{mooth.

The ftomach of the /amprey (petromyzon marinus) is not
to be diftinguifhed from the other parts of the alimentary
canal, except from its fituation.

In the furgeon (acipenfer /turio) the ftru&ture of the ftomach
is fingular ; after being prolonged for fome way as a fimple
tube, it is bent fo as to make a complete turn, it becomes con-
tracted on this fide of the pylorus, and then again forms an
enlargement of a pyriform figure, the bale of which corre-
fponds to the pyloric opening; this en'argement is produced |
by a very thick mutcle, the fibres of which run obliquely from
without inwards; the pyloric orifice is really very {mall, and
bounded by acircularfoid. The internal membrane is fmooth
and without villi, except at the part corre{ponding to the en=
largement, at which place there are thin, long folds of a py-
ramidal figure, the bafes of which touch the pylorus, and
are covered with a net-work, fimilar to that in the eef.pha-
gus of this fifh.

The ftomach of the /patularia is very wide, and fills a
great part of the abdominal cavity ; it bas a round figure,
and forms a cul-de-fac which is not as ufual in the direction
of the celophagus, this canal and the inteitine opening near
each other. The internal furface of the ftomach is fmooth :
there is a circular valve at the pylorus.

In the /ygnathus pelagicus the alimentary canal proceeds
from.the mouth to the anus, as in the /ampreys, without forme
ing any convolution: the part which correfponds to the fto-
mach is, according to Cuvier, the one-feventh of the whole;
it is diftinguifhed from the reft by a flight contraétion, and
by two layers of mufcle: the external layer is formed of
circular fibres, which furround the ftomach ; the ternal

layer

FISH.

layer is longitudinal. Theinternal membrane has fome large
longitudinal folds.

The ftomach in the genus Za/ifles, and in the offracions, bears
¢onfiderable refemblance to that of the /ygnathus. It has
thick parietes plicated internally, and ts diitinguifhable from

e other parts of the canal by its thick mufcular coat; in
Me bali/les there is a denticulated valve interpofed between
the ftomach and inteftines, In the offracion cubicus, the part
correfponding to the ftomach may be known by its form ; its
parietes are thin, tran{parent, and wider than the reft of the
eanal ; its internal membrane is fmooth, except next the cefo-
phagus, where it produces fome waving folds; from that
place the canal gradnelly diminithes, its coats become thicker,
and the internal furface villous and plicated.

- The form of the itomach in the od/ong tetraodon is very
different from the ufual one in fifhes. It isthe fhape of a
globe, a little extended at the cefophageal and pyloric ori-
fices, which are ficuatcd exa@tly opvofite to each other; the
one before and the other behind. The coats of the ftomach
are thin and weak, and apparently without mufcular fibres:
the internal {urface does not prefent any inequalities, and th

orifices are unfurnifhed with any valve. :

Cuvier defcribes the ftomach of the dophius pifcatorius as a
bag, having the fame capacity and direction as the aefopha-
gus, and extending nearly the whole length of the abdominal
cavity. The interna! membrane is confounded with the cel-
lular coat, is very thick, foft, and pulpy, and forms a great
number of thin proceffes and large irregularly fhaped ruge;
the firft are particularly remarkable around the cardia, where
they feem to produce many glandular maffzs, fome of which
extend into the clophagus. There are further to be ob-
ferved fome little orifices of cells equally {mall, placed in the
fubftance of the internal membrane, which appear to be de-
figned for the fecretionof mucus. The aperture of the py-
Jorus is much contraét-d; it is furrounded by a very thick
circular border, which proje@s confiderably into the inteftine.
The mufcular coat of the ftomach is very ftrong at every

art, its fibres are longitudinal.

In the dump fi/b (cyclopterus lumpus) the figure of the fto-
mach is nearly that of two ovals united at their ends; the
angle formed by their junétion correfponds to the cecal por-
tion of the ftomach in other fifhes, and the other ends re-
ceive the eefophagus and the inteltine ; the ftomach is {mooth
vpon the internal furface, except near the pylorus, at which
place there are fome plice; it exhibits a number of opaque
f{pots, which are occafioned by the union of very fmall len-
ticular cells fituated between the mufcular and internal coats.
They have eagh a {mall orifice in the centre, and appear to
be deftined to fecrete the mucus of the flomach; the muf-
cular coat is confined to the fecond oval part of the ftomach,
and near the cardiac orifiee ; the parictes are in other places
thin and tranfparent.

' Inthe ee/the cecal portion of the flomach is very much
elongated, and of a taper or funnel-fhape; the pylorus. is
fituated very near the cefophazus, and appears to be formed
by two portions ; one from the cfophagus, and the other
from the elongated part of the ftomach, from which it would
appear that all the food does not in this fifh pafs through that
part; the internal membrane produces fome longitudinal
plice: at the pylorus, which become lefs eminent and waving
towards bottom of the funnel part of the ftomach. The
fibres of the mufcular coat are circular ; although they are
longitudinal on the eefophagus; there is a tubercle of the in-
. oe membrane, which conftricts the aperture of the py-
jorus.
~The conger has very nearly the fame fort of Lomach as the
sommon eel ; the prolonged part is, however, lef taper, the
Vou. XIV. »

mufcular fibres are more curved, and the pylorus is bordered
by a broad lamina ; the internal membrane is firm and white,
and forms a few long folds which extend from the cefophagua
to the bottom of the cul-de-fac, or czcal portion.

The jugular order of tithes afford many examples of the
ufual or proper figure of the ftomach.

In the trachinus draco the ftomach varies but little from the
ftandard form; it is fomewhat larger than the cefophagus,
and its parietes are thrown intoa few irregular and oblique
folds, which are vifible even on the external furface.

The genus gadus does not afford much fingularity in the
formation of the ftomach. The cod (gadus morrhua) has
the cecal portion very fhort, or, in other words, the part
which goes to end in the inteftine runs near the bottom of
the ftomach.

The hake (gadus merlucius) has this part placed forwards,
and the whiting (gadus merlangus) hasit ftill more fo.

The Ang (gadus molua) has the cul-de-fac much elongated,
but without any alteration in its capacity. In all thefe fithes
the part which ends in the inteftine is much contra&ted.

Amongft the thoracici we obferve the following varieties of
ftructure in the ftomach.

In the father lafher (cottus feorpius), and bull head (cottus
gobio) the ftomach is very mufcular and of an irregular fhape.
The cacal portion is confiderably larger thao theocfophagus;
the part which ends in the inteftine is fituated near the en-
trance of the cefophagus. In the goby of the Nile (cottus ni-
Joticus) the czcal portion is fmaller than the other parts of
the tlomach, and the ioteftine crifes far from the eefophagus.

The ftomach of the /corpena horrida refembles that of the
nilotic goby.

Inthe lyre (callionymus Iyra) the cut-de fac is formed im~
mediately at the commencement of the ftomach, which is at
firit globular, and is afterwards contreéted pofteriorly to
nearly the fize of the cefophagus ; on the right fide of the di-
latation, the part which ends in the inteftine goes off an-
teriorly ; the walve of the pylorus is produced by the pro-
jeftion of that part of the ftomach into the inteftine.

In the’remora the right part of the ftomach has not, as ia
general, a {all bowel arifing from the fide of the cul-de-fac,
but a fhort prolongation of that part which is bent forwards,
and forms an angle pofteriorly. The mufeular coat is very
ttrong, and the iaternal furnifhed with very prominent los-
gitudinal ruge.

The figure of the ftomach differs very much in the dif-
ferent {pecies of the genus pleuroncées.

In the turbot ( pleuronedes maximus) the middle portion of
the flomach is a little enlargec, but the cul-de-fac is very
fhort ; the pylorus being nearly at the bottom of the fe~
mach): neither the figure given by Cnvier of the trrbar’s lo
mach, nor that contained in Blafius Anatomie Animalium, is
corre.

In the flewronedes lineatus the ftomach is wide, irregularly
round, with thin coats, and fmooth on the internal. furface.

The -ttomach of the fole (pleuronedes folea) has-a bent
figure like a portion of an S; there is a flight dilatation at
the greateft curvaturé, which takes the place of the ufual
cul-de-fac. There is no contraction of the canal at the py-
lorus ; the diftirétion between the ftomach and intefting,
however, is marked both on the outfide, and internally, by a
whitifh line ; the ¢nner furface is thrown inte fome irrggular
longitudinal folds.

Cuvier deferibes the ftomach of the plaife ( pleuronede:
platefa) as forming a continuous canal with the efophagus
and inteltine ; there is, however, always a degree of dilatas
tion»at. one fide of the flomach, which varies according aa
w may be diftendcd by food; this corvefponds to the com-

3Q) moa

FRSA,

mon cul-de-fac ; the parietes of the ftomach are thin and
fmooth on the internal furface ; at the pylorus there is a
funnel. fhaped valve, which projsés into the cavity of the in-
teitine for fome diftance.

The ftomach of the flounder ( pleuronedes fleffus) refembles
that of the p/ai/e, except that it is contraéted at the pylo-
rus, which gives it a conical figure,

Inthe John dory (zeus faber) the ftomach is round and
very capacious; in one initance we foundit contain eight mo-
derate fized flounders. Cuvier deferibes the internal mem-
brane as being irregularly rugons, but we have obferved that
ahe furface is covered with {mall mefhes; each of which con-
tains within it a {till finer reticulation ; the mefh-work is
wanting, however, upon that part of the internal membrane
which lies between the entrance of the cefophagus and the
pylorus; the pyloric orifice is abridged by a circular projec-
tion of the internal coat.

The form of the ftomach in the chetodon zebra, as de-
{cribed by Cuvier, is fingular: it follows the fame dire&tion
as the cefophagus from before backwards, but is diftin-
guifhed from it by having a greater capacity ; it dilates fud«
denly, and prefents on the fide of the cardia very fhort
cul-de-fac, of which the bottom is turned forwardg, and the
cavity is feparated from the card'ac orifice by an internal
projection ; the ftomach is flightly contraéted betore its ter-
mination, and its coats, which were before thin and tranf-
parent, acquire confiderable thicknefe, more particularly
the mufcular tunic; the termination of the ftomach at
the inteftine is marked by aconfiderable proje@ion. The
internal coat is without ruge. j

The chetodon ciliaris bas a large flomach bent into an arch:

The chetodon arcuatus has the ftomach at firft continued
-for fome way as a large canal, in the fame direGtion of the
cefophagus, it then bends to form a right angle, and be-
comes dilated into a confiderable oval fac, of which the op-
polite extremity opens into the inteftine by a very con-
tracted orifice ; the parietes of the firtt portion are thin and
tran{parcnt 3 thofe of the fac are more mufcular ; the inter-
nal furface 1s {mooth in both divilions.

In the fteuthis the ftomach at firlt forms a canal, with
thick coats, the internal of which is plicated throughout its
length; it then bends from behind forwards to join a fecond
portion, which is wider, and of which the coats are thin and
iranfparent, but become more fubitantial towards the other
extremity ; the part of the ftomach which forms the cu've is
elongated, and correfponds to the cul-de-fac of other fifhes.

lp the Aobocenthrus fogo, the ttomach is an elongated bag,
with the bottom contracted ; the parictes are moderately
ttrong, the internal coat produces feven or eight broad
rug, which difappear in the portion which goes off very
near the bottom to form the pylorus.

There is confiderable variety in the form of the ftomach
in the genus fparus. The /parus /pinifer has a very large
ftomach, which occupies a great part of the abdomen; 1%
refembles a round bottle or fi ik, with a wide neck, which
eorrefponds to the celophagus ; the inteftine, compared with
the ttomach, is very fma}l, and arifes abruptly from the le wer
part of theneck, and coniequent!y very far from the bottom

-of the ftomach ; the parietes of the bag are thin, and the in-
ternal furface of it quite fmooth. "The /parus Aganus hae a
conical fhaped dilatation where the elophagus joins the
ftomach, the bottom of which is turned forwards. This,
which is wider than the efophagus, paffes firft from before
backwards, then bends from behind forwards; the curva-
tion produces a confiderable cul-de-fac. ‘The portion which
fucceeds it is longer and lefs wide than the firft part of the
ftomach..

Cuvier ftates the ftomach of the genus debrus to poffels
the ordinary form and ftru@ure. In the gibbous wraffe
(labrus tinca) however, we have found the c@lophague,
{tomach, and firlt or {mall inteftine, to make a continuous
canal, without any material difference in capacity or in ftruc-
ture; each of thefe parts is reticulated upon the internal
furface. ‘ :

In the perches (genus perca) there is nothing in genera
very peculiar to remark ; the chief deviations from the com-
mon ftru€ture appear to be with refpeé to the length and
form of the cul-de-fac ; this part is conical in the perch of
the Nile (perca nilotica); it is deep in the fea-persh. Blafhus
gives a figure of the vifcera of the perch, in which the intef-
tine appears continuous with the cefophagus, and the cxcal
portion of the ttomach is like a long bag, with a contracted
neck.

In the fiickleback (gaflerofleus pungitius) the ftomach is an
oval fizure, and without curvature.

The red gurnard (trigla cuculus) has the portion which
ends in the inteltine contiderably enlarged.

Lhe piper (trigla lyra) has the pylorus fituated very near
the cfophagus, which is ftraight. The body of the ftomach
is nearly of an oval fhape, and the bottom of it forms a very
fhort cul-de-fac, lefs in diameter than the celophagus.

In the fcomber Janfun the portion which arifes from the
body of the ftomach to terminate in the inteftine is an oval
figure, and fo large in proportion to the reft of the cavity,
that it {eems like a fecond ttomach ; its mufcular coat is very
ftrong, and the internal one has fome thick longitudinal
folds.

The abdominal fifhes exhibit fome more remarkable
varieties in the ftru€ture of the ftomach than the preceding
orders.

In che carps (cyprinus) the ftomach forms a continuous
canal from the cefophagus to the inteftine. In the fea pike
(e/ox belone) alfo it cannot be diftinguifhed from the adjoin-
ing parts of the alimentary canal; the ftomach of the com-
mon pike (cfox lucius) forms no cul-de-fac, the inteftine going
off at its bottom; but the fituation of the pylorus is plainly
marked by an annular contraétion externally, and by a cir-
cular fold of the internal membrane. The figure of the
ftomach is that of a very elongated bag, fomewhat wider
in the middle than the other parts; its mufcular coat is
ftrong ; the internal membrane furnifhes at firlt fome dilin&
longitudinal folds, which become numerous, and covered
with papilla in the lower part of the bag.

In the herring (clupea harengus) the ftomach at firft paffes
backwards, like the continuation of the ofophagus ; it is
then reflscted forwards, fo as to form an acute angle with
the firit portion ; the outlide of this curvature produces a
tong, conical cul-de-fac: thefe portions are diftinguifhable
by their ftru@ture, as well as their form’: the firft has thick
parietes, and the internal furface plicated ; the fecond has
thin coats, and is {mooth internally ; the pylorus, which. is
the termination of the refleed portion, is much contraGed.

The flomach forms a cul-de-fac in the genus /almo, which,
howcver, varies much with refpe€t to its depth. In the
Jielt (faimo eperlanus) it is long and pointed, as in the erring.
Ta the common /a/mon and trout (falmo fario) the cxcal por-
tion of the ttomach is very inconfiderabiee There is a kind,
of trout, found in the weftern part of Ireland, which, from-
the great ftrength and thickne{s of the mufcular coat of its
ftomach, is eommonly called the gillaroo or gitzard trout,
It is pot generally fuppofed to be a diftin& {pecics, but a
variety of the /a/mo fario. Hunter ftated the parietey of its
ftomach to be two-thirds thicker than thofe of the common
trout; he did not, however, confider it¢ flomach as ferving:

Fis 8,

the purpofes, or as deferving the name of a gizzard; the
internal furface is foft and villous, and therefore not fit for
grinding the food ; the contraétions of the ftomach are how-
ever fufficiently powerful to break the fhell-fifh on which
this trout fubfifts, with the affiftance of round, fmooth
ftones, which are {wallowed for the purpofe. The common
trout likewife takes ftones into its ftomach, with a fimilar
defizn.
The ftomach of the fi/urus bagre is an oval, or rather the
fhape of a flaflk, with a very wide mouth ; its parietes are
hard, ftrong, and thick; the portion which leads to the
pylorus is fhort, and arifes from about the pofterior third,
which occafions a confiderable cul-de fac.
There is no cxeal portion of the ftomach in the genus
~hnableps ; that of the anableps tetropthalmus is a canal
curved upon itfelf, before it ends in the inteftine, from
which it is feparated by a flight contra¢tion, and a circular
valve ; the left fide of the internal furface of the ftomach
exhibits thick folds, which form a net-work, apparently of a

landular ftru€ture; the other parts of the internal mem-
i are covered with fine villi.

Cuvier defcribes the cxgal portion of the ftomach, in the
genus mormyrus, as being wide and fhort ; we fhould rather
fay that the itomach is dilated into a bag, which lying tran{-
verfely acrofs the direétion of the cfophagus, refembles, in
fome degree, the form of this cavity in mammalia.

The moft fingularly conftruéted ftomach in the whole
clafs of fithes is met with in the mullet (genus mugil), of
which Cuvier has given an imperfe& defcription, and bad
figure. In the common f{pecies (mugil cephalus), the ttomach
may be divided into three parts; the firit refembles in form
and direétion the cefophagua, from which it commences ;
it leads to the back of a large mufcular mafs, into which it
opens; the fame canal is afterwards continued for a con-
fiderable way backwards, and is gradually contra&ed in capa-
city, until it finifhes in a pointed blind extremity. The
mut(cular mafs has a figure not quite {pherical, but fuch as
would be produced by the application of two difks to each
other ; the largeft diameter of it meafures about an inch :
the tubular part of the ftomach opens into the centre of one
difk ; the inteftine commences exaétly oppofite, or at the
centre of the other; a ftraight canal leads dire@tly through
the mulcle, which therefore correfponds to the pyloric por-
tion of the ftomach. It has, however, been confidered by
fome anatomifts as an example of the true gizzard ftomach
in fifhes, and not without foundation ; the mufcular fibres
which compofe the interior part of it are fhort, clofely ap-
plied to each other, and interwoven fo as to produce a mafs
neatly of an homogeneous ftruéture; the fibres are more
diftin& on the external furface ; they pafs from the centre
to the circumference, where they feem to coalefce
with each other, and with a layer of mulcle, which paffes
round the mafs like a ring: this arrangement of the muf-
cular fibres bears fume refemblance to that of the gizzard
in birds, and certainly fhews that the apparatus in the mu/let
is capable of exerting an extraordinary degree of force. It
fhould further be added, that the internal part of the muf-
eular mafe is lined with a cuticular coat of fome ftrength:
this is very eafily detached by maceration, and is found to
be confined, as in birds, merely to the grinding furface. As
arguments again{t the {uppofition of the mufcular apparatus
in the mullet performing the funétions of a gizzard, it may
be ftated that the cavity it contains is too fmall to ferve <s
a refervoir for any quantity of food ; that the cuticle is too
weak to fultain the fri€tion with hard bodies, and that the
food. muft be in a great meafure digefted in the tubular
portion of the ftomach, before it pafles into this. Thefe

obje&tions we are difpofed to allow toa certain extent ; but
that the aliment undergoes a further comminution and ad-
mixture, while moving through the mufcular portion of the
mullet’s {tomach, we cannot entertain a doubt, both from
the contemplation of the ftruéture of the part, and of the
inteftines which fucceed it, and from aé¢iual obfervation
made upon its contents, immediately after the death of the
animal.

Cuvier defcribes the ftomach of the white mullet (mugil
albula) as differing only from that of the mugil cephalus with
refpeét to the fhape of the cul-de-fac, and the mufcular
portion ; the firft has the proper form of a bag, being wider
at the lower part than above, the latter is the figure of a
globe, inftead of being compreffed or levclied on the inferior
and upper furfaces.

The figures which illuftrate the form and ftrutere of the
flomach are contained in Plates I. and II. of the Anatomy of
Fifhes. Fig. §.0f Plate 1. exhibits a view of the ftomach
ot the ba/Ring /hark (/qualus maximus) laid open on one fide x
c, the portion of the ftomach next the ceefophagus, the inner
furface of which is reticulated ; d,4, the fucceeding parts of
the flomach, with longitudival laming or folds, which are
particularly promiuent near the pylorus; ¢, the purfed, or
contraéted opening into the {ccond ftomach ; f, the fecond
ftomach, partially feen behind the other; g, the commence-
ment of the inieftine ; 4, the biliary duGs, pafling as a band
to the inteftine; #7, the fpleen. :

Fig. 6. of the fame plate fhews the globular cavity,
or fecond ftomach, and its communication with the firft
ftomach and intettine ; a, the external furface of the pyloric
portion of the ftomach ; 4, the intermediate cavity laid open,
to bring into view the contreCted aperture leading into the
principal ftomach, and the one into the inteltine; c, the
cavity of the firft part of the inteftine expofed; d, the com-
mencement of the f{piral valve ; ¢, the projeétion into the ine
teftine, upon which the {mall aperture of the fecond ftomach
is feen ; f, the papilla, by which the bilary ducts terminate
in the inteftine; g, a portion of the fpleen; 4, twelve or
thirteen biliary ducts, forming a fingle fafciculus, which
proceeds to the inteftine.

Fig. 7. of the famé plate reprefents a portion of the
ftomach and cefophagus of the raja clavata; a, the inner
furface of the cefophagus; 42, the internal coat of the
ftomach, which is‘ thick, foft, unequal, and, as it were,
raifed upon the furface of the other coats ; the depriflions
{een upon it are produced by the deficiency of the internal
coat itfelf ; fome {mall foramina are fcattered over the fur-
face, which are the glands fuppofed to furnifh the galtric
juice. by Mr. Home, but which by others are commonly
defcribed as mucous glands.

In Plate Il. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, fig. t. reprefents
the ftomach of the ¢etraodén oblongus; a, the efophagus ; 4,
the beginning of the inteftine ; c, the ftomach, of a globular
figure. Fig. 2. fhews the ftomach of the ¢e/ (murena
anguilla); a, the celophagus; 4, the cul-de-fac, or cecal
portion of the ftomach of an elongated taper form; c, the
inteftine. Jig. 3. exhibits the ftomach of the /ole (pleuro-
aces folea) which defcribes an S§ like curve ; a, the flight
dilatation which correfponds to the cul de-fac. Fig. 4. re-
prefents the ftomachr of the p/ai/e (pleuronees plateffa); a, the
cefophagus; J, the inconfiderable dilatation whrch marks
the fituation of the ftomach ; c, the pylorus; @. d, the two
fhort pyloric ceca; ¢, the fingle cecum from the firlt
portion of the inteitine, as far as it 1s known, peculiar to
this ith. Fig. 5. fhews the ftomach of the chetodon zebra 5
a, the efophageal extremity ; 4, the pylorus; ¢, the portion
of the ftomach, correfponding to the cul-de-fac, which, in

Pm ole) thie

FISH.

tis fpecies, is turned forwarde, Fig. 6. is the tomach of
the /parus Jpinifer ; a, the cefophageal extremity ; 4, the
inteltine, of a fmall fize, arifing near the cefophagus ;
¢, the body of the ftomach, which forms a perfeét bag.
Fig. 7. is the ftomach of the mullet (mugil cephalus); a is
the part continued from the cefophagus; 4, the funnel, or
cul-de-fac ; ¢, the mufcular portion, which has been com-
pared to a gizzard, on which the arrangement of the muf-
cular fibres is feen; d, the inteftine; eee, pyloric cece.
Fig. 8. fhews the fame ftomach, with the mufcular part
cut through longitudinally ; a, the efophageal extremity ;
b, the funnel feen behind; c, the mufcular portion, in the
centre of which appears the opening, through which the
food paffes to the inteftine; d, the cuticle lining this paf-
fage, puckered or folded on itfelf.

Inteflines.

There are, properly {peaking, but two inteftines in fifhes;
the firft correfponds to the /maill, the fecond to the great ;
thefe terms, however, are not applicable to the divifions of
the canal in this clafs of animals, unlefs they were reverfed,
as that which would be called the great is often lefs capa-
cious than the other. Cuvier has called the fecond portion
of the inteftines in fifhes relum, to which part it is certainly

more analogous than to the co/on, or cacam, although fome-
times it experiences a confiderable and fudden enlargement,
The firft and fecond portions of the canal are commonly
diftinguifhed from each other by an annular projeétion of
the internal coat, which is generally thick and rounded on
the edge, and appears to contain fome circular mufcular
fibres, which, by their contraétion, will increafe the valvular
obftrution to the paflage of fubftances from one inteftine
into the other; thefe parts are further indicated by a dif-
ference of ftru€&ture in the internal membrane, and com-
monly, alfo, by a different arrangement of the fibres in the
mulcular coat. The capacity of the fecond inteltine, as
already mentioned, is almoft always either fmaller or larger
than the preceding part of the canal ; moft commonly it is
{maller. ‘The internal ftructurey charaGteriftic of each intefs
tine, is moft ftrongly marked in the one next the pylorus,
and in the other towards the anus.

The variation with refpeét to the form, length, and ftruc-
ture of the inteftines of different fifhes, do not accord with
the natural divifions of this clafs of animals; remarkable
deviations being often found amongtt individuals of the fame
genus, and even fometimes in varieties of the fame fpecies,
as will appear by the following table, and in the defcription
of thefe parts in the principal genera.

Taste of the proportional Lengths of the Intefinal Canal in Fifhes, Extracted from Cuvier’s
Lecons d’Anatomie comparée, tom. 3.

ee ES eS EL LL LE SS,

Length of the

body, from the

endof the fnout

to the

Names.

ing the cauda)

ho.
Lamprey . . . : . 0,148

a . A 5 2 . 0,300 (4)

Shark ; A 6 4 25759
Sturgeon . : C é, 25273
Spatularia . A : ¢ 0,11 4(c)
Baliftes . 0 : c ‘ 0,130
Tetraodon mola . ~° . : 4 1,000
Tetraodon oblongus . 4 5 0,140
Murena helena. A " é
Commoneel . ° . 0,720
Whiting : 5 : 0,290
Cottus infidiator : : 5 0,360
Pleuroneétes limanda_. 4 0,150
Chetodon arcuatus . . 0,105
Perch . : Fi . z 0,210
Perca labrax. . 5 . 0,923
Sparus . . ; ° ° 0,190
Barbel;. . 5 S ‘ 0,390
Rud . : ° = . * 210
Cyprinus dobula : < i 0,290
Tench F . : i F 0,280
Efox brafilienfis ° ° 0,130
Common pike « . ° 0,840
Polypterus Niloticus. =. : 0,510
Mormyrus . 3 ‘ . = 0,260
Mullet ; ; f 4 05250

Silurus bagre . : ° ; 0,320

Length of in
reftinal
extre-|from the pylo-jre€tum, or fe-Jof the intelti-|body to that
mityof the tail,/rus to the vaivcjcond intetine. {nal canal.
without includ-|of the rectum.

\ Relation of the
canal, Length of the}Total lengtt|{ength of the
of the intefti-
nal canal.

0,200 TRG
0,189(¢) 0,540 ie
1,200 1,8
0,024 4,8
0,270 “eae
39572 qs
0,090 1,5
0,230 ;
0,254 2,6 : ba
0,240 1,2 5
0,060 0,339 Is
0,200 3
0,055 0,600 A gem ile 4
0,160 og C
0,793 1,3 :
0,739 Ix
0,015 ye
1,350 Aen
0:400 iG
03349 ree
0,090 1,3:
0,140 0,820 ae
0,275 IT:
0,160 Tra:
0,959 I: 3,8

EH

(a) Meafure of the alimentary canal, from the pofterior
parts of the mouth to the anus.

(+) Length, meafured. from the border of the lower jaw
to the anus.

(c) Length taken from the end of the muzzle, but not
including the leaf.

(d) Length meafured from the end of the foiral valve to
the anus. .

“In the lampreys (pelromyzon) the alimentary canal pafies to
the anus without any fenfible dilatation or convolution ; the
abdominal cavity is however of confiderable extent. The
inner furface of the inteftine is covered with fine longitudinal
plice ; the refleGion of peritoneum, which correfpords
to the mefentery, completely encompaflcs the greatcft
part of the inteltine, by being coiled upon it, in confe«
quence of which it is allowed great latitude of motion in the
abdomen.

The inteftines of the ray and /hark genus make no ma-
terial convolutions, and appear remarkably fhoit for the fifh ;
the length, however, Jolt by this circumftance, is amply

fupplied by the ftructure of the firft inteftine ; the internal.

membrane of which is. converted into a {pirel valve, which
nearly fills up the canal from the pylorus to the commence-
ment of the fecond inteftine; the food, therefore, initead of
pafling {peedily to the anus, traverfes a confiderable circuit.
The {piral membrane is tolerably fmooth upon its furface,
but is extremely vafcular ; an injeétion of the blood veffels
will render this part of a vivid red, and fearcely thew any
effe& upon the other parts of the alimentary canal. The
valvular portion of the inteftine in the /qualus maximus ter-
minates at the rectum in a foliated appearance, refembling
a rofe, by which the paflage of the food is obftru€ted.

The fecond inteftine of thefe fifhes ufually makes one or
two flight curves; it has a {mailer diameter and thinner
coats than the preceding ; the inner membrane is villous at
the commencement. Cuvier has defcribed a layer of a grey-
i, glandular fubfance, as being interpofed between the
mufcular and internal coats; this has not been obferved
by us.

There is a remarkable glandular body conneéted by a
flender tubtlar foot-ftalk with the rectum which is only met
with in the ray and /hark genera; in the former it is fome-
what of the figure of the feed of a ftone fruit, with thelefferend
towardstheinteftine. Wehave obferveditin thedog-f/h to be
long, round, and pointed at the freeextremity. Its fubftanceis
very denfe and unyielding, refembling a good dealthetextureof
the human uterus; it contains a {mall cavity, which appears
to have a {mooth furface, but, if accurately examined, ex-
hibits fome cells or depreffions, which would feem to be the
orifice of mucous glands. In the /gualus maximus, Mr.
Home found this gland deeply reticulated in the inner fur-
face, and to contain a dark coloured glairy fluid, Deétor
Monroe, in his Phyfiology of Fifhes, called this body, from

analogy of fituation, appendix vermifermis, and fuppofed it.

to be defigned to perform the fame funGtions of that part in
the human inteftine. Cuvier, on the other hand, defcribes
it amongft the anal glands of animals, to which clafs of or-
gans he thinks it moft analogous. It appears tous to be a
Er deftined to fupply the rectum with mucus,

Tn the furgeon (acipen/er) all the parts of the inteftine are
extremely mofcular; the internal furface is reticulated
throughout the greateft portion of the canal; at the be-
ginning the mefhes are fo deep as to produce cells ; at fome
diftance from the pylorus: there arifeaa fpiral valve, which

Belittl jral

S Hy

is loft at nearly. the fame diftance from the anus ; its turng
are much lefs frequent than thofe of the valve in the ray and”
dog-fifh, In the fiurgeom it is fuftained by a ftrong pillar
which runs in the centre of the tube of the inteftine, and
which feems to be compofed of mafcle internally ; the valve
refembles ftairs placed around a pillar, except that it is not
uninterruptediy attached to the centre, but rathes coila
upon it, leaving in fome places the internal border at liberty;
it does not f{eem, therefore, neceflary for the alimentary
fubftances to pafs around all the turns of the valve. In the
Sturgeon there is interpofed between the reticulated membrane
and the mufecular coat a thick layer of a glandular f{ub-
ftance, which is clofe in its texture, a greyith.colour, and ia
whick may be feen fome {mall white branches. Te lat
portion of the inteftinal canal has neither valve, reticulation,
nor glandular fub{tance; its coats are thin, and its diameter
diminithed,

Cuvier defcribes the inteftinal canal of the Jpatularia as
being fhort, but contrived to retard the paffage of the ali-
mentary fubftances through it. It is very wide for two-
thirds of its length, and is then foddenly contraG@ed into a
{mall canal ; it next becomes dilated a fecond tme, and forms
an oval pouch, the cavity of whichis divided by fix circolar
valves: the fucceffive enlargements and contr: tions pro-
duced by thefe are vifible on the external part of the in-
teftine ; the poach opens into a fhort and contra@ed canal,
which is analogous to the redum. he firlt portion of the
inteftine of this fih is moft mufculer, end cxhibits a net-
work on the internal furface, fimilor to that of the flurgeon ;
the mefhes of which are, however, not ftrongly marked,
except in the firft two thirds of the inteftine. The parietes
of the pouch, containing the valves, are thin, but the fhort
canal, immediately fucceeding, has an evident mufcular coat,
and the internal furface longitudinally plicated.

Inthe /ygnathus pelagicus the alimentary canal is withowt
convolutions, as already mentioned, and preferves neazly the
fame diameter throughout its whole length ; the ficft or {mail
inteftine has thin and tran{parent coats, and the inver fur-
face is covered with longitudinal plice, waving and ramified
together} itis feparated from the fecond inteftine, or rectum,
by acircular valve; the latter canal has trong parietes, and
upon the internal furface thick rog= running longitudinally,
ferrated upon their edge. undulating, andfendins branches to
each other. he /ygnathus acus differs from the elagicus in
wanting the ruge in the fecond inteftine, which is {mooth
and covered with fine cuticle.

The offracton cubicus, in which the inteftine is without con-
volution, has the firlt portion. flightly plicated internally ;
and ia the fecond .more eminent rugz difperled longitudi«
nally and parallel to eachotber. This part of rhe anteitine
is likewife more mufcular, and feparated from the firit bya
circular valve.

In the da/ifles the firth intefine is, for about two-thirds of
its length, thin, uniform in fize, and {mooth internally ; at
the commencement of the laft third it exhibits fome dila-
tations, and towards the end beconics much enlaraed, at
which place the internal coat acquires a beautiful vious ep-
pearance ; a contraction of the parietes, and an annular pro-
jeGtion internally, ferve to diftinguith the commencement of
the fecond.inteltine, which is fhort and longitudinally pli
cated on the infide.

In the genus ¢efraodon the inteftines make two or three
convolutions, but preterve nearly the fame diameter throughs
out ; a foldof the inner mtembrane’is placed at the beginmnag
of the fecond inteltine, which has Gronger coats than the

rity

FISH.

firft, and deeper longitudioal folds of the internal fur-
face.

The inteftinal canal is longer in the moon-fi/h (tetraodon
mola) than in the other fpecies, and forms numerous convo-
lutions. The firft inteftine is capacious, and has a ftrong
mufcular coat, which exhibits on the internal part of the
gut very diftiné longitudinal fafciculi; the inteltine diminifhes
in widenefs, and the thicknefs of its coats as it proceeds.
There is alfo a thick white glandular layer between the in-
ternal and mufcular coats, which difappears on approaching
the fecond inteftine ; in which, however, it is again formed.
The internal furface of both inteftines is covered with vil-
lous proceffes, that are at firit coarfe, but become fine to-
wards the commencement of the fecond inteftine, in which
théy re-appear.

The inteftinal canal of the fea devil (lophius pifeatorius)
has but little variation in its capacity from one end to the
ether; the folds of the internal membrane take a lozenge
figure.

ota the lump fife (cyclopterus lumpus) the firlt intefline ta
diftinguifhed from the fecond by a circular valve, which pro-
jeéts into the latter; the mufcular coat of the firft is alfo
lefs thick and has the fibres circular, while in the fecond they
are confiderable, and are arranged upon the external part of
the inteftine longitudinally ; both intefines are plicated on
the inner {urface, but the fecond has the folds larger and lefs
regulars

In the anarrhichas lupus the fecond portion of the intefti-
nal canal has thick coats, and an external layer of longitu-
dinal mufcular fibres; the two parts are indicated by the
interpofition of a circular valve, but the internal furface of
both is covered by a number of fringed plice arranged in
different direétions.

The feveral parts of the inteftinal canal in general have
little variation with refpeét to their capacity. In the genus
murena, the conger (murena conger) has the fecond inteftine
wider than the firlt; it has alfo, particularly at the com-
mencement of the canal, a glandular ftruéture of the inter-
nal coat, fimilar to that already defcribed in the /lurgeon.
In all this genus the diltinction of the two portions of the
inteftines are marked by a fimilar valve.

In the urana/eopus fcaber the firft and fecond inteftines are
not diftinguifhed by any valvular projection of the internal
furface, but by the ftruéture of their coats. They are at
firft thick and the canal {mall, foon afterwards the inteftines
become much enlarged, thin, and tranfparent, which ftruc-
ture is continued to near the anus; the internal membrane
produces in the firft divifion of the canal fine longitudinal
plice, touching each other to a zig-zag manner ; thefe gra-
dually decline, and in the part correfponding to the rectum
become ftri€ly longitudinal and parallel, with fmall ruge
arffing alternately on the fides. The canal experiences many
convolutions.

Nhe firft inteftine of the weaver (¢rachinus draco) is reti-
culated upon the inner furface ; the fecond portion is thin.

In the genus gadus the firft and feeond parts of the intef-
tinal canal are diftinguifhed both by a difference of ftru¢ture
and a valyvlar projection ; the firit inteftine of the hake (ga-
dus merlucius) bas upon the inner furface fringed plice,
which gradually diminifh towards the rectum. In the cod
(gadus morrhua) the canal is {mooth internally, except at its
firft convalution. In tne Jing (gadus molua) the firlt intef-
tine is plicated longitudinally ; and in the whiting (gadus mer-

Jangus) the inteftinal canal appears {mooth on the inner fur»

face ; the rectum is very fhort, and wider than the firft in-
teftine. 5

In the remora (echeneis remora) the firfl intefline is rugous,
the fecond {mooth.

In the genus coffus there is a valve at the origin of the fe-
cond inteftine. In the cottus niloticus there is a glandular fub-
{tance fituated behind the internal membrane, reaching for
fome way from the pylorus, that increafes the bulk of that
part of the gut, the diameter of which is alfo very wide ; the
canal, after proceeding for a confiderable diftance, becomes
again dilated at the {mall portion correfponding to the rec-
tum. The whole extent of the fmall inteftine exhibits
internally a net-work, which has very deep mefhes; in the
reétum the feme ftruGture 1s obferved, but the mefhes are
wide and fhallower.

The inteftinal canal forms three convolutions in the /eor-
pana horrida, The internal membrane ts flightly plaited and
villous, and the parietes thin in the firft inteftine ; the reétum
. ferent larger, and has internally waving longitudinal

olds.

In the dory (xeus faber) the two inteltines are divided
by aconical valve. The firft is reticulated upon its inner
furface ; when viewed with a magnifying glafs, we have ob-
ferved each meth to inclofe a finer net-work within it, and
the projeétions of the membrane, which form the reticulation,
to end in delicate villous laminz ; probably the fame ftruc-
ture would be found to exift in the inteftines of many other
filhes,; the re€tum in the dory is without reticulation, and
thin in its parietes.

‘There is fome varicty with refpeé& to the ftru€ture of the
inteftines in the flat jibes (pleurone@es.) The plaife (pleuro-
neGes plateffa) has the canal wide for fome way from the
pylorus, atter which it gradually diminifhes to a moderate
fize, and continues of the fame magnitude to the anus;
the inner furface is covered with well marked plice arranged
longitudinally, and others conneéting them tranfverfely ; in
the wide part of the inteftine the plice are fo prominent
that they float in the cavity, the border is plaited like the
ruffle of a fhirt, and altogether they produce one of the
moft beautiful furfaces we have obferved in the inteftines of
fifhes. This plicated ftru&ture becomes gradually lefs evi-
dent in the courfe of the canal, and is nearly loft on ap-
proaching the retum. That portion of the inteftine pof-
fefles alfo reticulated plice, but they are indiftin€& ; the in-
teftine becomes thick and flefhy near the anus. Cuvier af-
ferts, that its diameter is twice as great as that of the pre-
ceding part of the canal; but in thofe inftances we have
examined, if any difference could be obferved, the reétum
was lefs than the adjoining part of the inteftines. There is
a circular valve at the commencement of the re&tum.

In the turbot (pleurenedes maximus) the internal membrane
of the firft inteftine produces fringed laminez, which are
clofe together and reticulated ; they gradually decline, and
in the reGtum, the origin of which is marked by a valve and
a fudden dilatation, the lamine or plice become very remarke
able, floating in the cavity of the inteftine. The canal is
moft mufcular,'from the firft convolution to the pylorus, and
in the retum.,

The firft intefline of the brill (pleuroncétes rhombus) is
plicated internally, it is at firft large and then becomes con
tra&ted. The reGum is fmooth and confiderably wider than
the part of the canal immediately adjoining it.

In the /ole (pleuroneées folea) the diameter of the inteftinal
canal is nearly the fame throughout, alihough Cuvier afferts
the contrary. The internal furface of the firit portion looks
as if it were grooved, the folds projeéting very little, and
being clo&ly applied to cach other; they pafs in a waving

manner

FISH.

manner in the longitudinal direétion ; near the pylorus, how-
ever, the folds are more prominent and puckered or plaired
upon the edges, The parietes of the retum are thin; the
internal membrane forms in it flight, incompaét, longitudi-
pal folds. The two parts are diftinguifhed by an annular
projeCtion.

n the pleuronedes limanda, Cuvier ftates the inteftine to be
very wide at the commencement. and after diminithing to
be enlarged again a little in the reGtum. The internal mem-
brane has flight ruge arranged in a lozenge fizure near the
pylorus, but farther on it becomes {mooth.

In many of the genus chetcdon the inteltinal canal is very
large ; in the chetodon arcuatus and chetodon xebra the parictes
of the inteftine are thin, delicate, and tranfparent, and dilated
in fome places for containing the excrements. The internal
membrane of tue firlt inteftine has the plice difpofed ina
zig-zag manner near the anus, theircoats become thickened
and rugous internally.

In the genera /abrus and /parus the ftructure of the intef-
tine varies in the different {pecies ; in the /abrus melops the
rectum is fo wide, according to Cuvier, as to refemble a fac,
into which the firft intefline is inferted ; a valve is fituated at
this place. In other {pecies the fudden enlargement of the
reGtum alfo exifts, but the valve is wanting in the giblous
wraffe (labrus tinca); the firft inteftine is of the fame diameter
as the ttomach, with which it appears to be continuous; it
is villous and reticulated on the inner furface ; the re&um is
very fhort, and twice the width of the firft inteltine ; its in-
ternal membrane exhibits a cellular appearance from the
mefhes of the net-work being fo deep.

The coats of the inteflines in the /parus /pinifer are thin,
and the internal furface is without villi or plica.

In the perch the firit inteftine is a little enlarged at the
‘commencement, afterwards it diminifhes, and again acquires
bulk ; the fecond portion or the re€tum exceeds in fize every
part of the canal. The internal coat of the firft intcttine
‘furnifhes numerous laminz, forming many-fided areolz,
which gradually become longitudinal and parallel to each
other. There is a prominent funnel. fhaped valve at the ori-
~ gin of the fecond inteftine; as ufual, this part of the gut
has longitudinal fibres in its muicular coat. In this fifh the
ftru@ure of the rectum is fngular, its longitudinal, folds are
denticulated upon the edge, and arecrofled by other traa{verfe
plice in a zig-zag manner ; the folds which compofe the an-
gles that are direGted towards the anus are more prominent
than the reft and concave, fo as to produce little cups or
facs. The baft (perca labrax) hasloofe, plaited, longitudi-
nal laming on the internal furface of the firft inteftine, ex-
aly refembling thofe of the {mall inteltine of the /nate ; the
fecond inteltine has remarkable thick coats, and is perfeAly
fmooth on the inner furface.

In the flickleback (ga/terofleus aculeatus) the inteftine is
very wide at its origin, it foon, however, becomes {mall,
and continucs fo to the end of the canal.

Inthe mackarel (/comber feombrus) the internal membrane
of the Grit inteftine is nearly {mooth, but that of the fe-
cond is plicated,

Cuvier defcribes a very remarkable cecal procefs, or cul-
‘de-fac, which is fituated at the origin of the rectum in the
piper (trigla lyra), it paties for a fhort diftance on the fide of
the firit inteftine, from which it is feparated by a femi- lunar
valve; it refembles, in form and pofition, a good deal the
excum in mammalia, of which no other fifh affords a fimilar
example. : .

In the seuthis heparws the inner furface of the inteftine is
Hightly villous ; the two postions are not diftinguifhed by a

vaive as ufual, but near the anus the canal becomes greatly
enlarged, and again diminifhed before its termination,

The inteftinal canal in the genus cyprinus forms no dilatation
or internal valvular projeGtion, but ufually diminifhes in ite
courfe from the cefophagus to the anus, beth in diameter
and the ftrength of ics coats.

In the carp (cyprinus carpio) the inteftines make three
convolutions and one-half ; th: internal membrane at the be-
ginning of the fi-(t portion of the canal produces a reticu-
lation, of which the intervals are very deep, refembling the
cellular appearance of the inteltine defcribed in the urgeon.
This net-work gradually diminifhes in the carp, uatil oear
the anus, where it again increafes.

In the barbel (cyprinus arbus) the interna! membrane fur-
nifhes plicz which go longitudinally in a zig zag manner,
and are finely villous; towards the end of the canal the villi
are lefs thick, and the plice more compaét and fmaller, fo
as to give the appearance of a grooved furtace.

Inthe rud (cyprinus rutilus) the inner coat furnifhes beau-
tiful plica pafling in zig-zag tranfverfely ; they are larger
and clofer at the commencement of the canal than in the
fucceeding parts ; near the anus the edges of the folds have a
fringed appearance.

The inner furface of the inteltine in the cyprinus dobula is
villous in every part, but there are no zig-zag plicz.

In the tench (cyprinus tinca) there are irregular zig-zag
lamire, with fringed edges.

In the genus c/upea the diameter of the inteftinal canal is
nearly the fame throughout ; the coats are thin and weak,
the inteftine are alfo ufually fhort, they do not form any con-
volution in the erring (clupea harengus), and only two turns
in the anchovy (clupea incra/icolus.)

In the mullet (mugil cephalus) the inteitinal canal is fin-
gularly long, and forms convolutions one around the other,
fomewhat in the manner of the inteftines of feverab water
birds ; thefe coils are much more numerous than they are
reprefented by Collins in his anatomy ; we have counted
eleven turns of the inteftine, which were all vifible on firt
opening the body; the convolutions are prefled together, and
the inter{paces fi'led with fat, fo that the whole forms one mafs
which almotft occupies the whole abdomen of this fih. The
diameter of the canal varies but little throughout its whole
extent; the internal membrane is without folds, but furnifh-
ed with villous proceffes, which are thick, long, and dittin®
in the firft convolutions, but as ufual gradually decline af-
terwards.

Tn the gar fh (c/ox belone) the inteftine extends from the
mouth to the anus without any convolution = it fhould be re+
marked, however, that the abdominal cavity is very leng m
this fith, Cuvier ftates the ftra@ture of the inteftine to be

the fame throuzhout its whole length, and that the inner

furface of it is {mooth, and without villi; but we find in our
notes that the internal membrane is villous, and, if minutely
examined, is hkewife reticulated; and tbat the villous
itru€ture is extended in two ftripes upon the inner furface of
the fecond inteltine, and thus difappears.

The parietes of the inteftinal tube in the common pike (cfox
/ucius) are thick, and the origin of the reQum is marked b
a valve, and alfo by an increafe of volume ; the internal fur-
face of the firlt inteftine is villous, and appears grooved ; in
the fecond the villi are very long and fringed.. ;

In the /almon (/almo falar) the internal membrane forms in
the beginning of the inteftinal canal very long villi, which foat
into the cavity ; thefe gradually diminifh, and in the laf part
of the gut there are broad tranfverfe folds, which become
larger and more diftin& as they app oach the anus. The

inteftine-

Frs H.

*
inteftine of the trout (falmo fario) wants the villi, but the
tranfverfe plice are more regularly placed than in the
falmon.

Cuvier defcribes the inteftinal canal of the bichir (polypterus
xilolicus, Geoff.) as being fimnilar to that of the flurgeon. There
isa {piral valve that commences immediately beyond the py-
Jorns, and forms eight turns, which are approximated and
prolonged pofteriorly ; this valve docs not extend to the
anus, and tke interval which wants it, Cuvier confiders as
the reGtum; bctween the internal and mufcular coats there is,
at the commencement of the canal, a glandular layer, which
increafes the pariectes, for the diftance of a decimetr- to
double thcir fize, after which it is fearcely to be perceived
in this part of the inteftive. The internal coat forms a net-
work, asin the flurgeon, of which the mefhes became fhal-
lower as they recede from the pylorus, and are almolt en-
tirely effaced beycnd the gland. The parietes of the re€tum
are very thin, and its inner coat fhews fome flight loagitudi-
nal folds.

In the anableps tetropthalmus the internal membrane of
the firft inteftine produces a fine and apparently glandular
reticulation, and the parictes of the fecond inteftine are very
thick, and the inner furface plicated longitudinally.

Cuvier defcribes a curious ftructure in the inteftine of the
filurus lagre; the beginning of the canal is wide, it then
contracts and continues for fome way o! the fame fize ; about
the middle, the inteftine is f{uddenly enlarged, and its coats
become thin, and there isa kind of infertion of the firft half
of the canal, which opens into the fecond by a {mall or'fice,
bordered by a circular valve ; at fome diflance beyond this
place the parietes acquire thicknefs, and the diameter of
the tube becomes {mall as before ; and finally, this inteftine
terminates in the re€tum, which is large and diftended at
this place. The valve of the rectum is very prominent, its
parietes are remarkably ftrong and mufcular, the inner mem-
brane has longitudinal folds; a fimilar appearance exifts on
the inner furface towards the end of the firft inteftine, but
they are ramified nearer the pylorus. ;

~The inteftinal tube in the genus mormyrus has en uniform
diameter, is {mooth internally, and unprovided with a valve
at the commencement of the rectum. :

From the preceding defcription it will be perceived that
the inteftines of fithes poflefs a. more complicated and beautiful
ftructure of the internal membrane than exifts in any other
elafs of animals ; the alimentasy canal of fibhes, for this reafon,
as wellas the nature of their food, is generaliy found to be
fhort ; the laft divifion of it, which in mammalia very pro-
perly receives the name of the great or /arge inteftines, is,
as before ob{crved, often the fhorteft and moft contracted
part of the canalin fihes. The te¢tum in this clefs rarely
ferves as a ref-rvoir for feces; its internal furface is often as
well fizted for forming and abforbing the chyle es the fir
portion of the gut, and fometimes even more fo: it may,
therefore, be faid of fithes that the whole tra&t of their ali-
mentary canal performs, in a greater or le{s degre+, the func-
tions of the {mall mteftines in other animals.

In Plate IL. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, fig. 9. fhews the
walvular portion of the inteltine of the /Rate (raja satis) which
is dried in order to render the turns of the valve more dif-
ting. Fig. 10. exhibits a piece of the valvular part of the
inteftine of the flurgeon (acipenfer flurio); a, the central
portion; J, the coiled part ; ¢ c, the internal furface of the
parietes of the canal, Jig. 10. of Plate IIL. of the dna-
tomy of Fifhes, gives a view of the internal furface of the
firit inteltine of the /lurgean, where the ceca are conneéted
with it; a,the furface of the gut deeply reticulated or cellular.

/

Fig. 11. of Plate TY. isa portion of the fir isteftine oF the
dory (zeus faber) on which the mefh-work and intermediate
reticulation of the internal membrane are reprefented. In fir.
12. of the fame plate, the internal furface of the inteftine
next the pylorus is difplayed in the ¢urbot (pleuronedes maxi-
mus); a, the laminated appearances of the internal membrane
of the inteftine in this hth. Fig. 13. exhibits @ portion of
the firft inteftine in the plaife (pleuronedtes plateffa) laid open
to expofe the puckered pitce2 of the internal, membrane.

“Fig. 14. of the fame plate reprefents the abdominal Vifcera

of the mullet (mugil cephalus) es they appear on opening
the body ; a, the efophagus; 4, the liver, conceal the
ftomach ; c, the numerous coils formed by the ipteltinal
cana! in this fih; d, fome of the pyloric ceca, nearly of the
fame fize of the inteltine. JG. 15. 1s a piece of the inteftine
of the mullet laid oper, by which the villi of the internal
furface are feen. a

In Plate YI. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig 1. exhibits a part
of the inteftinal canal, with the gland attacred to the rectum
in the dog-fifh (fqualus catulus);a, the reQum; b, the glandular
body, of an clongated figure in this {pecies ; c, a portionof the
valvular part of the inteftine left. Jig. 2. fhews this gland
in tie /kate (raja batis) magnified and laid open} a, the
fundus; 4, the neck of the gland ; feveral irregular depref-
fions are {een upon theinner furface. Fig. 3. repreferits the
rofe-formed termination of the valvular intefline of the
Squalus maximus in the re€tum, deferibed by Mr. Home.
Fiz. 4. exhibits the inner furface of the reQ@um in the /urbot
(pleuronedies maximus); a, a portion of the firft inteftine,
with flight, waving, longitudinal folds ; 4, the commence-

“ment of the rectum, marked by a valve; c, the internal

furface of the rectum, forming very prominent, floating
lamirz; d, the anus. Jig. 5. fhews the form of the re€tum,
and its conneétion with the firlt intefline, in the pimelodus
bagre ; a, the origin of the reétum, which is enlarged, and
receives the firft inteftine in the way of infertion; J, the
reCtum becoming again enlarged. ig. 6. exhibits the
cecal proces in the piper (¢rigla lyra) ; a, the firlt inteftine y
4, the part analogous toa cecum; ¢, the rectum. ,

Liver.

The fituation of this vifcus is generally the fame in fifhes
as in the preceding claffcs; #. e. it immediately precedes the
flomach, which it covers more or lefs by its lobes. It the
genus pleuronedes, however, and fome other fithes whieh have
the abdominal cavity fhort and round, the liver lies between
the fide of the ftomach and firlt convolution of the in-
teftine ; to the former of which it is more immediately con-
nected. '

The liver is retained ‘n its pofition by means of refle@tions
of its peritoneal covering, which are attached to the feptum
that fuftains the pericardium, and to the efophagus, and
likewife by the large veins that come from the liver to the
junction of the fubclavian veins,

The magnitude of the liver is in general very confiderable
in proportion to the fize of the fihh, c

The colour of the liver varies; it is generally paler than
in other 2nimals ; often an afh-colour, and fometimes milk-
white.

Its-form is fubj-@ to continual variety ; it is generally
not divided into many lobes ; moft frequently, perhaps, only
into two. As Cuvier has confidened the divifions of the
liver more in detail than we have done, we fhall chiefly
follow kis defcription, given in the Legons d’ Anatomie
comparée. oe

In the genus Jamprey (petremyzon) there is but a fingle

lobe

Pal

FISH.

Tobe ; the liver is much elongated, and has a good deal the
figure of a tongue,

In the rays the liver is divided into three long lobes, which
extend throughout the whole length of the abdominal cavity.
Cuvier deferibes but two long and very diftin@ lobes in the
genus Squalus, but, befides thefe, we have noticed in the
kefer dog-fifo (fqualus catulus) two very {mall, thin lobes,
fituated upon the fide of the ttomach-next the fpine.

The fpatularia and flurgeon have two large lobes to the
liver, which are fub-divided in the lacter into a great num-
ber of lobules.

There are three divifions made by fhallow fiflures in the
Jrogfijo (lophius pifcatorius), and one lobe only in the
Sygnathus pelagicus, the tetraodons, and theeump fifh (cyclop-
éerus lumpus).

Amongtt the apodal order of fithes, the eels (murena), and
the ammodytes iobianus, the liver is not divided, but merely
a little notched in fome fpecies of the firft ; but there are
two lobes in the liver of the anarrhichas lupus, the eledrical
eel (gymnotus elediricus), and the firomateus parw.

OF the jugulares, the genera gadus and dlennius have two
or three long lobes. ;

In the whiting (gadus merlangus) the left lobe extends
almoft the whoie length of the abdominal cavity, between
the inteftines and air bag.

The weaver (trachinus draco) has the liver compofed of
exe lobe.

The liver is triangular, and without divifion in the cottus
niloticus, but the cottus /corpena has two lobes. There are
alfo two lobes in the liver of the /corpena volitans, although
that of the /corpena horrida conlitts of a fingle lobe. There
are two lobes in the liver of the ¢rigla cuculus, of the mullus
barbatus, of the echeneis remora, of the pleuronedtes flefjus,
and of the turbot (pleuroneGes maximus). The liver is without
lobes in the following fpecies of pleuroneGes ; the plaife, the
pleuronedes lincatus, and limandoides ; there 1s a {mall lobe
placed behind the principal one in the /o/e, of a fingular
fhape, with two points bke horns, which has not been
noticed by Cuvier. The liver has three lobes in the comer
thynnus ; that of the fead (fcomber trachurus), and of the
pilot (feomber dudor), have two lobes. There are three lobes
in the little flickleback (ga/ferofleus pungitius.) the common
frickleback (gafferofteus aculeatus), and four in the ga/ero/feus
Spinachia. YVhe divifions of the liver are equally various in
the perch and fciena genera; the liver is without lobes, and
vf the fhape of an arrow ; in the river perch it is likewife un-
divided ; and triangular in the fitena Jabrax; although
Bloch fays, there are two unequal lobes in the liver of this
fith. In many other /eienas and perches there are three
lobes, detply feparated. In the dory (zeus fader) there are
two lobes, one of which very much exceeds the other in fize,
and forms a kind of third lobe at its external corner.
‘There are two lobes in the liver of the chetodon ciliaris, and
only two flight notcaes in the chefodon zebra. he holo-
centrus Jogo has three unequal lobes. The liver of the
Sparus falpa has three lobes; there are two in that of the
Jparus pagrus, the fparus erythrinus, and likewife in the
abrus melops; but itis a fingle lobe in the other fpecies
of ok

nthe genera cyprinus the liver is very deeply divided into
lobes, of which the number varies according to the fpecies ;
in the carp (cyprinus carpio) the lobes are fo difpofed
amongit the different convolutions of the inteftines, that
it is difficult to afcertain their number; the liver in this
{pecies exceeds in proportional bulk that of every other
animal. The liver docs not divide into lobes in the pike
(fox casa in the exocetus exiliens, in the falmon (falmo
Von. XLV.

falar), in the anableps tetropthalmus, and in the white mullt
(mugil albula). Yhere are two lobes in many o¢ the genus
clupea, iu the filurus glanis, and in the loricaria maculata.
There are three lobes in the liver of the /ilurus bagre.

It fhould be obferved, that in the above inftances there are
ufvally feveral f'ght notches and fiffures upon the ferface
of the liver, which fome anatomifts would, perhap:, cor-
fider as divifions of this vifcus, although Cuvier bas not
done fo,

The divifions of the liver, as well as its figure, are
but of little importance in ail animals: fometimes they
are defigned to accommodate the neighbouring vifccra, and
at others look like accident ; but in no cafe can the form
materially aff & the funGions of this organ.

The texture of the liver in fifhes is iemarkably foft; un-
lefs in a very recent ftate, it immediately gives way under
the preffure of the fingers. Fromail the obfervations we
have been able to make, however, it appears to poffefs the
fame ftruGture as the liver in the three precediag claffes ; the
vena porte terminates in penicillous branches, even more
evidently in many fishes than in bi:ds or reptiles.

The liver contains a great quantity of liquid oil in thofe
fifhes that have not the fat difperfed over the diffcrent parts
of the body ; of thefe the /hark, ray, cod, &c. are examples.
The gadus virens has the liver fo rich with oil, that the
inhabitants of Norway catch it for the purpofe of obtaining
its oil to burr. Mr, Home ftates, that the liver of the
Squalus maximus yielded about three hogfheads of oil.
The oil cf fithes appears as if it were diffufed in thofe parts
which contain it, a3 it readily flows from them, but it is
more probably depofited in large cells, which freely com-
municate, than in the common intertticial fubftance.

The biliary duds of the liver in fifhes, except in a very
few inftances, do not conjoin to form a common hepatic
du&, as in other animals; they proceed directly as thry
leave the different lobes of the liver, to open either into the
gal!-bag or its excretory canal, or into both; in confequence
of which the hepatic duéts are in general numerous and very
{mall in fifhe:.

In the /gualus maximus a fafciculus of twelve dus, like
a navel ftring, pzfles trom the liver to the inteltine, from
which it is prefumed there is no gall-bag in this {pecies.

In the ray genus there are feveral very flender du@s,
which terminate in the gall-bag, and one large branch,
which is furnifhed by the middle lobe of the liver, and
communicates with the cyftic dua.

In the /jgnatkus pelagicus the different hepatic dus pro«
duce a trunk, which, however, does not go or to the ins
teltine, but terminates in the cyftic du@.

In the genus ¢e/raodon there are three principal hepatie
dués, of which the firft opens into the gali-bag, near the
neck, and the other two enter the cy‘tic du@ at different
diftances.

In the Jophius pifcatorius there are two hepatic duds,
which end in the cyitic; the one at its origin, and the other
at fome diftance.

The /ump (cyclopteras lampus) forms an exception te the
general rule, with refpe& to the termination of the hepatic
dus ; in this fifh there is no gall-bladder, and the different
branches from the liver foon unite, to form a fiegle dua,
which proceeds direGly to end in the inteftine. The iew fihhes
which do not poflefs a gall-bag have probably a fimilar
ftruGure; although it has not been examined.

In the anarrhichas lupus the Hepatic duéts ere extremely
numerous: the right lobe of the liver furnifhes three faicicul:,
of five or fix branches, which enter diltin@ly iato the gall-
bag; the left lobe gives soe to three fafciculi; the firit

3 has

FIS H.

has three branches which open into the neck of the gall-
bag ; the others are compofed each of two branches, and end
in the cyftic dud.

There are three or four principal hepatic dus in the ec/,
which terminate in the duétuscyfticus near its origin.

In the cod (gadus morrhua) there are feveral {mall hepatic
du&s, which torm four branches; thefe, after pafiing fome
way, enter an enlargement of the cyftic duét, which takes
place near its entrance into the inteftine. Inthe hake (gadus
merlucius) there are many {mall hepatic ducts, which termi-
nate in fucceffion upon the cyftic dué.

The hepatic du&ts of the /corpana horrida penetrate the
eyftic dud.

In the ole (pleuronedes folea) the duéts from the liver go
chiefly to a dilated part of the duGtus cytticus. In the drill
(pleuronedes rhombus) the cyitic du@ receives two from the
hier before its dilatation ; and one trunk, wh'ch is compoled
of feveral branches, enters the dilated part of the cyftic
du&. In the turbot (pleuronedes maximus) fome of the
hepatic lobes open into the gall-bladder, and others into
the dilated part of the cyftic dud.

In the dory (zeus faber) there are two or three minute
eanals which pafs from the {mall lobe of the liver into the
neck of the gall-bladder, and four confiderable ducts that
go from the large lobe to the cyltic duét, which they enter
at different diftances.

In the river perch (perca fluviatilis) the hepatic du&
opens into the neck of the gall-bag, and in the /ea perch
(/ciena labrax) there are three priocipal branches from the
liver which end in the cyftic duét, at dfierent diftances.

The barbel (cyprinus barbus) has the hepatic duets ending
in the cyftic.

The /almon fends hepatic du&s into the neck of the gall-
bladder.

In the bichir (polypterus niloticus) the trunk of the hepatic
dus is joined to the cyttic.

In the filurus bagre there are eight or ten little ducts from
the liver to the cyltic dua.

In all the inftances we have examined, the entrance of the
hepatic ducts into the cyftic, or the gall bag, is not accom-
panied by amy valve or projection of the coats ; the ftruéture
of the hepatic duéts alfo appears to be fimple, and the in-
ternal furface without any valve or reticulation.

The gall-bag is not univerfally met with in fifhes ; it has
not been found in the /amprey (petromyzon marinus); in the
pride (petromyzon branchialis).1n the lump (cyclopterus lumpus);
the piper (trigla lyra) ; the pleuroneétes radiatus, the perch of
the Nile, and in many /tienas ; we have not obferved a gall-
bag alfoin the weaver (trachinus draco).

Thefe inltances of the abfence of the gall-biadder are
fewer than thofe noticed in mammalia, and ‘n birds ; a refer-
yoir in which the bile may be concentrated, 1: may be con-
cluded, is therefore more neceffary to fifhes than to the hot
blooded animals; the circumftance of the bile all pafling
through either the gall-bag or its du€&, when thofe parts
exilt, 1s a ftrong proof of this opinion.

Cuvier defcribes the gall-bag as being more variable with
refpc& to pofition in fifhes than in the other claffes ; it is
fitnated horizontally or obliquely, in regard to the whole
Sith, and ir thofe two cafes its fundus may be either turned
forwards or backwards; at other times it is placed tranf-
verfely under the ftomach, of which the /lurus bagre affords
an example; it is fometimes in a degree 1mbelded or con-
cealed by the fubitance of the liver.

The form of the bag'is alfo fubjcé to variety ; it is molt
commonly either egg fhaped or pyriform; fometimes it is
globular ; fometimesit is ovular, with the end next the du&

~ =z

very obtufe or flattened; this we have obferved in fome of
the flat fifbes (pleuroneétes). In the lefer dog-fifh (/qualus
catudus) we have found it of the fhape of a tube, nearly two
inches long ; the duét arifes from the end the fartheft from
the inteftine, and is feen like a {maller canal, accompanying
the other which compofed the gall-bladder.

The bulk of the gall-bag is alfo variable; perhaps it.
might be ftated thatit is large in proportion to the rapidity:
of the digeition in the fifh. The bag is large in the an-
arrhichas lupus, the pike, the /patularia, and moon-fifb, (diodon
mola); it is imall in the /ygnathus pelagicus, fcorpena horrida,
the river perch ; feveral of the genus chetodon, the fole, brill,
and fomeothers of the pleurone@es, alfohavea{mall gall-bag, but
in thofe the dilatation of the cy{tic du& makes amends for it.

The ftruéture of the gall-bag would feem to be fimply
membranous, the parietes are thin and {mooth on the inner
furface, which do not exhibit any glandular appearance or
reticulation.

The cy/flic du@ in general paffes off directly from one end
of the gall-bag, without forming any contortion, as in mam-
malia; it is alfo, as far as we have obferved, a fimple mem-
branous tube, with a {mooth furface internally, and the
orifice by which it communicates with the gall-bag is un-
provided with any valvular ftru€iure, by which means the
bile flows through it without interruption.

The cyttic du& tranfmits all the bile which paffes te the
intettines, with a few exceptions of thofe fifhes which are
unprovided with a gall-bladder; it therefore correfponds
to the du€tus communis choledocus of other animals. Ia
feveral fifhes, as the cod (gadus morrhua), fome of the pleure-
neces, as the fole, brill, turbot, and others, the cyltic
canal forms a remarkable dilatation previous to its termina-
tion in the inteftine ; this dilated part receives fome or all
the duéts from the liver; it is fo large in the ¢urbot, that
Cuvier defcribes it as a fecond gall-bag, to which it certainly
correfponds in its office, by accumulating and detaining the
bile on its way to the inteltine.

The cyftic, or rather common biliary du&, ufually dif-
charges its fluid into the inteftine, along with the pyloric
ceca, by an opening in the midft of theirs; fometimes it ends
in one of the ceca. This happens in the plai/e ( pleurone@es
plateffa), the river perch, and the dory (zeus faber). The
duét enters the inteftine at fome diitance from the pylorus
in the pike (¢/ox luctus). 7

In the /gualus maximus, the orifice through which the bile
is poured into the inte{tine is placed upon a procefs like a
nipple.

The magnitude of the liver, and the formation of the
biliary duéts in fifhes, plainly indicate two circumitances in
their phyfiology, namely, that a large quantity of bile is
fecreted, and that this fluid pafles in a concentrated ftate
into the inteftinal canal. It is remarkable that the bile is
{carcely to be detected in the tract of the firft inteltine, and
that even the {zeces in the laft portion of the canal are lefs
coloured by this fecretion than in other animals; this faét-
ftrongly fupports the opinion of the bile being deflined to .
aft in the converfion of the alimentary fubftance into
chyle, in performing whica it is itfelf decompofed and
difpofed of.

The dile of fihhes, as far as we are acquainted, has not yet
been fubmitted to any exaét analyfis; it does not however
appear to differ materially in its properties from the fame
fluid in other animals. It is-ufually of a deep green colours,
althcugh the liver is-often in fifhes of a pale yellow colour,
which probably arifes from the bile fojourning for fome
time in the gall bag, before it is carried into.the inteftine.
It is alfo more fluid than in mammatia and birds, as might

be

F1IS H.

be expeéed in confequence of the gall-bag not being con-
ftru€ted to furnifh a mucous fecretion as in thefe animals.

In figs. 5 and 6, of Plate 1. of the Anatomy of Fifhes;
the letter 4 indicates the fafciculi of twelve biliary duéts,

* which are found to pafs from the liver to the firft inteflines
in the /gualus maximus.

In Plate II. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 7. thews the
manner in which the hepatic du&s proceed to the gall-bag
and cyftic du; a, the portion of the liver next the gall-
bag; 6, the gall-bag; c, the dilated part of the cyftic
du&; d, the hepatic ducts paffing to the gall-bag; ¢, the
duéts from the liver tothe dilatation of the cyttic duct.
Fig. 8. of the fame plate, exhibits the termination of
the biliary duéts in the wolf-fi/h (anarrhichas lupus); a is the
liver; 4, the gall-bag ; c, the cyftic duct; d, a portion of
the inteftine, into which the cyftic du opens ; e, fafciculus
of feveral hepaticdu@ts from the right lobe, going to terminate
diftin@ly in the gall bag; fj fafciculus from the left lobe
ending in the neck of the gali-bag; ¢, g, two other fafciculi
from the left lobe, which open into the cyftic du.
Fig. 9. of this plate, reprefents the hepatic duéts going to
the intefline in the /ump fifb (cyclopterus lumpus); a is a
part of the liver; 4, che hepatic duG@, coming from the
liver, and uniting into a common duét, which is indicated
by c; dis the portion of the intefline into which the
common biliary du& opens.

In fig. 6. of Plate 1. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, the letter
f points out the nipple-fhaped procefs, on which is feen the
orifice of the hepatic duéts within the inteftine of the /gualus
maximus, — ~

Ceca, or pyloric Appendices.

Cuvier has, with fome propriety, confidered thefe parts as
proceffes of the inteffinal cana!, and has combined his de-
fcription of them with that of the inteltines; in fome fithes
they are fo wide, that the alimentary fubftances mult necef-
farily pafs into them, but in general they are very {mall
worm-like proceffes, with a cavity fcarcely wide enough to
admit a probe; but whatever their bulk may be, they are
always continuous with the tube of the intefline.

The internal furface of the cca is extremely vafcular,
even more fo frequently than that of the adjoining intettine.
When the internal membrane of the inteftine is plicated or
laminated, that of the czca is fometimes reticulated ; but in
general the ftruéture of the inner furface of the cca cor-
refponds with that of the neighbouring furface of the intef-
tine, although it may not be fo ftriking.

The cavity of the ceca always contains a quantity of
tenacious mucus, which may be more abundantly obtained
by prefling the parictes of the ceca between the fiagers.

The ceca poffels a mufcular and a membranous coat, like
the other parts of the intettinal canal.

The cxca in general bear confiderable refemblance, both
in fize and fisure, to a clufter of worms attached to the
canal of the intefline by one extremity ; in fome inltances
they are conjoined to form truaks, which open into the
inteiline. In the /patularia they are united two and two,
and produce feven principal branches, which at la’ join in
one trunk. In the flurgeon they are fhort and wide, and
colleGed together into one mals, into the centre of which
they all open by very large mouths; the inner’ furface is
deeply reticulated, fo as to give the whole mafs, when cut
into, rather the appearance of a congeries of cells, thao a
colleGion of ramified tubes, which has led many authors to
defcribe this part in the /Zurgeon as a fingle gland analogous
to the panereas ; the mufcular coat is {trong ; and has the
fibrés diftributed im different direétions, and the opening of

the conjoined ‘ceca into the inteftine is fingle, and would
be as wide as that canal if it were not for an annular fold
which contraéts the orifice a little. There is a greyith
glandular fubftance very difcernible behind the ceils, fimilar
to the glandular layer already noticed in the firft inteftine of
this fith.

There is great variety with re{pe&t to the number of the
pyloric ceca, and in feveral fifhes they are altogether want-
ing ; neither their prefence, however, nor their number, leems
to have much relation to the babits or general ftructure of
the fifh, except in the ray and /hark genera, in which the
ceca are wanting, and their places {upplied by a real pancreas.

Befides, in the chondropterygit the ceca are not found in
the genera /yenathus, offracion, baliftes, tetraodon, and diodon,
amongft the branchioltegi; in any of the apodal fihhes:
in the uranofcopus and blennius genera, in fome fpecies of
pleuronedes ; 1n the fparus Jpinifer, and the labrus tinca : in
the anableps tetropthalmus, many {pecies of efox, the genera
eyprinus and filurus, and probably others which have not
been examined.

Cuvier has taken the pains to reckon the number of py-
loric ceca which exift in many fihhes; we fhall therefore
follow his account.

The /Jophius pifcatorius has but two, which are {mall aud
fomewhat pyriform in their fhape.

In the cyclopierus lumpus the cecaare {mall, form about fix
ramifi-d rays, and as they approach the inteftine they unite
and open iato each other.

In the genus gadus, the number of the appendices varies;
they are alfo often ramified, or united into trunks, which
open into the inteftine; there are four orifices of thefe in
the whiting (gadus merlangus), and fix in the cod (gadus
morrhua). In the hake (gadus merlucius) there is, in place oF
the cca, one large cul-de.fac, of which the bottom is turned
forwards, and which opens by a large aperture into the
commencen eat of the inteftinal canal; there are cizht ceca
inthe gadus mujflela, thirty-two in the barbel (gadus lota),
and thirty-four in the Jing (gadus molva).

There are eight long and lender appendices in the weaver
(trachinus draco).

In the genus coftus the number of the czca varies from
four to nine.

There are fix in the remora (echencis remora). Twenty-
fix ceca are found inthe /w-mullet (mullus furmuletus), and
fix only in the mu/lus barbatus.

The feorpena horrida has four ceca 3, the number varies
much in the genus ¢trigla; the piper (frigla lyra) has from

5°
eight te ten; the trig/a cataphrada tix.

In mott of the pleuronedies there are but two ce@ca, as ia
the turbot, the -bri/l, the pleuroneGes limanda, the flounders

the deb. Cuvier alfo reckons two in the plai/e, and only
one in the Ao/lidut: as far as our recolleQion ferves, there
are two very large ceca in the Aofiibut, and in the plaiye,
befides the two mall conical dilatations at each fide of the
origin of the inteliinal canal. We have lately difcovered,
about an inch. beyond thcf+, a third cecum, from the fide
of the inteitine, exa@ly refembling in fhape and ftru@ure
the two already defcribed by authors. This is the more
worthy of remark, as it is the only inflance we know in
which the firft inteftine of fifhes furnifhes any fuch procefa
except at the pylorus.

In the mackarel (feomber /combrus) the ceca are very
numerous ; but there are only three in the fomber /fanfun,
in the /comber thynnus there are two, which divide each
into thre branches. In the pilot (/comber du@or) there are
twenty-five ; and in the fead (/comber trachurus) twelve or
thirteen cuca.

3Re

There

FIS H.

There are but two little appendices fituated at each fide
of the pylorus in the ffickleback (ga/fero/teus aculsatus).

The cxca are fine and fmall in moft of the perches and

feienas In the common perch (perca fluviatilis), and the
perca xingel, there are but three. In the perca nilotica there
are four; fix ceca are found in the perca lucto-perca.
Vhere are feven or eight in the /ciena nigra, five in the
feiena labrax, and fix in the /ciena cirrofa, and amuch greater
number in the other individuals of this genus.

There are four cxca in the teuthis hepatus. * The chetodon
ercuatus has about thirty long, flender ceca; the chetodon
zebra only five.

In the genus /parus there are ufually from three to five
exca; the /parus Jalpa has four; the /parus auratus, and
Sparus fargus, have three ; the Sparus pagrus, fparus mena,
and /parus brama, have each four, and there are five in the

aris annisaris.

The cecal appendages are numerous in the genus clugca.
There are eighteen long, fleader ceca in the anchovy (clupea
encraficolus); twenty-tour in the Lerring (clupea barengus),
which open into the ifftettine by twelve orifices, ranged ina
line ; there are as many as eighty in the c/upea alofa.

The genus falmo exhibits great variety in this refpect ;
there are but fix in the /melt (falmo eperlanus), although in
the falmo murena there exift one hundred and fifty ; in the
common falmon (falmo falar) there are about feventy,
placed in feveral rows, along the fide of the inteftine.

There are two cxca in the mormyrus labiatus. Geoffroy.

The common mullet (mugil cephalus) has fix ceca; the
mugil albula but one.

The only point of view in which we can confider the
pyloric ceca is, as prolongations, or proceffes of the ali-
mentary canal, defigned to furnifh an additional quantity of
the inteftinal mucus ; this office is reconcileable to all the
varieties of form and number, and the occafional abfence of
thefe parts, which could only affe@t the mucous fecretion
of the ceca with refpeét to quantity, and any deficiency of
that fluid might be fupplied by a more copious fecretion
from the intettine itfelf. This opinion feems fupported by
the relative magnitude of the ceca, and of the parts of the
alimentary canal from which they arife. We have obferved
that the capacity of the ftomach, or of the firft part of the
inteftine, is greateft in proportion to the bulk of the fifh,
in thofe fpecies where the ceca are cither wanting or few,
and that thefe parts are commonly {mall when the cca are
numerous or large.

In Plate I1. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, Jig: 4, exhibits the
three ceca in the plaife (pleuronedes plateffa): c is the
pylorus; d, d, the two pyloric ceca; e, the third cecum
peculiar to this fifh, arifing from the inteftice, at a fhort
diftance from the pylorus. Jig. 12. of the fame plate gives
a view of the internal {urface of the ceca, and the adjoining
parts of the inteftine in the turbot (pleuronedes maximus) :
ais the laminated furface of the inte‘tine; 44, the internal
membrane of the two ceca, in which the laminated ftru€ture
is lefs apparent. ‘The letters e,e, e, of fig. 7. and the letter
d, in fig 14. of this plate, refer to fome of the ceca in the
mullet (mugil cephalus). 3

In Plate LI1. of tne Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 10. fhews the
Internal {trudture of the ceca, and their connection with
the inteftine in the /furgeon (acipenfer fturio) ; a, the cavity
of the inteftine ; 4, the valve of the pylorus ; c, the cavities
of the ceca expoled by a feGion. ‘The larger orifices belong
to branches of the cca, the {maller to the cells produced
by the reticulation of their internal membrane ; d, the large
common opening of the cxcainto the gut ; ¢ ¢, the muf-
eular coat which furrounds the ceca, and gives them the

appearance of a fingle gland, Jig. rr. of the fame plate
reprefents the numerous ceca in the /2’mon (fa‘mo falar) 3
@ is a portion of the inteftine at the pylorus; & b, the
cecain great numbers arranged along the intefline.

Pancreas.

This gland only exifts in twa genera of filhes, the ray
and fharé; the glandular apparatus which has been de-
{cribed by fome anatomifts as a pancreas, in the ffurgeon,
is really, as we have before obferved, only an affemblage of
fhort ceca, having many communications with each other.

The pancreas is fituated immediately beyond the pylorus,
upon the firft inteftine; its form is fomewhat triangular,
but very irrerularly fo; it is divided into lobes. In the
Jinaller dogfifh (Squalus catulus), (we have obferved the
pancreas to be double, or of two portions, of which one is
placed on each fide of the inteflize.

The texture of the gland is foft, compa, and uniform $
its minute ltruéture is, therefore, obfeure ; its colour isa
rich reddifh white; it has a much fmaller proportional volume,
than the pyloric ceca vufually have, to thofe fithes in which
they exilt.

The fluid which this gland fecretes, appears to refemble
the pancreatic juice of the three preceding claffes of animals,
and not the mucus of the pyloric czcas which cireumftance,
as has been before mentioned, affords a ftrong prefumption
that the offices of thefe two fecretions are different.

Spleen.

This organ is fuppofed to exift in all fifhes; we have,
however, failed to dete& it in two difleGtiors of the
lamprey (petromyzon marinus) ; but, until affured by further
obfervation, we are unwilling to affert pofitively, that fo
extraordinary a departure from the common ftru@ture of
the clafs does occur in this {pecies; it may be prefumed,
however, that if this fith poffefs a fpleen, it is fo infigni-
ficant as to readily efcape notice.

The fituation of the fpleen, with refpeét to the adjacent
vifcera, is by no means uniform in fifhes; it is perhaps
moft commonly placed on the upper fide of the cx:al por-
tion of the ftomach, that is to fay, between its fundus and
the f{wimming bladder, which lies along the back.

In the /bark and ray genera it proje@s from this fituation,
fo that one half of it les on the left fide of the {tomach.

In the angel-fi/h (/qualus fquatina) Monroe obferved two
fpleens, one of which was attached to the lage, the other
to the fmaller curvature of the ftomach. In the “fer dog-
Sife (fqualus catulus) the fpleen is divided by a deep fiffure,
which is what we prefume doétor Monroe meant by two
fpleens ; one portion is on the left fide of the fundus of the
ftomach, and the other paffes above it. Mr. Home repre-
fents the {pleen of the /gualus maximus as a chain paffiag
round the ftomach. Cuvier defcribes two branches of the
fpleen in the flurgeon (acipenfer flurio), which are attached
to the curvature that the ftomach makes in this fith pof-
teriorly. Doétor Monroe reckoned feven fpleens in the
Aturgeon, but ail very fmall; the largeft, he fays, did not
exceed the fize of a dried horfe-bean, and the other fix were
none of them larger than a dried garden pea.

The fpleen is enveloped by the mefentery, near the com-
mencement of the inteftinal canal in the dump /i/ (eyclopterus
lumpus). It is fixed on the right fide of the beginning of
the firit inteftine in the /patularia. In the eel it is placed
between the ftomach and the next portion of the inte(tinal
canal. In the /corpena it is found interpofed between the
pyloric extremity of the ftomach, and one of the ceca.
The remora has it fituated between the liver and the

ftomach ;

FISH,

flomach; its pofition is likewife fimilar in feveral {pecies
of pleuronedes, as the plai/e, fole, brill, &c.

In the dory (zeus faber) it is connected to the left fide of
the czcal portion of the ftomach, It is extended upon the
funnel-fhaped cul-de-fac of the ftomach in the mudlet (mugil
ecphalus); and the pike (e/ox lucius) has the fpleen fufpended
in the curve which is produced pofteriorly by the ftomach
and the firft inteftine. : ;

The fhape of the fpleen is in general irregularly trian-
gular. Cuvier, as_ before mentioned, defcribes the fpleen
of the /furgeor as forming two branches anteriorly. The
fpleen is much elongated in the /patularia, the viviparous
blenny, &c.; it is {mall and {pherical in the plai/e (pleuronedies
plateffa), the echeneis remora, and others; of a very irregular
fhape in the darbel (cyprinus barbus}. Collins has ftated the
{pleen to be double in fome of the pleuroncées, as the turbot,
plaife, and flounder; likewile in the eek the mullet, and
others, in which he appears to have been incorreét, or to
have reckoned the fiffures of the {pleen as complete divifions
of the vifcus.

The internal organization of the {pleen appears to agree
with that deferibed in the other clafles of animals. The
arteries divide like the branches of a broom, and terminate
in very minute ramufcules ; the veins originate from cells,
which, although not large, are fometimes very vifible in
confequence of their containing a dark coloured fubltance :
when the texture of a fpleen is unravelled, which is very
eafy from the loofenefs of its texture, the cells, if filled with
this fubftance, appear like {mall grains of coffee adhering to
the extremities of the veffels; this dark appearance of the
cells is not general, nor do we believe conitant in the fame
individual ; it feems to be rather an accidental condition of
the organ: after it has once been perceived, there is no
difficulty in recognizing the fame fort of granular appear-
ance, of a pale brownifh colour, in the {pleens of other
fifhes. What is the fubttances which give the granular ap-
pearance in thefpleen of fifhes? Is it the fplenic blood
changed in its properties while pafling through the cells?
More obfervation is required to an{wer thefe queitions.

Abforbents.

The honour of difcovering the lymphatic fyftem in fithes
has been claimed both by Dr. Monroe and Mr. Hewfon ;
but it fhould probably be fhared between thefe two anato-
miftc, who were both engaged in the purfuit of it about
the fame period. he seafon for its remaining fo long
unknowr, feems to have been the greater magnitude of the
abforbent veffels in this clafs than in mammalia, or birds.
Anatomitts, in fearching for the minute branches, overlooked
thofe palpable piexufes, cells, and trunks, which, when
once difcovered, rendered the developement of the whole
fyttem perfeGily eafy; thus we find Mr. Hewfon made
many unfuccefsful attempta with different fifhes, both
recently dead and while ftill alive, before he was able to
dete& any veffels of this nature. Another circumstance
which ftood in the way of the difcovery of this fyftem of
veflels was, that it does not poflefs any lymphatic glands,
as in mammalia. ;

We hhall firft give a defcription of the abforbents in the
thondropteryzii, and afterwards in the ofeous fithes. }

In the fhate (raja batis) the la&teals may be feeh to arife
numerouily from the ttomach and inte(lines ; they accompany
the blood-veffels of thefe organs ; they communicate with a
fingular cellular body, which lies along the great curvature
orexternal fide of the ftomach, The internal ftru€ure of
this part, when prepared by inflation and drying, refembles
fomewhat the cancelli of the bones, being compofed of a

great many cells of very irregular fhapes, and all communi-
cating the one with another. The principal abforbent veflels
pafs through it.

This cellular receptacle of the chyle may probably
perform the fame offices of the abforbent glands in other
animals,

The lymphatics of the liver, gall-bag, pancreas, and
{pleen, alfo accompany the blood-veflels of thefe parts ;
they freely communicate with each other, and, uniting with
the abforbents of the ftomach and inteftines, they form a
plexus on each fide of the ftomach, which proceeds along
the fides and the back part of the cefophagus to the fide
of the {pine, and near to the large veins analogous to the
fubclavian ; at thefe parts all the abforbents of the different
parts of the body are affembled.

The lymphatics of the kidnies and organs of generation,
with thofe of the tail and pofterior parts of the body,
proceed along the fpine.

The lymph of the head and Jateral fins is conveyed into
the common refervoir, principally by means of a large
trunk, which paffes on each fide of the head, and which
receives large latcral branches from the adjacent parts.

The different abforbents of each fide of the body, after
communicating with each other in the fubclavian plexus,
furnith two fhort trunks which ¢o to terminate, the one
on the rizht, the other onthe left fubclavian vein, near
the jun@tion of thofe veffels with the internal jugular veins.
Thefe two trunks correfpond in their office to the tho-
racic duéts of other animals, but do not ferve as refe rvoirs,
aa they have lefs capzcity than the plexus from which they
take their origin.

At the orifices of the trunks into the fubclavian véins,
there are placed two femilunar valves, to prevent the blood
efeaping into them. There is no other inftance of valves
throughout the abforbent fyftem of fifhes; although the
veflels have a flattened, jointed appearance, as if their canal
was interrupted by valvular contraétions.

In the offous ffbes, of which the cod and haddock are
taken as examples, the la@eals are of a {maller fize than in
the /kate; they run on each fide of the mefenteric artery,
and form numerous tranverfe communications over this veffel;
they enter a large receptaculum, which liee on the right fide
of the anterior, or e@fophageal portion of the ftomach.

This receptacle is compofed at its back part, according to
Hewfon, of two branches; the one lies between the com-
mencement of the inteftinal canal and the ftomach, and
runs a jittle way upon the czca, receiving the lymphatics of
the liver, cca, and thofe of the potterior part of the ftomach,
and part of the la¢teals. The other branch of the receptaculam
receives the lacteals of the remainder of the inteftinal canal ;
the receptaculum alfo derives fome. lymphatics from the
{wimming bladder, from the gall-bag, and the pofterior part
of the cefophagus.

Mr. Hewfon has defcribed the thoracic du& as arifing
from this receptaculum, pafling for about half an inch ia
the haddock, on the right fide of the cefophagus, where it
divides into two brayches, one of which pafles behind the
cefophagus to the left fide, the other goes ftraight on, on the
right fide, runs paft the upper part of the kidney, from
which it receives fome {mall branches, and foon after is
joined by a branch from the large lymphatic that lies upon
the clavicular bone. It likewife, near this part, fends a
branch to join the du& of the oppofite fide, and then a
little farther on is joined, by thofe large lymphatics which
make a net-work behind the heart. Thefe lait-mentioned
veflels receive the lymphatics fromthe anterior gills and
fauces. The thoracic duct, after being joined by theie

velels,

FI

veffels, communicates with the net-work near the orbit;
where its lymph is mixed with that of the lymphatics from
the pofterior part of the gills, from the anterior fins, the
belly, &c. and then from this net-work a veilel goes into
the jugular vein, juft below the orbit.

The lymphatics of the left fide agree exa@ly with thofe
of the right. Hewfon’s Account of the Lymphatic Syftem
in Fifth. Phil. Tranf. for 1769.

Nether Hewfon nor Cuvier, (who feems to have copied
his defcription) have reprefented the common receptacles
of the lymph in offous fifhes accurately. Thefe parts do
not deferve to be called net-works, but, as Dr. Monroe
has named them, large cellular receptacles; they are par-
ticularlyglarge in the haddock (gadus eglefinus), and cod (gadus
morrhua),and are mott eafily cemonttrated by inje@ing with
a fluid, or inflatirg any of the large abforbents im the
neighbourhood of them. ‘Thefe receptacles are fituated
immediately behind the gills, and may be difplayed by
cutting through the integuments at that place; the recep-
tacles have lefs magnitude in the /a/mon ( /almo falar), but
are fill too much dilated to merit the name ofa plexus of
veffels.

The receptacles communicate by large canals, which
crofs from one to the other, behind or above the heart and
cefophagus.

Independently of the abforbents of the vifcera already
defcribed, the lymphatics of the head and mufcular parts
of the body give origin to four principal trunks, and a
plexus which terminate in the large receptacles. or common
refervoir of the fyftem.

The firf of thefe carries the lymph of the under furface
of the body and tail ; it is a confiderable vefle’, extending
along the medial line of filh; from the tail towards the
head it becomes a little enlarged under the thorax, and
communicates with the large receptacles, by means of
fome foramina which lead into a canal on each fide, between
the two ventral fins.

The next two trunks are alfo fuperficial ; they run along
the fides of the fih near the linez lateralee. From each fide
of thefe trunks a number of branches go off immediately
under the fkin, which produce a beautiful penniform
appeararce ; thefe trunks open diretly on each fide into the
common receptacles that are placed behind the gills.
Befide thefe veffels, Hewfon defcribes a deep-feated {et of
abforbents, which accompany the ribs.

The fourth trunk is deeply fituated and large, it com-
mences near the tail, and lies between the roots of the
{pinous procefles of the vertebra; as it proceeds towards
the head it colle&s the lymph, from the dorfal fins and
adjacent parts of the body ; having arrived near the head
it fends a branch to each thoracic du€t, near the part
where they come off from their common trunks.

The lymphatics of the brain and organs of fenfe, and
thofe from the mouth, jaws, and gills, forma complex
anaftomofis or plexus near the orbits, and fend a veffel
into each of the common refervoirs.

In the /almon each of the receptacles terminates the
fyflem, by fending a canal into the upper end of the cor-
refponding inferior vena cava, contiguous to and on the
fore and outer fide of the internal jugular vein.

The entrances into the venous fyftem are guarded in
offcous fithes, as in the /kate, by femjlunar valves.

As the abforbent veffels are unprovided with valves, the
moft cffeGtual way of expofing them, is toinjeét the fyftem
from fome of the principal trunks; the beft for this pur-
pofe is the’ one which runs under the fin of the belly. By
this means the molt minute branches may be filled and ex-

SH.

hibited. Dr. Monroe fucceeded in injeéting from the trunkg
the abforbents of the brain. of the membranes of the eye,
and the ear in the /kate (raja batis), by which he difco-
vered that the lymphatics of the brain form an intricate
plexus ; he alfo filled the ultimate branches of the abfor-
bents of the fkin. Thefe are moft beautifully reticulated,
and are particularly large and numerous upon the upper
or dorfal furfece of the /Rate, on which they terminate by,
foramina capable of being demonftrated. Dr. Monroe
fays, that not only water, but air, milk, quickfilver, and
even oil of turpentine, coloured with the powder of ver-
milion, were cifcharged upon the furface of the fkin, by a
vaft number of diftin orifices, placed at regular diftances
from each other; yet the force with which thefe liquors
were injected was vcry fmall, and there was no extra-
vafation into the cellular fubftance any where under the
fkin, or in the interftices of the mufclee. It is remarkable
that the effufion of thefe liquors upon the fkin takes
place only on the upper furface of the fifth, where the
fkin is tough and fcabrous: it however proves that it does
not happen in confequence of extravafation, or rupture of
the veffels, for in that cafe the effufion would be folely or
principally feen on the under furface of the fif on which
the fkin is much more weak and thin, Monroe concludes
that the cutaneous lymphatics, fituated on the back of the
Jeate, are defigned to abforb a portion of fea water for the
purpofes of furnifhing the falt liquor found in fuch con-
fiderable quantity within the cranium of that fifh. See
Monroe’s Phyficlogy of Fifhes, p. 34. ;

The facility of injecting the abforbents from their trunks
enabled Mr. Hewfon alfo to fill a feries of very minute
veffels, between the internal and mufcular coats of the
inteftines; and upon the plice, (or, as he terms them, villi) in
thefe fituations the abforbents anaftomofe and run together,
fo as to produce a very clofe and beautiful reticulation.
If mercury be injected into this nct-work at one part, it
fpreads over the inteftine ; and if the inteftine be inverted,
and the mercury f{queezed, it is eafily forced into the
{mall veffels on the internal coat. t

In one injeGion Mr. Hewfon made of the ftomach of
the cod, the abforbents were feen to pafs through the external
coats, dividing into {maller asd {maller branches, without
any appearance of a net-work between the mufcular and
villous coats, although conliderable force was employed in
the inje¢tion ; from which he concludes that the abforbent
veflels of the ttomach do not poffefs the fame arrangement
as thofe of the inteftines. See Hewfon’s Account of the
Lymphatic Syftem in Fifhes. Phil. Tranf. vol. lix.

In Plate lV. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. reprefents
the curvature of the ftomach of a /fate, (raja batis) with the
cellular receptacle of the chyle in fitu and of the natural
fize; a, the portion of ftomach ; 4, the cellular receptacle
attached to it. Fig. 2. of the fame plate, exhibits the
receptacle magnified, and cut open, after having been pre=
vioufly inflated and dried, in order to expofe its internal
itruéture ; @, indicates the cellular part ; 4, 4, the abforbent
veflels pafling longitudinally through the receptacle and
communicatingwi th its cel’s: Fig. 3.0f Plate lV. difplays
the common receptacle of the chyle and lymph in the
haddock, (gadus agilefinus) with fome of the lymphati¢
trunks which enter it; @ is the receptacle diended by
injection, it appears like a large fac, fituated immediately
behind the gils;in order to .expofe it the gill-cover is
cutaway; 4 the branchiz; ¢ is the abforbent which runs
along the middie line of the belly, and communicates with
the receptacle by branches fent in between the abdominal
fins; d, the lateral abforbent truck, which enters the

recep=

FI
receptacle direétly; ¢, the lateral fubcutaneous duc
obfcurely fee, running parallel with the lateral abforbent

veffel.

Heart.

Fifhes have not, properly fpeaking, a thoracic cavity,
although their heart and gills are very diftinéily feparated
from the abdominal vifcera, by means of a feptum, which
croffes the body immediately before the liver. This die-
phragm is not mufcular, as far as we have obferved, but
receives a flender mufcle on each fide from the fcapula.
It is ufvally thick and firm, and is apparently compofed of
tendinous fibres, interwoven together like the mufcular fal-
ciculi of the internal furface of the human auricle, and the
web thus formed is further ftrengthened by the peritoneum
on one fide, and the pericardium on the other.

The heart is fituated in the middle line of the body, be-
tween the branchiz of each fide, and farther forward, that
is, nearer the head than in other animals; the {pace between
the mouth and the belly being generally very inconfiderable
in fifhes.

The pericardium is larger, and of a rounder figure than
the heart; this is neceflary on account of the irregular
form of that vifcus. oan salt

The external refle@tion of the pericardium is in general
a ftronger membrane than the peritoneum ; it appears to
be tendinous in flru€ture, although commonly very thin.

We have not obferved any material deviations from the
common itruéture of the pericardium, except in the lamprey
( petromyzon marinus), in which we have lately difcovered a
moft fingular conformation of the part. The pericardium
in this fith is compofed of firm cartilage, of a rounded
figure, and fo far imbedded in the anterior portion of the
liver, that a great part of it is concealed from view until the
fubftance of the latter be cut afunder; there are feveral
frena, or tendinous proceffes fent off from the internal
furface of this cartilaginous fac, which are attached to the
furface of the heart, and ferve to fuftain it in its proper
pofition in the bag. ‘ ; f

The above ftru@ure in the /amprey is a confirmation of
an opinion we have held, that the pericardiam does not
alter its figure with the contraction and dilatation of the
different parts of the heart; from which arifes the neceflity
of a greater quantity of aqueous fluid in this cavity, than is
found in thofe containing the other vifcera.

The pericardium of the /eate (raja atis), as has been
mentioned in {peaking of the abdominal cavity, was dif-

S H.

tracted, or fotms a fort of neck. The parietes of the
auricle are generally thin; its mafcular fafciculi form no
remarkable projeGtions, and are diftributed over the internal
furface, rather in the manner of a mefhwork or irregular
ramification. The opening into the ventricle is ufually
furnifhed with two femilunar valves.

In the moon jifh (tetracdon mola) there are four valves of
a {quare fhape in this fituation, and in other inftances, as
amongft the /harks (/qualus), the aperture into the ventricle
is guarded by a fingle delicate valve, the border of which
is attached by many points to the parictes of this cavity.
The opening of the venz cave into the auricle is fituated
rather fuperiorly, that is, fomewhat on the fide of the auricle
next the fpine; it is near the neck, er part which is united
to the ventricle, confequently the auricle appears, on open-
ing a fifh, like an entire bag, depending from the
ventricle, the communication with the cavz not being
vifible in that view of the parts.

The ventricle has; according toCuvier, moftcommonly four
fides ; we fhould fay, the moft ufual fizure is that of a fhort
pyramid, with three fides, the bafe of which correfponds
to the fourth. The ventricle is, however, globular in
the finooth hound (fqualus muflelus), and triangular in the
dog-fifh ( /qualus canicula), and exhibits fome other variations
of form in different {pecies. The parietes of the ventricle
are ftrong and flefhy, and furnifh many fafciculi on the in-
ternal part of the cavity, fimilar to thofe obferved in the
ventricles of other animals.

At the anterior part of the ventricle, and near the aper-
ture into the auricle, there arifes a fhort tube, from which
the branchial artery is afterwards continued. Cuvier has
called this part the foo//alk or bulb of the branchial artery.
Its fizure is various; in the /lurgeon (acipenfer Sluric) it is
oval; in the ray and _/bark genera it is cylindric, and in
other fifhes it 1s moft commonly pyriform ; the bulb is lefs
mufcular than the ventricle, but much more fo than the
artery ; there is often a confiderable layer of mufcular fibres
around it, which are continued upon the branchial artery.
The internal part of the bulb is commonly made irregular
by a number of ftrong longitudinal fafciculi. The mem-
brane which lines the bulb produces fome folds of a femi-
lunar, or a parabolic form; thefe have their free edge
turned towards the branchial artery, confequently perform
the office of valves, in obftru@ling the return of the blood
upon the ventricle. In the /barks there are two rows, of
three valves each, the one at the origin, the other at the
termination of the bulb; there are alfo two rows in the

covered by Doétor Monroe to produce a funnel-fhaped furgeon, the fir compoied of four valves, the fecond of

elongation towards the abdomen, which is divided into

two branches or canals, terminating by open mouths in the

latter cavity ; as far as our obfervation goes, this ftruéture is
eculiar to the ray genus. '

The heart in fifhes is compofed of two cavities only, an
auricle for receiving the blood from the veins of the body,
and a ventricle for propelling it to the branchie. The
diftinétion of thefe parts is very evident, by which the figure
of the heart is rendered peculiar, appearing like two bodies
conneéted to each other.

The pofition of the auricle, with refpeé to the ventricle,
is fubjeét to vary; it is ufually placed anterior to it; it
covers; and even paffes beyond the ventricle in the genus
gadus, the rays. fmooth hound (/qualus mujlelus), and the dog-
fife (fqualus canicula), &c. r

The auricle is generally much more capacious than the
ventricle. Its figure is not eafily afligned; itisa fac, of
which the lateral parts are dilated, and at the place where it
becomes conneéted to the ventricle it is in a degree con-

five. Inthe ray genus, Cuvier reckons four rows, com-
pofed of the fame number of valves, and in the genus gadus,
the carps (cyprinus), and falmons (falmo), &c. but two
valves, placed at the entrance of the footitalk, and none at
any other part.

Arteries.

We have already faid that the heart of fithes is fingle, or
confifts only of an auricle and a ventricle, it confequently
furnifhes but one artery ; this veffc] is analogous to the
pulmonary, as it conveys ail the blood to the organs of
refpiration ; it being entirely fubfervient to the fun@ions of
the gills or branchiw, it has been with great propriety
termed the dranchial artery.

This veilel arifes from the bulb conne&ed with the ven-
tricle, of which it is in reality but the continuation, and
from which, in fome fifhes, it is not very diftinguifhable.

In the Rate (raja datis) the artery proceeds under the
cartilage which joms the inferior extremities of the bran-

chal

F1S H.

chial arches; it fir fends off, nearly at right angles, two
Jarge branches, one on each fide, by which the trunk is con-
fiderably diminifhed; thefe two branches foon divide each
into three others, which go to the three pofterior branchial
arches, along the convex edge of which they pafs, and
are loft in fine ramifications upon the laminz of the gills.
The branchial artery then continues its courfe until it arrives
oppofite to the firft gill, when it terminates in two branches,
which make a flight curve backwards, and each divides
again into two branches, which fupply the two anterior
gills in the fame manner as already defcribed.

In oftous fifbes the diftribution of the branchial artery
does not materially differ from that in the /tate ; the veflel
gains the bone to which the inferior extremities of the
branchial arches are articulated, along which it divides and
fends its branches between the fhort mufcles of the branchiz
fituated at this place; the ultimate number of thefe branches
are but four, correfponding to the ufual number of the gills
in thefe fifhes; the laft branch proceeds almoft dircétly
backwards.

The branches of the bronchial artery having conveyed all

the blood to the gilis, and diftributed it there in a manner
to be hereafter defcribed, it is returned by another fet of
veffels, which many anatomifts have confidered as veins, but
which would with much more propriety be called the re-
turning arteries of the gills, both on account of their
ftru@ture and office. Thefe veffels do not carry back the
blood tothe heart, but, after uniting together, diftribute it
to every part of the fith’s body ; there is therefore but one
Circulation in this clafs of animals, in the courfe of which
the organs of refpiration are interpofed.
. The arteries which receive the blood from the gills, and
convey it to every part of the body, have been fo fully de-
feribed by Monroe and Cuvier, that we have fearcely any
thing to add to their account of them. The kate (raja
Batis) forms their chief example.

In this fith each gill furnifhes an artery, which makes a
circuit’ round the fuperior extremity of its cartilaginous
arch, from below backwards. Monroe defcribes the arteries
produced by the gills as being double upon all except the
firlt, and befides being united together at their extremities
fo as to form arterial circuits, are conjoined with each other
by means of large tranfverfe canals.

The artery of the anterior gill, after anaftomofing with the
next, by the tranfverfe veflel, turns forwards to be diftributed
to the head; it fupplies the parts of the upper jaw, the eye,
the ear, the nofe; gives {mall branches to the fore-part of
the brain. There are likewife fome veffels fent off from the
anterior fide of the trunk of the arteries of the firlt and
fecond gills, which are diftributed to the mufcles and ex-
terna! parts of the head. Thefe firft branches, derived from
the arteries of the gills, may be confidered analogous to the
carotid.

After fending off the preceding arteries, the veflels fur-
nifhed by the gills produce, by their junétion at the fuperior-
part, or upon the cartilages of the vertebra of the neck,
three principal trunks ; at the place, where the moft enterior
is formed, it fends off a veflel which penctrates the cranium,
at the inferor part, near to where it is joined with the
vertebral eolumn ; this artery divides, on entering the cavity
of the eranivm, into three branches: tbe 1{t runs backwards
upon the inferior furface of the {pinal marrow, and unites
with the correfponding artery of the other fide, and with a
middle veflel, which forms a communication between the
different arteries of the brain. Thefe three branches compofe
a fingle artery, which pafles upon the f{pinal marrow, and
may be called with great propriety the /pina/ artery, ‘The

2d branch of the artery of the brain goes forwards and
inwards, and again forms a junétion with its fellow, and the
one which runs along the middle line of the lower furface of
the brain and f{pinal marrow. The 3d branch paffes to the
origin of the medulla fpinalis, and there gives off two
branches which extend to a vafcular ring, produced from
the fides of the middle artery; the branch {till advances as
far as the eighth pair of nerves, where it fends of two other
branches, which unite to give origin to the middle artery
already mentioned. After producing this veffel the anterior
branch goes on diftributing {mall arteries to the brain; it
paffes under the root of the fifth pair of nerves, to the tu-
bercles of the olfaGtory nerves, where it is expanded on
branches that {pread in radii, or like the pes anferinus of the
portio dura. The intricate aralftamofes produced by this
artery with its fellow, and with the middle veflel of the
lower furface of the brain, have been compared by Cuvier
to the Greek capital letter phi, accompanied with two femi-
circles affixed to it, in oppofite direétions, thus o@c. This
arrangement of the veflels of the brain may be confidered as
analogous to the rete mirabile of the carotid in quadrupeds,
and the circle of Willis in man. The artery which is diftri-
buted to the brain in fifhesappears, from ‘ts origin and courfe,
to fupply the place of the vertebral artery.

The three trunks produced by the blood veflels of the
gills proceed inwards and backwar’s upon the inferior
{mooth furface of the cartilage, correfponding to the cervical
vertebrz, and foon unite into one large veffel which is aualo~
gous to the aorta.

At the place where thefe v.flcls are afflembled to form
the aorta, there is given off a large branch, which cor-
refponds to the /ubclavian artery, both in its fituation, and on
account of the parts it fupplies; it paffes dire&tly acrofs
the cartilages which compofe the peétoral member, or great
fin of the ate, into which it enters, and immediately divides
into two great branches, which take the courfe of the broad
cartilage that fuftains the rays and mufcles of the fin, the
one paffing anteriorly, the other backwards, and each diftri-
buting branches in the direétion of the mufcles of the
fio,

The fubclavian, according to Cuvier, furnifhes pofteriorly
a {mall artery, which goes to the ovary in the female, and to
the tefticle in the male, and is analogous to the /permatic.

Before the fubclavian penetrates the fin it gives off a re-
markable branch anteriorly, which pafles along the fore part
of the gills; it there fends communicating branches to the
veffels that are immediately produced from the gills, and
likewife fome which are diftributed upon the gills themfelves
for their nourifhment, which are confequently analogous to
the éronchial arteries of thofe animals which have lungs.
It detaches alfo, inwards, fome arteries to the heart and
trunk of the branchial artery, which fupply the place of the
coronary arteries ; and, laftly, it is loft in branches which go
tothe mufcles and parts about the upper jaw.

The aorta proceeds in a ftraight line upon the under fur-
face of the cartilages compofing the dorfal vertebre, on
which there is a groove for itsreception, and when it arrives,
at the tail it becomes completely enclofed in a canal, which
is ee by the inferior {pinous procefles of the caudal ver-
tebra.

Soon after entering the abdomen the aorta fends off the
celiac artery; this veflel pafles backwards, and is diftributed
in particular to the fpiral valve of the inteftines, to the liver,
and to the ftomach. The firft branch accompanies the
cyftic duét to the commencement of the inteftines, which it
penetrates very near the pylorus, in order to ramify to in-
finity upon the {piral valve: fome of its {mall branches alfo

3 ge

FIS H.

‘0 to the pancreas, and to the pofterior part of the ftomach.
The fecond branch, or the hepatic artery, is a {mall veffel ; it
goes with the hepatic du& to the bafe of the liver, at which
place it enters that vifcus. | When the czliac artery has
arrived at the internal edge of the itomach, it divides into
two branches, the one inferior, of which the ramifications
are detached at right angles, from right to left, under the
inferior furface of the ftomach; the other is fuperior,
and is diftributed to the correfponding furface of the fame
Organ, and gives likewife fome {mall arteries to the left fide
of the fpleer.

_ Thenext branch of the aorta is the mefenteric artery. It
pafles to the right of the fpleen, to which it gives two large
branches that enter it at one fide, and furnifh at the other
fide arteries to the pancreas; it afterwards tollows the right
tide of the inteftinal canal, to which itis diftributed. Its
chief branches, to the number of nine or ten, detach them-
f-lves at right angles at nearly equal diftances from each
other, and crois end furround the inteftine. The fucceed-
ing branches of the aorta are much {maller than the pre-
ceding.

The two firft ge to the commencement of the oviduét;
which they furnifh with many branches, particularly at the
fuperior part; but before arriving there each of them fends
an artery to the mufcles of the {pine analogous to the dorfal
branch of the intercoftals, or of the lumbars in mammalia.

A third branch furnifhes fome arteries to the fpinal co-
lumn and to the commencement of the kidney, and goes par-
ticularly to the oviduct.

A fourth artery arifes from the aorta, and is fent exclu-
fively to the kidney, at the fide of which it detaches a {mall
lumbar artery, which is diftributed to the parietes of the
belly, to the mufcles of the fpine, and to the vertebral
column.

' Three other arteries, having a fimilar deftination, arife
more pofteriorly from each fide of the aorta. p

_ Finally, there proceeds from the aortaa large branch on
each fide; it foon fends off a renal artery, which advances
the length of the kidney, diftributing its branches to it,
after which it continues its courfe outwards in the moft pof-
terior part of the abdomen, and produces an artery analo-
gous to the efiga/ffric, and then efcapes from the cavity, and
is expended upon the anal fin.

“ . The arterial fyftem of fifhes in general does not differ
materially from that defcribed in the /Eate ; the gills being
four, they confequently furnifh one branch lefs than in the
genus ray, or the /fharé. The aorta in fome of the cartilagi-
nous fifhes, inftead of paffing in a groove as is ufual, is con-
tained in a canal formed in the bodies of the vertebra : this
is remarkably the cafe in the /urgeon (acipenfer flurio), and
the /amprey (petromyzon marinus). 'The coats of the aorta
adhere firmly to the fides of the canal, fo that it would ap-
pear in thefe fifhes the blood flows through the aorta as
through a paffive tube.

. In thofe fifhes which have ribs, the aorta gives offa number
of branches to the intercoftal fpaces, which correfpond to
the intercoflal arteries. Thefe veffels, however, diftribute
branches to the kidnies before they pafs to the parietes of
the belly.

The fplenic artery is not generally as it is in the Rate, a
branch of the mefenteric, but of the celiac, or that artery
which fupplies the firft portion of the alimentary canal, the
liver, and {pleen.

* Cuvier ftates that there are generally in fifhes two me/en-
teric arteries, and defcribes them in the frout (fale fario).

‘ VoL. XIV.

“

The firf, or anterior mefenteric, he fays, is detached from the
aorta very near the middle of the body, and at a diftance
from the trunk of the caliac ; it advances for a little way
in the fubftance of the mefentery, and divides into two
branches, of which the one goes forwards and the other
backwards, parallel to the inteftinal canal, asd fupplies it
with branches which form right angles with the artery that
furnifhes them, and which having arrived at the inteltine, wind
round it in a ferpentine manner, and give off branches that
extend forwards and backwards along it.

The pofterior mefenteric artery arifes from the trunk of the
aorta at fome diftance from the firft ; it paffes backward pa-
rallel to the inteftine, and diftributes its branches to the pof-
terior portion of it: thefe go off at acute angles, and are
not ferpentine, as thofe of the anterior mefenteric artery.
This veffel hkewife fends branches to the bladder, which
alfo receives others from the pofterior intercoltals.

Although the arteries of fifhes have fo peculiar an origin,
andare fent to parts differently conftructed than thofe in
mammalia, they bear confiderable refemblance to the arteries
of that clafs. From the preceding defcription it will be
feen that almoft all the arteries of fifhes admit of the fame
names that are applied to the veficis of mammiferous ani-
mals.

The mode in which the aorta is formed in fifhes, makes it
impoffible for the heart to communicate its impulfe to the ar-
terial fyftem: the circulation of the blood in thefe animals
is therefore carried on flowly, and unaccompanied by the
pulfe, or that faltatory motion that is obferved in the prin-
cipal arteries of the hot-blooded animals: confiftently alfo
with the offices of thefe veffels, their parictes are thin, and
appear to be deprived of the middle or contraétile coat.
The arteries of fithes very much refemble in their ftru€ture
the veins of other animals ; they further agree with veins in
the circumftance of having the branches of large capacity, and
often as large as the principal trunks of the body.

In Plate IV. of the Anatomy of Fifkes, fig. 4. exhibits a
view of the heart and branchial artery of the /Rate (raja
batis); a, the ventricle of the heart ; 4, the auricle; c, the buib
of the branchial artery; d, d, the places at which the femi-
lunar valves are found; ¢, e, the two firft branches
of the branchial artery ; f, g, & their .divifion into three
branches deftined for the three potterior gills ; 7, the continua-
tion of the trunk of the branchial artery ; 4, 4, the two
branches in which the artery terminates; /,m, the two branches
which goto fupply the two anterior gills: the numberg
I, 2) 3) 4. 5», indicate portions of the five gills which are
left on one fide, in order to fhew a little of the courfe of the
branches of the branchial artery along their convex edges.

Fig. 5. of the fame plate, fhews the formation of the aorta
and fome of its principal branches in the /éafe; the parts on
the lower fide of the body are cut away to bring into view
the obje@s of the figure: a is the trunk of the returning ar-
tery (or vein, 2s it 1s often, though improperly, termed) of
the anterior gill; 4, the continuation of this veficl diliributed
to the fnout and external parts of the head ; c, a communice-
tion between the returning artery of the firft gill with that
of the fecond, pointed out by d; ¢, the trunk formed between
thofe proceeding to form the aorta; f. f/f, {mall arteries fent
from this trunk to the mufcles and other external parts o
the head; g, the anaftomofes between the two returning
ries of the fecond gill ; 4, the fecond artery of the fecond gill;
i, &, the returning arteries of the third gill; /, their communica-
tion; m, a, the arteries of the fourth gill; 0, their anaftomofis ;
p> the branch of the firit trank fent to the brain; g, the fecond
arterial trunk which forms the aorta; / ¢, the artecies from the

38 aftie

-"

FISH,

Mich gill united as the others by a crofs branch ; w, the third
@rterial trunk which produces the aorta; v, the commence-
ment of the aorta formed by the congrefs of the three arte-
rial trunks on each fide; x, the braneh of the aorta which
correfponds to the fubclavian artery ; y, the branch of this
artery which goes forward, communicates with the external
ends. of the returning arteries of the gills,and fends off the
branches analogous to the bronchial and coronary arteries,
and others to the mulcles of the jaws ; z, the divifion of the
fubclavian artery in order to fupply the great peétoral fins or
wings of this fifh; 1, the celiac artery, 2, the mefenteric :
Several fmall arteries are feen to arife fiom the fucceedirg
parts of the aorta which go to the organs of generation, the
kidnies, &c.

Veins.

The aperture by which the venous fyftem of fifhes termi-
nates in the auricle of the heart is very fmalJ, in proportion
to the fize of that cavity, and to that of the adjoining trunks.
The contra€ted opening into the auricle muit, in a certain
degree, perform the office of valves, or at leaft diminifh
the current of the blood upon the heart.

The commen venous finus with which the auricle imme-
diately communicates, pafles on each fide tranfverfely and
backwards ; it is formed, according to Cuvier, by the ‘con-
courfe of five principal trunks: 1, the polterior vena cava ;
2, the trunk of the vene cave hepatice ; 3, and 4, the two
inferior ven cave ; 5,atrunk which conveys the blood from
the parts in the neighbourhood of the gills.

The poflerior vena cava receives the deep-feated venous
branches in the neighbourhood of the fpine; the trunk
itfelf accompanies the aorta, and, like that veffel, it is in-
clofed between the inferior {pinous proceflcs of the caudal
vertebre ; and in thofe fifh which have the aorta lodged ina
cawal in the bodies of the dorfal vertebrae, as in the /am-
prey (petromyzon), and the flurgeon (avipenfér), the polterior
vena cavais accommodated in a fimtlar manner ; the pofterior
cava isin general am inconfiderable trunk with ref{p:&€ to ea-
pacity, it is however very long, and is without dilatation,
being nearly of the fame fize throughout : this veflel is not
deferibed by Doétor Monroe, and appears to have entirely
efcaped his obfervation, elthough, from the number of {peci¢s
in which we have feen it, we believe that it is conitantly
to be found in this clafs.

The vene cave hepatica of the fevetal lobes of the liver
unite immediately before cheir termination in the commoa
finus under the heart, they are always confiderably dilated ;
Monroe itates that in the fate (raja batis) they form
between the liver and the heart finufes, che diameter of which
ig ten times greater than that of their openings.

The éavo anterior cave are the molt important veins in the
body; they receive the blood from a great part of the
mu{cular fubftance-of the &fh, the organs of generation,
&c. They lie contiguons to each other in tke abdomen,
and are greatly dilated. They form large receptacles of
blood, according to Monroe, above the ovaries in the fe-
male, and the telticles in the male fish, at which piace thefe
veins communicate freely wrth each other.

The blood of the anterior and lateral parts of the body,
efpecially in the jfat chondropterygii, and the fifhes with
large petoral fins, 1s conveyed by trunks of fome fize,
which correfpond to the jugu/ar and /ubclavian veins of other
animals.

The latter truak appears to be the continuation of the
gommon finus, into which the other trunks open by orifices
fmaller than the veffels themfelves, the edges of which are
prominent and loofe, or floating, fo as to perform, in fome

degree, the offices of valves. - Dr.» Monroe fays, that he
obferved within the external jugular veins, and at the tere
mination of the internal jugulars, a pair cf valves, Bmilar
to thofe in the veins of the human fubje&. At the ter-
mination of the renal veins, and large branches of the
hepatic veins, he found fingle membranes fixed by threads
from their edges, refembling the coronary vein of our
heart ; and at the termination of the other large veins,
e{pecially near the heart, he fays, there are not only con
trected orifices, but doublings at their edges, which have
fo far the effe€t of valves, even in the dead body, that
we cannot fill completely all the veins, by throwing an
injection in at one ef their branches. Page 18. Monroe’s
Phyfiology of Fifhes. :

It fhould however be obferved,.that the veins of fifles
are not valvular in their courfe, like thofe of mammalia.

It is unneceffary to give a particular deferiptionsof the
venous branches, which produce the trunks above-mentioned ;
thefe, as far as we have obferved, accompany the rami-
fications of the arteries, and are fingle veffels of a fomewhat
greater diameterthan the aitcry.

The coats of the veins of fifhes are extremely fine
and thin; fo much fo, that they would feem to be intae
pable of fuffcring much diltenfion without being ruptured.

We have frequently obferved that the veins of fifhes
appeared as if they were in a great meafure emptied of
their blood, particularly in the dilated parts of the anterior
cave, which veffels would feem to have a capacity beyond
their ufual contents : the great fize of the principal venous
trunks of fifhes is therefore, probably, not fo much the
confequence of long continued diftenfion, as original orzani-
zation. It appears to be a circumitance in the ftructure
of thefe animals, adapted to the flow motion of their blood,
and not as Dr. Monroe fuppoled, dependent upon the
preffure of the water on the furface of their gills, caufing
an accumulation of the blood ia the interior parts of their
bodies. The exifteace of feveral venous trunks for colle@ting
the blood from the fmaller branches appears alfo to be a
provifion to obviate the fulnefs which would arife, if all
the blood was flowly accumulated in one or two trunks.

Fig. 4. Plate 1V. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, prefents
a view of the principal venous trunks in the Pale,
(raja bafis); nis tne common finus, in which al! the veins
meet, -{ctn pafling from each fide behind the anricle into
which it opens ; 0 o 9, part of the vene cave hepatice taken
ovtof the liver; they pour their blood into the finus, oppofite
to the auricle; p, p, the two anter:or vene cave; g, the
place at which they communicate with each other; rand
the veins analozcus to the internal and external jugulars;
t; the trunk, which correfponds to the fubclavan vein 5
u, v, two branches of the fubclavian, which colle the
blood trom the great peGoral fins; x, a large vein from
the mufcles, and other parts behind the abdomen, which:
opens into the fubclavian. ,

Vital Temperature.

All the hot-blooded animals poffefs a degree of tempe-
rature fuited to the fnnétions’ they naturally perform ;
which cannot be materially altered withowt inconvenience
to them; and any confiderable deviation from which is
refifted by an effort of their vafcular fyems: this we have
termed their fandard heat. ‘The temperature of fifh-s, both
from their organization, and the element they inhabit, is in
general low: one of their claffiie characters is being cold.
blooded. ‘There is however a good deal of varicty in the
natural temperature of different {pecies: thofe that live inthe
fea are fome degrees colder than the frefh-water fifhes ; and

5 thofe:

FISH.

thofe that are active, dnd frequent the furface of the water,
as many of the genera cyprinus, falmo, &c. have a higher
temperature than the more fluggith {pecies. We may ftate
the ftandard heat of the one kind of fifhcs to be about 60°
of Fahrenheit’s fcale, and that of the other about 50°.

As the vital heat is lefs independent of the external
temperature, in proportion to the lownefs of the ftandard,
or, in other words, as the heat of the animal is more incon-
ftant when it is not naturally high, we find that the
temperature of fifhes, commonly, is nearly the fame with that
of the water in which they refide. In fome experiments
We made upon carps and eels, we cou'd not difcover any
material difference between their heat, and that of the
water in which they were placed, until the latter was
heated, or cooled, many degrees beyond its ordinary tem-
perature.

Mr. Hunter’s experiments on this fubject were attended
with a fimilar refult, although they appear fomewhat in-
corfiftent with each other, as he has ftated them.

_ Upon one occafion he put an ee/, its heat being 44°,
which was nearly that of the atmofphere, into water heated
to 65°, for fifteen minutes: and upon examination it was of
the fame degree of heat with the water. In another ex-
periment, he fays, he put a tench, whofe heat was 41°, into
water at 65°, and after remaining there ten minutes, the
ball of the thermometer being introduced both into the
fiomach and reGtum, the quickfilver rofe to 55°.

Having removed a carp out of a pond, the water of which
he had afcertained to be 65° and a half, he introduced the
thermometer into its ftomach; the quickfilver rofe to 69°
fo that the difference between the water and the fifh was
3° and a half.

Thefe two laft experiments do not quite accord with the
two following. Having put an ec/, the heat of whofe
flomach was 37°, into a freezing mixture, its temperature
funk to 31°. The animal, he fays, at that time appeared
dead, but was alive the next day. He took a living and
dead tench, and a living and dead ee/, and put them into warm
water ; they all received heat equally faft: and when they
were expofed to cold, both the living and the dead admitted
the cold likewife with equal quicknefs.

It is beyond all doubt that fifhes readily fuffer great
alterations in their natural temperature, and that this is not
attended in them with any f-rious injury. It has been
afferted that they can even be entirely frozen, and afterwards
‘reftored to life; and if we may credit Sonnerat, he faw
in the Philippine iflands fifhes {wim in water at the heat of
187° of Fahrenheit.

'Mr. Hunter afferts that he never fucceeded in freezing
whole fifhes, and afterwards recovering them; although
his experiment of freezing the ee/, as above-mentioned,
would lead us to make a different conclufion, He froze,
he fays, the tail of a tench (as high as the anus), which be-
came as hard as a board; when it thawed, that part was
whiter than common, and when it moved, the whole tail
moved as one piece, and the termination of the frozen part
appeared like the joint on which it moved.

ealfo froze the tails of two gold ji/bes until they be-
came as folid as a piece of wood. ‘Thcy were put into cold
water to thaw, and appeared for fome days to be very well;
‘but that part of the tails which had been frozen had not the
natural colour, and the fins of the tails became ragged.

About three weeks afterwards a fur came all over the
frozen parts; their tails became lighter, fo that the fithes
were fufpended in the water perpendicularly, and they had
almoft loft the power of motion; at lait they died. The
water in which they were kept was New River water,

changed every day, and about ten gallons in quantity. See
Hunter’s Animal CEconomy,

From thefe experiments it would be inferred, that even
parts of fifhes will not admit of being frozen without dif-
organization.

Organs of Refpiration.

Alltruly aquatic animals poffefs certain parts of a lami-
nated or tufted ftru€ture for minutely dividing the water,
and extracting from it the air with which it is intermixed.
The gills of fifhes are peculiarly well contrived for this mode
of refpiration, both from their pofition and organization.

The gills of fifhes are fituated on each fide of the neck 5
they have always a very free communication with the cavity of
the mouth, of which they may be generally confidered as con-
{tituting the pofterior parietes. They are covered externally
in the chondropterygit by the common integuments, and in the
other fifhes ufually by a bony or cartilaginous operculum,
which is, in moft inttances, increafed by the addition of
fome radiated bones that are covered by a procefs of the
fkin.

In the chondropterysit the gills are fixed by being con-
nected externally to the integuments that enclofe them,
which are perforated by a number of foramina, varving ac-
cording to the genus; but in the other orders of fifhes the
gills are unattached at the cxternal fide, and the branchial
aperture is fingle and capable of being much enlarged and
diminifhed by the elevation and depreffion of the operculum,
which is moved by certain mufcles in the manner of the
lid of a box.

‘fhe branchie are fuftained upon fome cartilaginous or
offeous arches, which are placed fo that their concavity is
turned obliquely forwards towards the mouth, and their
convex fides are directed backwards and outwards. Thefe
arches are conftru€ted to admit of their bafes being contra&ted
and dilated, and of being approximated one with refpe& to
another; for which purpofes they are provided with nume-
rous and complicated mufcles. The motions of the branchial
arches are alfo connected with thofe of other parts in their
neighbourhood ; the pharyngeal bones, hyoides, &c, al-
though chiefly intended for deglutition, enter into the
mechanifm of the refpiratory organs; and the branchial
arches on the other hand are employed in ceglotition ; fo that
all the parts fituated about the origin of the efophagus have
complicated fun@tions, as will appcar when they are more
fully defcribed along with the other organs of motion. It
is fufficient at prefent to ftate, that by the motions of the
different parts with which the branchiz are connected, their
vafcular furfaces are expanded, contrated, and prefied
again{t the water, which runs over them.

The real organs of refpiration in fifhes are the great nume
ber of laminz which are fixed upon the convex fides of the
branchial arehes. Thefe lamine in the Jdranclizfegi and
offious fifhes are arranged in two rows upon each branchial
arch, of which there are generally four on each fide. The
lamine are very narrow,’ elongated, and pointed at their free
extremity, and are ufually united to each other by their in-
ternal edge for about two-thirds of their exteat from the
bafe ; they are commonly fet clofe to each other, producing
the appearance, in a great degree, of the teeth of a comb,
or the barbs of a feather. Tach of the lamine contains a
very delicate plate of a cartilaginous flruture, by which
they preferve their form and pofiticn againit the force of the
water. Their fuperficies is fmooth ilong the edges, but we
have lately difcovered that the intermediate fufface is co-
vered with extremely fine thia villous procefles, by which
means the refpiratory furface is infinitely extended.

35 2 We

FISH,

We have already flated that. the fingle artery which
arifes from the heart of fifhes is entirely expanded on the
gills, The branthes of this veffel pafs along the convex
fides of the branchial arches under the bafes of the lamine.
They furnifh in this route a branch to each pair of laminz,
which afcends between them as far as they are united, and
then divides into two branches that go along the internal
edge of the lamine to their extremity; thefe produce an
immenfe number of minute veflels, which are expanded in fine
ramifications upon both furfaces of the pair of amine. The
extreme terminations of thefe veflels form the roots, or give
birth to the artery of the body, or aorta. Thefe are collected
upon each lamina by a branch which runs along its external
edge, and the veffels, thus produced, terminate in one which
runs like the branch of the branchial artery under the roots
of the laminz, upon the convex fide of the arch. Thefe
branches receive the blood from each of the gills, and concur
to form the aorta, in the manner formerly defcribed.

The ftru€ture of the organs of relpiration in the chon-
dropterygii differs in fome refpects from that above defcribed.
In the lampreys (petromyzon), there are feven gills on each
fide, and in the raysand /harks (raja and /qualus) there are
five on each fide. The /ampreys have only, however, a
fingle row of lamin to the firft and the laft gill, and the
two laft genera have but one row of laminz to the anterior
gill. In thefe fifhes the branchial arches fuftain upon
their convex edges a number of cartilaginous procefles or
radii, upon which there is a mufcle of fome thicknefs placed,
that has the effect of approximating them to cach other.
The real lamine of the gills arife from the fides of thefe
parts, and are compofed, in fact, of refleGtions of the mem-
brane which covers them. Thefe lamine are broader and
fet farther afunder than thofe of other fifhes; they are un-
attached at one edge, and at part of the other. They have
upon each fide a number of fub-divifions or {mall folds,
which vary in their figure and extent in the different {pecies;
thefe fub-lamine conftitute the true refpiratory furfaces.

The branch of the branchial artery, which proceeds along
the convexity of the arches, furnifhes to each pair of lamine
two veflels ; the larger of which is fent to the internal edge
of the lamine, and the other runs upon the external edge
along with the branch which colleéts the blood from the
Jamine for the aorta. The artery of the internal edges
anaftomofes at fome diftance from the extremity of the la-
ming, with a branch which pafles tranfverfely from one la-
mina to another, and thus eftablifhes a communication be-
tween all the internal branches of the branchial artery. The
minute or ultimate ramifications of the branchial artery are
expanded upon the {mall or fubordinate laminz, which arife
from the fides of the others.

Cuvier defcribes the branchiz of the Aippocampus as being
differently organized from thofe of other fifhes. They are
compofed of eight rows of tufts united by pairs in fuch a
manner as to correfpond with the four ordinary gills) The
external rows have only five tufts; thofe which fucceed
have fix; there are feven in the third; and in the middle
rows there are eight tufts. The confequence of there being
a different number of tufts in the feveral rows is, that
the entire gills appear of a round figure. Each of thefe
tufts, of which the extremity is round, is formed of a car-
tilaginous lamina, which is fxed upon the branchial arch,
and fuftains, as in the ray genus, fome other little membrano-
vafcular lamin, very diftin@ from each other, and arranged
upon the cartilaginous lamina, in the direftion of the bran-
chial arches,

The Sa anguillaris has been difcovered by M. Geoffroy
to poffefs fome fupernumerary organs of refpiration, of

avery fingular firu€ure, In this fith the ordinary gills,
exift, but with fhorter lamin than are ufually found ;
in addition to which there are two organs on each fide,
confifting of a hollow trunk and numerous branches,
the parictes of which refemble the cozts of an artery.
The external furface of thefe vafcular trees is covered
by the ramifications of the branchial artery, which be-,
come more fine and numerous as they extend upon their
branches. The extremities of the ramifications open into
the branches of the arborefcent organs, and diitil into them
their blood, through a multitude of villi that cover the inte-
rior furface of thefe branches. The trunks of the organg
themfelves terminate in the roots of the aorta, where they
come from under the gills.

Cuvier confiders thefe parts as not only ferving the pur-
pofes of refpiratory organs, but alfo as aéting as hearts, by
giving an impulfe to the blood which flows through the
aorta.

The numerous furfaces furnifhed by the gills of fifhes
qualify them for dividing, in an eminent degree, the water
which paffes over them, and for feparating from it all the air
with which it may be mechanically combined. The quan-
tity of air confumed by the refpiration of a fifh is greater
than would be at firft expeéted. If one be enclofed in a
veffel of water which is completely excludsd from the at-
mofphere, it very foon extraéts all the air mixed with the
water, and expires. Such a refult will, however, excite no
furprife if we contemplate the extent of furface upon which
the blood is expofed to the furrounding element.

Monroe has calculated that the furfaces of the gillsin a
large /kate (raja batis) are nearly equal to the whole external
furface of the human body. There are eighteen fides on the
branchie ; each of thefe fides has about fifty divifions or
doublings of the membrane ; each of thefe divifions, he fays,
poffeffes one hundred and fixty fubdivifions, doublings,orfolds
of its membrane, the length of each of which, in a very large.

JSkate, he takes as about one-eighth of an inch, and its breadth

about the oneefixteenth of an inch; fo that in the whole

gills there are one hundred and forty-four thoufand fubdivi-
fions or folds, the two fides of each of which are equal to

the fixty-fourth part of a fquare inch ; or the furface of the

whole gills in a large /£ate is equal to two thoufand two hun-

dred and fifty fquare inches, that is, to more than fifteen

{quare feet. ;

It appears to us that Dr. Monroe has very much over-
rated the dimenfions of the laminz of the gills in his calcula-
tion ; {till, however, it muft be admitted, that the refpiratory
furface of the branchiz in the /Rate is prodigioufly extenfive,
and vaftly furpaffes what would be fuppofed before being
thus viewed in detail; andif the aggregate of all the fur-
faces of the villi we have difcovered in the laminz of the
gills in ofeous fifhes could be afcertained, it would probably
be found to exceed very far the fuperticies of the gills in the
ray geuns.

Some fifhes, as the genus eyprinus, &c. come to the furface
of the water to obtain a fupply of air from the atmofphere ;
the {pecies that require this are particularly vivacious ; many
of thefe will refpire air alone for feveral days after they are
caught, during which the operculum of the gills may be ob-
ferved to rife and fall alternately, like the motions of the
thorax in thofe animals which refide conftantly in air.

In Plate IV. of the Anatomy of Fifkes, fig. 6. reprefents a
portion of the gills of the cod(gadus morrbua) of the natu-
ral fize. a isa piece of the branchial arch, on which the la-
minz are fuftained ; 4, 4, the laminez of one row; ¢, «, thofe
of the other row appearing partially behind them. ig. 7.
of the fame plate, exhibits the manner in which the two

6 Toys

F1IS He

rows of lamince are placed with refpeét to each other in the
cod; ais the branchial arch cut tran{verfely ; 6 5, the fe€tion
of the branches of arteries which tranfmit the blood to the
gills, and return it afterwards to form the aorta; ¢ ¢, a la-
mina of each row croffing each other, which is the pofition
they have in this fifh, in which they are not united to each
other. Jig. 8. of the fame plate, prefentsa fingle lamina
of the cad, confiderably magnified, in order to fhew the
villous proceffes we have difcovered to exilt upon its furface,
Fig. 9. isa lateral view of a portion of the gill of the
Shate (raja batis) ; a, the bafis of the gill or branchial arch ;
4, the furface from which the lamine proceed, and to which
they are conneted by the greateft part of one of their cdges ;
¢, ¢, the fine edges of the lamine. Fig. to. of this plate,
fhews one of the lamine of the firft order of the /kale, mage
nified ; a, the border which is attached; 4, the edge which
floats, is feen furnifhed with villous proceffes ; c, the inter-
mediate furface, covered with fine fubordinate laminz.

Kidnies and urinary Bladder.

. Thefe glands ufually bear a greater proportion to the fize
of the body in fthes, than in any other clafs of animals.
They not only extend the whole length of the abdominal
cavity, but often pafs as far forwards as the fides of the
cfophagus, and back of the cranium, and fometimes go
backwards along the {pine, confiderably beyond all the ab-
dominal vifcera. They are proportionably {ma'l in the ray
and fhark genera.

« The kidnies are always clofely applied to the furface of
the vertebral column, from which it is difficult to remove
them ; the furface, which is next to the fpine, isconfequently
very irregular, particularly in ofeous fi/bes. The greatett
part of the kidnies is covered. on the tower furface, by the
air-bladder, when this organ exifls.

_ The form of thefe glands is fomewhat various; fometimes,
as in the carp, &c. there is a tranfverfe lobule on the external
fide of each kidney, at the anterior part, which gives them
an uniform figure. This lobnle projects chiefly from the
internal fide in the dory (zeus fuber). “I'he kidnies are fome~
times of nearly the fame breadth at every part ; in other in-
ftances they are confiderably {maller anteriorly. They are
in general but imperfeétly divided into lobules, which gives
an obfcure notched appearance along their external edge ;
there are two pofterior lobes which project backwards for a
greater or lefs diftance.

The proper coat of the kidnies is extremely thin. On
the under furface they are covered by the peritoneum, which
clofely edheres to them.

. The ufual colour of the kidnies 13 a dark reddifh brown.

. Their texture is foft and fragile, and yields equally in all
directions to the preflure of tbe fingers, In the ray and
Seark genera their fubftance is formed of a lighter red
colour than in ofleous fifhes. In every inftance the kidnies
have an uniform ftru€ture. ‘They are very vafcular, being
fupplied by numerous arteries from the adjacent trunks.

The uriniferons du&s are numerous, and diftributed
throughout the whole fubflance of thefe glands. They are,
at their commencement, fine and tranfparent; but as they
become larger their coats appear opake, and of*a filvery
hue. There are no cells or refervoirs in the interior of the
kidney, into which the uriniferous canals pour out their
fluid, as in mammalia; thefe velfels coalefce to form the
ureters, as in birds and reptiles.

' Thefe duéts run generally along the under furface of the
kidnies, imbedded in their fubftance, and acquire magnitude

as they proceed. In the /gualus maximut, according to Mr,
Home, they run along the inner edge of the kidnies,

An urinary bladder, {uch as exilts in other animals, ia
wanting in a great number of fifhes; but in its place we ge-
nerally find a dilated canal into which the ureters open. This
canal 1s fometimes fo wide as to approach the appearance of
a fac or bladder ; it is generally capable of containing a
certain quantity of urine. Its coats are ftronger than thofe
of the proper urinary bladder, and it is often plicated or
laminated upon the inner furface.

When the urinary bladder exifts, it is a thin pellucid bag.
It is found in many cartilaginous tithes, as the frog-fifh
(lophius pifcatorius) ; the lump fifh (cyclopterus lumpus) ; moon

JSife (tetraodon mola), &c. &c. and the number of offcous

fifhes in which it has been obferved to exift is much greater.
la the carp (cyprinus carpio)the bladder is of a {pherical fhape;
in the father-lafber (cottus fcorpius) it is more elongated in its
form, and of confiderable fize in proportion to that of the
fifh to which it belongs.

The urinary bladder difcharges its contents ufually by’
an opening diftin& from the anus, and placed a little farther
back than that aperture.

There is no proper urinary bladder in the ray and _fhark gee
nera. Theureters terminate in a cloaca, asin birds. Mr. Home
has, however, obferved. in the da/king /hark (/qualus maximus)
that ‘* the ureters terminate in an oval cavity juft within the
verge of the anus, which has an imperfe@& feptum fepzrat-
ing it into two parts, the ureters opening on the op-
polite fides of this feptum ; this cavity mult, therefore, he
fays, be confidered as the urinary bladder. This cavity
opens externally in the male, by an infundibular procefs
which correfponds to the penis. DoStor Monroe has like-
wife called the part which conveys the urine into the cloaca
in the common /eate the urinary bladder.

It is impoffible to affign the ufe of the bladder or any
refervoir for the urine in fithes; thefe animals continually
refiding in the water, one fhould have fuppofed that no
inconvenience could have arifen from the expulfion of their
urine as faft as it was fecreted ; perhaps part of their urine
is abforbed, as in other animals, and carried back into the
{yf{tem, for which purpofe it is neceflary to detain it for fome
time before it is ejected.

No accurate examination has been made of the chemical
properties of the urine of fifhes, as far as we are ecquainted.
Although exceedingly tran{parent, it pofleffes more of the
urinous flavour than the contents of the bladder in reptiles ;
it'may, however, be queftioned, how far the fluid found in
the bladder of reptiles is really urine: this will be confidered
in its proper place.

Anatomifts have agreed in denying rena! glands or capfules
to the whole clafs of fifhes; there are in the dory (zeus
faber) two afh-coloured glandular bodies, about the fize of
{mall peas, placed upon the pofterior extremity of the
kidnies ; thefe glands are of a firm, tough texture through-
out; they are attached to the kidnics, and alfo to the
pofterior end of the air-bag, by fome ligamentovs-looking
cords. We have not yet examined other fifhes with the
view of obferving fimilar bodies in them; we are, therefore,
not prepared to fay how far thefe glands may ecrrefpond
with the renal capfules of other avimals, or whether they
may not be conneéted with the offices of the air-bag in this
particular fith.

Fig. 11. of Plate IV. in the Anatomy of Fifhes, reprefents
the dilated canal, which takes the place of the urinary blad-
der in the dory (zeus faler) ; a, a, are portions of the two
ureters which end in the fundus of the fac; 4, the wide part

oi

Fis H-

of the canal; ¢, the contraéted part, which goes on to
terminate behind the anus; the canal is laid open to thew
that it is plicated on the inner furface.

Organs fubfervient to the generative Fundlions.

Male parts of generation—If we except the holders, or
ergans ot prebenfion, in the genera raja and /qualus, there are
no external parts of generation in the clafs of fifhee. From
the manner in which thefe animals in general accomplifh the
a@ of generation, a penis would be perfectly ufelefs to them,
and the organs for preparing the male femen would be ex-
pofed continually to injury, if placed on the outfide of their
bodies.

The parts reputed to be the organs of prehenfion in the
vay and /hark kind, are fituated at the fides of the anus, be-
tween the two ventral fins. They confitt of three parts,
articulated with the pelvis, refembling additional abdominal
members. They are compofed of thirteen cartilaginous
joints, of different fizes and fizures, which are moved by
certain mufcles covered by the common integuments, ard
connected with a fingular gland.

The firft part is formed by three fhort cartilaginous
pieces, articulated one to the other. The fecond part is
likewife compofed of three cartilages, which are long, and
not moveable upon each other. The two exteroal pieces
interrupt a canal which proceeds to open in a hollow formed
in the third part. This laft is made.up of feven cartilages,
all moveable on each other; it receives likewife one of the
pieces of the fecond part, which goes on as far as its
extremity.

The fir part admits of flexion outwards upon the fecond,
and of extenfion, and the whole member is moveable from
without inwards. Thefe motions are performed by the
means of two mufcles. One of thefe arifes from the pelvis
and terminates at the commencement of the fecond part.
It is confounded with the flexor of the veotral fin. The
other mulcle is fmailer, and placed upon the firlt; it arifes
from the firft part, and is inferted at the commencement of
the fecond.

There is a third mufcle which takes its origin from the
third part, and envelopes the fecond, except a {mall portion
of its external fide, and is inferted by a flender tendon upon
the inferior and external fide of the la{t piece, and is affixed
at the fuperior fide to an extended border that is prefented
before the piece, which hasthe figure of ablade. The ute
of this mufcle is to open the canal already mentioned, which
is clofed by the elafticity of the parts compofing it.

The gland is fituated at the exterior of the middle part
of this apparatuse It is an oval figure, and furrounded
by a thick mufcle; it furnifhes a very vifcid fluid, and its
excretory duét opens into the groove that is formed by the
two cartilaginous pieces of the fecond part, and is lo{t in
the hollow of the third.

Naturalifts are not agreed with refpe& to the ufe of thefe
fingular members. Cuvier thinks that they are only em-
ployed in {wimming, as the largeft of their mufcles is alfo
the depreffor of the ventral fin, and as their parts are not
provided with mufcles, to be approximated with fufficient
force to act as organs of prehenfion. Bloch, and many
others, fuppofed that they were defigned to hold the female
during coition. Geoffroy believes that they are introduced
into the cloaca of the female, and perform the office in fome
degree of a penis. We are molt inclined to adopt the lalt
opinion. If this apparatus was intended for {wimming
alone, why fhould it be peculiar to the male? and if for
prehenfion, a gland to fecrete a flimy fluid would be not

only unneceffary, but inconvenient. The ray and /hark
genera fhould therefore, perhaps, be confidered as excep-
tions to the general obfervation, that fifhes do not poflefs
a penis.

The tefes of the genera raja and /qualus differ very much
from thofe of other fifhes; they bear a greater refemblance
to the fame organs in fome reptiles than to thofe of their
owu clafs. Each tefticle confifts of two parts united toe
gether. The one is an uniform glandular mafs, fomewhat
like the texture of the teftes of other fifhes ; it is flattened
and imperfe&tly divided into lobes. The other portion is
made up of a great number of {mall {pherical bodies, on the
external furface of each of which there is a flight depreffion,
like an impreffion made by the head of a pin; thefe bodies
are united to each other by fome ftrong filaments, and are
inclofed in a fine membrane. This tubercular fubftance
forms the principal portion of the gland, aug is divided
into feveral lobes or maffes of different fizes." When exa-
mined with a magnifying glafs it appears to confift of very
minute round grains.

The teiticles in thefe fifhes give origin to a real epididymis,
which is evidently compofed of a couvoluted tube, It is
thin, where it is conneéted with the gland, with which it
appears to be continuous; it forms alarge mafs of an oblong

hape.

From the lower part of the epididymis the was deferens
comes forth; it is a canal of confiderable fize, and as it
proceeds along the fpine, towards the anus, formsa great
number of figmoid flexures or coils upon itfelf. Thefe
become lefs ftriking, and the dué& enlarges as it approaches
a fac near the cloaca, in which it terminates in fuch a man-
ner, that although they form a common receptacle, there is
not a free communication between them.

Monroe {tates that thefe facs contain a green coloured
fluid, and he confiders them analogous to the pro/fate gland;
they appear to us to correfpond much more with the ve/ficule
Jeminales, if they be looked upon as any thing more than
a dilatation of the vas deferens. Monroe deferibes the di-
lated part of the vas deferens, before its communication with
the fac, asa veficula feminalis; in which he is evidently wrong.
He was led into this error from confidering the veficule fee
minales of mammialiaas mere refervoirs of the femen.

The vas deferens and fac of each fide open into a cylindric
papilla, which is vifible in the cloaca.

The teites of the other orders of fifhes are two elongated
bodies, fometimes cylindric or conic in their form, but moft
commonly notched or divided into imperfeét lobules ; they are
of a pele grey or afh colour, foft, pulpy, and homogeneous
in their te ture, relembling very much medullary fubftance 5
their foftnefs renders their intimate ftru@ture very obfcure,
but they appear to be compofed of an intertexture of fine
membrane and pultaceous matter. They do not furnifh any
epididymis, nor, properly fpeaking, vafa deferentia; but
open at their pofterior extremity almoft immediately at the
foramen, behind the anus, which is a common opening for
tran{mitting the urine and femen. The teftes of fifhes are
popularly known under the name of the mi/t or /oft row.

hefe glands increafe remarkably in fize during the feafon
that the females expel their ova; they are then full of a
white thick fluid, like miik, which is no doubt the male
femen. At this period they make fo material an addition
to the bulk of the body of ftifhes, that thefe animals are
then orly fought after as articles of food.

In Plate V. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. exhibits a
view of the genital organs in the male fkate (raja batis) 5
a is the white medullary portion of the tefticle; 6, the
tubercular portion ; thefe parts are cut away on the oppos

fite

FISH.

fite fide to abridge the fize of the figure and expofe other
parts; cc, the epididymus of each fide; d, d, the vafa
deferentia; e, e, the facs in which the vafa deferentia termi-
nate; the one on the right fide is laid open to expofe its
cavity and conncétion with the vas deferens; f is the
cylindric papilla upon which the conduits of the femen
terminate.

Female organs.

In the genera raja and /gualus thefe parts are more pecu-
liarly formed than even the male organs of thefe fifhes.
‘They refemble in a very great degree the female organs of
birds,

The ovaries of thefe genera confift of clufters of round
eggs of various fizes and different ftages of growth. The
membrane which envelopes the ovaries nearly furrounds each
of the ova, which therefore, efpecially when mature, appear
diftin& and have fome liberty of motion. Thefe ova confit
only of the yolks, and are of a pale yellow colour. In
their mode of growth, conneétion with the ovary, and man-
ner of exclufion from it, they very much refemble the
racemus vitellorum of birds.

Although in thefe genera there are two oviduéts, they are
conjoined at their extremities to form a fingle aperture, which
is placed immediately behind the feptum that divides the
branchial and abdominal cavities, This part ot the oviduéts
may be confidered as analogous to the infundibulum in birds.
The ovarian tube of each fide at firft procceds for fome way
outwards and backwards, at which place its canal is
fmall, and its parietes thin and plicated longitudinally upon
the inner furface. It then fuddenly enlarges, and inclofes
ip its coats a large glandular mafs, fomething between a
f{quare and kidney fhape; this body is compofed of a num-
ber of white tubes, which are fo difpofed that their ends
are tumed towards the cavity. or internal part of the gland;
at one fide of this mafs there is the appearance of a {tripe of
tubes or fibres, which croffes the other ftructure, and is_pro-
bably a mufcle for contraéting the cavity. The internal
membrane of this part is fmooth, and fo thin and tranfparent
thatthe tubes are very vifible through it.

_ The interpofition ot fo large a gland in the courfe of the
ovarian duét is unqueftionably for the fecretion of that re-
markable horny covering or /hell which is found on the ova of
thefe fithes, and yet it fhould be obferved, that we have
not been able to difcover the orifices of the tubes upon the
internal membrane of the oviduét, nor have we fececeded in
éxprefling the {malleit quantity of fluid ftom the tubes into
the cavity of the gland.

’ The portion of the ovidu& which fucceeds the gland is
greatly dilated, its parietes are thin, and the internal fur-
face ('n the /Rate at leaft) is covered with fine tranfverfe
folds, or rather linear impreffions, not refembling the plice of
an intefline, which are thin produdtions of the internal
coat.

The oviduéts terminate by a corrugated or puckered
Opening on each fide of a confiderable cavity, within the
anus, which fome authors have defcribed as a werws, and
others asthe c/oaca. The latter name appears to be the
moft correct, as this cavity receives the urine, and communi-
cates with the reétum. The orifices by which the ovi-
duéts terminate in the cloaca are furrounded by mucous
glands. |

In the genus chimera there are firft fome fmall du&s, of
which the extremity attached to the ovaries is apea and
{prcad out. Afftera fhort {pace they fuddenly enlarge, and
form aconfderable glandular mafs, of which the fafciculi
of tubes that compole it are perpendicular to its parictes

From thefe glands to their termination. the ovidu@s are
membranous, and of great capacity; where they terminate
they are conjoined and open externally by one common
aperture.

In the ofeous, and in the cartilaginous fithes, except thofe
already defcribed, the ovaries confit of two membranous
facs or bags, the cavity of which is occupied by numerous
leaves, formed by reflections of the membrane 3 the folds
are ufually placed tranfverfely; they contain the ova
withio their duplicatures ; they are copioufly fupplied with
blood-veffels, and exhibit (efpecially after injeGion, with a
coloured fluid) a very beautiful and variegated foliated ap-
pearance,

The ovaries of different offeous fifhes are of various forms ;
they are ufually elongated and poirted at either end. In
the dory (zeus faber) they are flat, and approach a {quare
figure ; in many fifhes they have four corners, which are elon-
gated forwards and backward>, In fome of the pleuronefes,
and in fome other fifhes, a part of the ovaries is extended
backwards in that procefs of the abdominal cavity which
is continued along the external parts of the {pines of the
caudal vertebra.

We have oblerved but one ovary, of a pear fhape, in the
perch (perca fluviatilis) ; perhaps fome other fithes may be
found to have fing]le ovaries,

The ovaries of offeous fithes increafe prodigioufly during
the feafons for depofiting their ova. At this period they
exceed in fize all the reft of the vifcera; although after the
feafon of {pawning they are the fmalleft vifcera in the body :
the variations in their bulk depend upon the number of ova
they contain, for their parietes are at all times nearly of the
fame thicknefs.

Fifhes in general furpafs all other animals in fecundity
M. Rovffeau, a laborious French anatomilt, has taken the
pains to reckon the number of ova contained in the ovaries
of feveral fpecies.. He found in the flargeon (acipenfer Jflurio)
1,467,856 eggs ; in the mackarel (fcomber fcombrus) 129,200 ;
in the perch (perca fluviatilis) 69,216; in the carp (cyprinus
carpio) 167,400; and in the pike (cfox lucius) 166,400
eggs.

The ova of thofe fifhes which are not viviparous are all
fmail, and of the fame fize; they are generally about the
bulk of pin heads. They are not expelled from the ovary
in fucceflion, as in the chondropterygii, but in large quantities,
like the fpawn of frogs ; which they further refemble in being
impregnated, and undergoing their changes outfide the body
of the parent.

Except in the viviparous fithes alfo there are no ovidués >
the ovaries terminate immediately at a particular aperture
placed behind the anus.

From the preceding defeription it will be perceived, that the
mode of generation in the genera raya, /qualus, and chimera
is effentially different from that of fifhesin general. Inthofe
genera the eggs do not leave the ovary unul they acquire
a confiderable magnitude; their ttru@ure is eompleted in their
paffage through the ovidu@ts, in which alfo they are moft
probably impregnatéd, During the refidence of the ege in
the ovidu& its contents are changed in their organization,
and the foetus is formed in the fame manner as ‘during the
incubation of the egg of birds; and when the ovum is dif.
charged from the body of the filh, the fhell fplits, and admits
the water in which the foetus floats, {till nourithed by the
yolk which remains attached to its inteltine.

At this period we have difcovered that the feetal fith is
provided with external branchial appendages exaGtly fimilar
to thols met with in the sadpoles of fome reptiles. It is

whea

FISH.

when thefe fall off, and the yolk is confumed, that the young
fith feeks its own fubfiftence.

The fhells of theeggs of the raja and /gualus genera, after
being evacuated by their inhabitants, are commonly from
their lightnefs caft on fhore, and are known in fome places
under the name of /ea bats. For a further account of the
hiftory of the ovum, and the changes it undergoes in fifhes,
fee the articles Ovum and IncuBaTion.

The fecond figure of Plate V. of the Anatomy of Fifhesy
gives a view of the female organs of the /Rate (raja batis) ;
«a, the firft portion of the ovarian tubes; 4, their junction
and aperture by which they communieate with the cavity
of the abdomen ; c, ¢, the glandular bodies ; the one on the
right fide is laid open to fhew its compofition to be of tubes ;
d, d, the fucceeding portions of the ovidvé, which are very
capacious, and perform in fome refpeéts the offices of uteri;
¢,a mature egg feen in the enlarged part of the oviduct ;
fi fr the ovaries containing eggs of various fizes ; g g, the
termination of the oviduéts in the cloaca; 4, the cioaca;
the opening by which it receives the urine; &, the
anus.

Organs employed in the Exercife of the animal Fun@ions.

Brain.

The dura mater in fithes refembles very nearly the common
periofteum ; the diftinction of two layers is not evident ; and
thofe broad refle@tions of the internal layer which exift in
‘mammalia for feparating the different divilions of the cere-
bral ma(s are wanting. The dura mater approaches, in the
large fihhes, nearly to a cartilaginous nature.

As the cavity of the cranium is much larger than the brain,
there is a confiderable {pace left between them, which contains
a quantity of gelatinous matter in the cartilaginous fifbes, and
commonly an oily fluid in the ofeous ffbes. ‘There is alfo a
confiderable quantity of falt water found in the cavity of
the cranium, which has been fuppofed by doétor Monroe to
be fea water carried thither by abforption, as we have men-
tioned in {peaking of the falt liquor met with in the cavities
of the abdomen and pericardium of filhes.

The fluid of the cavity of the cranium is very frequently
flained by admixture with blood, which appears to_ be ex-
travafated in it in {mall quantity.

Thefe fiuids are contained in a very loofe cellular texture,
which correfponds to the funica arachnoidea of other animals.
Monroe found the furface of the brain covered with a number
of {mall {pheroidal bodies ; thefe are probably contained in
the tunica arachnoidea. .

The pia mater clofely invefts the furface of the brain aS
ufual ; it likewife lines the ventricles, and produces a plexus
analogous to the choroid plexus ; which however does not float
in the cavity of the ventricles. Cuvier deferibes alfo two
other produGtions of the pia mater, fituated.in the fourth ven-
tricle, which appear to be at liberty.

The brain of fithes poffeffes the chara&ters defcribed in
that of dirds and reptiles in a ftill more remarkable degree
than this organ in either of thofeclafles. Itis very {mall in
proportion to the fize of the whole body, and bears even a
greater difproportion to the bulk of the nerves which arife
from it. Cuvier ftates the proportion of the brain to the
reft of the body to be as 1 to 2496 in the white fhark
(/qualus carcharias), 1 to 1344 in the great dog-fifh ( fqualus
canicula), 1 to 37440 in the sunny (/combir thynnus), 1 to
1305 in the pike (c/ox lucius), 1 to 560 in the carp (cyprinus
carpio), t to 1817 in the filurus glanis. The greater tize of
the brain in the carp accords with the well known dociliry

and intelligence of that fpecies; and the fmall proportion
which the brain of fifhes generally bears to the fize of the
body, is what might naturally be expected from the dulnefs
and incapacity of this clafs of animals in general. On look-
ing at the brain of a ffh one is {truck with its diffimiarity
to the cerebral mafs of man or quadrupedsy-it appears like a
fucceffion of tubercles fearcely conjoined together: the
eminences which nearly correfpond to the cerebrum and
cerebellum are not diftinguifhed from the others, which
give origin to the nerves, and in fome cafes might be over-
looked from their being {maller.

The cerebrum is always compofed of two hemifpheres, as
in other animals; it is {mooth and without convolutions :
thofe parts called corpus callofum, fornix, &c. cannot be dif-
tinguifhed at the junction ot the hemifpheres.

There is a cavity in each hemifphere which correfponds
to the /ateral ventricle; it is not, however, prolonged and
refleGed fo as to form thofe parts termed dorns in mam-
malia.

The floor of the ventricles is plain in the ray and /hark
genera, but in moft other fifhes there is an elevation, ulually
of a femicircular figure, from the external or convex fide of
which a number of medullary ftrie go off in a radiated
manner upon the internal parietes of the ventricle: this
eminence correfponds to the corpus ffriatum; it varies with re-
fpe&t to fize in different {pecies, and alfo fometimes in its
figure: according to Cuvier it forms in the whiting (gadus
merlangus), an elevated oval body.

Between the corpora ftriata there isa {mall chink, which
opens into the third ventricle.

The anterior commifure of the brain is fituated a little
below thefe eminences.

There are fome tubercles within the hemifpheres, which
Cuvier confiders analogous to the ¢ubercula quadrigemina,
although their fituation isnot the fame. They are placed,
as in birds, before and above the thalami nervorum opti-
corum. In the genus crprinus there are four of thefe
tubercles, two anterior and two pollerior; the former
are extremely long, cylindric in their fhape, and
bent outwards and backwards, taking the curvature of the
lateral ventricles, the cavity of which they fill: they are
marked potteriorly by a longitudinal furrow ; the polterior
tubercles are round, and much fmaller than the anterior.

The cel (murena anguilla), haddock (gadus eglefinus), and
herring (clupea harengus), have but one pair of thofe tubercles,
which produce a femioval eminence before the cerebellum,
between the pofterior extremities of the corpora ftriata.
The pike (cfox luctus), trout (falmo fario), falmon (falmo
falar), and perch (perca fluviatilis), have four tubercles which
are diftin&, round, and f{mall; the pofterior pair is larger
than the anterior. Thefe tubercles are not found in the ray -
and /hark genera.

‘The thalami nervorum opticorum are two diftin& tubercles
fituated below the hemifpheres, as in birds; each of them
likewife contains a ventricle.

The cerebellum is generally Jarge in proportion to the ces
rebrum, and in fome in{tances even exceeds it in fize: it is
fometimes rugous on the furface; it is always a fingle tu-
bercle without lobes, and ufitally of a heart fhape, the apex
of which is turned backwards ; fometimes the fuperior part
is the moft prominent. When the cerebellum is cut

into, the feétion of it expofes fome indiftin® pale.coloured

lines; but that arborefcent arrangement of medullary fub-
ftance, called ardor vite, does not exilt.

The fourth ventricle is generally large; with refpe& to
the other cavities of the brain, it not only pafles under the
cerebellum

FI

cerebellum as ufual, but afcends for fome way in its fub-
flance.

We have next to confider thofe additional tubercles of
the brain of filhes upon which its chara€ter depends, and
which conftitute in general the greateft part of its bulk;
they are placed. before the cerebrum and behind the cere-
bellum. ;

The anterior tubercles give origin to the nerves, which
go to the organ of f{melling ; they are therefore commonly
named the olfadory tubercles. They are ufually a fingie
pair. Inthe ray and /hark genera they are united and form
one mafs, which exceeds in fize all the reft of the brain:
the figure of this mafs is a little various, and is difficult to
defcribe. Inthe thoribeck (raja clavata), it is fomewhat of
atriangular figure, one of the fides or the bafe being turned
forwards ; in the /efer dog fifh (fqualus catulus) the fore part
is cirenlar, and the back a little concave in the centre. The
olfa&tory tubercle in thefe fithes has been defcribed by fome
authors as the cerebrum, and by others as its anterior lobes.

The olfa&tory tubercles are long and narrow in the flurgeon
(acipenfer flurio) ; they are oval maffes, fmaller than the hemi-

- fpheres in the /ump-f/b (cyclopterus lumpus), and in the moon-
jifh (tetraodcn mola). In the genus gadus they are round,
and in the cod (gadus morhua) they are nearly as large as
the hemifpheres: according to Cuvier they are alfo round
and notched on one fide in the wraffes (/abrus), and in the
carp (cyprinus) ; but Ebel and Scarpa have delineated them
in the common carp (cyprinus carpio), of an egg-fhape ;
they are oval in the filurus glanis.

There are four olfa€tory tubercles arranged in pairs in the
fiat fifbes (pleuronedes), the herrings (clupea), the pikes (cfox),
the perches (perca), and in the genus /a/mo: the anterior
pair is in the common fike (c/ox Jucius) fo {mall, that they
might readily efcape ob{crvation: the pofterior pair, although
larger, are not equal in fize to the hemifpheres,

In the sels (genus murena), there are three pair of olfac-
tory tubercles; the firft pair are thef malleft; the fecond
fomewhat larger; and the third, or pofterior, confiderably
the largeft, being about the magnitude of the hemifpheres.

- The olfaGtory tubercles do not in any {pecies contain a ca-
vity or ventricle.

~The tubercles fituated behind the cerebellum are peculiar to
the clafs of fifhes: they are in general a fingle pair, but in
fome fpecics there isa third fingle tubercle placed in the
middle immediately before the other two, and behind the
cerebellum.

~ Some anatomifts fuppofe that the lateral tubercles are
analogous to the corpora olivaria of mammalia, and the mid-
dle tubercle has been deferibed as a fecond cerebellum: the
latter is evidently erroneous; but the former appears to be
perfeGtly well founded: the ccrpora olivaria and thefe tu-
bercles correfpond both with refpeé& to fitvation and in
giving origin to the pofterior nerves of the brain: it would
be more corre&, however, to fay that the corpora olivaria
are thefe tubercles on an abridged {cale.

The pofterior lateral tubercles are large and irregularly
furrowed inthe ray genus. Inthe whiting (gadus merlangus),
and the cod (gadus morhua), the tubercies are oval, and
placed above the medulla oblongata, They are fimilar m the
gommon.and couger eels (murena anguilla and m. conger); they
are incovfiderable’in the pike (c/ox luctus), the /almon (fale
falar), the treut (falno fario), and the perch (perca /luvi-
atilis )

In the carp (cyprinus carpio) the pofterior lateral tubercles
are extremely large; they equal in fize the hemifphere of
the cerebrum ; they have fomewhat the figure of kidnies.

Vou. XIV.

,

SH.
This fith likewife poffeffes the middle tubercle, which is

large, and of a round figure.

There are no cavities in the pofterior tubercles of fithes.

There is nothing very peculiar to remark with refpe& to
the origin of the nerves in fithes.

The olfadory nerves are produced from the tubercles
placed before the cerebrum, as already mentioned ; they gene-
rally appear as the continuation of thefe tubercl-s; this is
particularly evident in the ray and /hark.

An the carp and filurus glanis, &c. the olfafory nerves
arife by two or three filaments from the tubercles.

The optic nerves take their rife, as ufual, from the thalami
nervorum opticorum; immediately after their origin they
decuffate, or crofs each other. In offeous fifhes this is molt
obvious ; in which the optic nerves may be feen lying eae
acrofs the other, and only conneéted by cellular fubftances.
The right nerve goes to the left eye, and the left nerve to
the right eye. Many anatomilts have fuppofed, in confe-
quence of the decuffation of the nerves being fo palpable ia
fithes, that fomething of the fame kind takes place in other
animals, by which they have explained the fympathy that
is well known to exift between one eye and the other, in
the fuperior animals ; there is, however, fuflicient conne4tioa
between the two fides of the brain, to account for the
{ympathies of the organs of vifion, without afcribing it to
the decuffation of the optic nerves.

Euftachius and Malpighi have ftated, that in fome fithes
the optic nerves have an inveftment of pia mater, containing
very elegant longitudinal folds.

The third and fourth, and fixth patr of nerves, arife aa near
as may be from the fame parts of the brain which furnifh
them in mammalia.

The ffih pair are produced by a common trunk with the
portia mollis, or auditory nerve; this trunk arifes from the
tubercles bebiad the cerebellum in the rays and farks, and
from the beginning of the medulla oblongata, in the ofous
fifhes. 7

The facial nerve, or that analogous to the sortia dura of
the /eventh pair, is quite diftin& from the auditory ; and
arifes in common with the par wagum, or the eighth pair, of
which it might, with equal propricty, be confidered a
branch.

The nerves analogous to the eighth pair arife from the fide
of the medulla oblongata, and the back part of the pofterior
lateral tubercles of the cerebellum, when thefe exif,

There is no nerve analogous to the ninth pair, or hypogloffal
nerves in fifhes ; although Ebel has figured a large afcicalus
in the carp, (cyprinus carpio), which he defe tb<s 2s the ninth
pair. Much confution exifts amdngft autho:s on this fu jt;
thus Ebel confounds the eighth with the ninth pair;
Monroe calls the olfaétory tubercl:s the anterior protu-
berances of the brain; and deicribes the fixth for the fifth
pair of nerves ; Scarpa delineates the hemifpbercs of the
cerebrum under the name of the olive foaped protuberances
of the brain. See Monroe’s Phyfiology of Filhes. Anstomice
Difquiiitiones de Auditu & OlfaQu, by Scarpa; and Ohferva-
tiones Neurologic: ex Anatom. comparata, by Jo. Godof.
Ebel. ’

The brain of fithes has been hitherto byt little fludied jn 2
phyfiological point of view. Its ftruéture in this clafs of
animals, however, promifes to illudtrate the fan@ions of the
different parts of the organ, as they are fo diftin@, that their
proportional. magnitude and importance may be fairly ap-
preciated. The great relative fize of the eminences which
furnifh the nerves of fenfe, and the {mall quauiity of cerebral
fubftance employed to unite them into one mafs, would
lead us to conclude, that filhes receive vivid impreflions upox

2 thetic

FISH

their organ of fenfe, under the immediate impulfe of which
their aétions are dire ted 3 and that they have little capacity
for combining or aflociating their fenfations : a conclufion
which exa@ly accords with what has been obferved refpec-
ing the habits and manners of this clafs of animals. We
believe if the fame rule for judging of the mental faculties
be extended to other animals, that it will anfwer equally
well; and that the /enfitive powers will be found propor-
tioned to the relative magnituce, and the diftin€@tnefs of the
parts of the brain which give origin to the nerves ; and that
the intelledual facuities wi!l keep pace with the developement
of thofe parts which ferve to unite the preceding. It is
poflibie that this rale may b= employed, to calculate the
comparative cxccllence of the fenfitive, and intellectual facul-
ties of individuals in the fame f{pecies. Perhaps even by
thefe means fome fteps may be made tow irds afcertaining the
fhades and varieties in the mental charaGter of men.

The {ympathetic connection of the different parts of the
fyftem, doubtlefs depends upon the union of the nerves in
the common fenforium, which being imperfeét in fifhes, it
became neceflary thattheir optic nerves fheuld be diftributed to
the fides oppolite to their origin, on account of the organs of
vifion acting confentaneoufly,or in harmony,with each other.

In Plate VI. of the Anatomy of Iifbes. fig. 1. exhibits
the upper furface of the brain of the carp (cyprinus
carpio); a, a, the two olfa€tory tubercles; 4, 4, the two
Remifpheres of the brain; ¢c, the cerebellum ; d, d, the
two laceral tubercles placed behind the cerebellum, analo-
gous to the corpora olivaria ; ¢, the fimp'e tubercle behind
the cerebellum ; f the medulla oblongata.

Fig. 2. fhews the brain of the carp alfo, in which the hemi-
fpheres of the brain are cut, and turned to each fide, in order
to bring into view the anterior tubercles which fill the lateral
ventricles, and which are fuppofed analogous to the nates;
gg, indicate the tubercles in queition, the other letters indicate
the fame parts as in the preceding figure.

Fig. 3. is the fame brain, with the nates feparated at their
polerior part, in order to expofe the polterior tubercles,
or thofe correfponding to the tefes; 4, b, are thefe parts; the
references of the other figures are the fame asin the firlt
figure. ;

Fig. 4. is another view of the fame brain; the nates and
tefes, or tubercula,quadrigemina, are raifed to fhew the
corpora ftriata, and the opening into the other ventricie, &c.
i, i, exhibitsthe ftriated bocies ; /, the fillure which leads into
the inferior ventricle ; 4, &, the thalami nervorum opticorum,
which are fearcely vilible. The other letters have the fame
fignification as in the preceding fizures.

. Fig. 5. is ftill the fame brain, with the hemifpheres re-
moved, in order to expofe completely the thalami nervorum
opticorum, which are defignated by the letters /, 2.

Fig. 6. thews the brain of the carp, with the cerebellum
divided and turned towards each fide, to expofe the fourth
ventricle; the references are continued the fame.

Fig. 7. is the brain of the carp, viewed upon its under
furface. The parts feen in that pofition, which have been
already reprefented in the other figures, are indicated by the
fame letters. ‘The nerves are numbered according to the
names they ufually bear, as the rit pair, or olfactory; the
2d, or optic, and fo on; the decuflation of the optic nerves
is pointed out by the letter m.

Fig. 8. is a reprefentation of the upper furface of the
brain in the ce/ (murena anguilla). The letters 2,a,a,a,a,4,
defignate the fix olfaftory tubercles; 5,4, the two hemi-
{pheres of the brain, which are not larger than the polterior
olfactory tubercles 5. ¢, the cerebellum ;, d, the medulla ob-
longata, .

Fig. 9» exhibits the inferior furface of the brain of the eel e
e,¢, are the thalami nervorum opticorum: the other letters
correfpond with thofs of fg. 8. In both thele figures the
nerves are indicated by their numbers,

In Plate VIL. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. 1s a view
of the head of the shornback (raja clavata), diflected to exe
pofe she brain and organs of fente: ais the large medullary
mafs formed by the olfaétory tubercles; 4, 6, the two hemie
fpheres of the cerebrum, called by Scarpa olivefhaped pro-
tuberances of the brain; c, the cerebellum depreffed along

the middle, but not divided into two lobes ; d, a portionof “

the brain, which mult be confidered either as a divifion of
the cerebellum, or the middle poerior tubercle; ¢, ¢, the
lateral pofterior tubercles; £ medulla fpinalis. Where the
nerves are {een in this figure, they.are expreffed by their.
number.

In the difleQed head of the pike (c/ox lucius), fhewn by:
Jig. t. in Plate VIIL of the Anatomy of Fifbes, a, a, indicate:
the two principal olfaétory tubercles; 4,4, two inconfider-
able enlargements of tle root of the olfaGtory nerves, which
might be confidered as lefler tubercles; c, c, the two hemi.
{pheres of the cerebrum; d, the cerebellum. In this figure,
likewife, fuch nerves as are feen to arife from the brain are
expreffed by their numbers.

In fig. 4 of Plate VILL. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, the
olfagto:y tubercles of the carp (cyprinus carpio) are fhewn >
a, the cerebrum; 4, 4, the olfactory tubercles; ¢, c, the origin
of the olfactory nerves by filaments; d,d, the trunks of the
olfactory nerves. The other nerves that appear are indi.
cated by correfponding numbers.

Nerves.

The courfe and diftribution of the jir/ or olfaflory pair of
nerves are pointed out in the defeription of the organ of
{melling.

The termination of the optic nerve is defcribed in that part
of the article which treats of the eye of fifhes. The com-
ponent filaments of the optic nerve are particularly evident:
in this clafs of animals, and may be demonftrated without any
preparation. They are commonly flat; and Cuvier de-
{cribes them as being fometimes formed of a very thin mes
dullary lamina, folded on ittelf, and contraéted into the
figure of acord. ‘This is particularly obfervable in the cod
(gadus morhua), and the fword-ffh (xiphias).

The third, fourth, and fixth pairs of nerves in fithes differ.
fo little, with refpe&t to their difribution, from the fame
nerves in other animals, that they do not require to be de-
{cribed.

The jth pair of nerves, as before-mentioned, arife by a
common trunk with the auditory nerve. In the Rate (raja:
batis) they form two trunke in the cranium, and appear to
coalefce in pafling out. On the outfide of the cranium there
are again two nerves produced: the one is the ophthalmic 5-
the other pafles under the cartilage behind the orbit, and
immediately divides into three branches: one of thefe is a:
nerve which has not been hitherto accurately defcribed ; the
other branches correfpond to the /upesior and inferior maxila
lary nerves.

The opdthalmie branch of the jth pair paffes out of. the
cranium into the fuperior part of the orbit, and then divides
into two branches; of which one proceeds acrofs the orbit,.
under the rectus fuperior and externus, and the external ob-
lique mufcles of the eye; the other croffes above all the
parts in the orbit. Thefe two branches, on arriving at the
nafal cavities, re-unite to form a fingle nerve. Previous'to.
this re-union, the fuperior branch of the ophthalmic gives.
offa.branch to the organ of {melling. This forms an anaf-

2. tomofis.

————

FISH

omofis with another branch, which is fent off from the con-
joined nerves of the ophthalmic. .

After pafling beyond the nafal cavity, the ophthalmic
breaks into a long fafciculus, from the fides of which a great
number of fhort branches arife, which are loft in the gela-
tinous fubftance that is on each fide of the middle carti-
lage of the fnout, and upon the edge of that cartilage.

The remarkable anaftomofis of the ophthalmic nerve, and
its diftribution in the fnout, is reprefented in Plate Vil. of
the Anatomy of Fifbes. and fig. 1. r. fhews the origin of the
ophthalmic from the fifth pair; s, the fuperior branch pefl-
ing over the mufcles ot the eye; ¢, the inferior branch going
between the mufeles of the eye; uw, the coalition of thefe
two; 2, the firft branch fent to the organ of imelling; w,
the fecond branch given off from the united nerve; x, the
anaftomofis of thefe branches; y, the diltribution of the
ophthalmic nerve in the fnout. This plate exhibits the parts
as they appear in the thornback (raja clavata), in which they
do not difler matcrialiy from the defcription we have given of
them in the Late (raja batis).

The branch of the fifth pair of nerves, which we mentioned
ag not be:nz accuratcly cefcribed by other anatomits, pro-
ceeds in a {traight line from its origin, under all the parts of
the orbit, to reach the tranfverfe cartilage, fituated on the ex-
ternal fide of the organ of {melling. Having penetrated
this cartilage, one part of the nerve forms a fort of bulb or
ganglion, from which.a number of fine filaments depart like
rays: thefe are abruptly, and almoft immediately, loft in the
membranous ftruéture which forms the centres of the albu-
mino-gelatinous duéts, to be hereafter defcribed. The
other portion of the nerve is diftributed in long branches to
the lame gelatinous fubftance of the fnout. This branch of
the fifth pair is the moft remarkable in the fifh’s body, on
account of its giving the only example of a gangliform en-
largement of anerve, (thofe of the organsof fenfe excepted,)
and from the peculiar mode of its termination. It is difh-
cult to-determine whether the fingular conformation of this
nerve be defigned to beftow a nicer fenfe of touch on the
f{nout, or to produce, with the albumino-gelatirous duéts,
an electric apparatus fimilar to what exifts in the torpedo,
&c. The latter, from analogy of firuéture, is very pro-
bable; although the eleStric property, if it exift in the ray
kind generally, has not yet been detedicd by its effects.

The /uperior maxillary nerve of the /kate pafles forwards
under the external fide of the cranium, to gain the outer
edge of the middle cartilaze of the fnout. In this courle it
diftributes fome {mall branches to the neighbouring parts,
and afterwards runs in a groove in the fide of the cartilage,
as far as the point of the fnout, fending off fmall brancies
to the gelatinous fubftance, in the fame manner as the oph-
thalmic nerve,

The inferior maxillary nerve in the /Rate (raja batis) goes
forwards under the orbit, and fends off {everal {mall branches,
which penetrate and are loft in the operculum of the nafal
cavity, and the integuments before the upper jaw: it then
turns round the external part of the upper jaw, concealed
by the large mufcles which furround the ends of the jaws,
and divides into feveral branches, which are diftributed to
thefe mufcles. One of thefe branches goes on to be ex-
pended upon the integuments of the lower jaw. . ,

The facial nerve, or that which correfponds to the portio
dura of the feventh pair, is much larger in the cartilaginous
than the ofeous filhes. It forms two branches foon after its
origin: one of thefe afcends in the cranium, through which
it pafles, and is lott upon the integuments. + -

‘Bee other branch goes through a particular foramen, into

the cavity of the ear, paffes beneath the Principal cretaceous
body, and there forms the remarkable snaftomofis wich the
auditory nerve, from which the ampulla of the pofterior
femicircular canal is fupplied. The trunk afterwards penes
trates the cranium, and re-appears upon the external part,
where it is loft in a number of branches in the foft parts and
integuments of the head.

The auditory nerve of the Sfth pair in fithes is analogous
to the portio mollis of the feventh pair in other animals; and,
like it, is diftributed exclufiveiy to the interior of the organ
of hearing. It is deferibed and figured in that part of the
article where thé ear is treated of

The eighth pair of nerves in fithes differ materially from
the fame nerves in other animals, with re{pr& to their courfe
and ramification. This depends upon the fituation and
ftrn@ure of the parts they fupply, in order to preferve an
analogy with the nerves of this name in the other claffes of
animals. The fft and molt important branches are fent to
the branchiz: thefe may be confidered as fupplying the
place of the far vagum of memmatia. They are fituated
moft anteriorly, and are ufuaily four on each fide: they fe-
parate from each other immediately upoa leaving the crae
nium, and proceed to the branch x. When they appro2ch
thefe, each branch divides into two; one of which runs ia
the groove fituated on the convex edge of the cartilages or
bones that bear the branchiz, and fends of numerous fila-
ments to the laminz of the gills; the other branch paffes in
the correfponding groove or gutter of the concave edge of
the branchial cartilages or bones, and is diltributed in a
fimilar manner. The anterior branch of the Grit branchial
nerve, however, returns into the cranium, in order to be
diftributed to the ear.

The fecond branches of the eighth pair mot commonly
come out of the cranium as two or three difting nerves,
but fometimes they are furnifhed from the fame trunk, as
the laft branchial. One of thefe nerves is loft upon the bran-
chial mufcles. The fecond, which is larger, is diftributed
to the fide of the cefophagus, as far as the ftomach. The
third branch is conjoined with the cervical nerves that go
to fupply the peétoral fin.

The latt branch of the eighth pair has a very remarkable
diftribution ; it is fituated polteriorly to the others, at its
origin ; it proceeds almoft direétly outwards, and backwards
towards the integuments of the fide of the body, immedi-
ately under which it runs as far as the tail, when it tere
minates in fine filaments, upon the rays of the caudal fin.
This fingular nerve is nearly of the fame fize throughout its
whole length; it has no palpable communication with the
inter-vertebral or other nerves ; and its courfe correfponds
to the lateral line on the fide of the body. It bears a
greater analogy, perhaps, to the nerwus accefforius than to
any other, although its termination is much more remote.

According to Cuvier the eighth pair of nerves in the
chondropterygit confifts of a fingle trunk, which does not
divide until it reaches the parts to which it is didributed.
In thefe fifhes the long lateral nerves are fituated nearer to
each other, and moré towards the back.

The gloffo-phangeal nerve is not a diftin&t trunk in fithes, but
arifes trom the anterior part of the firft branchial nerve ; it
furnifhes a great number of filaments, which are expended
upon the tongue and furrounding parts. The trunk is
loft\in the ‘inferior part of the throat, before and betweea
the piils.

The Aypoglofal nerwes, as before mentioned, do not exilt
in fifhes.

The cervical vertcbre cannot always be diftinguifhed

ye from

FISH.

from the dorfal, Cuvier afferts that there are never more
than four {pinal nerves, which deferve to be called cervical ;
and frequently there are none to which this name can be
applied. ‘The firft nerves of the fpine, however, furnifh
thofe of the pectoral member in offéous fifhes, as will be
hereafter defcribed, and likewife a nerve which is diftributed
to the feptum that divides the branchial from the abdominal
eavity ; and which, therefore, may be confidered analogous
to the phrenic nerve of other animals.

The dorfa/, lumbar, facral, and caudal, nerves of fifhes re-
femble each other in their courfe and diftribution, with the
exception of thofe which fupply the pectoral fins of the ray
kind, and thole that are fent to the abdominal fins of fifhes ;
generally all the fpinal nerves pafs out of the vertebral
eanal, and are immediately diftributed to the mufcles and
integuments adjoining. The nerves of the fpine anafto-
mofe with the great fympathetic, but do not produce a feries
of ganglia, as in other animals.

The iatercofial, or great fympathetic nerve, comes out of
the cranium, by the canal of the firlt vertebre ; it is but a
{mall filament extended along each fide of the fpine, without
any fenfible enlargements or ganglia. It dittributes branches
round the principal arteries of the vifcera, which fupply the
place of the different plexufes of the /planchnic nerve of
mammialia.

The brachial nerves, or thofe which fupply the peGoral
fins of ofeous fithes, are furnifhed by the two firft vertebral
nerves. ‘lhe anterior of thefe is fituated fo near the eighth
pair in fome fifhes, that it might be miftaken for a branch
of the latter; it paffes out, however, through a foramen
peculiar to itfelf. The fecond vertebral nerve lies more be-
hind the celophagus, and more towards the middle line of
the body. Thefe two nerves proceed direétly to the in-
ternal lamina of the {capulz, where they are conjoined with-
out being intermixed. ‘The firft vertebral then forms two
branches, which fend off filaments that anaftomofe with
cach other, and are diftributed to the adduGor mufcles of
the fin. One of the branches of the firft vertebral nerve is
fent tothe feptum of the branchial and abdominal cavities.
This filament is confidered by Cuvier as analogous to the
phrenic nerve.

The two cords, formed by the vertebral nerves, pafs
through the hole fituated before, and on the outer fide of
the articulation of the fin with the fhoulder, where they
unite and produce an irradication of nervous filaments,
feveral of which are loft in the external furface of the
fhoulder, and in the oblong articular capfule which receives
the {mall carpal bones. One of thefe filaments runs under
the {kin that covers the rays of the fio.

The brachial nerves are remarkably large, ,and are formed
ef a great number of nerves, from the fpinal marrow in the
fiat cartilaginous fifhes (genus raja). There is firft a thick
cord produced by the union of twenty vertebral nerves.
This cord paffes through the middle of the cartilaginous
bar upon which the rays of the wing or great pectoral fin of
thefe fifhes are articulated ; it then proceeds forwards along
this cartilaginous bar, and fends off a number of branches
which run outwards along the rays of the anterior part of
the fin, fupplying the mufcles placed between thefe rays,
and the integuments, as far as the external edge of
the fin. :

A fecond cord is thus formed by the four or five next
vertebral nerves, which divides at the roots of the rays of
the middle part of the fin into feven or eight filaments;
thefe are diftributed in the fame manner as the branches of
the firft cord.

3

Afterwards each two vertebral nerves, as far as the fortye
fourth, are united into cords, which penetrate the cartilagie
nous bar, and fupply the pofterior portion of the fin.

Thefe different cords, which refult from the iun&ion of
the vertebral nerves, may be confidered as reprefenting the
brachial plexus of other animals.

The pelvic nerves, or thofe which fupply the wentral
fins of the flat cartilaginous fifhes, are difpofed in the
fame manner as thofe of the pettoral fias. Four or five
vertebral nerves unite to form a fingle cord, which penetrate
the cartilage that fuftains the rays of the fin, and is ex
panded ia filaments, in the mufcles of the fin. There
are ufually four more vertebra! nerves fent to the pofterior
part of the ventral fia, upon which they are diftributed in
the fame manner as the preceding cord.

The nerves of the ventral fin in offous fifhes are filaments
ef the vertebral pairs, which are diftributed to the intere
coftal fpaces. Thefe filaments fupply the mufcles of the
rays, and may be traced upon the fkin.to the edge of
the fin.

The nerves of fithes are diftinguifhed from thofe of other
animals by the want of ganglia, and their great magnitude
in proportion to the bulk of the brain, and of the whole
body. Monroe has defcribed the coats of the nerves of
fithes alfo as being covered by a number of {pheroidal
bodies.

Organs of Touch.

Fifhes are unprovided with any members capable of ene
compafling external bodies, and confequently poflefs the
fenfe of touch in but an imperfeét degree. The only parts
in which any peculiar feeling appears to refide, are the cirri,
the tentacula, and the extremity of the /nout.

The cirri are fituated upon the lips or about the mouth ;
they are commonly pointed taper procefles, which in fome
inftances appear to be compofed chiefly by the common
integuments ; in the cod (gadus morhua), however, there
o a very firm cartilage, and perhaps the fame in other

ecier.

: Thefe parts are not better fupplied with blood veffels or
nerves than the adjacent parts, and their furface is {mooth and
without papille ; from which circumitance it is probable, that
they do not enjoy any peculiar feeling or fenfe of touch except
what they derive from their form and prominent fituation.
Cuvier mentions only one procefs of this kind in the genus
gadus, in which he differs from other naturalifts, who allow
to fome fpecies three, four, and five cirri. There are two
long cirri in the /urmullet (mullus). Un the gudgeon (cyprinus —
gobio) there are two, in the carp (cyprinus carpio) there are
tour fhort cirri, and in the barbel (cyprinus barbus) there are
four, two from the fides of the mouth and two from the
fummit of the head,

There are feveral cirri in the pogge or armed bull-head,
(cottus cataphra@us) which appear like a beard; there are fix
or eight in the genera cobitis and filurus ; in the latter two are
placed before the eyes, like the antenne of infects, and four
project from the under lip, which the animal is faid to caft
every year.

The cirri are numerous around the mouth in the frog-
(lophius pifcatorius,) and the gadus taru. f pla

The tentacula appear better calculated than the cirri, from
their figure, for receiving the impreflions of external bodies,
In the gattorugine and crefted blenny there are two tentacula
on the top of the head, which form tufts, or are fetaccous
at the end.

The tentacula are moft remarkable in the genus /ophius ;

the

FISH,

the anterior tentaculum of the /sphius hiftrio is divided at
the extremity into two branchee, the ends of which termi-
nate in flefhy maffes ; the other tentacula are very Jong and
conical, and end in filaments.

The lophius pifcatorius has fome long tentacula on the

head, which it has the power of moving in different direc-
tions, It is fuppofed by fome naturalitts, that it employs
thefe tentacula in angling for its prey, and hence it derives
the {pecific name pifcatorius.
' The principal feat of the fenfe of touch appears to be the
end of the fnout ; the fenfibility of this part, however, does
not depend upon any peculiar organization of its furface,
but ariles entirely from being Jarzely fupplicd with nerves.

The ophthalmic branch of the fifth pair of nerves in the
thornback and /eaie, after diftributing branches to other parts
in its courfe, as already defcribed, runs along the fide of the
cartilage which forms the middle of the fnout, and fends off
a great number of fhort filaments which are loft upon this
eartilage, and the gelatinous fubftance on the fide of it, as
far as the very point of the {nout, where thefe nerves termi-
nate in fome fine fibrille: the laft branch of the /uperior
maxillary nerve of the fifth pair exhibits, in thefe fithes, a
fimilar diftribution along the fides of the cartilage inferiorly.
According to Cuvier, the ophthalmic and fuperior maxillary
herves terminate in {mall branches, which are fent to the
hooks of the fnout in the /acu-/bark (/qualus priflis), and in
the {pines or tubercles of the {nout in the ray genus.

Tn the defer dog-fi/h (/qualus catulus) the ophthalmic nerve
goes on to the end of the fnout, where it terminates in fe-
veral fhort branches.

In off/ous fithes the {nout is alfo fupplied in a fimilar man-

er by large nerves.

The above account fhews, that the fnout of fifhes ftrongly
refembles the bill of birds, as far as regards its fenfibility and
its funGtions as an organ of touch; through its means the ani-
mal’ will be advertifed of the approach of any foreign body,
but it is by no means calculated to take cognizance of the
qualities of fubftances applied to it.

In Plate VII. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. exhibits
the diffribution of the ophthalmic nerve in the {nout of the
thornback (raja clavata) ; x, indicates the origin of the nerve,
J» its ramification in the fnout.

Fig. 3. of Plate VIII. thews the ophthalmic nerve as it
appears in the pike (c/ow /ucius); f, the nerve paffing to the
fnout ; g, an artery derived from the internal carotid, which
accompanies it. ~~

{n Plate 1X. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 2. exhibits the
external part of the fnout of the frog-fi/b (lophius pifcatorius) ;
¢, ¢, ¢, numerous branched cirri around the lower jaw;
4, d, long tentacula from the front of the fnout, with which
this fith is fuppofed to angle.

Integuments.

Fifhes are covered by fkin like other animals, in addition
to which they have a peculiar integument formed by the

tales.

Although fifhes inhabit the fame element as the cetacea,
they are not provided with a fubcutaneous layer of fat.
This feems to arife from the flandard of their animal heat
approaching fo near the temperature of the water, that they
do not ftand in need of defence againft the latter. It is to
be obferved, however, that fome fifhes have a confiderable
quantity of oil diffuled among{t their mufcles and under the
integuments, examples of which are found in the genera
slupea and falmo, &c.

he only fifh which appears to have really an integument
of fat is the moon-fi/b (tetraodon mola). Thereis {pread under

the fkin of this fpeciesa layer of a fatty looking fubhence,
of about two inches in thicknefs. Upon examination this
matter is found, however, to poffefs all the chemical pro-
perties of albumen. The ufe of {uch a covering on this fifh
Is not underftood.

It cannot be properly faid that filhes poffefs a panniculus
caraofus, or mufcular integument; in many {pecies the {kin ad-
heres to the mufcles of the body, which feem in fome places
to be inferted into it; by this conneGtion the fin more
exa€tly complies with the motions of the body, but we
doubt whether any fifh is capable of moving the fkin dif-
tinétly or independently of the body. Cuvier deferibes a
fubeutancous layer of mufeular fibres in the carp (cyprinus
carpio), and fome other fifhes with large feales. ‘It adheres
to the inner furface of the fkin, and is divided into two por-
tions by a longitudinal line correfponding to the fituation of
the vertebral column. At this place there are impreffions
made by the tendons inferted into the fkin. They defcribe
curves, the convexity of which is towards the tail. Thefe
mufcular fibres feem to perform the office of conftri@ting the
fkin, and thus regulating, in adegree, the pofition of the
{cales,

The /ein of fithes confifts, as in mammalia, of the cusir,
or true fein; the colouring fubftance, or rete mucofum; and
the infenfible integument or epidermis.

The cutis feems to poflefs eflentially the fame ftru@ure
in fifhes as in mammalia, but more particularly refembles
the cutis of /izards and ferpents.

The fkin adheres commonly very firmly to the external fur-
face of the mufcles by means of a web of aponeurotic fibres,
which appear in fome f{pecies, as the /ale (pleuroneGes folea), the
common eel (murena anguilla), &c. a3 a complete integument.
The fkin, or the aponeurotic fibres under it, adhere to the
mufcles chiefly at the parts where the latter are divided into
longitudinal maffes ; the middle portions of thefe maffes are
at liberty, and lie enclofed by this means in a fort of fheath.

The {kin appears to vary in thicknefs according to the
ftrength of the feales; it is very thick in the ray and Jeark
genera, the ec/s (murena), &c. aod thin in thofe f{pecies
that poffefs large fcales, as the carp and bream (cyprinus
carpio and c, brama), hence in preparing thefe fithes for the
table, the former are deprived of their {kin, and the latter
of their fcales.

The rete mucofum is very palpable in this clafs. It adheres
to the furface of the fcales, and produces all thofe brilliant
colours, and varying metallic tints, for which the bodies of
fifhes are fo remarkable. It poffeffes, in general, confider-
able firmnefs, and in fome inftances has a fmooth mem-
branous appearance, :which, however, we believe does not
depend upon a fibrous texture, but the compreffion of the
mucous pigment.

The whole of the external furface of fifhes is covered by a
foft mucous coat, which correfponds to the epidermis; it
forms a thicker layerin the filhes that have fmooth fkins,
than in thofe with large feales. The epidermis is fo foft
and pulpy that it does not deferve the name of a membrane;
it is very eafily rubbed off the fkin, and is alfo fpontaneoufly
fhed ; in both cafes, however, it is {peedily removed.

The furface of the fkin of fifhes is more or lefs bes
{meared with a flimy fubftance of a peculiar nature. The
apparatus by which it is fecreted is one of the mot
curious parts of the anatomy of this clafs of animals.
Beneath the integument there. are a number of du&s, or
tuber, which open by many orifices upon the ékin, more
particularly about the head, and thofe parts of the furface
of the body which are the moft expofed to friction,
Their duéts are largeft. and molt nomerous ip the

fifhes

PSs i.

Fthes with ‘foft fkins, but we believe they exif in every
fpecier, even thofe with large {cales, and with offeous in-
teguments. ‘They are moft remarkable in the /haré and ray
genera, in which they have an arrangement, not the fame
as in the offeous fithes.

In the date (raja Latis) there is, on the outfide of the
branchial apertures, a duét under the fkin, about the thick-
nefs of a crow’s quill, whic h is coiled or ref ected in a waving
line towards the head ; One extre mity of it is fhut, and ends
at the anterior edge of the head; the other paffes round to
the upper furface of the head, where it fends off upwards
of thirty fmaller duéts, that term*aate by open ends upon
the fkin; other branches are expended upon the inferior
furface of the fnout, dividing and re-uniting to form
feveral curves and zig zags, without being materially di-
minifhed in their diameter; from one of which a large
du& goes tothe upper part of the fnovt. There are not,
according to Monroe, above fix or eight outicts on the infe-
rior furface of the fifh’s body.

On each fide of the fifh, a little farrher forward than the
foremolt of the five breathing holes, there isa central part, from
which feveral fafciculi, compoted of a great number of duds
of a fubordinate order or magnitude, go off in d-ficrent d'-
reétions, to open upon the greateft part of the furtace of
the body. Thefe centres prefent the appearance of an
irradiation of membranous ceils. A very confiderable
branch of the fifth pair of nerves, already deferibed, after
forming an enlargement, refembling a ganglion, is inflarta-
neoufly loft in filaments upon the parictes of this ftructure,
with which they become fo inextricably united, that it 13
impoffible any longer to diftinguifh them. Monroe {uppofes
that the nerves difappear in confequence of changing their
ftruéture, but it fhould rather be faid that they become im-
perceptible by abruptly terminating ; for how can they be
called nerves after they ceafe to poffefs the characters of
fuch? This affords the moft ttriking example of the fudden
termination of a nerve with which we are acquainted in the
whole animal economy, and illuftrates what we have obferved
lefs evidently with refpeé&t to the nerves that go to tae
pulps of feathers and bulbs of hairs, &c.

In the barks, the principal fubcutaneous dués about
the head are fo Jarge, that they would admit a goofe’s quill.

In the tope (/qualus galeus), according to Cuvier, there is
but one centre of communication for the duéis, which is
fituated in the fnout. : ¢

In the offous fifhes the du@s are lefs numerous than in
the chondropterygii; they are likewife unprovided with centres
of communication. The principal ducts are fituated upon
the fides of the head, or over the jaws; where they fend off
feveral fhort duis to terminate upon the furface. ‘The dués
of each fide communicate with one another on the top of the
head, and. with one which extends along the fide-of the body
parallel to the lateral abforbent veffel.

The pores by which the ducis open upon the fkin of
the head are very vilible in the common pike (c/ox lucius), and
the fea pike (e/ox belone.) Cuvier ftates them to be more
dittin@ upon the head ot the chimera mon/lrefa than in any
ocher fifh.

The {ubftance contained in the fubcutaneous duéte of
fifhes has not yet been ftriétly analized as far as we are
informed. It isa fem*fluid tranfparent jelly. It refembles
very much the matter found in the cells of the electric organs
of fithes, and that which furrounds the ova of frogs. It
appears to be a combination of albumen and gelatine, in
which the proportion of the former is fo great, that m-
fread of being diffolved by water it is flightly coagulated,
by coming into conta with it; we have {ubmitted it to

the ation ‘of tannin, with which it combines like common
gelatine. It however refea bles in no refpe@t mucus ; there-
fore, Dr. Monroe very improperly calls the tubes containing
it, mucous duds. See his Phyhology of Fithes.

There can be no queltion, both from the parts of the
body upon which this gelatinous fubftance is principally
fhed, and its being moft «bundant in-thofe {pecies which are
not protected by hard integuments, that it is a defenfive
fecretion againit the continual fri€tion and wafhing of the
water to which ffhes are expofed. Cuvier however, and
other anatomilts, are difpofed to thi: k that the fubcutaneous
duds eve ina degree analogous to the ele¢tric organs of fifhes,
which opinion ix rendered not improbable trom the great
fize and fingular termination of the nerve fent exclufively to
the centres of the duéts in the ray kind. Perhaps delicate
experiments might detect a degree of this ele€tric property
in all fifhes ; if fo, this faculty muft asfwer other purpofes
in their economy thzn to preferve them from the attacks of
the larger {pecies of their own kind. We do not pretend to
decide upon thofe quetlions, which can only be determined
by micer inveltigauous, that have yet been made vpon the
fubj: &.

The diftribvtion of the albumino-gelatinous duéts is repre-
fented in Plates X. and XL. of the Anatomy of Fifhes. In
Plate X. tue upper furface of a /Rate (raja batis) is thewn 5
a, the centre of the dects on the left fide; J, fafciculus of
duets going towards the {pine; c, c, other fafciculi fent to
the anterior parts of the hth; d, d, falciculi proceeding to
terminate spon the outer and back part of the great fins
e, a long fafciculus running backwards to terminate near the
tail; f, a large branch of the fifth pair of nerves paffing out-
wards {rom the cranium; g, its fingular termmation on the
comimon centre of the duéts of the right fide; 424, the
beginning of the large duct of the under furface of the {nout
Jj, the fame duc feen through thefnout; m, the du& which
is reflected from the anterior furface of the fnout; n, 2, my
feveral branches of this duct which open upon the fkin, on
the fide of the fnout.

Fig. 1, of Plaie XY. exhibits the anterior quarter of the
under furface of the /kate (raja batis) ; a, the large ferpen-
tine du@t reflected upon atielf on the external fide of the
branchial apertures ; J, 4, 6, branches of the ferpentine du&
that open upon the infertor furface of the body; c,c, the
branches that furround the nafal cavity ; d, d, anaftomofes
with the duct of the oppofite fide; ¢, the point from which
a large branch is fent to the upper part of thefnout; f, the
extremity of the ferpentine duét which turns round to the
upper furface of the fifh; g, the biind extremity of the fer-
pentine dué; 4, 4, parts of the correfponding duéts of. the
oppofite fide of the fifh; #, the centre of the duéts on one
fide; £,2,2,%, 4, &, fafciculi going off from the centre in
different directions to open upon the under furface of the
body of the fifh,

Fig. 2. of Plate XI. is a lateral view of the head and
part ot the body of the cod, (gadus morhua); a is the
anterior portion of an albumino-pelatinous duét, which runs
upon the fide of the fifh, and has numerous fhort branches
terminating by open mouths on the furface; 4, the fupe-
rior branch of this dud, which unites with the corref{ponding:
one of the other lide, upon the top of the head, as feen at c,
and termipates in a blind extremity on the end of the fnout,
as indicated by d; ¢, thews the interior branch of the lateral
du&, running along the upper jaw; fj fi fy &e. ere its
branches opening upon the fkin; g is another large dué&
lying on the Jower jaw, which has no communication with
the others ; 4,4, 4, &c. are the faort branches it fends off
to terminate upon the furface. ,

The

Shh Ho.

The integument which furnifhes the molt effeAual defence
to filhes is produced by the /cales, and the other offeous
pieces, which grow on their fkin, For the defeription of thele
parts, fee the article Scates, in this dictionary.

Orzan of Smelling.

The apparatus for receiving the fenfation excited by odor-

ous fubltances is more complicated in fifhes than other ani-
mals, although the organs are lefs oftenfible.
~The nafal cavity, except rarely, as in the frog Afb, (lophius
pifcatorius,) does not form any external projection ; the organ
of [melling, therefore, from not ftriking the eye, received
little attention from anatomifts, and no ful! or accurate d--
feription of it was given before the publication of Scarpa’s
book De Auditu & Oifadtu; it waseven formerly miflaken
for the organ of hearing ; and Blumenbach fays, this abfurd
opinion has been revived in modern times, but we are unic-
quainted with any anatomift at prefent who entertains fuch
an opinion.
_ Inthe chondropicrygeous fifhes the organ of fmelling is fitu-
ated on the under furtace of the fnout; but in the offous filhes
on the upper and fore part of it; it is contained in an oval
er round fhallow cavity, which in the rays end fharfs, and
in fome offeous fifhes, as the gurnard, &c. is formed by an
excavation of the cartilage or bones of the head, butin mot
offeous fifhes it is partly compofed of bone, and partly of
membrane. *

The nafal cavity has no internal communication with the
fauces, nor is it conneéted with any finufes or hollow parts
zn the bones of the facc; in the chondropterygii, however,

_ there is a groove or hollow, leading from the edge of the
organ of {mell, under the operculum, to the angle of the
mouth, :

The apertures of the nafal cavities, or external nares, of the
genera raja and /gualus, are in a great meafure covered by
an operculum, compofed of two irregularly-formed cartila-
ginous flaps conneéted and covered by the common integu-
ments. ‘The operculum is elevated at the pleafure of the
animal, according to Scarpa, by a number of fine mufcular
fibres which arife from the end and fore parts of the fnout,
proceed obliquely backwards towards the angle of the
mouth, and are inferted into the operculum. The nares are
clofed by fome fibres which aét like a fphin@er. We con-
fefs we have not been able to difcern either of thefe mufcles,
although we have examined very large /Rates for the purpofe.
As the opercule is opened or fhut, the water flows in and
out of the nafal cavity with more or lefs force, and thus the

’ odorous matter is expofed to the furface of the organ.

In the offéous, and moft other filhes, the apertures of the
nafal cavity are croffed by a flexible f{eptum or bar ; in fome
fvhes this ligament is narrow like a cord; in others it is
broader, and formed with irregular edges: each aperture is
thus divided, fo as to prefent the appearance of two nares
on each fide, an anterior and pofterior; the former always
continues open, and preferves the fame figure, but the latter
varies in fize, in proportion as the cord is drawn outwards or
recedes into the cavity of the nofe.

The feptum of the naresis drawn outwards by a fafciculus
of mufcular fibres which arifes from the bones of the fnout,
and is inferted into the middle of the feptum, When this
mufcle is not in action, the elafticity of the parts, and the
impulfe of the water, are fufficient to deprefs the feptum, and
force it within the nares. Under thele circumftances the

fterior aperture is contra&ted into the figure of a chink.
Some fifhes, as the carp, (cyprinus carpio,) have the power
-of elevating the feptum fo much, that the aperture of the

Bares is drawn out as a tube..

The frog fifo (lophius pifcatorius) hes the nares, and in-
deed the whole nafal cavity of each fide, elevated upon the
top of the fnout, in the thape of two drinking glaffes, which
are moveable in every direétion,

The external integuments are refleted into the nafal
cavity ; on arriving at the bottom cf which they feem to
form the pitnitary or olf2€tory membrane.

The immediate organ of fm-liing confiits in all fifhes of a
number of fine lamin, upon which the olfaGtory nerves ere
diftributed. Tne varieties in its ftructure depend upon the
different arrangement of thefelaminz, and the form and mode
of vamification of the nerves.

In the ray kied (raja) there are two feries or rows of
laminz, feparated from each other by a ligament which
extends through the middle of the nafal cavity, from one
end tothe other. ‘The leminz are round upon the fuperior
edge, and falciform upon the inferior margin, They are
broader in the middle of the cavity than towards each end
of it, correfponding to its oval shape.

The furfaces of the lamin that are applied to each other
farnifh a number of thin narrow lamine, which are arranged
in a radiated manner.

The difpofition of the pituitary membrane is fimilar in
the /hark genus (/qualus.)

The other cartilaginous, and the ofleous fifhes have the
internal lamine of the nafal cavity arranged in radii,
around an elevated tubercle. In the furgeon (acipenfer /turio,
the lamine ramify or divide upon their free border into
thinner plates. The carp (cyprinus carpio), and fome others,
have the ceatral tubercle approaching an oval figure, which
gives the organ a good deal of the appearance it has in the
ray and fhark.

The pituitary membrane is abundantly befmeared with
mucus in fifhes, as is ufual in other animals ; the glands which
fecrete it are evident on the membrane of the ray and /Lark ;
it is generally covered with red veffels, and fometimes with
black, as in the pike (cfox lucius.)

The olfadory nerves, after arifing from the brain in theman-
ner already defcribed, proceed a confiderable way forwards,,
either in a canal left in the bones of the head for the pur-
pole, or in the continued cavity of the cranium, as the cafe
may be, during which courfe they ufually acquirea greater
fize than when they left the brain. 5s

After the olfaétory nerves pafs out of the cranium, and
arrive at the organ of {melling in the ray, they become en-
larged and fofter in their texture, and proceed tranfverfely
outwards along the middle of the fuperior furface of the
orgaa, inclofd in a firm fheath, which is perforated by a
number of foramina on each fide: through each of thele fora-
mina a branch of the olfaftory nerve pafles, and foon after
divides into a tuft or bunch of fibrille, which are diflributed
in a beautiful manner upon the lamine already. de-
{eribed.

Tn the tope (/qualus galeus) the olfa&tory nerve is-at Grit
very flender, it pafles out of the cavity of the cranium
through a particular foramen, and foon after forms a round
ganglion, from which two fafciculi of nerves are produced :
thefe fend branches to the olfaétory lamine on each fide of
the ligament which divides the ergan into two por-
tions.

The olfactory nerves of oféous fifhes ufually begin to di-
vide into branches on approaching the back of the organ
thefe again divide into others, which are diftributed in a very
palpable manner on the olfactory lamin.

The carp (cyprinus carpio), the filurus glanis, the had:
dock (gadus aglefinus), aud the cod (gadus morhua), bave
each of the olfactory. nerves enlarged into a remarkable round:

FIS H.

ganglion juft before they penetrate the back of the organ of
{mell; from this ganglion a bundle of branches go imme-
diately off to be difperfed upon the olfaftory laminz. It
is probable that ganzlia alfo exift upon the olfactory nerves
of the other fpecies of gadus, cyprinus, aud filurus.

It would feem, from the greater extent and fubedivifion of
the olfa&ory membrane, that the ray and /haré genera have
a more acute fenfe of {melling than the ofeous ffhes. All this
clafs of animals poff-fsit in a high degree, which is fhewn by
their nicety with refpe& to the different baits employed in
catching them; thus, a worm which has loft its flavour by
maceration will be refufed by a fifh; but the fame worm,
having its {mell revived by incifions made on it, will be taken
greedily ; we cannot, however, determine exactly the degree
of excellence of the fenfe of {melling in fifhes, asthe medium
through which they receive the impreflion of odorous matter
is different from that by which it is applied to other animals 5
but we may fuppofe their perception of odorous fubftances
to exceed that of mammalia, as the latter have no difcern-
ment of odour when diffufed in water, and brought into con-
tact with their organs of {melling in that ftate. The ftruc-
ture of thefe organs in fifhes would alfo lead us to make the
fame conclufion ; for the magnitude of the nerves of {melling,
and the furfaces upon which thefe nerves are {pread, are pro-
portionally greater in fifhes than inany quadruped.

In fig. 10. of Plate VI. of, the Anatomy of Fifhes, will
be feen the external parts of the organ of {melling on the
under furface of the fnout of the thornback (raja clavata) ;
aa, the operculum, partially covering the nafal cavity, ex-
hibiting a thin layer of mufcular fibres running obliquely
from before backwards ; J, d, the dudts containing gelatinous
matter, feen faintly through the mufcular fibres of the oper-
culum ; c, c, the cartilaginous folds placed around the nafal
cavity, and forming the interior part of the operculum ; d,
the conjunétion of the cartilaginous folds feen through the
mufcle; ¢e, the ligament of each fide which divides the ol-
factory lamine ; f, f, ff the membrazous plates or lamine
arranged on each fide of the ligament; g, g, the hollow
folds by which the nafal cavity communicates with the angles
of the mouth. :

Fig. 1. in Plate VII. of the Anatomy of Fi/bes, exhibits
a difl:@ted view of the upper part of the organs of {melling
in the fame fihh; n, n, the olfactory nerves enlarged, previous
to their entering the fheath ; 0,0, the bulbs of the olfeGtory
nerves feen pafling acrofs the nafal eavity, the fheath being
laid open on one lide, and remioved on the other, the branches
that arife from the bulb are expofed; f, p, the fuperior or
convex edges of the lamine covered with membrane; 9,
the ramification of the olfatury nerve brought into view by
removing the membrane on the back of the organ.

Fig. 5. in Plate VII. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, is a tranf-
verfe fection of the organ of {melling in the thornback ; a, the
bulb of the olfaGtory nerve ; bb, the ligament which rune
through the centre of the olfactory laminz ; c,c, the mem-
branous lamin of the fecond orderthat arife from the fides
of the others.

Fig. 6. of the fame plate, fhews about the half of the
organ of {melling in the ¢hornback, magnified; aa, the liga-
ment; 2, 4, the laminz of either fide; c, one of the nerves
given off trom the bulb; ddd, the ramification of the
nerve upon the duplicature of the olfactory membrane ; ¢,
the membranes of the fecond order.

Fig. 7. of the fame plate, reprefents the diltribution of the
elfaGory nerve in the /ope (/gualus galeus); a, a, the olfac-
tory lamin from above ; 4, the trunk of the olfactory nerve ;
ec, the bulb or ganglion; d, the falciculi of nervous fila-
ments; ¢, the divifion of thefe into two parts, indicated by

SH 5 8 8s Sr J the double feries of branches of the olfattory
nerve diltributed to the two fets of lamine.

Fig. 1. of Plate VILL. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, exhibits
a difl:G@ed view of the olfactory nerves in the pike (¢/ow
lucius); s, s, the olfa€tory nerves when they firtt bezin to
break into filaments; 7, #, the Glaments diftributed to the
bottom of the nafal cavity; uu, the anteror aperture of
the nares; vv, the polterior aperture; x x, the bar or
bridge acrofs the nares; y,y, branches of the fifth pair of
nerves fent to the organ of fmelling for common fvnfa-
tion.

Fig. 3. of Plate VIL{. thews the external parts of the
organ of fmelling in the pike; a, the pofterior opening of
the nafal cavity; 5, the anterior opening; cy the bar or
bridge between them; d, mufcular fibres for elevating the
bar or feptum of the external opening of the nafal cavity ;
the bar being removed, the bottom of the nafal cavity is
expofed, in which are feen the radiated membranes or laming
of the organ indicated by the letters e,

In fg. 4. of the fame plate, the diftribution of the olfactory
nerves is expofed in the carp (cyprinus carpio); d, d, the
trunks of the olfa@tory nerves; e, e, the trunks becoming
fafciculated or compofed of filaments; ff, the bulb or
ganglion of the olfactory nerves; g. g, branches fent off
from the ganglia, and diltributed upon the olfa¢tory mem~
branes; 4, foramen left on one fide, through which the
branches of the olfaétory nerve pafs to the organ 6f
{melling.

The difle@ted head of the frog fib (lophius pifcatorius}
in fig. 1. Plate 1X. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, exhibits the
cou fe and termination of the olfactory nerves 3 x, the ol-
fatory nerve paffing through the cranium; y, the fame
nerve continued along a canal inthe f{nout; z, the nerve
{preading into filaments, previous to its diftribution upon
the laminated ftru€ture of the organ, indicated by *.

The fecond figure of the fame plate reprefents the exter-
nal part of the fnout of the frog fi/b; a, the organ of {mell-
ing as it appears elevated upon a tootftalk; 4, the organ of
the other fide with a part of it cut out, to bring into view
the olfactory laminz.

Organ of Tafle.

There is every reafon tor denying the fenfe of tafte to the
tongue of ffhes. This organ in them wants almoft all the
peculiarities of itruéture which fit it for receiving the im-
preffions of fapid fubftances. The integuments are without
papille, and do not poffefs greater vafcularity, or a larger
fupply of nerves, than the covering of the other parts of the
mouth, and ia mary [pecies the furiace of the tongue is
befet with teeth. ‘Che movements of the tongue of fifhes
are alfo limited to elevation, depreffion, and a very flight
degree of lateral motion; it is incapable of flexion or exten-
fion, which are the a€tions moftly employed in tafting ; the
extent of furface the tongue affords is ufually very inconfider=.
able in fifhes, as this member projects but a livtle way into:
the cavity of the mouth; andin the chondropterygii there is
no prominence of the parietes of the intenor part of the
mouth to be difcerned. Laftly, the whole furface of the.
mouth in fihes being befmeared with a thick tenacious
mucus, mu{t very much obfcure the perception of fapid
fubftances. : ea

In the ray genus there are two flaps of the integuments:
upon the edge of the mouth, fomewhat of a triangular fha eae
with the free border denticulated, or rather fringed. Thefe
parts appear to us better adapted for receiving the impref-_
fions of tafte than the tongues of fithes. Si

r,

FISH.

It is moft probable, that the fenfe of tafte is extremely
imperfeG, if it exifts atall in this clafs of animals; indeed,
it could feldom be called into aétion, as moft fifhes choofe
their food by the affiftance of the fenfes of feeing and of
imelling.

Organ of Hearing.

As found is always conveyed to the ear of fifhes through
the medium of water, they do not require an external
concha, or any projecting parts for colleGing the fonorous
vibrations. The whole of the organ is, properly {peaking,
internal, or within the head, in thefe animals.

Anatomills difagree with refpe& to there being any
Meatus auditorius externus, or external opening leading to
the interior of the orgar. Itis only contended for in the
cartilaginous fifhes with free branchie. Both Monroe and
Hunter affumed the merit of difcovering this part. The
former defcribed it in the Rate (raya batis) in thele words :
®¢ In the back part of the occiput, near the joining of the
head withthe fpine, two holes, not larger than to admit the
head of a fmall pin, are found at the ditance of an inch
from each other; ina large fiih each of thefe leads into a
capacious winding canal o- concha, which defcribes nearly
a complete.circle ; the two conche are feparated from each
other by a thin partition; each concha terminates in a
funnel, from which a {mall cylindrical canal, or meatus
auditorius externus, is continued; the meatus is lodged in a
hollow left between two thick cartilages; and as there is
no membrana tympani, it opens, he fays, into a large fac,
which contains a white or opaque matter, with a quantity of
clear watery-looking, but vifcid matter.”

This fac is the part upon which the auditory nerve is
fpread, as will be afterwards defcribed.

He further fays, ‘* that generally fome portion of a
fimilar white matter is found in the meatus auditorius ex-
ternus and concha, as if part of it paffed off by the meatus,
or was fomehow neceffary for communicating the impref-
fion of found to the bottom of the ear.”’

In another place Doétor Monroe conjzGtures this ** mea-
tus auditorius externus performs the office ofthe Euftacluan
tube, at leaft fo far as that tube may be fuppofcd to ferve
the purpofe of difcharging ufelefs or hurtful matter.”
Monroe’s Phyfiology of Fifhes, p. 48, 49.

Mr. Hunter does not give any particular defcription of
the external opening of the ear in the ray or /hark genera,
but frequently mentions it as a part he had difcovered, and
notices a paflage in Willoughby’s Hiftory of Fifhes, in
which there is fome account given of an external opening
on the head of the /Raie, in the neighbourhood of what
Willoughby fuppofed to be the organ of hearing in that fith.

The exiftence of any opening into the interior of the ear

from the external part of the body has been denied by a
number of highly refpeCtable anatomilts,
’ M. Geoffroy, who defcribed the organ of hearing before
either Mr. Hunter or Doétor Monroe, mentioned an exter-
nal opening, which he {tates as being difficult to find; he
fays it is concealed by the mufcles, and fituated near the
condyles at their lateral external part ; and in another place
he {peaks of the auditory, foramen being covered with the
mulcles and the fat. This account is different from the
one given by Monroe and Hunter, that it adds no cenfirma-
tion to their opinion.

Camper pofitively denies an external opening to the ear
of the fkate. He fays, “ L’organe de Pouie ce la raye
n’a donc aucune communication avec lair de Patmofphere ;
mais jl eft enfermé,? &c. Camper, Mem. de Math.
tom. vii p. 194. -

Wor. XIV.

Vicq d’Azyr entertained the fame opinion; in fpeaking
of the cartilaginous fifhes with fixed branchiz, he faya,
* Lorgane de Pouie n’a point chez eux d’ouverture ex-
terieure.”? Vic. d’Azyr, tom. 7. p. 20.

To thefe authorities we may add that of Scarpa, who
afferts, inthe moft pofitive manner, that there isno external
opening to the ear of either the flat or round cartilaginous
fithes ; he fuppofes, that the foramina which Doéter Monroe
difcovered were the openings of fome of the duéts containing
gelatine, which are found in this fituation; he even treats
Doétor Monrae’s account with derifion ; and confiders it
abfurd to fuppofe that there fhould be a communication
between the external element and the immediate feat of
the fenfe of hearing.

Scarpa, in denying an external opening, admits the exiftence
of a conduit from the integuments into the veltibulum or
fac containing the amylaceous fubf{tance.

In this Cuvier agrees with him, and we may add, that we
have frequently and carefully diffe€ted the organ of hearing
in the ray and /hark genera, but have never been able to
difcover the openings mentioned by Monroe and Hunter.
What we have obferved agrees almolt exactly with the de-
{cription given by Scarpa.

Behind the occiput, where it is articulated with the firt
vertebrz of the neck, the fkin is {mooth and a little depreffed ;
if it be raifed at this place two oval membranes prefent them-
felves, one on each fide. Thefe are pellucid, but at the
fame time denfe and unyielding ; they adhere ftri@ly to the
edges of two foramina, from cach of which a funnel-fhaped
dué& leads dire&tly into the veftibulum. Scarpa contiders
thefe foramina analogous to the feneffre ovales; the membrane
which coversthem, however, has fome of the properties of
the membrana tympani, and may have fome efic& in regu-
lating or increafing the impreflion of found; we perceive
then that the cavity of the labyrinth is perfeétly clofed at
every point, as well in the chondropterygii as in che ofleous
fihes: indeed, a different ftructure would bea departure
from the plan of the organ in all other animals.

The membranous labyrinth in the cartilaginous filhes with
Jixed branchia is fitvated in a correfponding excavation of
the fides of the back part of the head ; it is fo much wider
than the part it enclofes that they would not preferve their
places, but from their connection with veffels, nerves, and
proceffes of cellular fubftance, which pafs to them in dif-
ferent diretions: the cartilaginous labyrinth has no com-
munication with the cavity of the cranium, except through
the foramina, for tranfmitting the nerves to the ear. It is
compofed of very tranfparent, and much fofter cartilage,
than the other parts of the head.

In the fifhes with free branchie, whether cartilaginous or
offeous, the greateft part of the membranous labyrinth is com
tained in the fides of the fame cavity which holds the brain ;
there are, however, fome depreffions on the infide of the
cranium for receiving parts of the ear, and fome portion of
the femicircular canals is fituated round the projecting
columns of bone, or in fhort offeous canals.

According to Cuvier, the large lateral depreffion of the
cranium in the moon fib (tetraodon mola), containing the ear,
is divided by only two {mai cartilaginous columns, one of
which is horizontal, and furnifhes a pulley to the pofterior
femi-circular canal; the ether is vertical, and affords one to
the horizontal canal ; but as the interval between thefle co-
lumns and the parietes of the cranium is ten times greater
than the diameter of the canals, they are fufpended in thar
{pace by veffels and cellular fubltance, The anterior verti-
cal canal has even no column of this kind, and there is no
depreflion for the fac in the bafe of the cranium,

3U

la

FISH. '

In the frog i/o (lophius pifcatorius) the cartilaginous
columns are broader, and approach more to the parietes
of the cranium, and form two pulleys, through which the
potterior and horizontal canals pals. pte

In the ofeous filhes there are larger columns or divifions
of the cavity of the ear than exilt in the branchioflegous
fifhes, and the pulleys are lengthened into fhort canals, which
include a certain portion of the membranous femi-circular
canals, more efpecially the polterior and horizontal ones.
The anterior femi-circnlar canal 1s fometimes uncovered,
In the pike (cfox /ucius), the cel (murena anguilla), the reach
(cyprinus rutius), and the mackarel (fcomber fcombrus),
there is only a {mall cffeous piilar correfponding to the fpace
within the anterior canal. In the dory (xeus faber) this
canal refts in a furrow. In the cod (gadus morhua), and
the carp (cyprinus carpioy, the anterior canal is partly in-
clofed in one of bone, and the pifterior and horizontal
canals are almoft concealed in the bones of the cranium.

When the fac which contains the ofliculum is.at a diftance
from the finus, the depreffion which receives it is deep.
The cod affords an example of this, but it is more remarkable
in the carp and herring.

In thele fifhes the cell for holding the fac furrounds it,
feaving an opening only for the narrow canal which joins the
fac and finus together.

In every inftance amongft the ofeous filhes, in whatever
way the fac and canels may be inclofed, the finus and extre-
mities of the canals remain in the cavity of the cranium; the
nerves therefore, in pafling to thefe, do not go through any
foramina inthe bones. But in the /furgeon (acipenfer fiurio)
there is an approach to the ftruéture delcribed in the cartila-
ginous fifhes with fixed branche ; each of the canals is
entirely enveloped in a tube, confiderably larger however than
the one it inclofes ; the fac lies clofe to the fide of the cra-
nium,, from the common cavity of which it is feparated by a
very thick membrane, fecured there by feveral ligamentous
proceffes. ‘Lhe nervesgare tranfmitted through holes in this
membrane left for that purpofe.

The parts which immediately conftitute the organ of
hearing are effentially the fame in all the orders of filhes ;
they confilt of membranous femi-circular canals, and certain
dilated parts or facs, which contain calcareous fubflances,
either hard or foft, and upon which the nerves of hearing are
chicfly fpread ; all thefe parts are further completely filled up
with a gelatinous fluid, or tranfparent pulp.

The ftru@ture of the canals and fac is nearly the fame in
all fifhes, they are as thin as membrane, but tranfparent and
clattic, like cartilage, of the nature of which they fhould pro-
bably be confidered : when thefe parts are cut aiunder, they
do not co!lapfe, but prefent open mouths, like the fection of
an artery.

All fihes azree with refpe& to the number and diregtion of
the canals; they are always three, an anterior, pofferior, and
Aorizontal ; the firft is Gtuated forwards, 13 inclined outwards,
and ftands nearly upright ; the fecond is dire&ted backwards
and outwards, and its pefition is alfo nearly vertical; and the
third makes its circuit outwards, and in a_ horizontal

lane. ~

Each of thefe canals forms an ampulla or {pherical dilata-
tion atone of its extremities; the ampulla of the anterior
canal is placed at its anterior or inferior extremity ; that of
the horizontal canal at its anterior extremity, therefore, near
the preceding ;, the ampu'la of the polterior canal is fituated
at the inferior extremity.

The antePior extremity of the pofterior canal, and the
potterior extremity of the anterior canal, form a junGion
before they. terminate in the face ‘The other extremities of

thefe canals, and both the extremities of the horizontal: canal,
have diftin@ terminations, There are therefore five openings
from the three femi-circular canals. ¥

As far as refpeéts the form and diftribution of the femi-
circular canals, the organ of hearing in fithes will be per-
ceived to refemble the membranous labyrinth in the higher
clafles of animals: the circumftance in which it moft mates
rially differs is the exiftence of the fac containing the eale
careous bodies.

_ Inthe cartilaginous fifhes with fixed branchie, the fac is
triangular im its form; the internal angle, or that next the
brain, commusicates with the duét jeading from the feneftra
ovalis. ‘I'he part correfponding to the fecond angle is round
or oval, and fituated pofteriorly. The third angle has an
anterior and external direétion.

Tn thefe fifhes there are three calcareous mafles, a /arge oF
principal one; and two f{maller, of which one is fmaller than
the other, and therefore they are called the /e/fér and leaft
bodies of this kind. The confiftence of thefe fubftances is
foft, refembling a mixture of plafter of Paris before it is
ufed for making a caft more nearly than any other fubftance
with which we are acquainted: they have been likened to a
foft mixture of chalk, and to ftarch, and hence they are
called the cretaceous and amylaceous bodies. The large cre-
taceous body has fomewhat the figure of a bivalve fhell ;
one fide is convex, and the other a little concave, with a
groove along its broadeft margin ; the lcfler cretaceons body
is triangular; and the leaft has the izure of a kidney bean,
but tsa vait deal {maller in fize.

Thefe bodies are not allowed to float at liberty in the fac ;
fome of their furfaces are applied clofe to the membrane,
and the others adbere to the gelatinous pulp, which is
moulded to their fhape, and they are further retained in their
fituation by the ramifications of the auditory nerves.

In the fi/aes with free branchie, there is confiderable varietx
in the ftru€ture of the dilated parts, for containing the cal-
careous bodies, and in the form of thefe bodies. :

Vhe fac in the moon-fi/h (tetraodon mola) is cone-fhapeds
the pointed end is turned towards the brain, and the bale
receives the femi-circular canals.

In the /lurgeon (acipenfer flurio) the fac is a broad flat
difk, placed 1n a vertical dirc Gion.

In thefe, the frog-fifh (lophius pifcatorius), and as far as it
has been obferved in all the cartilaginows filhes with free
branchiz, the fac is an undivided cavity ; but in the ofous
fithes, the coalition of the extremities of the femi-circular
gana produce an intermediate cavity between thefe and
the fac.

Scarpa calls this part /iaus utriculliformis, or the bottle /baped

Jinus. Ut might with great propriety be confidered as ana-
logous. to the membranous yeltibulum of other animals,.
although confiderably different irom it in fhape. The finus
is ufually elongated, and tubular in its appearance, and
diftinguilhed trom the fac by a contration > it contains the
third officulum or calcareous body. ‘

The fac of ofeous jibes is generally oval in its figure, and:
placed on the lower furface of the cranium, fo as frequently
to approach the one of the oppofite fide ; fometimes there is a
hollow in the bafe of the cranium for its reception, asalready-
mentioned. Cuvier confiders the facs analogous to the
cochlez, on account of there being a feptum formed. withia
them by the'r internat membrane and contained parts,

In the pile (c/ox lucius), there is a {mall oval cavity lying.
behind and below the finus, to which it is connected by a
{mall canal.
femicircular canals by Scarpa and others; but it fhould rather
be called an additional fac. It has not yet been obferved

. wB

This part has been called the appendix of the-

/ Fils wH.

in any other fith except the pite; but there is nothing pe-
culiar in the general anatomy of this fpecies, which would
lead us to fuppofe that it is confined to it. The appendix
receives a branch from the firft fpinal nerve.

Amonglt the cartilaginous fifhes with free branchia, the
Frog-fifh (lophius pifcatorius), has three calcareous bodies :
a large one and a {mall behind it are contained in the fac;
the third is very {mall, and is fituated in the cavity formed
by the junétion of the anterior and horizontal femicircular
canals, juft below the ampulla of the former, It is trian-
gular in its figure.

In the flurgeon (acipenfer furio) there is only one cal-
careous body: it is triacgular, and confilts of a hard nucleus,
which is partly furrounded by foft cretaceous matter.

The fubfances found in the fac of the moox ji/b (tetraodon
mola) zppear more like mucus than chalk.

Probably many more varieties would be difcovered in the
cartilaginous fifhes with free branchiz, if their anatomy were
better known.

In all the offons fifhes there are three calcareous bodies,
which have commonly been called offcw/a: their compofition
is, however, different from that of any other bones; they
are extremely hard, of a pearly white colour, and almott
tranfparent in their thinner parts. ‘They appear to confift
of pure calcarecus matter, without any mixture of an‘mal
{wbftance, and more nearly refemble the enamel of the teeth
than any other part of the offeous fyftem.

There are confiderable varieties ia the bulk and form of
the officula, refpe€ting which we are indebted to Cuvier for
fome details.

The principal officulum is ufually placed obliquely in the
fac. It is commonly an oval figure in the genus gadus ; it
is nearly round, with an angle internally, in the genus
filurus, and in the, fpecies of cyprinus that have been exa-
amined, as the carp (C. carpio), the bream (C. brama), the
tench (C. tinca), and the roach (C. rutilus). In the genus
falmo, the pike (efox lucius), and the ffurgeon (acipenfer
Jlurio), it is nregularly triangular.

The officulum is {mall ia the ce’ (murena anguilla), the
tar gazer (uranofiopus feaber), the flat fifb (pleuroneétes),
the dory (zeus faber), and the pike (efox lucius); of a middle
tize in the herring (clupea harengus) ; and large in the genus
gadus, particularly the cod, in the carp (cyprinus carpio), and
a number of the thoracic fifhes.

‘The chief officulum 1s convex on one fide, and concave on
the other; the external furface is rough; the internal is
fmooth, except a furrow which appears to form, with a
produGtion of the internal membrane of the fac, a {mall
canal which pafles through the interior of the fac. "Dhiis
furrow is commonly longitudinal; fometimes it is fhaped
like a horfe-fhoe. In the carp (cyprinus carpio), it is nearly
circular; in the cod (gadus morhua), its place is fupplied by
an elevated ridge.

The anterior end of the officulum has frequently fome
projections from it. There are two of them in the pile
(cfox tucius), the mackarel (feomber fcambrus), and the herring
(clupea harengus). The officulum of the carp (cyprinus
carpio) has three ; the one in the middle projets like a Ityle.
The end of this bone is round and without points in the
genus gadus and labrus, the roach (cyprinus rutilus), &c.

The edges of this bone are ufually notched or denticulated,
‘and. the fuperior margin is moft fo. ‘The denticulations are
‘nearly equal all round the edge of the officulum of the cod
and carp; in the former they are blunt, in the latter they
are pointed, They only exift om one edge in the genus
Jalmo and the genus perca, ‘There are but three which are
on the fuperior margin in the conger eel (murena conger).

Some ftriz are almoft always obferved to extend tranf-
verfely from the furrow to the edge of the principal offi-
culum: thefe are intended to lodge the numerous fibrillz of
the auditory nerves. Thefe impreffions are particularly re-
markable in the carp genus (cyprinus);"in which they have a
radiated appearance.

The fecond or middle fized officulum is commonly fituated
behind the large bone, but fomewhat more externaliy: its
moft ufual form is femilunar, the concave fide being an-
terior. Its-fize varies, but it is always much lefs than the
principal officulum. Its figure is peculiar in the carp, in
which it refembles that of the head of a fpear.

The third officulum, as already mentioned, is fituated in
the finus utriculliformis: it is fometimes fo near the prin-
cipal bone, that it is apt to efcape obfervation ; its figure
varies. Inthe genera gadus, fcomber, &c. it is triangular ;
in the gurnards (trigla), it is lenticular; in the pike, it is
rounded and unequal. It is larger proportionally tn the carp
than in any other genera, and its furface is feabrous, and
the edge ferrated.

By thefe hard or extraneous fubftances being placed in
the gelatinous pulp, and in contaé with the nerves, it is
evidently defigned to ircreafe the impreffions of found upon
thefe parts: they thus compenfate for the want of an
offeous labyrinth, which molt probably in mammalia and
birds has the effe& of rendering the concuffion of found
more fenfible. Camper has ingenioufly obferved, that to
be convinced that a hard body floating in a gelatinous fub-
{tance is affe€ted by the flighteft external motion, it is only
neceflary to introduce fome hard body into a glafs of jelly,
when the motion of this body will be fenfible to the fingers
holding the glafs, on fhaking the jelly, or giving the glafs a
little fhock with the finger of the other hand. He men-
tions another fimple but iliuftrative experiment, which con-
fills in putting fome hard body into a bladder containing a
fluid, the flighte!t motion of which will be communicated to
the hard fubftance, by which a ftrong fenfation will be
excited in the finger h-Iding the bladder.

Two nerves, which correfpond to the portio dura and
portio mollis of the feventh pair, are found in fifhes. The
latter has a peculiar origin, not being a dittin@ trunk, but
conjoined at its root with the fifth pair of nervss, of which
it 13 ufually reputed a branch, alchough, with more pro-
priety perhaps, the fifth pair fhould be confidered a branch
of the portio mollis.

Inthe cartilaginous fifhes with fixed branchie, the auditory
branch, or portio mojhs of the fifth pair, after pafling
through the foramen, which tran{mits it fram the cavity of
the cranium into that of the ear. bends round behind the
external partetes of the vettibulum, and divides into two
principel branches, one of which is vattly larger than the
other. The defer branch is ditributed in a retiform manner
upon the pofterior furface of the fac, containing the {meller
cretaceous body, and fends off two longer branches. which
proceed to the ampulle of the antertor and horizontal canals,
in which they are expended. The /arge or principal auditory
nerve forms a fafcicujus, the filaments of which divide, fub-
divide, and re-unite upon the polterior furface of the fac
containing the large cretaceous body, fo as to produce an
intricate and clofe plexas, from the petterior fide of which
a nerve goes off to be diilribured upon the fac of the {mallet
cretaceous fubftance. A branch, aifo farnmifhed from tlre
pofterior fide of the plexus, coalefces with one belonging to
the portio dura, which pafies through a particular foramen:
from the cranium, and arrives bebind the large fac.e From
this anaftomofis a branch, which {upplics the ampulla of the
polterior femicireular canal, is given off, The nerve afterwards

3 Use proceeds

“Ff 1S Hi:

proceeds to the external part of the head, and is diftributed
immediately under the integuments about the occiput, and
the beginning of the neck. ‘ ;

The portio mollis in” offeous fifhes, which alfo is a branch of
the fifth pair of nerves, almolt immediately divides into two
branches, of which one goes to the ampulla of the anterior
caral, and the other paffes under the finus to the ampulla of
the horizontal canal. ‘The fecond branch of the portio
mollis further gives off a longer branch, which goes to the
potterior part of the head, behind the fuperior margin of the
cavity for lodging the fac, and divides into many filaments,
which are difperled in a net-work upon the portion of the
fac next the brain. From the upper and poiterior part of
this reticulation a nerve is joined by a branch of the fortio
dura, and proceeds to the ampulla of the pofterior canal,
In the oféous, therefore, as well as the cartilaginous fifhes,
the ampulla of the pofterior femicircular canal ts fupplied by
an anaftomofis of the portio dura and mollis.

Dr. Monroe and Mr. Hunter thought that the auditory
nerves did not pafs through the parietes of the membranous
labyrinth in fifhes; but, after running a little way upon the
furface of the facs and canals, became pellucid and difap-
peared: the termination of thefe nerves is very differently
deferibed by Scarpa and Cuvier; the former traced the
branches into the ampullz of the femicircular canals, in
which they become foft and pulpy, and with the affiftance
of the membrane produce a feptum which nearly interrupts
the half of the cavity. Cuvier {tates that the nerves of the
fac penetrate into the interior of the cavity, and are diftri-
buted immediately upon the calcareous bodies contained
therein. As we have not at prefent examined this matter, we
quote the authorities. See Hunter in Phil. Tranf. vol. ixxii.
part 2. Monroe’s Phyfiology of Fifhes, p. 50. Scarpa
de Auditu & Olfa&u, p. 15... Cuvier’s LeGtures on Com-
parative Anatomy, tranflated, vol. 11. p.468 and 546.

Hunter and Monroe have made fome experiments to de-
termine the poflibility of hearing under water, which were
very unneceflary, as it was well known that fifhes were fenfi-
ble of founds produced even in the air. In fact, found ts
communicated with greater or lefs facility according to the
denfity and elafticity of the medium through which it paffes ;
confequently it will be more readily propagated through
folid {ubftances and water than through air, and hence we
find the organ of hearing lefs complicated in thofe animals
that receive impreffions of found from the earth or water,
than in thofe that inhabit the air. The ear of fifhes is ad-
mirably conftruéted for receiving fonorous vibrations in a
denfe medium; the great extent and elafticity of the fac and
canals ; the exiltence of calcareous bodies, more efpecially
when they are hard, and the large plexus of nerves, ali feem
calculated for this purpofe. If the ear of fifhes were pro-
vided with a tympanum, it would probably be of no ufe, un-
lefs it were filled with fome fluid as denfe, at leaft, as water.

In. Plate VIL. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, fig. 1. exhibits a
view of the organs of hearing in the thornback (raja clavata) in
fitu ; g, anterior femicircular canal ; 4, polterior femicircular
canal; i, horizontal femic'rcular canal; j, the ampulla of the
horizontal canal; 4, cavity of the veitibu!um, which contains
the large fac laid open; on the other fide, at /, is feen the cel-
lular reticulation of this part; m m, the membrane of the
feneftra ovalis on each fide.

Fig. 2, of Plate VII. of the. Anatomy of Fifkes, fhews the
organ of hearing of the right fide of the ¢hornback, ab-
{traQed from its fituation, and viewed from the fide next the
brain, the cavity of the veftibulum and the cartilaginous
tébes which enclofe the membranous canals being laid open;
g, the anterior femicircular canal ; 4, the pofterior femicircu-

lar canal ; ¢, the horizoutal femircircular canal ; the ampulle
of each of the canals is fufficiently evident without letters of
reference; d, the membrane of the fene(lra ovalis feen on the
fide of the veftibuium ; e, fulcus leading from the membrane
of tbe feneftra to the interior of the veftibulum; f, the portion
of the fac containing the large cretaceous fubftance; g, that of
the leffer; 4, the fituation of the fmaileit cretaceous body;
i, the coalition of the anterior and horizontal membranous
canals ; 7, the branch of the auditory nerve diftributed to the
ampulla of the anterior femircircular canal; 4, branch of the
auditory nerve to the ampulla of the pofterior canal; /, braneh
of the auditory nerve to the ampulla of the horizontal canal,

In fig. 3. 0f Plate VIL. of the Anatomy of Fi/bes, an op-
pofite view is given of the organ of hearing in the thornback,
by which the pofterior furface of the fac and the diftribution
of the nerves upon the immediate feat of hearing are expofed;
a, the anterior femicircular canal ; 6, the pofterior femicircue
lar canal; c, the horizontal femicircular canal; d@, auditory
nerve; ¢, branch of the auditory nerve to the ampulla of the
anterior canal ; f, branch of the auditory nerve to the ampulla
of the horizontal canal ; g, nervous plexus upon the capfule of
the large cretaceous body; 4, nervous plexus upon the capfule
of the leffer cretaceous body ; i, plexus upon the capfule of
the {mallett cretaceous body ; 4, portio dura; /, anaftomofis of
the portio dura with the auditory nerve; m, nerve furnifhed
by this anaftomofis to the ampulla of the potterior femicir-
cular canal; n, continuation of the trunk of the portio dura;
p: part of the cavity of the cranium; g, a part of the tranf-
verle cartilage which pafles outwardly to fuftain the jaws;
r, the firft vertebra of the neck.

Fig. 8. of the fame plate reprefents the thin cretaceous
bodies of the ear of the thornback; a is the large cretaceous
body viewed upon the anterior furface; 4, the groove that
runs along it; c, the fame fubftance viewed pofteriorly ; d, the
lefler cretaceous body ; ¢, tke {malleft cretaceous body.

Fig. 4. of Plate VII. exhibits the ampulla of one of the
membranous femicircular canals magnified and laid open to
expofe the diftribution of the auditory nerve in its interior ;
aa, the enlarged part, or ampulla opened; 4, the branch of the
auditory nerve, becoming gradually broader and feparated into
filaments ; ¢c, the nervous feptum of the ampulla; dd, femi-
circular canal above and below the ampulla.

In the diffeted head of the pike (c/ox /ucius), reprefented
in fig. 1. of Plate VIII. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, there is
a view of the organ of hearing on each fide feen from aboves
e, the anterior femicircular canal entirely feen; f, its ampulla ;
g the pofterior femicircular canal partially expofed; 4, its
ampulla feen below ; #, the courfe of the horizontal femicir-
cular canal; j, its ampulla; 4, finus utriculliformis of the
femicircular canals ; /, appendix of the finus, which isa part
peculiar to the pike; m, the fituation of the {malleft officu-
lum. No. 5 is the trunk of the fifth pair, and any other
nerves feen in this figure arifing from the brain are indicated
by correfponding numbers; a, the branch of the auditory
nerve fent to the ampulla of the anterior femicircular canals
o, the branch of the auditory nerve fent to the horizontal
canal; /, the branch fent to the ampulla of the pofterior canal;
q, branches of the auditory nerve expended upon the fac con-
taining the principal officuium ; r, nerve going to be inferted
behind the finus, where the fmalleft officulum is contained.

Fig. 2. of Plate VIII. fhews the three officula of the pites
a, the principal one; 4, the leffer officulum ; c¢, the fmallef
officulum ; d, the fame magnified.

In Plate IX. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 3. exhibits a
lateral view of the organ of hearing in the pide; a, the cavity
of the cranium ; 4, {pinal canal; c, anterior femicircular canal 4
d, its ampulla; ¢, the ampulla of the horizontal canal; f the

other

FI

other extremity of the fame canal ; x, the ampulla of the pof-
terior canal; 4, the other extremity of the pofterior canal ;
é, the utriculliform finus of the femicircular canals; 7, appendix
peculiar to the pike; &, the fmalleft officulum feen through
the finus; /, the fac containing the other two officula,. No. 5
indicates the trunk of the fifth pair of nerves; m, the audi-
tory nerves; a, the branch of the auditory nerve to the
ampulla of the anterior canal; 0, the branch of the audi-
tory nerve to the ampulla of the horizontal canal; p, nerves
derived from the auditory going behind the fmalieit officu-
lum; g, the branch of the auditory nerve fent to the am-
pulla of the pofterior canal; r, auditory nerves diftributed
upon the fac on the fide next the brain; s, nerve analogous to
the par vagum or portio dura; #, the anaftomofis of the pre-
ceding nerve, with a branch of the auditory or portio mollis,
from which the ampulla of the pofterior canal is fupphied ;
w,anervou3 filament fent from the firft {pinal nerve to the
bottom of the appendix.

Fig. 4. of the fame plate explains the different cavities of
the bones of the cranium, in which parts of the labyrinth
are enclofed; a, the cavity of the cranium; 4, a hollow,
in which the fac with the officula is lodged; c, a finuofity
for containing the ampulla of the anterior femi-circular canal;
d, the aperture leading into the paflage which holds the
horizontal femi-circular canal; ¢, the common foramen to
the horizontal and pofterior canals; f, the other opening,
through which the polterior femi-circular canal paffes ;
g, the foramen, by which the portio dura goes. oxt of the
cranium; 4, canal of the fpine; i, i, foramina for the exit
of the fifth pair of nerves; £, foramen for the firft {pinal
nerve.

In Plate 1X. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. is a feGtion
of the head of the frog-fi/b (lophius pifcatorius) ; a, the ante-
rior femi-circular canal, J, its ampulla; c, the horizontal
femi-circular canal; d, its ampulla; ¢, the polterior femi-
circular canal; /f, its ampulla; g, the conjunction of the
anterior and pofterior femi-circular canals; 4, a large canal,
into which all the others open; i, principal fac containing
the large officulum; &, the facculus of the leffer officulum ;
J, the third or fmalleft officulum feen through the membrane
below the ampulla of the anterior canal; m, the nerve going
to the ampulla of the anterior canal; », the nerve of the am-
pulla of the horizontal canal; o, nervous filaments fent
behind the feat of the third officulum; », filaments of
nerves diftributed to the capfule of the large officulum ;
qa filament which goes to be expended upon the capfule
of the leffer officulum; r, a long nerve fent to the ampulla
of the pofterior femi.circular canal; s, the portion of the
fifth pair of nerves that go out of the cranium ; #, the fourth
pair of nerves; u, the third pair of nerves; v, the fecond
or optic nerves; x, the firft or olfactory pair of nerves.

Organs of Vifion.

The eyes of fifhes are ufually fituated on the fides of the
head, in which cafes the animal only beholds objects with
one eye at atime; fome remarkable exceptions exilt, how-
ever, with refpe& to the pofition of the cyes in this clafs ;
they are turned dire@tly upwards in the flar-gazer (uranof-
copus). All the genus p/euroneées have both eyes placed on
one fide of the head, which, from the pofition the fifh ob-
ferves, is always the uppermoft. In the callionymus and the
ray genus the eyes have an oblique afpect.

The figure of the eye in fifhes ufually approaches that of
a femi-{phere, the flat furface of which belongs to the
cornea. In the ray genus the eye is flat alfo fuperiorly,
and has, confequently, the form of a quarter of a fphere.
Some fifhes have the cornea gibbous, and the eye of the
fame fizure that it poffefles in thofe animals which inhabit

7

S H.

the air; the gadus /ota affords an example of this fhaped
eye.

The /clerotic coat is denfe, elaftic, and cartilaginous in
its Aruéture; and although fometimes thin, it preferves the
fizure of the eye. In fome fpecies, more particularly
amongft the cartilaginous fifhes, it is thick. This is ree
markably the cafe in the /turgeon (acipenfer flurio) ; in this
fith the fclerotic compofes the greater portion of the eye-
ball, the cavity for containing the tranfparent parts bearing
but a {mall proportion to the reft of the globe. This coat
is thin in the pofterior part of the eye of the /almon (/almo
falar), and hard aud unyielding as bone on the fore part.
The induration of the front of the {clerotic is alfo found in
feveral other fpecies.

The fclerotic of the ray and /hark genera forms a tubers
cular projeGtion at the back of the eye; this is articulated
with a piece of cartilage which is conneéted at the other
extremity to the bottom of the orbit. The eye in thefe
animals, therefore, is fuftained upon a footftalk, upom
which it is moveable only to a certain extent.

The cornea, as before mentioned, is commonly flat in
fifhes.

The diftin@tion between this coat and the fclerotic is par=-
ticularly plain in the tope (/gualus galeus) ; thefe two coats
are conjoined by oblique edges, between which is inter-
pofed fome compa cellular fubftance, which appears to
be a production of the conjun¢tiva that paffes into the eye
to be united to the ciliary ligament.

The conjundiva is refleQed ov-r the external part of the
globe of the eye in fifhes as in other animals. This is fatif-
fatorily fhewn in the ee/ kind (murena), in which it adheres
fo lightly at this place, that it is removed in ftripping the
fin off the reft of the body.

The choroid coat, and membrana ruy{chiana, are very diftin®
from each other in this clafs.

In the genera raja and /qualus the choroides poffeffes the
ufual vafcular ftru@ture, and is of fome thicknefs and con-
fiftency ; the ruyfchian membrane is very thin and tranf{pa-
rent, and between the two membranes there is {pread a
filvery pigment.

But in other fifhes the choroides is very thin and little
vafcular. It is a white filver or gold colour. The ruyf-
chiana has more confiltence, and is compofed of an infinite
number of veflels interwoven together. It is a black co-
lour. There isinterpofed between thefe coats a remark-
able body called the choroid gland, which is not found in the
chondropterysii.

The choroid gland has ufually the fizure of a thick flat
ring ; it encircles the optic nerve, but not entirely, as there
is always a {mall deficiency in the ring.

In the cod (gadus morhua), the falmon (falmo falar), and
the moon-fi/h (tetraodon mola), it has been obferved to form
not a true circle, but to be irregularly bent; and in the
perca labrax it is compofed of two pieces placed om oppo
fite fides of the optic nerve.

The choroid gland is very compact in its ftructure; it
receives a multitude of fine veflels which pafs through the
membrana ruyfchiana ; they are covered by a white opaque
mucus, analtomofe with each other, and feem to terminate
in an infinite number of ramifications in the fubllance of the
gland, which thereby acquires an uniform, vivid, red cos
lour at every point, appearing more lke a dyed body than
one coloured by blood-veffels, in which circumfiance, and
the ob{curity of its texture, it bears a flrong refemblance to
the vafcular bodies found in the {wimming bladder of fithes,
The circulation of the bleod through the choroid gland ap-
pears to be flow and embarraffed, as the colour remain in

the

BE} 1eS) H,

the part in a.confiderable degree after it is macerated and
preferved in.fpirits.

The choroid gland likewife receives a number of nervous
filaments from the ophthalmic branch of the fifth pair »which
proceeds for fome way in the fame fheath with the optic
nerve.

Anatomifts are not agreed with regard to the ufe of this
fingular part : fome have fuppofed it to be a mufcular ap-
paratus, intended to alter the figure of the eye when be-
holding objects at different dittances ; others, among whom
is Cuvier, confider it as a gland which fecretes fome of the
humours of the eye; this latter opinion is moft confiltent
with the form and ftrudture of the part, which are very
unlike thofe ofany other mufcle; but, on the otber hand, its
fituation on the outfide of the ruy{chiana, and the want of
any excretory opening, are difficulties in the way of its fur-
nifhing any of the tranfparent parts of the eye; it appears
to us to fupply the place of the vafculer ftructure of the

_choroides, which membrane is always thin and deficient in
blo sd-veffels in thofe fifhes that poffefs the choroid gland.
The funétions of the choroid coat are not, we conceive, yet
fully underftood; it enjoys a degree of vafcularity greater
than is neceflary for its fuppofed offices of fecretion; we
have examples of the fame circumftance in feveral other
organs in the body, but the moft ftriking are the choroid
gland ard the vafcular bodies of the {wimming bladder of
fifhes.

The membrana ruyfchiana, near the front of the eve,
fends off, in fome fifhes, a triangular procefs, which paffes
through the vitreous humour, and is attached to the fide of
the capfule of the cryftalline lens, in the manner of the
marfupium of birds. Some very evident veflels which come
through the vitreous humour, are tran{mitted along this
procefs. On the oppofite pole of the capfule of the cryital-
line we have obferved in the dory (zeus faber), and others,
the mark of an attachment which appears to be produced
by a veffel. This mode of conncétion between the ery ttal-
line and the internal coats of the cye appears perfeAly
analogous to the pecfen or mar/upium in the eye of birds, and
no doubt anf{wers a fimilar purpofe.

The ciliary procefis have not been obferved to exift in any
fith except the tope (/qualus galeus), in which the laminz,
according to Cuvier, proje&t as much as in birds, and after
forming a fhort point, which joins the capfule of the cryf-
talline, they are continued with the ftrie of the uvea.

Fifhes want that colouréd appearance of the bottom of
the ruyfchiana, which is called the ¢apetum ; this membrane
is black at every part, except in the ray kind, which have
it tranfparent at the bottom of the cye, and therefore ad-
mitting the filver colour of the choroides to be feen through
it.

The iris is in general a very fine membrane in fifhes, and
fo tranfparent that the uvea is vifible.

The uvea has commonly a brilliant metallic colour, which
makes the eyes of fifhes fo ftriking.

The form of the pupil is round in this clafs, with the ex-
ception of the genus raja, in which a very remarkable curtain
or veil is continued from the fuperior edge of the pupil. It
ia nearly a triangular fhape; the bafe is conne&tcd above,
and the two fides hang down. Thefe are notched, or
rather divided into fhort ftripes or fhreds along the edge:
they appear gilded externally, but are black on the infide.
When the eye is unmoved, the veil is turned up between the
fuperior edge of the pupil and the vitreous humour; but if
it be depreffed, either by external force or the will of the
animal, the veil comes down and entirely covers the pupil.
The torpedo has been obferved to let down its veil in this

manner always at the moment of communicating an electric
fhock,

In the ray and /hark kinds, the carp genus, and a number
of other fifhes, the optic nerve has been obferved to enter the
eye bya round hole, and to produce a tubercle on the inner
fide, from which the refina goes off in a radiated manner.
In the rey genus, the tubercle of the optic nerve is irregular
in its figure, or papillated.

Cuvier has obferved in feveral of the genera /almo,
clupea, fcomber, perca, gadus, zeus, and tetraodon, that the
opuc nerve, afler entcring the eye, and traverfing che ruyf-
chiana, forms two ftreaks or tais: thefe tails are parallel,
but not contiguous, a production of the ruylchiana pafling
between them. The refina is produced from the oppofite
edges of thefe ftreaks, in the fame manner as it arifes in birds
from the fingle white line.

The aqueous humour is very {mall in quantity, or totally
wanting in fifhes; it isalfo of a different confiftence than in
the animals which do not inhabit the water. It is vifcid and
filamentous.

The cry/falline lens has generally in fifhes very nearly the
fpherical torm, and in fome inftances it is a perfeét {phere.
It is more denfe and hard, efpecially in the nucleus or in-
ternal part, than it isin any other animal, except the cusile
JSi/b (sepia). As the aqueous humour is fmall, the cryttal-
line is in the fame degree large in this tribe of animals.

The vitreous humour of fifhes is lefs in proportion to the
other parts, and has more confiftence than in the animals
living out of the water. ;

Cuvier has furnifhed us with fome tables, partly the refult
of his own obfervation, and partly derived from other
fources, exhibiting the proportions that exift as to the form,
magnitude, denfity, &c. of the trani{pareat parts of the eye
in different animals. We fhall extract the following parti-
culars, as ferving to explain the optical properties of the
humours of the eye in fifhes.

‘he degree of convexity or approximation of the cryftal-
line to a {phere is determined by comparing the axis with
the diameter. In the human fubject, the axis is to the
diameter as I to 2.

In the following fifhes as below:

Salmon ( falmo falar) - 9 to 10
Sword fifb (xyphias) - = 25—26
Shad (clupea) - - 10— ITI
Pike (cfox lucius) - I4— 15
Bartel (cyprinus barbus) - 1I—12
Carp (cyprinus carpio) - 14 — 15
Whiting (gadus merlangus) - 4—15
Mackarel (fcomber fcombrus) 12 — 13
Shark (/qualus) - - 2t— 2
Ray (raja). - - 2I— 2
FHferring (clupea harengus) - 10 — 15
Lench (cyprinus tinca) - 7— 8
Eel (murena anguilla) - - I1—i12
Conger (murena conger) - Q9— 10

The portion of the axis occupied by each of the three
tran{parent parts of the eye are reprefented by fractions, the
length of the axis being confidered the unit.

Aqueous Cryttalline Vitreons

‘ humour, lens. humour.
nm man . a ef 4 . a5
In the erring é oA a
7 a + a 7

(clupea harengus)

The following table has been given by Monroe, of the
comparative {pecific gravity of the humoars of the eye in
a seed

FIS H.

the cod (gadus morhua’) and the ox (40s) ; diftilled water.
being fuppofed a thoufand,

Tn the ox, In the cod.
Of the aqueous humour - 1000 - Tooo
Of the vitreous humour 1016 - 1013
Of the whole cryftalline 1114 * 6 1165
Of its external part = - 1670 \‘« 1140
Of its nucleus - 1160 - 1200

We have not proved the accuracy of this table, but it
appears to be incorreét, particularly with refpect to the
denfity of the aqueous and vitreous humours, which are pro-
bably greater than are here reprefented.

We have not a fufficient number of experiments to deter-
mine accurately the refraStive power of the different humours
ofthe eye. All that have been made, however, as weil as
common obfervation, fhew that the refrangibility of the hu-
mour is much greater in fifhes than ia terreftrial animals, by
which means they are enabled to perceive objeéts through fo
denfe a medium as water.

The eye in fifhes is moved by fix mufcles, as in the human
fubje@. The one analogous to the #rochlearis does not,
however, pafs through a pulley.

Fifhes are not provided with moveable eye-lids. in the
Salmon (falmo), and the mackarel (/comber), there is at each
angle a vertical and immoveable veil, which projedts a little
way over theeye. Mot offéous fifhes have fomething of the
fame {tructure,

In the moon fib (tetraodon mola) there is a very fingular
apparatus for covering the eye. This animal can entirely
coverits eye by alid, which contains a circular perforation.
This aperture is fhut by atrue {phinéter mufcle, and is opened
by five mufcles which arife at the bottom of the orbit, and
proceed in a radiated manner to be inferted into the eye-
hid.

Fifhes, from the nature of the mediuvm in which they
refide, do not require any aqueous fecretion for keeping the
furface of their eyes moilt ; we therefore do not find a lacry-
mal gland in any fpecies of this clafs.

The figures which illuftrate the ftruéture of the eye are
contained in Plate IX. of the Axatomy of Fifhes: fig. 5
exhibits a lateral view of the eye of the /kate (raja batis) ; a,
the eye, flat above and anteriorly ; 4, the tubercle of carti-
lage; c, the cartilaginous peduncle or footftalk upon which
the tubercle is articulated; d¢, a portion of the cartilage of
the orbit to which the footftalk is connected... Fig. 6.13 an
anterior view of the eye of the /éa‘e, with the cornea re-
moved, to bring into view the veil which is feen at a, covers
ing the greatelt part of the pupil. Fig. 7. isa feétion of the
eye of the /furgeon (acipenfer flurio); a, the thick mafs
formed by the {clerotic coat} 4, the cavity of the eye.
ig. 8. exhibits a portion of the ficin taken from the fide of
the head of the ee! (murena anguillay including the {pot
covering the globe of the eve which correfponds to the
conjunctiva. ig. 9, fhews the choroid gland in the carp
(cyprinus carpio); a, the gland; 2, the optic nerve; c, the
ruyf{chiana, the choroides being removed. Fig. ro, exhibits
the choroid gland as it exiltsin the cod (gadus mor/ua) ;
a, the gland fomewhat irregular in its figure; 4, the opffc
nerve ; c, the ruy{chiana ; d, d, veflels pafling into the gland.
Fig. 11. expofes the internal~parts of the eye inthe dory
{zeus faber); a, the vitreous humour; 2, the cryttalline
lens; c, velfel pafling through the vitreous humours, diltri-
buting branches to this humour and the lens; d, produc-
tion of the ruyfchiana attached to the capfule of the cryf-
talline ; 4) the other. point of the capfule which feems to
have a particular connection with the adjacent parts.
Fig, 12,18 intended to contraft the {pherical form of the

cryflalline of a fifh at a, with the flattened appearance of
the anterior part of the lens ina bird, asfeen atb. Fig. 13.
reprefents the tubercular termination of the optic nerve in
the kate (raja batis) ; a, the optic nerve; 5, the irregular
or papillated tubercle formed within the eye; c, the retina.
Fig. 14. fhews the termination of the optic nerve in two
ftreaks, as it exifts in the gadus, and many other genera; a,
the optic nerve; 4,5, the ftreaks or tails; ¢, the retina.

Bones.

Fifhes have been divided by all nacuralifts into two great
tribes, according to the ftru€ture of their feleton; thofe of
the one have been called the cartilaginous, and thofe of the
other the off/ous fifhes. This diftinétion, although juttified
by the difference in the compofition of their bones, and
proper as being confiftent with natural habits and ftruéture,
is neverthelefs not ftri@tly correét ; for the fk-leton of the
cartilaginous fifhes poffeffes fome calcareous matter, and
the bones of the offeous fifhes contain in general a much
fmaller quantity of earth than is found in thofe of other
animals: if they were compared with the bones of mamma-
lia, or of birds, they would themfelves deferve the epithet of
cartilaginous. The compofition is not uniform in the different
bones of a fifh’s body ; fome contain a greater quantity of
phofphate of lime than others; the cranium, {pine, and the
thick bones, are hard, white, and opaque in the offeous
fifhes, but the thin bones are flexible and tranfparent ; and in
the cartilaginous tribe, although we can as readily cut with
a knife many parts of their fkeleton as we could common
cartilage, yet their cranium and fpine give confiderable
refiftance, ef{pecially inthe larger {pecies, and prefent more
of a fibrous texture.

The ftruGture of the fkeleton is more purely ‘cartilaginous
in the fifhes with fixed branchiz, as the ray and feark genera,
than in the order of cartilaginous fifhes called branchio/=
teste

The colour of the bones of fifhes does not appear'to be
fubject to much variety"; one fpecies, however, the gar f/h
(e/ox belone), is- remarkable by having the whole fkeleton

reen,

The fkeleton of a fifh is, in its general form and mecha
nifm, fo very unlike that of other animals, that a perfon at
firft view would net fuppofe there exitted the mott diftant
analogy between them ; but after examining the parts in de-
tail, and comparing their relations to each other, we are
attonifhed by the correfpondence which prevails between
them, and the pieces of the fkeleton of mammalia. Nature
isalways economical in her means, and never deviates from
the type, or creates a new part, until ail the modification$
which the organ is capable of receiving be exhaufted. The
combination of fimplicity of defign with diverfity of ef-@,
cannot be more ftrongly illuftrated than in comparing the
anatomy of the fkeleton of fifhes with that of the other
claffes.

The fkeleton-of the chondropterygii, and of the genus ray
in particular, differs as much mn form as in compolition front
that of the offeous tithes ; it likewife bears lefs analogy to the
fkeleton of other animals: we fhall therefSre poitpone ite
defcription until we have given an account of the bones of
offeous fifhes, for which purpofe we fhall take in general the
dory (zeus faber), as affording one of the belt examples of
the ofteology of this tribe of fivhes.:

The bones which compofe the cranium are all united by a
fpecies of {quamous future; they not merely overlap each
other, but the edge of each bone forms a great number of
irregular, fharp, thin proceffes or fpicule, which are inferted
into one anothers the union thus produced does not admit

of

Fis O.

ef any motion of the feveral parts, and the cranium appears
to be compefed of a fingle piece. Cuvier fays that the bones
of the cranium are anchylofed with each other ; but we have
not only found the ufual number of bones to be diftin& in the
cranium of even old fifies, but the portions of which each
bone is originally compofed to be feparable from each
other. To be fatisfied of this fa& it is only neceflary to exa-
mine the fkull of a fifh that has beenthoroughly cleaned and
bleached by long maceration in the fea, and expofure to the
weather, many of which are frequently found lying on our
fhores: thefe fkulls we have been enabled to feparate into
portions, correfponding to the frontal, parietal, temporal,
Jphenoidal, and occipital bones, and to divide again the frontal
and occipital bones tnto two pieces each.

The external form of the cranium is very irregular, and
varies in different fihes. Inthe dory it has two flat fides,
which have an oblique direction, like the roof of a houfe ; the
top or part correfponding to the ridge is an irregular
hollow or groove ; the potterior part of the cranium is much
larger than the anterior; it 1s truncated or flat, except two
thin proceffes correfponding to the occipical ridge; the an-
terior portion of the cranium is flender, elongated, and
Slightly arched, fomewhat refembling the fuperior mandible
of abird: under this part there 1s a very large vacancy,
through which moft of the nerves pafs out. The inferior
part of the cranium is depreffed on each fide, and then forms
a remarkably ftrong procefs, which is analogous to the
bafillary, and extends from the condyle, with which the {pine
is articulated, to the bone analogous to the vomer, of which
more will be faid hereafter. The parietes of the cranium,
correfponding to the fituation of the organs of hearing, are
thin, cellular, and exhibit an irregular foffa externa ly ; in
many fifhes the fides of the cranium are not flat and floping,
but fpread out into a thin edge, nearly on a plane with the
f{uperior part: there is often alfoa fharp thin {pine extended
talong the medial line of the {uperior part of the cranium,
which, in fome {pecics, {tands high, and projects confidera-
bly from the back of the head, in order to give attachment
to the mufcles and ligaments of the fpine. The lower part
of the cranium is moft commonly, in offeous ffhes, enlarged
on each fide of the bafillary procefs.

The cavity of the cranium, as before obferved, is much
larger than the brain; it is extremely irregular upon the
internal furface, furnifhing a number of craggy and f{picu-
lated procefles, impoffible to defcribe: it is not, therefore,
adapted, as in other animals, to the form of the brain. It
is more nearly ovular than any other figure.

In the account given by Cuvier of the ones of the face,
he does not appear to us to have named the different pteces
according to their true analogy, or hkenefs to the parts com-
pofing the face of other animals. In the dory, from which
we take our defcription, the bones of the face are large and
very difting.

There is no cfeous feptum to the orbits ; the eyes are fepa-
rated from each other only by membrane. In the genus
anarrhichas, however, the orbits are divided by bone.

The zygoma is formed by a chain of very thin bones, ex-
tended from the temporal to the malar bone; it makes the
inferior margin of the external part of the orbit; thefe, in
fome fifhes, are incomplete in the middle ; Cuvier confiders
them as fupplying the place of the /acrymal bone.

The bones which appear moft analogous to the /acrymal
are two irregular-fhaped, {mall, thin pieces, fituated at the
anterior part of the os frontis, on each fide of the nafal
bones.

The bones which fupply the place of the ethmoidal of
ether animals are fituated before the os frontis, immediately

below the laft mentioned ; they defcend obliquely from the
frontal to the malar bones, with which they are articulated ;
they form the anterior margins of the orbits.

The naful bones are fupplied by a ftrong procefs of an
arched figure, which is continued from the middle of the
anterior part of the os frontis, under the pofterior ends of
the inter-maxillary bones, which move over it; from this
bone there arifes a thin plate, which is analogous to the
offeous feptum of the nafalcavity, and which is united to the
yomer.

The vomer is a bone of a firgular form, it is long, and
paffes in a {traight line from the bafilary procefs of the occi-
put, with which it appears to be really anchylofed, along
the fuperior part of the palate, and ends anteriorly ina thick
broad extremity, fomewhat refembling in figure a horfe’s foot,
which is commonly armed with tecth: this bone ferves as
the bafe to the feptum of the orb'ts.

The bones we have called the ma/ar, Cuvier appears to
contider as analogous to the palatine ; t>ey are thick, fhort,
and irregular in their fhape ; they are articulated with the
zygomatic bones, with thofe analogous to the ethmoidal,
witb the fuperior maxillary, and with the articular bones,
which will be hereafter defcribed ; they {end procefles back-
wards and inwards, which contribute to form the vault of
the palate.

The /uperior jaw is formed of four pieces, which are con-
neéted to each other, and to the adjoining bones, by liga-
ment, in fuch a manner as to permit a confiderable degree
of motion ; the two external pieces correfpond to the fupe-
rior maxillary bones; the intermediate ones to the inier-
maxiligry bones.

The maxillary bones axe two arches placed with their con-
vexity outwards ; they are broader and thinner at their ex-
tremities than in the middle; near their fuperior end they
furnifh a thick procefs, which projeéts anteriorly like a fmall
cone, and prefents on the furface next the mouth a
rounded ridge; from entering into the compolition of the
roof of the mouth, fome perfons would perhaps confider
them analogous to the palatine bones. They are conneéted
by ligament with the malar bones fuperiorly, with the coro-
noid proce{s of the lower jaw inferiorly, and anteriorly with
the inter-maxillary bones.

The part of the upper jaw that correfponds to the inter-
maxillary bones forms the fuperior margin of the mouth, and
is commonly furnifhed with teeth; it is compofed of two
pieces, which are united to each other by ligament and
cartilage ; each of thefe fends off pofteriorly two thin plates,
and one long round procefs; the firft flide under the max-
illary bones, and the round proceffes are tied together by
ligament, and move in a fheath which is thus formed upon
the nafal bone: a free motion of thele parts on each other
becomes neceflary in the protrufion, the opening, and the
fhutting of the mouth.

The inferior jaw confifts of two triangular fhaped pieces,
which are united to each other by ligament at their an-
terior part: the angle of thofe pieces that is placed upwards
correfponds to the coronoid proce/s ; the articulation is fituated
near the polterior angle, and this lait correfponds with what
is called the angle of the jaw in mammalia. The middle
part of the pieces compofing the lower jaw is either of ex-
tremely thin cartilage or membrane.

_ The lower jaw 1s articulated with a bone analogous to
that to which Cnvier has given the name of the /guare bone,
(/'0s quarré,) but which we have preferred calling the articular
hone 1 the defcription of the anatomy of birds, from the
circumitance of its being interpofed between the articulation
of the jaw and the cranium. n'y

The

FS H.

The articular bone is compofed of feveral pieces firmly
united together; they produce a confiderable extent of fur-
face on the fide of the head in the dory : one piece, which is
of fome ftrength, is articulated with the under furface of
the temporal bone, from which it proceeds downwards and
forwards in a curved manner, declining in thicknefs as it
defcends: this piece fuitains the thin bone of the operculum,
and receives the horn of the os hyoides: over this piece there
is another thinner one laid ; they are apparently anchylofed
with each other, and the external one commences a {hort
cittance from the cranium, by a tharp diftin@ point, and
goes onto the articulation of the lower jaw: another offecus
piece is articulated below, and anterior to the orbit with
the inferior end of the malar bone, from which it proceeds
directly downwards to join the anterior end of the other
piece, and forms with it the articular furface for the joirt
with the lower jaw. The intermediate {pace left between
thefe pieces, which is very confiderable and of a triangular
figure, is filled up with a very thin plate of cartilage, which
is in’ parts offiied. ‘The articular bone in fifhes is evidently
formed to carry the iower-jaw forwards, and thus to facilitate
the protrufion and dilatation of the mouth, and fer
affording a furface for the attachment of the mufeles of
the jaw; it is therefore found much larger in this clafs than
in birds.

The part correfponding tothe os hyoides is formed by
two flat ofleous plates, which meet together anteriorly upon
the bone which fuilains the tongue, and feparating from
each other pofteriorly encompafs the gills: a {mali round
branch goes off from the external end of each plate; thefe
are analoyous to the horns of the os hycides, and become
attached to the internal furface of the articular bone by
ligaments, which allow the hyoides to move nearer or farther
from the cavity of the mouth: each plate of the hyoides is
compofed of f.veral pieces, the edges of which are in a
csriain degree anchylofed with each other: there are fix
pieces oblervable on each fide in tbe dory. Cuvier {tates
three to be the vfual number.

There isa very thin offeous plate fituated between the
anterior ends of the two fides of the hyoides, and the
jui Ction of the fccpule ; it is connefled by pieces of liga-
ment to each fide of the os hycides, to the lingual bone,
and to the feapulz, where they meet : this bone has almoft
exaGtly the ourline of a heart, it has been therefore called the
cordiform or heart foaped bene; itis peculiar to fifhes, but
does not appear to have any other ule, than to afford
attachment to the {trong mufcles fituated at this place.

There are a number of bones that are peculiar to the
organs of refpiration and of degiutition in this"clafs of
animals, which requirea connected defcription: thefe are the
branchial arches, the pharyngeal bones. and the bones which
fuflain the operculum or gill cover, with thofe of the mem-
brana branchioftega.

In deferibing the organs of reipiration we have fated
that each of the gilla is fuftained upon an arch of bone:
each branchial arch is compofed of two pieces or limbs, two
of the ends of which are conjoined by ligament in fuch a
manner, that the other extremitizs can be moved nearer or
farther afunder, and thus the arch rendered narrower or
wider: the f{uperior limb, or that next the cranium, meafnres
about one-third of the whole arch, and the inferior about
two-thirds of its extent. ‘The branchial arches are placed,
with refpe@ to cach other, obliquely in fucceffi o; they are
commonly flender, thin bones, and have four fides, or ra-
ther two edges and two fides: the convex edge is directed
outwards and backwards: it is upon this the lamine of the
gills are planted ; the concave edge is turned forwards and ‘a-

Vor, XIV.

wards, towards the mouth. Along the external or anterior
fide there are ufually a number of {mall offeous eminences,
placed at fhort diftances from each other, which proje& a
little beyond the concave edge : thefe do not commonly arife
from the bone, but the membrane covering it: they are
furnifhed with teeth, which are thence called the branchial
teeth, as already defcribed. The inferior extremity of the
branchial arches are attached in fucceffion along the fides of
fome offeous pieces, which are fituated in the lower part of
the mouth, and appear as the continuation of the lingual
bone: thefe bones vary in number in the different fpecies,
but they are firm'y united to cach other, fo as to form a fort
of fternum, to which the branchial archcs are effixed like nbs.
The fuperior furface of thefe bones is {mooth, but inferiorly
they furnifh fome proceffes, through which lome of the
branches of the branchial artery palsto the gills.

_ From the pofterior extremity of this fpecies of fternum
there arife two flender branches, which feparate from each
other in the manner of horns, and foon term inate tn flattened
furfaces or difks: thefe are the inferior pharyngeal bones, and
are, as before obferved, commonly covered with teeth.

The fuperior extremities of the branchial! arches are
indire@ly cosneGted with the bafis of the cranium; 2 flendce
footitalk is articulated at one end with the fupericr extremity
of the pofterior arch, and at the other with the bafe of the
cranium ; the fuperior extremities cf the three antcrior
arches of each fide terminate upon two flattered bones,
which are called the /uperior pharyngeal bones ; from the upper
edge of which a fecond fvotltatk goes off, ard 's attached
to the cranium, ou the inner fide of the one fi & mentioned.

In confequence of this fort of conneétion between the

branchial arches and the cranium, two additional joints are

created, by which the flexion of the arches, and the approxi»
i F the fupenior pharyngeal bones to cach other, ard

mation o¢ the iuperior pharyngeat bones to cect ner, an

to the inferior pharynpeal bones, are more cemplctely per-
formed; the mufcles hkewife which move thefe parts gaia
confiderable power by their whole force cperating upon the
pointe at which they are inferted.

Cuvier ftetes the conneétion between the branchial arches
and the cranium of ofleous fihhes in a manner fomewhat
differently than we have deferitbed it above. He fays the
fuperior extremities of all the four arches are attached to
the fuperior pharyngeal bones, when thefe exift; the two
polterior arches by an articulation, which admits of a {ee-
{aw motiox ; and the two asterior arches more loofely: for
this purpofe, the firfl arch bifurcates and [eads to the pharyn-
geal bone a ftrong licament from pe of its branches, while
the other is immed ; joined to che cranivem.

In the fidurus an ris, which has but one large pharyn-
geal plate falened under the fuperior extremity of the lait
arch, this extremity unites with that of thethid arch, and

converges with thofe of the two frit towards the bafe of
the craniym.
In the pike (efox lucius) the two lak arches unite at

nc, which, as well as

t
their fuperior extremitics to the fc
the firft, is articulated with the crar

are approximated and art:culated with a common piece, which
is united to the cranium.

In the trout (faimo fario ) the fuperior extremitics of the
fix arches are united by feveral pieces, the poferior of
which bears a {mall plate covered with teeth, at the place
where it is joined with the extremity of the Jatt arch.

The boves which form the operculum are generally two.
The principal one hasa triangular figure; it is very thin at
every part, except at the fuperior angle, at which place it

3.4 forms

FISH.

forms a fort of neck, and a little prominence or head, in being conftructed of fhort pillars, with regular fpaces be-
which there is a depreffion that is joined to a correfponding tweenthem. ‘This {tructure diminifhes very confiderably thé
procefs, on the back of the fuperior end of the articular weight of the {pine, without fubtraéting from its
bone. This bone of the operculum has a degree of rotatory ftrength.
motion, in addition to thofe of elevation and depreffion. The fpinous proceffes of the vertebre are commonly long,
The other bone of the operculum is long, narrow, and thin, fleader, fharp-pointed bones ; they arife from the fuperior _
and refembles the blade of a knife; it lies pofterior to, and fides of the bodies of alithe vertebra, and from the inferiot
nearly parallel with, the articular bone ; it is not joinedto any fides of the caudal, and fome of the laft dorfal or abdominal
bone byarticulation, but is conne&ted byligaments pofteriorly, vertebra. They originate in the lower furface of the caudal
with the triangular bone of the operculum, and the back vertebrz we believe always as two procefics, which coalefce,
per of the os hyoides, and anteriorly to the angle of the and form a triangular fpace, in which the blood-veffels of
ower jaw. The ufe of this bone feems to be chiefly to the tail pafs along the fpine. They are double at their roots
fuftain the integuments which are extended over this inthe p/ewronedes and other fifhes, along the fuperior part of
place. the fpine alfo. ~ .

The offous rays which fupport the membrana branchiofega The inferior {pinous procefles of ‘the laft dotfal vertebre
are attached to the pofterior margin of the broad bones of are fhort, imperfeetly formed, aud have their extremities
the os hyoides ; they increafe in fize from before backwards. applied and faftened to each other, in order to fuftain the
‘Phere is an interval between the origin of the firtt three rays, large bone that forms the boundary of the abdominal cavity,
and that of the four pofterior rays, which, however, doesnot, of which more hereafter;
caufe any material irregularity in the fucceflion of the points The laft vertebra of the tail has its extremity fpread out
of the rays. Thefe bones are capable of being elevated and inthe fizure of a-fan, which appears to be compofed’ of a
Yowered, of being approximated and’expanded. The eleva. number’of offeous rays united to each other.

tion and expanfion of the pofterior rays are oppofed, beyond
a certain extent, by a procefs from their roots.

The vertebre are divided by Cuvier into two clafles ; the
firft are the abdominal or dorfal, which have {pinous procefles
from the fuperior fide of the {pine only ; the fecond are the
eaudal vertebre, which have {pinous proceffes from both the
upper and lower fides of the fpine: but this diftinétion is
not quite corre&t, as the pofterior abdominal vertebra fur-

The ris are {ometimes wanting in fifhes, and, when they
do exift, are ufvally very fmall,

The genera filurus, cyprinus, and chetodon, however, fur-
nifh examples of fifhes wich ftrong ribs, which furround
the abdominal cavity almoft to its top. ,

In the herring genus (clupea), the zeus vomer, &c. they
unite ina fort of fternum. . ;

In many fifhes the mbs divide at their extremities into two

nifh fhort {pinous proceffes inferiorly ; the caudal vertebre branches; it ia véry common alfo to meet with a fecond row
may, however, be reckoned with propriety from the large of ribs, which arife above the others ; thefe are ufually fewer
bone, which forms the pofterior boundary of the abdominal in number than the proper abdominal ribs, and pafs between

Cavity.

The bodies of the vertebre vary with refpett to figure in
different fifhes, being cylindric in fome inftances, and angu-
Jar or compreffed in others; they are all, however, diftin-
guifhed by having the furfaces by which they are conjoined
hollowed out to forma femi-fpherical or conical cavity:
thefe cavities are oppofed to each other, and thus produce,
throughout the whole fpine, a chain of cavities, each of
which is nearly of a fpherical fizure, and alternates in fuc-
ceffion with the vertebra; thefe cavities are furnifhed with
concentric layers of cartilage, or rather a peculiar inter-»
vertebral fub{tance, which fomewhat refembles ligament, but
is highly elaftic : thefe concentric layers complete the form
ot each cavity, and conftitute the bond of union between
one vertebra and another. The interior part of the cavities
is actually filled by fluid.

The centre of each vertebra, which is very thin, is per-

the portions of the lateral mufcles.

The fernum but rarely exifts in this clafs of animals, as
the ribs feldom extend as far as the inferior part of the body.

Inthe dory (zeus faber) there is a {peciesof fternum formed
by a number of irregularly fhaped offzous pieces, which ap-
pear to be only conneéted with each other by ligament, and
the common integuments. They are furnifhed with fharp
{pines externally, and are hollow next the cavity of the
body.

The members which correfpond in fifhes to the anterior
and potterior extremities of other animals are the peGoral
and abdominal jinz.

The peGoral fin is {ultained by a very confiderable bone,
which, with the correfponding one, furrounds the body im-
mediately behind the aperture of the gills. Cuvier has, from
hence, called them the girdle-formed bones ; he likewife con-

forated with a {mall hole, which is lined by the fame fub- fiders them as analogous to the /capula, in which he is juttified
ftance that invefts the cavities; acommunication is therefore by their pofition, and fome circumftances in their formation.
eftablifhed between the cavities, the whole length of the ‘Thefe bones are articulated with the inferior and pofterior
fpine, which is probably deligned to obviate the compreffion part of the cranium; they pafs backwards and outwards, as
of the fluidin the different cells or cavities during the motions faras the middle line of the body of the fifh, during which
ef the fpine. 7 courfe they are narrow, flat on the external furface, and

By this {pecies of articulation of the vertebra with each have a round ridge along their internal furface. They then
other feveral advantages are obtained ; ftrength and light- make a turn forwards and inwards, and meet each other a
nefs are beftowed onthe fpine, and a great facility of mo- hort diflance behind the os hyoides. At the place they tura
tion, as every vertebra rolls upon a globe compofed of an forwares, they fend a thin, fharp procefs backwards, and
elaftic fubftance, and of fluid. The fart vertebra is arti- foonafter they receive, in articular deprefiions, the ends of two
culated with the occiput in the fame manner as’ thofe of the Jong, flender, three-fided bones, which pals from below up-
{pine are with each other. wards, acrofs the mufcular parietes of the abdominal cavity.

The external furface of the vertebra are very generally Some anatomilts confider thefe bones as being analogous to
marked by a number of depreffions or little cavities, in the the clavicles ; Cuvier does not allow it, but without ftating
longitudinal direGtion of the fpine, which give to the cir- the grounds of his objection. It is fufficiently plain, how-
cumferenee of each vertebra very much the appearance of ever, from their pofitioa and connections, that there are no

3 other

FISH.

other bones, except the clavicles, or the fork-fhaped bones
of birds, with which they can be compared.

It is the inferior half of the fcapula that properly cor-
refponds with the bone which bears that name in other ani-
mals; the other portion feems to be a part added in fishes, in
order to give firmnefs to the whole member, by conneAling it
with the head, and likewife to carry the peétoral fin far-
ther down wpon the body. The inferior portion is broad
and thin, and furnifhed witha thin, foinous procefs, or ra-
ther plate, which runs along cach fide of the bone, near
the antcrior edge, which may be compared with the {pine
that divides the furface of the {eapula in mammalia.

The offeous rays which compofe the peGoral fin are con-
neGed to the poftcrior edge of the fcapule by means of a
number of {mali bones, that feem to perform the office of a
carpus, and with which it fhould perhaps be confidered to
correfpond. Each offecus ray, towards the extremity in
particular, confills of a fucceflion of minute bones, clofely
united to ezch ether: thefe might be compared to the
joints of the fingers.

The above defeription of the peGtoral member has been
takenfrom the dory (zeus faler) ; it is neceflary, there-
fore, to mention fome varieties of firu€ture that exilt in
other fithes.

The peGoral fin does not exift in fome fifhes, as the genera
murena and cecilia.

The angle, which is formed by the union of the two infe-
rior extremities of the feapulz, is very acute in thofe fifhes
that have the body compreffed vertically ; but in thofe with
a deprefled or flattened body, the {capulz turn inwards, and
meet each other nearly in a ftraight line.

The number of carpal bones varies ; Cuvier ftates, that
there are four large bones of this kind in the cvo/f fi/b (anar-
rhichas lupus), the red gurnard (trigla cuculus), and inthe
armed and flying trigle (trigla cataphrada and trigla volitans) ;
four {mall bones in the genus plenroneces, and the whiting
(gadus merlangus); eight {mali bones, in two rows, are
found in the dory (zeus faber) ; three {mall cylindric bones in
the flurus, and fivein the chetodons, perches, Ke.

When the firft rays of the petoral fin are fpinous, they
are compofed of fingle fharp-pointed bones ; they are attached
immediately to the fcapule.

In fome of the genera filurus and gafleroffens the articula-
tion with the fcapula is fo contrived, that the fifh can at
pleafure lay the {pine clofe to the body, or place it ere&,
and keep it fixed in that pofition: there is a cylindric tuber-
cle formed on the feapula, in the front of which there is a
hole. The fpine of the fin is articulated with this cylinder
by adepreffion, which has a projecting procefs before and
behind it. When the {pine is extended, the anterior procels,
which bas the figure of a hook, enters the above-men-
tioned hole, and the [pine turning a little on its axis, the
procefs is hooked upon the edge of the hole in fuch a man-
ner, thatthe {pine cannot be infle@ed until it makes a turn
upon its axis in a direGtion oppofite to the former.

The ventral fins which correfpond in fifhes to the pofte-
rior extremities are fometimes wanting, or fituated at different
parts of the inferior furface of the body. They do not
exift emongft the cartilaginous fithes, in the genera pefromyzon
and /jgnathus ; and in fome {pecies of baliffes, offracion, tetra-
odon, &c. 7

The orders of the offeous fifhes are determined by natu-
ralifts from the abfence or pofition of thefe fins ; thus all the
apodal order want the ventral fins, The jugulares have them
fituated under the throat, and before the peétoral fins.
In the shoracici they are placed below the pectoral fins, and
in the abdominal order of fifhes the ventral fins are found under

’

the belly, which is their proper fituation, or that which their
name implies,

The bones analogous to the felvis,; and which fuftain the
rays of the ventral fins, are various in their figure and pefition,
with ref{pe& to each other.. They are molt commonly fiat,
and have the internal edges applied to one another in the
jugular and thoracic fifhes; but their inner furfaces and ex-
ternal or inferior edges are more or cfs feparated, in order
to accommodate the mulcles which approximate and retra&
the rays of the fin.

In the dory (zeus faber), the pelvic bones are triangular
plates, flightly concave on the furfaces nex’ each other, and
furnifhed with a fpinous ridge on both the furfaces; one
angle, which is very acute, is direéted obliquely inwards
and forwards, towards the cavity of the body; the pofs
terior angle produces a long ftyloid procefs, and the an-
terior angle is blunt or a little rounded: both the anterior
and pofterior angles are connected by a ligament to the
chain of bones forming the fternum in this fifh. The rays
of the fin are articulated to the middle of the inferior furface,
and not tothe anterior angle, as ftated by Cuvier.

We are indebted to this anatomnift for fome details of the
ftruture of the ventral fins in feveral fithes.

Inthe weaver (trachinus), and the ftar-gazer (uranofcopus),
the pelvic bones are foldered together at their internal edge;
their inferior furfaces are oppofed-to: each other; and leave
between them an oval {pace. - The angle of their junétion
projects within the cavity of theabdomen,

In the genera cotius, fciena, chetodon, and perca. the bones of
the pelvis are alfo united at their internal edge ; they are flat
and long, and their external edges are direéted downwardsy
fo as to form a fofla. :

In fome of the flicklebacks (gafterofleus) the pelvic bones
are feparate, extremely long, and receive near their middle
a moveable f{pine, which occupies the place of the fin.

The zeus vomer has thefe bones {mall and cylindrical.

The pelvic bones are not conneéted to the inferior points
of the fcapulz in the abdominales, as they are in the jugular
and thoracic fifhes.

In this order of fithes the bones of the pelvis are alfo, ace
cording to Cuvier, generally unconneS&ted with each other,
and are preferved in their fituation by lizaments. .

in the carps (cyprinus) they are long, and only touch
about one-third from their lower end. ;

In the herrings (clupea) they are very fmall, clofe together,
and form an addition to the litt!e bones that fupply the place
of the fternum.

The pelvic bones in the pike (cfox /ucius) are broad and
triangular ; they are clofe together at the anterior extremity,
but diverge at the pofterior end, which is broader and res
ceives the rays of the fin.

In the anableps thefe bones are very far afunder, ‘and bear
upon. their external border a very long f{pine, which afcends
towards the vertebral column, and is infle&ed in the direc-
tion of the ribs.

In the genus /iurus the pelvic bones are united to each
other; they have the fhape of an efcutcheon, round in the
middle, and often fpinous infront. The rays of the fia
are attached to their external and pofterior edge.

Thefe bones are offified into one piecerin the genus Jeri-
caria. The fins are conjoined tothe outward edge.

The offeous rays of the ventral fins are fimilar to thofe
of the peétoral fin, but in general fhorter ; the ventral fins are
capable of being-moved forwards or upwards, and of having
their rays expanded, and of being brought backwards, clofer
together, and of having their rays approximated and folded.

The dorfal, caudal, and anal fins are members fuperadded

: 3X2 te

to fifhes, to affit in the motions of fwimming 3 they vary in
aumber and extent in different {pecies, which peculiarities it
is the province of the naturalift to point out. They confit
ef a number of offeous rays which refemble thofe of the
pectoral and ventral fins, The firfl rays of the dorfal fin
are, however, frequently fingle fpinous bones, and thofe
of the tail are generally larger, exhibit more of a jointed ap-
pearance, and are more frequently bifurcated at the extre-
mities than the other fins of the body.

The rays of the caudal fin are fuftained upon the pofterior
edge of the fan-fhaped extremity of the laft caudal verteb z,
with the intervention of fome {mall bones, which refembie
the carpal bones of the peGoral fin.

The rays of the dorfal and anal fins are fupported upon
the extremities of long, flender, fpine-fhaped bones: the
other extremities of thefe bones alternate with the extremi-
ties of the fuperior and inferior fpinous procefles of the
vertebrz, to which they are attached by ligament.

Thefe additional fpinous bones are intended to increafe
the lateral furfaces of fifhes ; we therefore find them, as well
as the real {pinous proceffes of the vertebrz, long in propor-
tion to the breadth of the body; in the flat fithes (plezra-
weéies) they are particularly long.

The additional fpines, in {ome inftances, as the dory
(zeus faber), are united to each other by thin cartilaginous
laminz, and fuftain fimilar lamine in a vertical pofition with
refpeét to the fpines, by which means regular fheaths are

roduced on each fide for the mufcles of the potterior part
of the dorfal and the anal fins,

It remains, to complete the account of the fkeleton of
offeous fifhes, to defcribe the bone which forms the boundary
of the abdominal cavity: this bone is not unufually the
ftrongeft in the whole body ; it isof an elongated fhape, and
flightly bent, rounded, and very {mooth on the fide next the
cavity. of the abdomen; it appears in mary fifhes hke a
large inferior fpinous procefs of the vertebre, but it is in
reality a bone interpofed between fome of the {pinous pro-
ceffes of the dorfal vertebre, and fome of the additional
{pines of the anal fin, with both of which it ia united by a
fort of fquamous future, which appears like an anchylofis.

This bone is extremely ufeful in bieding together and
giving firmoefs to the ofleous febric of the tail, which other-
wife would not be able to fuftain the impulfe of the waiter
during the aétons of fwimming. It likewife effords a
{mooth and fecure boundary: to the abdominal cavity.

The fkeleton of the fut cartilaginous fihes differs fo much
from thofe above deicribed, that it is almost impeoffible to
difcover any analogy between many of thefs parts.

The fubje&ts we fhall chufe as examples of this genus of
fithes are the thornback and feate (raja clavata and raja batis.)

‘The cartilaginous pieces which compofe the cranium are
fo intimately united, that itis difficult to recognize them:
futures, however, are difcoverable, which mark out pieces
that cerrefpond to the temporal, occipital, and parietal
bones.

Tne jorm of the cranium is: nearly that of an oblong
fquare, fomewhat enlarged, and irregular potteriorly.

The internal furface correfponds with the external form,
except where the organs of hearing are contained, at which
places the cavity of the cranium is proportionaliy di-
mintfhed,

The cavity of the cranium is alfo prolonged anteriorly, or,
more properly {peaking, is continuous with the cavity of
the fnout, which renders the difproportion between it and
the brain even greater than in other fifhes.

The foramina for tranimitting the olfa@ory and optic
acrves are at oppofite fides of the cranium.

The parts compofing the face in the flat chondropterygii are
few, and very unlke the bones of the face in other animals,

The cranium, as before obfe:ved, is continued anteriorly
into a long, taper, hollow cartilage, which forms the central
part of the fnout.

Where this cartilage commences from the cranium, there
is placed on each fide of it a hollow cartilage or box, nearly
of an oval fizure, which contains the organ of fmehing.
The cartilages of the fnout and organs of fmelling might
be confidered as analogous to the na/a/ and ethmoidal bones,
the vomer, and offa palati, united together. :

Upon the external parts of the bones holding the organs
of {melling, there is articulated a {mall irregular fpur-fhaped _
cartilage, which is bent backwards: this appears to fupply
the place of the malar and zygomatic bones.

Both the jaws are fituated under the cranium, andare fuf-
tained upon two elongated cartilaginous pieces, which cor-
refpond in office, though not in figure, with the articular
fones: thefe pieces are connected by one of their extremities
with the lower jaw, clofe to the articulation; and by the
other extremity with the parts of the cranium which cor-
refpond to the temporal bones. The jaws are two cartila-
ginous rims, nearly of the fame fize at every part: each jaw
hasa moveable articulation at the fymphifis, by which means
they can be protruded, and the fizures of the mouth altered.
The jaws are articulated with each other, by a round tubercle
of the fuperior jaw being received into a focket in the in-
ferior.

The tongue is wanting, as before obferved, in the ray
genus. There is, however, a rim of cartilage extended be-
tween the two firft branchial arches and under the membrane,
lining the lower part of the mouth, which takes the place
of the dingual bone, and when the mouth is widely opened
forms a proj-ction, which has been miltaken for a tongue in
thefe fifhes.

The part correfponding to the intermediate bones which
fuftain the inferior extremities of the branchiz, are two thin
pieces of cartilage, which are united in the middle, at the
pofterior part have a poicted fhape, and terminate before in
two horn-like proceflés.

The cartilages which appear molt analogous to the hyoides
are two branches which arife from the external edges of the
thin pieces jult deferibed, and two other branches which are
attached to the fide of the cervical {pine immediately behind
the lait branchial arches: the branches from the intermedi-
ate cartilage afcend backwards and outwards: thofe from the
fpise defcend in the fame direGtion : they are united to each
other on the anterior part of the fcapula, to which alfo they
are conneGed at their point of union,

The branchial arches are very ftiong in this genus. and the
joints havea freer motion than in other fifhes, by which the
extremities of the arches can be brought clofer to each other:
a number of cartilaginous rays alfo arife from the convex fide
of each arch, which pafs between the rows of the mem-
branous lamire, as already mentioned. The fuperior extre-
mities of the arches are articulated with the cartilage, which
takes the place of the cervical vertebra, and not with the
cranium, as in other fithes. a ;

The {pine is articulated with the cranium by two condyles,
between which the fpinal canal projets a little, and is re-
ceived into a deficiency of an arehed figure formed on the
{uperior and inferior fides of the foramen magnum.

The cervical vertebre are confolidated into one piece ; on
the fuperior and lateral parts of which cartilaginous plates
are produced, which correfpond to tranfverfe and f{pinous
procefles. ae

The decal and caudal vertebrae are diftin@, as in other

fihes,

FISH.

filhess The former furnith from the fuperior part of their
bodies fmall, thin, fquare plates, which are conneéted to
each other by ligament. ‘T'he laft have their lateral furfaces
encreafed by fimilar proceffes on their fuperior part, and
fome projections alfo inferiorly; they, however, gradually
decline, and towards the extremity of the tail are {carcely to
be difcerned. In the thornback (raja clavata), the fuperior
proceffes fu‘tain, befides the dorfal tin, a row of hook-fhaped
bones, which have their points turned backwards.

The bodies of all the vertebra, except the cervical, which
form but a fingle piece, are united by elaftic ligament; the
inter-vertebral joints contain a fluid, and each vertebra is per-
forated in the centre by a fmall hole, in the fame manner as
in fithes generally.

A. favourable opportunity for examining the nature of the
inter-vertebral articulation occurred to Mr. Home in the dif-
feétion of the baking fhark (fqualus maximus). Four days
after the fith was brought on fhore, the inter-vertebral fub-
ftance being cut into, a limpid fluid rufhed out with fo much
velocity that it rofe to the height of four feet. At the end
of twelve days a portion of the {pine was examined, the in-
ter-vertebral joints of which had been preferved entire ; upon
fawing through two of the vertebra a fluid was met with,
of the confiftence of liquid jelly, with clots of different fizes
floating in it ; fo that in eight days a confiderable tendency
to coagulation had taken place, although the fluid was en-
tirely excluded from the air.”’

“© The cavity betweeen every two vertebree was found to
contain, in the da/Ring /hark, about three pints of liquid. When
this fluid was evacuated, the ela(tic ligamentous fubftance
which united together the concavé furfaccs of the two con-
tiguous vertebr, brought the ends of the vertcbre within
an inch and one-half of each other, in which ftate the inner
layers of the ligaments, which are lefs firm in their texture
than the outer, projeét into the cavity, and may be miftsken
for a part of its natural contents: this portion, when foaked
in water, {wells out toa confiderable fize, the water readily in-
finuating itfelf between the layers of which it is compofed.’

«Tae whole thicknefs of the ligaments is about one inch,
the external half of which is compact and elaltic ; the other
appears to poff=fs a very high degree of elallicity.”

Mr, Home ftates that the gelatinous fubftance which fills
the interevertebral joints of other fithes is fluid during life,
which ta& was afcertained in the /Rate (raja batis).

Mr. Brodie found that in the Aog and rabbit the central
part of the inter-vertebral joints contains a cavity with a
{mooth internal furface, of the extent of half the diameter
of the vertebra, which is filled with a thick gelatinous fluid ;
and we have obferved the fame faét in other quadrupeds,
from which it would appear that the mode of articulation
in the fpine of fithes is not abfolutely peculiar to them.

Mr. Home defcribes the Rruéture in the {pine of the urgeon
{acipenfer fiurio) as being different from that of other fifhes.
«There is,”? he fays, ‘externally, the common appearance of
regular vertebre 5 but thefe prove to be only cartilaginous
rings, the edges of which are nearly in contaét, and are
united together by elaftic ligaments, forming a tube the
whole length of the fpine. This is lined, throughout its
internal furface, with a fire, compact, elaftic fubftance ;
within this is a foft, flexible fubitance, in a {malldegreeelattic;
in the c.ntre there is a chain of cavities in the form of lozen-
ges, containing a fluid, and communicating with one another
by very fmall apertures. The fpine of the /amprey eel
(fetromyzon marinus) is found to refemble that of the
Jturgeon.”*

_ The above ftructure is not fo different from that of the
Spine of fifhes in general, asit would at firit feem to be ; fince

;

-

we have difcovered the communication between the intere
vertebral cavities to exift both in the cartilaginous and
offeous tribes of fifhes.

Cuvier ftates that there are no ribs in the chondropterygit ;
but we find on the fides of the bodies of the dorfal vertebrz
anumber of fhort-pointed proceffes, which might be conf-
dered as rudiments of thefe parts.

The pectoral member of the ray genus is peculiar in its
form and dirc€t’on, and ts of prodigious magnitude. The
pieces which fuftain the rays of tke fin are analogous to the
JSeapule; they are conneéted with the back part of the dorfal
{pine by means of two thin, flat cartilages. They pafs out-
wards, enlarge, and form two wide foramina on each fide,
through which the nerves and veffels pafs to the fin. The
{capuia next produces two branches, one of which pafles back-
wards nearly parallel with the fpine, and the other goes for-
wards as far as the anterior part of the head; thefe branches
have feveral joints in them, by which they can be moved
nearer and farther from the bedy.

The f{capule are united onthe under part of the fifh by a
ftrong cartilaginous bar, which fuppFes the place both of

JSiernum and clavicles. .

The rays of the fin arife from the external fide of the
branches, which is flightly concave; they are exceedingly
long, particularly in the middie of the fin, and each com-
pofed evidently of many joints. Itis upon the great number
and extent of the rays of the pedioral fin that the peculiar
{quare figure of the fat chondropterygti depends.

The pectoral fins of the /barks are conftru&ted upon the
fame plan as in the genus raja, but are much {maller, and
are not connected to the fpine.

The ventral fins are {upported upon the extremities of a
tran{verfe piece of cartilage in the chondropterygii, which is
fituated at the pofterior part of the abdomen ; it is not at-
tached to the fpine, but held in its place by its conneétion
with the mufcles.

The external rays of the ventral fin in thefe fithes are
ftronger than the others, and are compofed of fome pieces
articulated to each other in fucceflion, which very much
refemble the joints of the digiti in other animals, and which,
therefore, form the analogy which exifts between the rays of
the fins of fifhes in general, and the fingers or toes of digi-
tated animals.

Fig. 1. Plate X11. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, exhibits a late-
ral view of the fkeleton of the dory (zeus faber); a is the
cranium; 4, the vacancy left between the twoorbits; c, the
zygoma; d, the part correfponding to the lacrymal bone ;
e, the piece which appezrs analogous to the ethmoidal bone ;

fi the nalal bone; g, the offeous ftalk which comes from the
occiput to join the vomer; A, the bone analogous to the
malar, or the palatine; z, the {uperior maxillary bone; 4,
the inter: maxillary bone; /, the inferior jaw; m, the arti-
cular bone by which the lower jaw is conne&ed to the head ;
n, the os hyoides, on the edge of which are feen the rys of
the membrana branchioftega; o, the lingual bone; p, the
principal bone of the operculum; g, the other bone of the
gill-cover; 1, the fuperior pharyngeal bone; 2, the bran-
chial arches; 3, the inferior pharyngeal bones; 4, the
cordiform bone. As thefe lait parts are fituated internally,
they are feen but imperfe@ly; rr, the fcapula; s, the
bone analogous to the clavicle ; #, the carpus, on which are
arranged the rays of the pectoral fin; uw u, the chain of
bones formed under the integuments, in the manner of a
{ternum; v, the pelvis, on which are feen the rays of the
ventral fin; x,x, x, the cervical, dorfal, and caudal divifious
of the {pine ; from the two firft of which long, fpinous pros
cefles are feen to proceed upwards, and to fuftain the rae
tion

FISH.

fional fpinous bones on which the dorfal fins are articulated,
From the inferior part of the caudal, and fome of the lat{t
dorfal vertebrz, {pinous proceffes are feen to arife, which be-
come connected with the additional {pines fupporting the
anal fin, and of which fome are united to the extremity of
the bone that bounds the abdominal cavity. The extremity
of the tail produces the fan-fhaped bone, which bears the
caudal fin; y, the true or abdommal ribs; 2, fome fuper-
numerary ribs which are defigned to pafs amongtt the mufcles
of the fpine,

Fig. 2. of the fame plate, fhews the cavity which exifts
hetween the vertebre of an offeous fifh; a, a, two of the
vertebre of the turbot (pleuronetles maximus), divided longi-
tudinally ; 4 4, ligamentous (ubftance by which they are
united; c, the inter-vertebral cavity.

Fig, 3. of Plate X11. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, gives a view
of the cavity in one vertebre ; a, the body of the bone ;
, {pinous procefs partly cut away ; c, the canal for holding
the {pinal marrow ; d, the concavity of the inter.vertebral
joint ; e, the foramen, or rather fhort canal, by which the
inter-vertebral cavities communicate with each other,

Fig. 1. ot Plate X11. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, reprefents
the inferior parts of the fkeleton of the thornback (raja cla-
vata); a, the cranium; 4, the cartilage which forms the
middle of the fnout; c, c, the ovular cavities for containing
the organs of fmelling, d, d, the branches articulated upon
the external part of thefe cavities ; ¢, ¢, the two jaws; f, f,
the cartilages analogous to the articular bones by which the
jaws are connected to the cranium; g, the rim of cartilage
that fupplies the place of the lingual bone; 4, the interme-
diate cartilage to which the lower extremities of the bran-
chial arches are united; 7, ¢, the inferior branches which
feem to {upply the place of the os hyoides; 4, 4, the fuperior
branches of the fame; /, /, the branchial arches; zm, the
cervical portion of the fpine, confolidated into one piece ;
m, the dorfal portion, of the {pine ; 0, the caudal divifion ;
Pp; ps thort proceffes from the fides of the dorfal vertebrae,
that correfpond to the ribs; g, the tranfverfe bar that
anfwers for clavicles and fternum; 7,7. r, r, the branches of
the {capule ; the bodies of the {capule, and the connetion
of thefe parts with the fpine, are ina great meafure con-
cealed from view; s,5,5,5, the rays of the pectoral fins ;
g, the tranfverfe cartilage which bears the ventral fins, laid
acro{s the {pine in its proper fituation; u, w, the rays of the
fin which more particularly’ refemble, in their figure and
mode of articulation, the digiti of other animals; v, v, the
f{maller rays of the fame fins. ‘The rays of the other fins,
having no peculiarity of itru€ture, are indicated by their
potition.

Fig. 2. of Plate XIII, exhibits a view of the articular fur-
face of one of the dorfal vertebre of the thernback; a, the
body of the vertebry; 4, the canal for lodging the medulla
{pinalis ; c, the fpinous procefs ; d, the concavity oppofed
to that of the adjoining vertebrae; e, the perforation in the
centre of the vertebrae, by which the inter-articular cavities
communicate with each other. :

Mufeles.

The mufcles which move the jaws of fifhes are commonly
large, and calculated for powerful and extenfive ation.

They are more numerous and complicated in the cartila-
ginous than the offeous fifhes. We fhall firft defcribe them in
the ray genus,

The principal depreffor of the pofterior jaw is a finale,
flat, {quare mufcle, which arifes from the tranfverfe bar
that is analogous to clavicles, and is inferted into the*pof-
terior margin of the jaw. Cuvier alfo defcribes two {mall

mufeles, one on each fide of that jult mentioned, which
contribute te the depreffion of the jaw: they arife from the
tranfverfe bar and the fin, and are.inferted near the come
miffure of the lips. Thefe three mufcles retraét the mouth,
as well as deprefs the lower jaw.

Three mufcles clofe the jaws: the firft arifes from the exe
ternal part of the bafe of the cranium; it pafles over the
fuperior jaw, and is loft in the aponeurofis which covers the
principal mufcle, at the external part of the mouth. The
fecond mufcle is a thinner flip; it arifes from the fore-part
of the lower jaw, pafies in a circular manner round the
angles of the mouth, fomewhat like the orbicularis -oris 3
then over-the upper jaw, to the fuperior part of the end of
which it is inferted. Both thefe mufcles.fvem to have the
power of bringing the jaws forwards on the head, as well as
of fhutting them. The third mufcle is a large round-fhaped
mafs, which encompaffes the articulation and the ends of the
two jaws: it appears externally like one muf{cle, but confilts
internally of three parts; one is inferted into the ring-like
procels at the end of the lower jaw; another into the ex-
ternal parts of both jaws, at their joint ; and the third pafles
round the upper jaw, and is inferted by a tendon into the
crucial ligament which goes to the lower jaw.

There are two very long mufcles which come from the
{pine, and pafs between the palate and the cranium, in or=
der to be inferted into the fuperior jaw. Thefe ferve to
bring the mouth forwards, as both jaws, from their connec
tion with each other and the neighbouring parts, are pro-
truded and retraGled together. ;

A pair of very thick muf-les arife from each fide of the
fternum; their fibres are dirc€ted obliquely forwards and
outwards, and unite upon a {trong tendon, which is inferted
into the inferior extremity of the articular cartilage that
fultains the jaw. They draw that extremity backwards aod
inwards, and confequently enlarge the angle this cartilage
forms anteriorly with the bafe of the cranium: they carry
both jaws downwards, and by bringing their extremities
nearer to each other, thruft out or protrude the middle
parts of the mouth. hefe mufcles likewife maintain the
articular cartilages in the above-mentioned pofition, and
furnifh fixed points for the jaws to move upon, when they
are projected from the head.

Two other mulc'es, which are fmall, commence by ten-
don from the middle of the articular cartilage; ~- proceed
backwards, inwards, and downwards, in order to fpread
their flefhy fibres on the aponeurofes behind the lower jaw.
They affilt the preceding mufcles in bringing the articular
cartilage inwards and downwards.

The mufcles of the jaws in the /hark ( /gualus) refemble
thofe of the ray genus.

Inthe flurgeon (acipenfer furio) the mufeles for protruding
and retracting the jaws are very fimple. The one which
brings the mouth forwards comes from behind the eye: it is
very ftrong, and pafles backwards to be attached to the ar-
ticular cartilage. The retra€tor is a much {maller mufcle :
it is.fituated between the cranium and the fuperior part of
the articular cartilage.

The other mufcics of the jaws of the furgeon refemble
thofe of the ray and /hark genera. ,

The mutcles of the jaws in the genera balifles, tetraodon,
diodon, and fygnathus, are defcribed by Cuvier as having a
complicated action. The bones of the face are extremely
prolonged in thefe fifhes, in order to form a prominent
muzzle, at the extremity of which the two jaws are placed,
and perform their movements. ‘

One mufcle, which fills the fuperior part of the foffa
the fide of the muzzle, arifes from a ligament which coke

pletee

FISH.

pletes the anterior border of the orbit: its flefhy fibres, in
paffing from behind forwards, terminate in part upon the
pofterior border of the defcending branch of the fuperior
je, but are chiefly loft on a tendon which furrounds the
extremity of that branch, and proceeds to the lower jaw,
on which it 1s inferted above the articulation. "This mufcle
moves the two jaws in oppofite directions, and approximates
the one to the other. In drawing backwards and upwards
the extremity of the defcending branch of the fuperior jaw,
it depreffes the portion of that jaw which is beyond the
point of fupport. The fame mufcle likewile raifes the lower
aw.
: A fecond mufcle filis the inferior portion of the foffa that
is on the fide of the muzzle, from the furface of which its
fibres arife: they proceed obliquely forwards and-inwards to
an aponeurofis, which extends along the internal edge of
the foffla, and of which the extremity goes to be affixed to
the internal furface of the lower jaw. This mufcle has the
fame a€tion as the firft.

The preceding mufcle covers a third, which is fmeller.
Tt arifes likewife from the furface of the fofla, and fends a
flender tendon nzar to the pofterior edge of the defcending
branch of the fupericr jaw. This mufcle co-operates with
the two others.

The inferior jaw is depreffed, in thefe genera, by three
mufcles. The firf is a fingle mufcle, which is analogous to
the mylo-hycideus : it arifes from the fide of the hyoides, be-
tween the rays of the operculum, and is inferted into the in-
ferior border of the lower jaw; the fibres converge, and go
forwards to be inferted into the inferior edge of the lower
jaw. The next two mufcles are {mall: they arile from a
foffla under the orbit; their tendons are inferted into the
pofterior ede of a cartilaginous plate, which is conneGed to
the bafe of the cranium, behind the articular bone. This
plate is attached to a long cartilaginous filament, which ad-
vances on the isfide of the articular bone or cartilage, as far
as the inferior and internal part of the lower jaw. In draw
ing the plate upwards and backwards, thefe mufcles alfo
bring the filament backwards, and thus deprefs the lower
aw.

The moon fib (tetraodon mola) has three mufcles, fimilar
to thofe lait defcribed, anda {econd cartilaginous plate.

In the genus dali/ies there is a mufcle which ferves to
elevate and drawwebackwards the piece analogous to the
articular bones; sit arifes from the lower edge of ‘the vomer,
or the vault of the palate, and dcfcends obliquely forwards
to be inferted into the upper edge of that piece.

In offous fithes, the lower jaw is deprefled by a long _

flender mufcle, but which, neverthelefs, from its attach-
ments and ufe, mo be confidered analogous to the mylo-
Ayoideus: it arifes from both fides of the os hyoides and
rays of the gill-cover, in two broad, thin, flefhy flips; thefe
unite under the throat, and are inferted at the fymphifis of
the lower jaw ; it {preads the membrance of the gill-cover
when the jaw ts fixed,

The lower jaw is elevated by two very flrong portions of
mulcle, which in a-degree overlap and intermix with each
other; they occupy all the fpace correfponding to the
articular bone, from which, and from the cranium at the
back of the orbit, they arife: thefe two portions, which
Cuvier confiders as but ove mufele, are inferted into the
coronoid proce{s of the lower jaw, into the ligament which

ffss from one jaw to the other, and in fome fifhes we

obferved into a ligament which goes forwards to the
intersmasillary bones: befides, therefore, raifing the lower
jew, thefe mufcles deprefs the fuperior maxillary bones,
and deprefsand retract the inter-maxillary bones, which form

the fuperior margin of the mouth, or what is called the
upper lip in fithes.

Cuvier deferibes in the ee (murena anguilla) two layers
of mufcle which lie under the preceding, and are nearly
inferted into the fame point of the lower jaw: they arife
from the orbitar fofla. He deteG&ted fimilar mufcies in the
carp, but did not find them in the pike (c/ox lucius), the
trout (falmo fario), or the falmon (falmo falar); we have not
obferved them in any other fifh.

There isafmall mufcle which is attached to almof the
whole of the internal furface of the fide of the lower jaw,
and covers the vacancy which exifts in the maxillary bone; it
furnifhes a ftrong tendon, which is fixed internally to the
lower and anterior part of the articular bone; it affilts
the other mufcles in raifing the lower jaw, but if the
mouth be previoufly opened widely, it feems to have the
power of keeping the lower jaw in the deprefled pofition.

The articular bone is moved by two mufcles on each
fide; one arifes from the cranium at the back and upper
part of the orbit; its fibres pafs obliquely downwards
and forwards, and are affized upon the external furface of
the thin part of the articular bone, near its upper edge:
the effe& of its ation is to elevate the articular bones and
bring them outwards, by which the capacity of the mouth
is encreafed, and the jaws retraéted. The other mufcle
arifcs from the vomer, membranous feptum of the orbit,
znd the middle line of the cranium: its fibres defcend in a
dircct manner to the upper part of the thin portion of the
articular bone, which it has the power of bringing inwarda,
and thereby abridges the cavity of the moutb,:and protrudes
the jaws.

Cuvier defcribes two mufcles in the carp (cyprinus carpio),
intended to retraG the lips in this fpecies, which bas the
bones of the face formed for carrying the mouth farther
forwards than other fifhes. The firft of thefe mvfcles is
fhorter than the fecond; it arifes partly from the anterior
extremity of the articular bone, and in part from the pofte-
rior end of the maxillary bone: it afcends a little obliquely
to be inferted into the moft elevated point of the inter.

“maxillary bone by a flender rovnd tendon, which crofles

the tendon of the next mufcle. The fecond retra@or of
the lips is much larger than the preceding: it is fituated
nearly horizontally, in the fpace comprifed between the
inferior edge of the orbit, and the concavity of the arti-
cular bone, from which it arifes: it is inferted by a long
flat tendon to the middle and potterior procefs of the inter-

maxillary bone, which it draws dire@ly backwards.

From the preceding defcription it will be perceived,
that in addition to the motions of the jaws, by which the
mouth is fhut and opened, they are alfo fufceptible of
projection and retraGtion, and that the cavity of the mouth
is altered with refpect to its width or its length in the
performance of thele motions. Thefe effe&s are not only
convenient to fifhes in the a& of taking their food, but are
neceffary alfo for conveying it into the efophagus. The
mufcles, however, moft immediately concerned in deglu-
tition, are thofe which move the branchial arches and pha-
tyngeal bones, as will appear when thefe mufcles come to
be defcribed.

The tongue of fithes fearcely appears to perform any
motions diitin& from the other parietes of the mouth.
Cuvier, it is true, has defcribed two mufcles on the tongue
of the conger (murena conger), which are analogous te the
Ayongloffi ; they arife from the extremities of the os hyoides,
and go forwards upon each fide of the lingual bone, to
which they are inferted: if thefe mufcles a@ in conjunétion
they deprefs the tongue, but, if feparately, the tongue is

drawa

FITS H.

drawn toeither fide. Cuvier likewife flates that the tongue
of the conger is contrafted in its breadth by fome tranverfe
fibres, which pafs from the edges to the middle part: we
have not obferved any mufcles for moving the tongue in
thofe fpecies we have diffe€&ted, but we have often feen
tendinous fibres pafa from the os hyoides to the fides of the
lingual bone.

The mu/cles intended to move the branchial arches and the
pharyngeal bones in offvous fifhes are fo numerous and compli-
cated, that we almolt defpair of giving the reader a clear
conception of them.

"They may be divided into three fets or orders, befides fome
diftinG mufeles; the firft is compofed of a clufter of mufcles,
which conneét the fuperior ends or ezbutments of the bran-
chial arches, and the {uperior pharyngeal bones to the batfis of
the cranium. The fecond fet confilts of fome mufcles placed
over the joints of the inferior ends of the arches, and the
inferior pharyngeal bones, with the intermediate bones that
are continved from the lingual bone ; the third fet is made
-by mufcles which furround the pofterior tide of the laft bran-
chial arches, the pharyngeal bones, and the origin of the
cefaphagus.

In the firft fet there are feven mufcles; all thefe, except
one, arife together from the fide of the head, immediately
‘behind the orbit, at the joint of the articular bone.

"The fick mufcle comes from thé common origin already
mentioned, and ts iaferted into the pofterior fide of the bafe
of the fhort branch of the firft branchial arch ;.it bends
the joint of the arch, and brings the whole arch for-
wards. i

The fecond arifes from the fame point, and goes to be
attached to the pofterior fide of the fhort branch of the
fecond branchialarch. It has the fame effet as the preced-
Ing.

“The third mufcle arifes from the bafe of the cranium, be-
tween the articulations of the fcapula and articular bone,
and isinferted into the pofterior edge of the fhort branch of
the laft arch. It elevates the laft arch, and thereby aflifls in
opening the cefophagus.

The fourth comes from the common point of attachment,
and terminates upon the footftalk of the three la{t_ branchial
arches, and the {mall anterior pharyngeal bone; it tends to
draw'thefe bones outwards, and thus dilate the opeming into
the efophavus.

The fifth mufcle arifes with the others, and proceeds to
‘be affixed to the external edge of the principal pharyngeal
bone. Its operation is‘fimilar to that of the laft mentioned
mufele.

The fixth arifes from the common footftalk of the three
laft arches, and goes on to the excernal edge of the fhort
branch of the fecond arch near its bafe. It contraéts the
arches, by bending the joint at the concavity or tu,p of the
arch, and that at the footitalk; it therefore tends to clofe
the gills,

The feventh mufcle has the fame origin as the preceding ;
it 13 aftronger mufcle, and '!s {pread equally upon the ante-
rior furtaces of the two laf branchial arches; 1t concurs
‘to produce the effect aferibed to the lalt mentioned
mufcle.

The fecond fet of branchial mufeles is made up of four
pair, or eight flips on each fide; four of thefe are longer
than the others, and fituated more obliquely and fuper-
‘ficiaily.

The firft arifes from the ligament which conneéts the con-
joined proceiles of the two polterior arches to the lower end
of the firft intermediate bone; it proceeds obliquely back-
‘wards, and is affixed to the inferior end or abutment of the

fecond branchial arch. The next three arife together from
the conjoined proceffes of the two laft arches already men-
tioned, one goes to be implanted into the inferior end of the
third branchial arch, the next is inferted into the fourth
branchial arch, and the fourth flip of mufcle paffes acrofs
the pofterior furface of the laft arch, and is inferced irto the
inferior pharyngeal bone.

The four other mufcles of this fet are fhort, lie in an
obliquely tranfverfe dire€tion, and are in a great meafure con=
cealed by the preceding mufcles; they are extended from
the inferior ends of the branchial arches to the adjoining parts
of the intermediate bones.

The eff-€ of the aGion of each of thefe mufcles is the
fame ; they all tend to deprefs the lower part of the mouth,
if the branchial arches be rendered fixed ; and if not, they -
feparate the arches from each other, and lower them, thus
opening the gills, and widening the aperture of the cefophagus.

The circle which is made round the entrance into the cefo-
phagus by the left branchial arches end the pharyngeal bones
of each fide, has on its polterior furface a chain of fmall
mulcies.

‘The two firft arife from the jun@tion of the footfalks of
the inferior pharyngeal bones, and areinferted into the molt
external points of thefe bones. ‘[sey approximate the pha-
ryngcal bones, and bring them downwards,

The next pair arife from the outfide of the termination of
the preceding mufcles, and are inferted near the middle of
the pofterio- furface of the latt arch. They approximate the
two laf arches by means of their conneétion with the inferior
pharyngeal bones.

The third pair of mufcies are extended acrofs the joint of
the laft arches, and confequent'y, when they act, bring the
branches of the arch more rogether.

The fourth mufcles anfe from the footftalks of the fupe-
rior pharyngeal bones, and are inferted into the points of
the fuperior abutments of the lalt arches. They make
thefe abutments appreach the fuperior pharyngeal bones, by
which the arch is clofed,

Befides thefe four pairs, there are fingle flips of mufcle,
which pafs from the pharyngeal bones of one fide to.the
other. The muicle connectingithe fuperior pharyngeal bones
isvery ftrong. Thefe complete the circle, and diminifh it by
approximating thefe bones. :

There are further, a number of mufcvlar fafciculi fur.
rounding the orifice of the cefophagus in the manner of a
fphin@ter. Thefe fafcicul: are ttrongelt upon the fider, where
they have alfo nearly a ftraight direction, by which they
have the effect of contraéting the joint of the laft arch.
There are likewife fome fibres extended from the mulcle that
lies between the fuperior pharyngeal bones, to the {phingter
of the efophagus.

When all the mifales of this fet co-operate, the opening
into the cefophagus is abridged; or, if the animal wih ir,
entirely clofed ; from the conneétion between the lait arch
and the others, they areall brought clofe together, and the
denticulated furfaces of theinfide of the arches, and of the
puaryngeal bones, are made to approach fo nearly, as to
prevent the efcape of the prey which the fifh mzy be in the
act of {wallowing.

There are four diutin@ and remarkable mufcles on each fide,
which are materially concerned in the =.otious of the gills
and pharynx. ;

‘The firit are very thick and mafly : they take their origin
from the anterior edge of nearly the lower balf of the {ca-
pul, and are inferted upon the fides of the broad,
heart-{haped bone which 1s fituated under the throat of the
fith. By means of the conneétion of this bone with the

hyoidean

FISH.

hhyo'dean branches, intermediate bones, &c. thofe mufcles
will open the pharynx, by deprefling the tongue and
branchial arches. If thefe parte, however, be kept fixed,
they will bring the peCtoral member forwards; they will alfo
deprefs the lower jaw, in confequence of the conneétion the
heart-fhaped bone has with that part. Cuvier confiders
thefe mufcles as analogous to the /flerno-hyoidci.

The fecond mufcles arife on each fide from the anterior
edge of the fcapula, oppofite to the middle of the mufcles
for raifing the peétoral fins. They are thin flips; they pafs
through the (ubftance of the mulcles laft defcribed, and go
to be‘inferted in the loweft part of the inferior pharyngeal
bone. They deprefs the branchial arches, and thereby
widen the pharynx.

The third pair of mufcles arife by a {mall tendon from
the anterior part of the fcapula, oppofite to the articulation
of the clavicle with that bone, and proceed for fome way
before they reach the point of their infertion, which is the
loweft part of jun@ion of the inferior pharyngeal bones.
They draw the pharyngeal bones downwards and backwards,
and thereby contribute, with thofe laft defcribed, to open
the pharynx, and render it of a round fhape.

The tourth mufcles arife from the fecond vertebra from
the head, diverging a little in their courfe, as they pro-
ceed a confiderable way forward, and are attached to the
infide of the fuperior pharyngeal bones. They have the
power of retraéting thefe bones, and thus co-operate with
the other mutcles which dilate the entrance into the cefo-
phagus. They likewife turn the {uperior pharyngeal bones,
fo as to oppofe to each other their rough or denticulated
furfaces. ‘lhefe mufcles are ftrong, and remarkable alfo
on account of their length: they arife as far back, in the
whiting (gadus merlangus), as the fifth vertebra from the
eranium.

The preceding defcription of the branchial and pharyngeal
mufcles contains what we have obferved in the dory (zeus
faber). The ftru€ture of other ofeous fithes, in this refpect,
does not appear to be materially different. In fome ot them,
the bundle of mufcles, by which the branchial arches and
the pharyngeal bones are fufpended to the cranium, is com-
pofed of a fewer number; and thofe for contraéting the
paflage into the cefophagus are lefs diftingt and ftrong. The
mott remarkable variation is met with in the carp (cyprinus

carpio), in which the pharyngeal bones are contlructed for
breaking and dividing the food. In this fih, the inferior
pharyngeal bones are not, as ufual, attached to the lait
branchial arches, but are elevated behind thefe near to the
cranium, to which they are fufpended by a number of
mulcles, of which Cuvier has given the following defcrip-
tion.

There are firlt two exceedingly flrong mufcles attached
to the tides of the bafe of the cramum, behind the adductor
of the operculum, and inferted ihto the fuperior extremity
of thefe bones. They elevate the bones, and draw thema
little outwards.

Two other mufcles arife from the external angle of the
glenoid cavity, which receives the {operior pharyngeal bone,
and go to be inferted along with the firft mufcles. They
bring the fuperior extremity of the pharyngeal bone in-
wards.

Two ftrong mufcles are aflixed by their anterior extremity
to the middle part of the pharyngeal bores, acd’ proceed
obliquely backwards and inwards to be inferted into the
occipital apophyfis. They draw the pharyngea bones back-
wards,

The pharyngeal bones are approximated by a very {trong
fingle mufcle, which Cuvier, both from confidering its

Vou. XIV.

ftru€ture and ufe, calls the digafric addudor. The two
bellies of which it is compofed arile from the middle part of
each of thefe bones, and are inferted into a common tendon,
placed in the interval of the anterior portion of thofe bones,
and is there conneéted to the aponeurotic fibres which fill up
that interval, affifted by fome tranfverfe fibres of the pha-
rynx, which go from one pharyngeal bone to the other.
This mufcle is able to approximate the bones with much
force, and to urge their teeth againft the fuperior plate.
The operation of thefe mufcles belongs rather to the fune-
tions of maftication and deglutition than to thofe of the
ills,

? Two ftrong mufcles arife from the internal furface of the
{capula, and are inferted by a very ftrong tendon to the an-
terlor extremity of the pharyngeal bones. Thefe may
bring the fcapula forwards and inwards ; or if it be fixed,
they bring the two pharyngeal bones at the fame time back-
wards and downwards,

Two other mufcles, attached at one part to the inferior
fide of the anterior part of the pharyngeal bones, and at the
other to the internal furface of the fcapula, may likewife
approximate the inferior extremities of the fcapula from the
middle line; but they can more eafily f{eparate the pha-
ryngeal bones the one from the other.

Finally, there are two long flender mufcles, which are
extended from the inferior and anterior extremity of the
pharyngeal bones to a procefs, which correfponds to the
intermediate bone of the lait arch. Thefe bring the pha-
ryngeal bones forwards.

The branchial mufcles in the flat chondropteryzii, and, as
it would appear, in all the fithes with fixed branchia, are few
and fimply arranged. The clufter of mufcles which conneéts
the branchiz with the bead, and the {mall mufcles which
go from the branchial arches to the intermediate bons, do
not exif in thefe ffhes.

The flender mufcles which go from the clavicle to the
arches, in ofleous fifhes, are fupplied in the rays by two very
ftrorg mulcles, which arife pofteriorly by two thick tendons
from the tranfverfe cartilage, and proceed obliquely for-
wards and inwards, under the middle cartilage of the
branchiz, into which they are inferted. In drawiaz th’s
cartilage downwards and backwards, they will open all the
branchial arches.

There are other mufcles conftruéted to open and fhut the
branchiz, which are peculiar to the rays and /haré kind,

Between the asterior feries of laminz and the rays of the
branchiz, a mufcle is found, the fibres of which feem to
feparate on each fide from the middle ray, being directed
towards the others, but particularly towards their ex-
tremity, fo that the effect of their aGion is to approximate
the extremities of the rays, and confequently to feparate and
open the two ends of the arch. The ation of this mufcle
is limited by feveral ligaments, which go from the bafe of
the ray, neareit the extremity of the arch, towards the ext
tremity of the fucceeding ray.

This arch is clofed by another mufcle, which is fhort,
thick, and cylindric. tus fituated tran{verfely on the angle
that is formed by the two pieces of the arch, where there are
d-preflions of fome depth, in which the two extremities of
the mufcle are implanted.

There is further, in thefe genera, a very ftrong mufcle,
which envelopes the gills, covering every part of them ex-
cept that next the mouth: it has the effet of comprefling
ot approximating the whole at once, The fibres are pa-
rallel, and have an oblique dir Gin from before backwards.
Vive tendinous interfeCtions are to be feen, which correfpond
to the external furface of the mufcles already deferibed,

2 ¥. which

PIS Ho.

which lie between the lamine and rays of the branchiz.
The contraétion of this fac-like mufcle has the eff:& of
expelling the water from the gills with confiderable force.

The branchie of the moon-//h (tetraodon mola) are inclofed
between two mufcles; the one upon the external, and the
other upon the internal fide. Thefe are analogous to the
mufcular fac of the ray and /hark kind.

The operculum of the gilis in offeous fifhes is raifed by one
pair of mufcles, and brought down upon the branchial aper-
ture by two mufcles on each fide, and one common to both
fides.

The elevator or abduétor of the opereule arifes from the
external part of the bafe of the cranium, at the root or joint
of the articular bone: it is a fhort, taper mufcle, and is in-
ferted into the head of the triangular bone of the gill-cover,
which is joined to the articular bone. This mufcle atts
under the difadvantage of being inferted as far as poffible
from the edge of the bone that is to be raifed: it mutt,
however, be aided in producing its «ffeéts by the elevation
of the articular bone,

The two mufcles which fhut the operculum are deferibed
by Cuvier as only one: they arife from the bafe of the cra-
nium, almo{t immediately behind the preceding mufcle, than
which they form a thicker mafs; they are inferted into the
neck, or anterior part of the fuperior edge of the triangular
bone.

The common mulcle is attached internally to the rays aed
offeous plates of each gill-cover, betweea which the fibres
crofs from one fide to the other. The effects of this mufcle’s
motion are the approximation of the rays and the fhutting
down of both opercules.

The rays of the gill-covers are expanded, and the mem-
brane branchioftepw railed and {pread out, by the mylo-
hyoideus mufcle which is attached to the offeous rays, and
by a mufcle compofed of two portions, which Cuvicr de-
fcribes 2s being particularly plain in the trout (/almo fario):
one portion arifes from the lower edge of the polterior part
of the os hyoides; the other arifes from the internal furface
of the five anterior rays, and is attached to the other rays by
Jong tendinous filaments. Both portions unite in one ten-
don, which pafles under the anterior extremity of the oppo-
fite branch of the hyoides, and is expanded under the lingual
bone.

Befides thefe mufcles, the moon-fi/h (‘etraodon mola) has
the operculum itfelf compofed of feveral mufcles.. The
principal one, which forms almoft the whole of the opercule,
is made by feveral layers of parallel fibres, which pafs from
one part of the fcapula to another, and become very thin
towards the free edge of the opercule. Two {mali mufcles
arife from each fide of the thin edge of the opercule: they
afcend upon the internal furface of the fcapula, the one be-
fore and the other behind. Thefe ferve to lay down the
gill-cover. ;

The very limited motions of the head, upon the {pine of
offious fifhes, are effected chiefly by the great lateral mufcles ;
but the flat chondropterygii have mufcles exclufively deftined
to raife and deprefs the head.

The principal elevator of the head is a long {mall mufcle,
which arifes fiom the back of the fhoulder, on the top of the
cartilage which correfponds to the fcapula, and the adjoin-
ing tranfverfe procefs of the cervical fpine: it fends a long
tendon through a pulley on the fide of the eye, which is
loft in the anterior part of the {nout.

~ On the lower part of the head there is a pair of mufcles,
fimilar to thofe for raifing the head: they arile from the
tran{verfe cartilage, analogous to clavicles and fternum, at
which place the mufcle of each fide is united; they proceed

forwards on each fide of the mouth, and furnifh tendons
which pafs in the gelatinous fubftance of the fnout, at the
anterior extremity of which they terminate. Thefe mufcles
deprefs the head. Cavier gives a fomewhat different des
fcription than we have given of the foregoing mufcle?.

A third pair of mufcles arife from the f{pinal column, and
the anterior portion of the arch which fuftains the large
wings, and are inferted into the poiterior-extremity of the
head. hey raife the head.

The {pinal mufcles, except in the flat chondropterygii, are
the moft remarkable in’ the fifh’s body, whether wé*view
th-m with refpeé to their bulk or their flructure.

Thefe mufcles are analogous to thofe which lie along the
{pine of other animals ; but, from the form of the fkeleton in
filhes, they are fituated upon the fides of the bedy, and have
coufequently received the name of /aleral mufeles,

The fize of the lateral or fpinal mufcles exceeds, in an ex-
traordinary proportion, that of all the other mufcles of a
fil: they make the principal buik of the animal, as they
conftitute, with the offeous fabric which fultains them,
almoft the whole of the organs of motion. — . ;

It is almoft impoflible to convey a clear idea of the com-
potition of thefe mufcles by defcription alone, it is fo ex-
tremely complicated, and fo different from the ordinary
ftruéture of the mufcles in other animals.

The great fpinal mufcles of fihes in general confilt of
three portions, which, from their ficuation, deferve to be dif-
tinguifhed into the /uperior or dorfal, the middle or vertebral,
and the inferior or ventral, portions.

The mofcular fibres of which each of thefe maffes is
compofed, are formed into fucceflive /ayers or rows, by
means of the interpofition of thin aponcurofes. Thefe
tendinous interfections merely exhibit, on the external fur-
face of the lateral mufcles, the appearance of lines placed
at fhort and determined diftances from cach other, and
thus fubdividing each portion into a number of regular
compartments. The fubdivilfions or compartments have dif-
ferent forms or direCtions in each portion, which will be after-
wards pointed out. The fhort rows of mufcle that fill up
the compartments appear, when viewed upon the external
furface, to be all arranged in a longitudinal dire¢tion, or to
follow one another in the line of the fifh’s body; but if ac-
curately examined, they wiil be found to confift of flakes or
pieces of mufcle, which partake of the figure of a wedge
and the bowl of afpoon, being thick at one edge and thin at
the other, and concave on one fide and convex on the other.
The figure of the flakes is well exhibited by the application
of heat, particularly in the genus gadus: in cooking the
whiting ( gadus merlangus) fome attention and dexterity are
neceffary to prevent tne mufcular fubftance of the fifh break-
ing into its primary flakes. The flakes are generally placed
obliquely with refpe& to the line of the fith’s body; that
is, with their convex fide next the head, and their thin
edge next the [pine ; they overlap, or are received into each
other; the mufcular fibres compofing the flakes appear,
however, to be difpofed io a longitudinal direétion. i

From the above account it will be feen, that the ultimate
fibres of the great {pinal mufcles of fifhes are extremely fhort
and infinitely multiplied.

The lateral mufcles are further difinguifhed from the
others by being almoit entirely deprived of red blood: this
circumitance feems to depend entirely upon their limited
action; as at their attachments to the head and tail, where the
parts have a more extenfive motion, the fubftance of the
lateral mufcles receives more red blood than at any other part.

The attachments of the fuperior or dorfal portion of the
lateral mufcles, are fixed at the anterior extremity to the

baiis

FISH.

bafis of the cranium; fecondly in the middle, to the fuperior
{pines of the vertebrix, and the addisional {pines that fuftain
the dorfal fins; and laltiy, at the polterior extremity, to the
fuperior part of the rcot of the caudal tin. The layers of
mufcle which compofe this portion are narrower than thofe
of the other portions; they form gentle curves, or S like
plexufes, in the longitudinal direGion, which nearly coin-
ciding with the courfe of their mufcular fibres, gives them
a good deal the appearance of common mulcular fafciculi in
other animals. ‘lhe dorfal portion of the lateral mufcles is
unconneéted along its {uperior margin, but the lower edge is
flightly joined next the fkin to the vertebral portion; and
towards the tail thefe two portions become intimately con-
neéted, and concur to produce the tendons which are inferted
into the bafe of the caudal fin.

The dorfal portion operates upon the tail in conjunGion
with the other lateral mufcles of the body; it alfo moves
the head backwards and upwards with its fellow of the op-
polite fide. :

The middle or vertebral portion of the lateral mufcles
lies a little obliquely along the fide of the fpine; it 1s at-
tached below the laft-mentioned mufcle to the back ef the
cranium ; it then winds along the vertebrz of the trunk, to
the bodies cf which it is flight:y connected, but trmly to
their fuperior {pines : it is next attached to the bodies and
inferior {pines of the caudal vertebrae, and then pafles over
eight or nine of the la(t caudal vertebra, to which it is con-
nected by aponeurofes, and becomes confounded with the dor-
fal portion, and with it is inferted into the fuperior half of
the bafe of the caudal fin.

The aponeurotic interfeGtions of the vertebral portion of
the lateral mufcles are difpofed in waving or curved lines,
which tend obliquely backwards, and meet the correfponding
interfeGtions of the dorfal portion, with which they form
angles that have their points directed backwards, and become
more acute towards the tail, at the extreme part of which
the interfections become parallel, and form diftinét tendons,
which are inferted into the caudal fin.

Where the vertebral portion arifes from the cranium, there
are fome thin ftripes of mufcular fafciculi, which run back-
wards, croffing therefore the rows of the lateral mufcle which
they cover.

The cffeét of the a€tion of the vertebral portion is nearly
the fame with that of the dorfal. The former mufcle is, how-
ever, from its greater connection with the vertebra, more in-
mediately concerned in the flexion of the fpine. The {mall
longitudinal ftripes of mufcle from the cranium have but
little power; they afliit the principal parts of the lateral
mufcle in bending the head towards the fide.

The ventral portion of the lateral mufcle covers the one-
half of the fide of the fish, and with the correfponding
portion of the other fide entirely encompaffes the cavity of
the body. It is attached anterioriy to the back of the cra-
nium under the feapula; to this bone itfelf; it is connected
to both fides of the clavicle; it is attached inferiorly to the
ligament or bones which fupply the place of the fternum,
and polteriorly to the large {pine which forms the polterior
boundary of the ventral cavity. The edge that lies over
‘the row of bones which fuitain the anal fin is unattached on
the fide of the fpine; but the mufcle is attached to the
ribs which pafs in the courfe of its interfection ; therefore
this part of the ventral portion is analogous to the intercoftal
mufeles: it is then attached to the inferior {pines of fome of
the caudal vertebrx next the ventral cavity, and to the
bodies of about eight or nine of the moft pofterior caudal
vertebra ; and laftly it produces a number of tendons, which
are inferted into the lower half of the bones of the caudal ha.

The interfeGions of the ventral portions of the lateral
mufcle dcferibe very faint curves on the fore part of the
body, at which place alfo they are rather indiltic@, but
towards the tail they form V fhaped lines, which come gra-
dually clofer to each other, until at length they compofe pa-
rallel tendons, in the fame mauner as the conjoined vertebral
and dorfal portions.

This portion of the lateral mufele, befides being a power-
ful flexor of the tail, compreffes the ventral and branchial
cavities, and is therefore analogous to the intercoftal and ab-
dominal mufcle of other animals,

The preceding defcription is taken from the dory (zeus
Jaber); a fifth which has the lateral mufcles particularly
dittinét and ftrong. In the other {pecics we have difleéted,
we have found the ftruéture fo fimilar, that the dory may be
given as a general example of the clafs.

In fome of the flat fifhes (pleuroneéies), the ventral portion
of the lateral mufcle appears to be double, or to be compof-d
of two parts which join each other in the line of the angle
of the interfeGtions, and therefore correfpond to the dorfal
and vertebral portions. Mr. Carlifle, in the Croonian Ic@ure
for 1806, defcribes the ventral portions as being always
of two maffes, which he calls the ventral and abdominal
feries.

In the mackarel (fcomber feombrus), the herring (clupea
harengus), and fome others, we have obferved a layer of
mufcle of a dark colour, extended along the middle line of
the body; if this layer be cut tranfverfely, it exhibits the
figure of a compreffed triangle. It is lodged in a correfpond-
ing vacancy, which is formed along the junétion of the
other portions of the lateral mufcle over the {pine of the
fifth: this long ftripe of mufcle has probably no peculiar
aGtion, as the ivterfeGions of the adjoining parts are
continued through it in the fame direGion as in other
fifhes.

The lateral mufcles of the genus ofracion differ in fome
circumf{tances from thofe of other fifhes. As the offracions
have the body rendered immoveable by being inclofed in a
hard horny fhell or cafe, thefe mufcles are not conneied
to the {pine, but to the head and the tail only. Tecir tex-
ture alfo is not fo complicated as in other inftances, their
fibres being principally longitudinal.

The internal furface of the cafe of the ofracions is lined
with an aponeurofis only.

Cuvier defcribes an additional pair of mufcles that are
peculiar to the tail of thefe fifhes; they are of a pyramidal
figure; they arife from the inner fide of the cafe, on the
lower or abdominal fide of the body, and are inferted by
{mall tendons into the inferior part of the fides of the three
laft caudal vertebre. ‘They carry the tail to either fide,
and’ deprefs it.

The motion of fwimming confifts almoft entirely in the
flexion and fubfequent extenfion of the {pine of fifhes; in
the production of both which effeéts, the lateral mufcles are
the fole agents, by the one fide or pavt ating alternately, or
in oppofition with another. The peculiar compofition and
arrangement of thefe mufcles are defigned to beftow extra-
ordinary power and-velocity of a&tion, combined with a
limited operation as to extent and duration. The weight of
the column of water difplaced by every impulfe of a ith,
during the a€& of {wimming, and the celerity with which
fome ipecies move through water, (not even exceeded by that
of the flight of birds in fo rare a medium as air,) prove the
powerful and rapid operation of the {pinal mufcies, while
the limited capacity of flexion of the tail of fithes, and the
exhauition thefe animals experience when their mofcular
efforts are protracted, thew that the {pinal mufcles are

“je : pable

inca

FIS H.

pable of an extenfive or long continued a&tion. Mr. Car-
lifle has very ingenioufly attributed the phyfiological proper-
ties of the lateral mufcles to the arrangement of their fibres,
and the minute ramification of their blood-veffels, which do
not admit the red particles ; and he contrafts this ftruciure,
and the kind of mufcular power confequent upon it, with
the organization and funétions of the mufcles of tardigrade
animals. See Phi!. Tranf. part 1. 1806.

It has been already obferved that the {pinal mufcles of the
flat chondropterygii, or the ray genus, are excepted from the
defcription of the general ftructure of thefe parts in other
fihhes. They are formed more upon the plan of the mufcles
of the tail of certain quadrupeds, than like thofe of their
own clafs.

Cuvier defcribes the lateral mufcles of the ray genus as
being compofed of two layers, and each layer confifling
of two mufcles. As we have not particularly diflecied them,
we fhall adopt his defcription.

The fuperior lateral mufcles arife from the middle of the
vertebral column above the abdomen, by a flefhy head,
covered with {trong aponeurofes: this portion extends as far
as the pelvis, and then detaches little tendinous branches,
which pafs through parallel fheaths, and proceed fucceflively
towards the middle line, where they are inferted into the
upper part of each of the vertebra of the tail. Flefhy fibres
accompany thefe tendons to fome diftance, after their fepa-
rations from the common fafciculus.

In the inferior part of the tail the fuperior lateral mufcles
receive acceffaries from cach fide, but thefe are fimple ten-
dons, which feem only intended to guard again{t too violent
an extenfion, either to one fide or the other.

Each tendon of the fuperior lateral mufcles pulls the
vertebra of the tail, to which it is attached, in the direction
of its own a@ion, and the flexion, or general curvature of
the tail upwards, is the refult of their common contrac-
tion.

The inferior lateral mufcles arife alfo from the lumbar
vertebra, like the preceding, but more externally. ‘Tbeir
arrangement alfo is fimilar, with this difference, that their
tendons make a kind of turn, and run under the tail, where
they are inferted into each of the vertebrae. They alfo receive
acceffary tendons. They produce motions in an oppofite direc-
tion to thofe of the fuperior mufcles, that is to fay, they bend
the tal downwards. Their tendons are more flender
than thofe of the former. ‘They divide into two branches
at their extremities, and each bifurcation affords a paflage
for that of the next vertebra, fo that they mutually ferve
as fheaths; and are all, except the laft, both perforating
and perforated.

The {pinal mufcles confift of flakes, and are pale, as in the
ofleous fifhes, although their form is diff:rent in this
genus.

The dorfal, anal, and caudal fins are moved by a great
number of {mall mufcles. In the interval left between the
dorfal portions of the lateral mufcles, along the back, there
are found fome long flender mufcles, extended from the
neck to the firft ray of the dorfal fin, and between the dor-
fal fins, where there exift more than one, and from the dorfal
tothe caudal fin. By means of the infertion of thefe mnf-
cles into the firft ray of each of the fins they tend to raife
and fpread them.

The number of thefe mufcles varies according to the
exiftence or number of the dorfal fins, In the gymuotus,
and fome others which want the dorfal fin, there is only
a finzle pair, which extends from the neck to the caudal
fin. Ina the {pecies which poflefs one dorfal fin, there are

two pairs, and in thofe that have two dorfal fins there are
three pairs.

There are muf{cles correfponding to the above, placed
upon the lower or ventral edge of fifhes, intended for the ex-
panfion of the anal and caudal fins. Cuvier defcribes two
pair of thefe in the carp (cyprinus carpio). The’ one arifes
from the junétion of the bones which {uftain the pe@oral
fins, and 1s inferted.on each fide into the ligamentous tiffue
which unites the two ventral fins; the little flefhy bellies,
of which this pair of mufcles is compofed, are four or five
in number, in form refembling beads, and placed at {ome
diftance from each other.

The other pair extecd from the anal fins to the firlt rays
of the caudal fin. Thefe flefhy portions are {till thinner,
and their tendons much longer than thofe of the former
pair.

The other motions of the dorfal and anal fins are accom-
plifhed by means of a number of flender mufcles, refembling
in their form and.pofition the interoflei of the hand. They
lie upon thefe fpinous bones, which are added to the fpinous
proceffes of the dorfal and caudal vertebre, for the purpofe
of fuftaining the dorfal and anal fins. There are two fets
or feries of thefe mufcles, a fuperficial and a deep-feated ;
the firlt arifes from an aponeurofis which lines the fkin, and
furnifhes fepta to forma fort of fheath to each of thefe
mufcles, and which, by adhering along the roots of the
additional vertebral fpines, makes a degree of fheath alfo
for the free margins of the lateral mufcles ; thefe mufcles are
inferted into the bafes of each of the radiiof the fins. The
immediate effet of their” action is to bend the rays of the
fin la‘erally, if thofe of one fide only are employed ; but, if
both fides aét, the rays are brought clofer to the body ; if
already inclined that way, but if ftanding in a right angle
with the body, thefe mufcles may ferve to futtain them, or
keep them fixed in that pofition.

The fecond fet lie under the preceding mufcler, and are
enclofed in the fame {heath with them ; they are each attached
to two of the additioval {pinous bones for almoft their whole
length, and at their roots to the inter-mufcular apo-
neurofis, already mentioned: their tendons are inferted into
the fides of the bafes of each ray, by which means they
draw the rays of the fin out of .a right line, and thus tend to
expaud the fins as well as bring them to cither fide of the
body.

Cuvier defcribes a fet of fhort oblique mufcles for clofing
the rays of the fin, which we have not feen except on
the caudal fins,

The flexion of the caudal fin is effe@ted at the faine time
with that of the whole tail, by means of the great lateral
mufcles already defcribed; but the rays of the caudal fin
are expanded and contra€ted by particular mufeles for the

urpofe.

Thofe that fpread the caudal fin are concealed by the la-
teral mufcles ; they arife from {ome of the lalt vertebra,
f{pread in a fan-like manner, and are inferted into the roots
of the rays: the outermott fafciculi come from the three ver-
tebre preceding the laft, and terminate upon the five or ix
of the external or longelt rays ; thofe of the intermediate rays
arife from the two laft vertebra. Z

The mufcles which ferve to approximate the rays of the
caudal fin appear like a row of beads or barley-corns,
lying obliquely over the joints of the rays and inter-articular
bones, with the broad, thin termination of the Jaft vertebra.
Thefe mufclee of one fide of the tail appear to pafs in a differ-
ent direction from thofe of the other fide, or to decuflate
each other.

The tingle fins are evidently intended to increafe the late-

ra)

FISH.

ral furfaces of fifhes, during the a& of {wimming, and there-
by communicate a greater impulfe to the water. They are
alfo ufeful in turning the fifh, and particularly the caudal
fin muft a& like the helm of a fhip. Mr. Carlile made the
experiment of cutting off the different fins of living fifhes
in fucceffion, with the view of determining their feparate
offices ; he obferved, that after the removal of the fingle fins
there was an evident tendency in the fith to turn round,
and the peGtoral fins were kept conftantly extended to ob-
viate that motion.

The fingle fins may alfo be confidered as inftruments of
defence to fifhes, more efpecially when the rays of the dor-
fal fins terminate in fharp fpines, which they do in a great
number of fpecies, and in thofe cafes the mufcles for ereét-
ing the rays are peculiarly ftrong.

In offous fithes, the great lateral mufcles fupply the place
of the abdominal mufcles, as well as thofe which arife from
the fpine ; but in the ray genus we find fome mufcles, which
correfpond a good deal with the abdomioal mufcles. The
inferior parietes of the abdomen in thofe fifhes are compofed
of fome layers of mufcles which are attached to the tranf-
yerfe cartilages and the potterior branches of the fcapulz, and
to the pieces compofing the pelvis ; thefe fibres take a fimilar
direction to that of the ftraight and oblique mufcles of the
belly, and thofe ofeach fide are diftinguifhed by an aponeu-
rotic line, analogous to the linea alba. They tend to de-
prefs the wings, and bring the pelvis forwards and downwards.

The fuperior parietes of the abdomen are formed by two
thin, broad mnfc'es; one arifes from the aponeurofis, under
the fin of the back, and is inferted into the back of the
pofterior branch of the fcapula; the other arifes from the
aponeurofis cf the mufcles of the dorfal {pine, and the back
of the pelvis, and is inferted along the middle of the potte-
rior branch of the fcapula; thefe mufcles are concerned in
the elevation of the wings.

The mufcles of the peétoral fin are fimple in both the car-
' tilaginous and the offeous fifhes.

In the offeous fifhes there is, in fome fpecies, a {mall,
fhort mufcle, fituated on the internal and back part of the
portion cf the fcapula, where that bone is connected to the
cranium. It has the effect of bringing the {capula clofer to
the head.

There is likewife a {mall taper mufcle which arifes from
the front of the clavicle, and is inferted into the pofterior
fharp procefs of the feapula; it brings the fcapula back-
wards, and the clavicle forwards and inwards.

There are two fets of mufcles fituated upon the broad
and thio portion of the fcapula for moving the rays of the
pectoral fin. The external fet confilts of three mufcles,
two of thefe are partially covered by the other; the two
wppermoft may be divided into a great number of fafciculi,
which fend tendons to the bafes of the rays of the fin; the
mott inferior of the external fet fends tendons only to fome
of the moft inferior or external rays of the fin. The inter-
nal fet contifts of two mufcles much refembling the two firtt
that are placed externally ; they fend tendons into the roots
of the rays on the infide. By all thefe mufcles the rays of
the fin are raifed from the body and brought clofer to it,
turned forwards, and the edge prefented to the water.

In the genus ray, befides the mufcles already mentioned
in defcribing other parts, which a& upon the petoral mem-
ber, there is a very fhort mutcle which goes from the lait
tranfverfe procefs of the cervical {pine to the top of the
fhoulder; it appears to raile the fcapula, There is alfo a
mufcle extended along the concave fide of the poiterior
branch of the {capula; its ftbres arife from a tendon which
is ftretched from above the joint to the point of that branch;

they are inferted into tle edge of the fin. The vfe of this
laft appears to be to bring the polterior branch of the {ca-
pula nearer the body ; this motion is attended with the ex-
panfion of the rays of the fin.

The mufcles which a&t immediately upon the rays of the
wings in the flat chondropterygii are as numerous as the rays
themfelves; they altogether compofe two great layers of
fafciculi, fomewhat refembling the mufcles of the fingle fins
of offeous fifhes ; one layer is placed upon the fuperior fur-
face of the wings. the other upon the inferior; they thus
cover the whole fin, arifing from the external fide of the
feapula, and extended to almolt the very edge of the fin.
Their office is to raife and deprefs the wings.

The mufcles which move the rays of the ventral fin in
offeous fifhes are fituated upon the external and internal
furfaces of the pelvic bones. On the exterral furface there
are three or more fafciculi, which in approaching the bafes of
the rays form leffer fafciculi, one of which is inferted into
each ray ; the external mufcles elevate the fin, and from
their oblique direétion and mode of attachment they alfo
tend to clofe the rays. There is but one mufcle ufually
on the internal furface of the pelvic bone ; with its fellow,
it fills up all the fpace left between the two flat furfaces of
the bones of the pelvis. ‘Thee mufcles have the eff@ of
deprefling the rays of the ventral fia, and at the fame time
of expanding them, fo as to prefent a broader {urface to the
water,

In the chondropterygit the external rays of the ventral fia,
more efpecially the outermoft, have their mulcles in dif-
tin fafeiculi, which are capable of drawing the rays in
all dire¢tions. Thefe mufcles might be compared with thofe
that a@ upon the lower extremities of mammalia: the {mall
rays of the ventral fins have fafciculi clofely applied to them
in the fame manner as thofe of the peCtoral fin in thele
fifhes.

The chief ufes of the pe€toral and ventral fins are to turn
and ftop in fwimming, and to preferve the p fition of the
fifth; therefore we obferve, they are always employed
when the animal wifhes to continue nearly in one place.
When the motion of the fith alfo is very gradual through the
water thefe fins are fometimes the only in‘trument employed
infwimming. From the experiments made by Mr. Carlifle
of cutting off the fins in a living fifh, it would appear that
the pectoral fins are ufeful in afceuding, and that they ferve
to keep the head uppermolt: when both the peétoral and
abdominal firs were removed, he found that the fih had a
tendency to roll and could not afcend at ail.

Air Bladder.

This fingular organ is peculiar to the clafs of fihes. Ana-
tomifts have aferibed various functions to it; we have, how-
ever, chofen to place it amongit the inftruments of motion,
for reafons which will be given hereafter.

The air bag is wanting ia feveral fpecies of fikhes, and has
been fuppofed to be abfent in fome others, in which it
really exilts. It is not met with in any of the chondrop-
terygii, in the genus /ophius, in the moon-fjb (tetraodon mola);
it is fuppofed to be wanting in the ammodytes tobianus, the
Atromateus paru, the callionymus dracunculus, the blennius
Superctliofus, and blennius viviparus, &e.; in the genera
cepola, echeneis, and cottus. It is abfent in the fat fithes

(pleuroncées), and in the mackarel (/comber fcombrus); we
have not found it in the qweaver (trachinus draco)- Bloch
appears to have extended the lilt of filhes in which this
organ is abfent farther than is right ; he denies its exiftence
in the ele@rical eel ( gymnotus ele@ricus), although Mr. Hunter
defcribed it in that fh, ~Redi alfo itated it to be wantiog

i

Fis H.

im the uranoftopus fcaber, in which Cuvier has found.anair-
bag refermbling that of the carp (cyprinus carpio.)

The air-bag is always fituated upon the inferior furface
of the dorfal vertebrae ; fometimes, as in the genus gadus, it
adheres firmly and intimate to the fpine. At other times,
asin the genera fimo, e/ox, &c. it fends procefles to the
ribs and the {paces between them.

In the dory (zeus faber) it is conneéted to the {pine by
Kgaments which anfe from the bag, buc ia not continuous
with it. 4

In the carp (cyprinus) the anterior portion of the bag
only is attached to a defcending procefs of the fecond dorfal
vertebre. In the furgeon (acipenfer flurio), the eel (murena),
the herring (clupea), and many other fiihes, the bag is un-
conneGted with the {pine, and preferved in its praper pofi-
tion by its pe itoneal coat, and the du& which communicates
with the cefophagus or ftomach.

The ftru€iure of the parietes of the air-bladder is ex-
tremely curious. It has two proper coats and a peritoneal
covering ; the mternal proper coat 1s in general a fice deli-
cate membrane, which, in many cafes, is not clofely adhe-
rent at every part to the other coat; it appears to be double,
and. the innermott layer to be, in fome places, loofe, and
capable of being moved upon the furface of the other.

The external proper coat isin many. cafes incomplete or
wanting in fome parts of the air-bag: thus, in the genus
gadus there is only the membranous tunic along the upper
furface of the bladder, which correfponds to the bedies of
the vertebrae; the intimate conneétion with the external
parts of the {pine rendering a {tronger integument in this
place unneceflary.; this coat alfo appears to be wanting in
the. pofterior bladder of the carp (cyprinus carpio). It is
abfent.alfo upon the .pofterior end of the air-bag in the
sory (xeus faber), but in this:inftance it is {upplied by a thick,
foft, flefhy-looking tunic, which has confiderable ftrength.

The external proper coat has a moft peculiar ftruéture :
it is very clofe in-its:texture, refembling, when cut through,
the hgamentum -nuche of. mammalia; it is of a beautiful
filvery white colour, and the juner furface gliftens like
polithed metal; from thefe chara&ters we fhould with to give
it the name of the argentine coat; it is tough, but pofleffes
very little elaiticity, which it appears to lofe entirely upon
being ftretched. his coat is generally thick, but does
not icem to be {trong in proportion; it tears with the appli-
cation of a much flighter force than would be requ'red to
rupture atendon or ligament of the fame degree of thick-
nefs. Cuvier ftates its confiltence ito be fo confiderable in
the offracions as not to fhrink when the bag is emptied of its
air; it is alfo very ftrong in the genera filurus and gadus; in
other inftances, as in the pike, herring, eels, carp, &c. it is
as thin as a membrane: in the Jichir (polypterus niloticus)
this coat exhibits fome oblique fibres, which Cuvier is dil-
pofed to confider mufcular; it is the argentine coat which
is fo intimately united to the external parts of the vertebra
in the cod.

An opinion prevails that it is unwholefome or dangerous
to eat the air-bag of fifhes, which probably arifes from the
tudigeftible nature of the external coat.

The cobitis fofflis is diftinguithed by having the parietes
of the air-bag compofed of bone; the ofleous covering ap-
pears tofupply the place of the external proper coat in this
fith, and is lined like it by membrane.

The peritoneal coat does not always entirely cover the air-
bladder; in thofe inftances, when the ‘latter adheres to the
fpine, it only pafles over the inferior furface of it.

In certain fifhes the air-bladder contains.a remarkable va{-
cular apparatus; this is always fituated on the inner fide of

the inferior or abdominal-parietes of the bladder, itappears
to be inclofed between the duplicatures of the internal proper
coat of the bag, the innermoft of which is extremely thin
where it covers the furface of the vafcular apparatus.

There is great variety inthe figure of -the vafcular organ
in the cod (gadus morhua); it is a broad patch, fomewhat
of. a heart-fhape, compofed of a number of fhort foliated
procefics ftanding clofe.to each other. In the -cuditing
{ gadus merlangus) thefe procefles are finer, lefs regular, and
not fo clofe together, and look like the vafcular fhreddy
membrane produced by the depofition of lymph on an in<
flamed furface.

In the mullet (mugil cephalus) there area number of granular
vafcular bodies {pread aver an oval furface, about two inches
Jong and one inch anda half broad; thele are fed by an as-
tery of fome fize, which, after entering the .bag, fends
branches to each of thefe little. maffes.

In the ¢e/ and conger (murene, anguilla and ammrena conger)
there are two {pheroidal vafcular bodics placed at a little
diftance from each other.

In the dory (zeus faber) there are four vafcular bodies,
fituated near!y at equal diftances from each other; they ace
narrow, rounded upon the furface, and are eompofed of
{mailer irregular-fhaped maffes, which give them a granular
appearance ; each body is coiled or twilted like a piece of
intefline, and they are all conneéted together by the blood-
veflels which pafs through a hole formed in the lower pae
rietes of the bag for the purpofe, and on entering the
bag branch off regularly to fupply each of the vatcular
bodies. ,

In the gadus polachius, Cuvier ftates that the inner furs
face is entirely covered with long and numerous vafcular
filamente. ,

Whatever may be the form and arrangement of the vai-
cular bodies, they agree in one circumftance: they receive
fo great a fupply of red blood that every point is coloured,
the whole appearing of an uniform crimfon colour, as if it
were dyed. ‘There is no other organ of the animal body,
with which we are acquainted, that pofleffes the fame ipecies
of vafcularity, except the choroid gland of the eye of fihes ;
but even this part falls fhort in the degree of vafcularity.

It may be ftated in a general way, that in thofe fithes
which want a diftinét vafcular apparatus, there is either a
communication between the air-bladder and the ftomach or
ccfophagus, or the internal membrane of the bag receives a
confiderable number of blood-veffels. In fome cafes, how-
ever, when thefe provifions exilt, the inner fu:face of the
air-bladder is abundantly fupplied with blood-veffels. In
the dichir (polypierus niloticus), for inttance, the veflels form
innumerable itriz, which colour a great part of the furface
of the bag.

It has been commonly fuppofed that the vafcular bodies,
and the veflels diftributed upon the inner furface of the
bladder, are deftined to fecrete the air with which it is filled.
This fat, which has been called in quetlion by fome phy-
fiologiits, is fully proved by the ftructure obferved in the
vafcular bodies of eels (murena), and the fea perch (perca
labrax). In the former, the vefcular bodies exhibit on their
furface a fine net-work of veflels containing air; and in the
fea perch, befides the ufual vafcular body on the inner part
of the bag, there are two others placed externally on each
fide, and extended from the bafe to the point of the cone-
thaped bladder of this fith. There arife from thefe a great
number of little air-veflcls, which unite into feveral principal
trunks that penetrate the parietes of the bladder, and open
into its cavity by thirty or forty orifices on each fide, ar-
ranged in a line,

4 Ae

FISH.

As the offices of thefe fingular organe are fo fatisfaGorily
demonftrated, they might with propriety be called air-
glands. The circumfance of the vafcular bodies fecreting
air is a moll interefting fa@ in phyfiology, and ferves to ex-
plain the produétion of gafcous matter from the fecreting
furfaces in other claffes of animals.

The communication which the air-bladder has, in feveral
fies, with the itomach is one of the moft curious circum-
ftances in the hiftory of this organ. It has been fuppofed,
by fome anatomifts, to be intended to difcharge the coa-
tents of the bag; but we are more difpofed to think that it
is d-figned to admit air, which is furnifh-d by the furface of
the alimentary canal. In no inftance has any fifh been ob-
ferved to expel air by the mouth or anus; and if it were ree
tained in the ffomach, the fp-cific gravity of the animal would
rema'n the fame, and confequently the fuppofed purpofe
would not be anfwered, On the ether hand, the fecretion of
air from the furface of the ftomach is a well afcertained fact,
with refpe& to many other animals, and may be prefumed
by fair analogy to take place alfo in fifhes. Avother argu-
ment may be drawn from the furface of the air-bag being
commonly found Jefs vafcular in thofe inftances where this
communication exilts.

The dud, which ferves to convey the air from the al}-

mentary canal into the bladder, has been obferved to exif
in certain fpecics of the genera acipen/ér, murena, perca,
falmo, efox, cyprinus, clupea, filurus, and polypterus. It
varies with relpe& to its fize and figure, and the places at
which it arifes and terminates. In the eel (murena anguilla),
the conger (murena conger), and the murena helena; it palles
from the anterior part of the ftomach to the middle of the
bladder, between the two air-glands: it becomes wider as it
approaches the bladder. Inthe pike (e/ox /ucius), the trout
(falmo fario), the falmon (falmo falar), and the jeurgeon
(acipenfer jlurio), the opening into the bag is fituated near
its anterior extremity. In thefe fifhes it is fhort and wide,
particularly in the pite and ffurgeon: in the latter it is fo
wide, that a finger will pafs through it; and fo fhort, that
it appears like a ring rather than a duct. It arifes from the
eefophagus in the /a/mon, and from the beginning of the
flomach in the flurgeon. It opens into the anterior third of
the bag in the jilurus. The duG& is extremely long and
{mall in the carp (cyprinus carpio), and paffes from the ter-
mination of the aiophagus to the anterior part of the pof-
terior portion of the air-bag. Inthe herring (clupea haren-
gus) the pofterior or fuunel-fhaped extremity of the {tomach
gives origin to a flender du€&, which enters the air-bag at
about one-third from its potterior extremity.

The orifice into the celophagusis not furnifhed with any
valves to prevent the admiffion of xtraneous fubltances ; but
when it is wide, it 1s encompafled by fome mufcular fibres,
which perform the office of afpinéter. This ftruéture is
well feen in the flurgeon and the bichir (polypterus niloticus) :
in the former, the fhort de@ has a mufcular coat of circular
fibres; and in the latter, the orifice is furrounded by a
iphingter. When the dué is very fmall, the contraCtion. of
‘the ordinary mufcular fibrés of the alimentary canal feems to
be adequate to the fhutting of the orifice.

In whatever manner the orifice of the air-du& be con-
ftrut<d, its opening or clofing 1s unquettionably regulated
by the will of the animal, .

‘Having ftated the general ftruéture of the air-bag, and
the parts connected with it, we fhall enumerate the peculi-
arities of its form which jhave been obferved in different
fifhes.

: "Phe air-bladder in fome inftances confilts of two parts or
chambers, communicating with each other, In the dichir

( polypterus niloticus, Geoffroy), it forms two large cyliadrie
facs, of which the one is much longer than the other,
extending the whole length of the abdomen; they only
unite when they communicate with the cefophagus; the
tetrdodon oblongus allo has the baz of two portions, but of
the fame figure and magnitude; they lie together, and unite
at their anterior extremity. In the gadus polachius the
two portions of the bag are of unequal fize, they are fituated
parallel to each other, aed are conjoined in their middle,
In the carp (cyprinus), and the urang copus feaber, the bag
confifts of two facs, the one pléced behind the other, and
feparated by a contraét’on, which leaves a fmall apertuie of
communication between them.

The air-bladder is fingle in all other fifhes, except the

foregoing examples, and exceedingly various with refp-& to
ita form, even in {pecies of the fame genus. It has the
figure of an elongzt d cone, with the bafe turned forwards,
in the furgeon (acipenfer furic), the falmon end trout (Jalna
Jalar and falmo fario), tie pike (cfox), the dory (zeus faber),
&c. 5 it is long, conical, and fringed pofteriorly in the /almo
eperlanus ; fhort and oval inthe murena helena, narrow and
more elongated in the common eel, the conger, and the /ys
acus ; it is long and pointed at both’ ends in the Aerrin
(clupea harengus). a the cod (gadus morhua), it is pointed
poltertorly, notched or divided into a number of lobules
along the fides, ftraight at the anterior part, from the corners
of which two vermiform proceffes go off, which are cor fi-
derably convoluted. Cuvier defcribes thefe procefles as two
dus, leading into the cefophagus, but they terminate in bliad
extremities ; it is bifurcated anteriorly in the Jing (gadus
molva), long and flcnder in the hake ( gadus merlucins): it is
oval in many of the genus /adrus. In the anableps tetropthalmus
it is {mail anteriorly, and enlarged belind; in the oftracion
cubicus, it is irreguiar, flightly notched before, and a litrle
contrated in the middle; the ofracion quadricornis has’ the
fame fizure, with two proceffcs on the fides. In the genus
Jfillurus the air-bag has the form of a heart, and contains
internally a number of tranfverfe fepta, which are incomplete
upon the fides. Jn many of the genus diodon alfo fimilar
partitions have been obferved to exift. ~

The air-bag in fome fihes poflefles two mufeles ; they are
fhort thick layers, which pafs downwards on each fide of the
anterior pert of the bag. In the dory (zeus fader) they have
an oval form, and have no foreign attachments, bat belong
entirely to the parietes of the bag. In the cod (gadus morliua)
there are two mufcles on each fide, which are affixed to the
two firft lobules, or facculated portions of the air bladder, and
have their fuperior extremities inferted into the fpine.
Cuvier ftates that thefe mufeles exif in the mormyrus ry
and in the offracion cubicus, in which laft {pecies they are
extremely thick. He fuppofes that the ufe of the mafcles is
to comprefs the air-bag, and, by diminifhing the bulk of the
air it contains, encreafe the {pecific gravity of the fh.
They appear, however, to be incompetent to fuch an effe&,
as they can only aét upon the anterior portion of the bag ;
they are, thercfore, probably deitined to urge the air from
the fore- part of the bladder, when the animal has occafion to
defcend in the water.

Tt is to be regretted that the different experiments, which
have been inftituted to afcertain the chemical properties of
the air contained in this organ, have afforded fuch coutra-
di@tory refults: f{carcely any two of them coincide with
each other. Thus, La Cepede has ftated that he difcovered
hydrogen gas in the air-bag of the éench (cyprinus tinea).
Fourcroy found azotic gas in that of the common carp (ty-
prinus carpio), Ficher met with carbonic acid gas. Dr.
Brpadbelt, in examining the ar-bag of the /word_ 72 (xi-

phias

FISH.

phias gladius), fometimes found it to contain oxygen, and
at others fixed air. Others have ftated thet the air-bag of
the carp, &c. is filled with atmofpheric air. Some later
experiments on the fubje& have been communicated to the
French National Inftitute by M. Biot. He afcertained that
the contents of this organ varied from pure azote to 8/jths
of oxygen; but there exifted no hydrogen. He ftated that
frefh-water fifh, which frequently {wim near the furface,
afforded the leaft proportion of oxygen; and he thought
that this gas was in greater quantity, according to the depth
of water from which the fifh came.

Biot’s experiments are very interefting, as they go fome
way towards reconciling the contradictory accounts of other
phyfiologifts, and may perhaps be confidered as explaining
the different degrees of purity obferved at different times in
the air of the bag in the fame individual.

Anatomifts are as much at variance with refpe&t to the
ufes of the air-bag, as they differ in their accounts of its
contents. Needham fuppofed that the air produced in the
blood was depofited in the bladder, and afterwards carried
into the ftomach, in order to flit digeltion. Vicq d’Azyr
adopted a fimilar opinion: he thought the bladder was fub-
fervient to digeftion, and that it received the finer kinds of
food. Ficher imagined this organ an_acceffory one to the
gills, befides forwarding the motion of the animal in its ele-
ment: he conceived that the fifh came to the furface for the
purpofe of {wallowing atmofpheric air, which afterwards
pafled through the pneumatic du& into the bladder, and,
when fpoiled by remaining in conta with the vafcular
bodies or. blood-veffels, was expelled through the fame
channel. ‘

It is impoffible to conceive f{peculations more abfurd
or more eafily overturned, than the preceding. Each of
thefe opinions fuppoles that there is always a communication
between the air-bag and the alimentary canal, which, as be-
fore ftated, is afcertained to exift in but a {mall number of
fithes: but if this obftacle did not exift, both the theories
of Needham and Vicq d’Azyrare ftill extremely improbable.
The admixture of atr with the alimentary fubftances would
iaterrupt, inftead of promoting their digeftion, It would be
utterly impoffible for any procefs fimilar to refpiration to
be carried on ina clofe fac; as the air could not be reno-
vated, its operation would ceafe, and to fuppofe the fecretion
of oxygen into the air-bag, and the abforption of the carbonic
acid gas produced there, is perfe€tly prepofterous ; as well
might an animal refpire in a clofe veffel.

The trne and only ule of the air-bladder appears to be to
diminfh the gravity of the filh in relation to its bu'k, and
thereby enable it to continue buoyant, or afcend in the
water with little or no mufcular effort: this is the popular
potion; and bence the common name of /wimming bladder
or fwim are ufed ; in corfimation of which opinion it may
be remarked, that thofe fithes have the largeft air-bags which
{wim rapidly, and frequently afcend and defcend in the water;
that when it is wanting we can almoft always difcover fome
other modification or conditionsin the organs of locomotion
which are adapted to fulfil the fame purpofcs, and that when
fuch provilions do not exift, the filh commozly grovels at
the bottom of the water. Thus the /bark genus is furnifhed
with a long and powertul tai!, and the pctoral fins are in
general of fome fiz. In the mackarel ( fcomber /combrus)
the fkeletow and mulcular fubftance are both light, and the
tail is particlarly ftrong ; the gar fi/b (¢/ox lucius), which has
a light fkeleton, and mufcular fubitance very like the macka-
rel, has an extremely {mall air-baz. "The flat fifhes fwim by
means of a continual beating or flapping of the water with
their broad furfaces, in a manner exactly analogous te flying.

Laftly, the /amprey (petromyzon), which wants the air-bag
and hae a tail badly formed for fwimming, generally lies
buried in the mud at the bottom of the water.

To thefe obfervations we fhall add fome experiments we
made upon one occafion on living fifhes, the goach and gudgeon
(cyprinus rutilus and cyprinus gobio), which, in our opinion,
put it beyond all doubt that the air-bladder is an organ of
motion. A knife was plunged paft the {pine into the air-
bladder; upon the air rufhing out, the fifhes defcended to
the bottom of the veffel of water, and there remained. In
order to afcertain whether the infliction of fuch a wound
could have any effeét, a fimilar one was made upon other
living fifhes, taking care not to penetrate the air-bladder, but
they afterwards afcended and defcended as ufual: an air-
bladder was next removed from the body of one fifh, and
attached to the external part of the body of another fifh,
which had previoufly funk to the bottom in confequence of
the air being extra&ed from its bag by a wound; it now be-
came as unable to defcend in the water as it was before to
rife, and was detained at the furface in defpite of all its
efforts to efcape to the bottom of the veffel.

Two conclufions are to be drawn from the foregoing ex-
periments: rft, that the air-bag is abfolutely neceflary to
the locomotion of thofe fifhes, to which it naturally belongs;
2dly, that in the body of the living fifh fome change is pro-
duced in the bulk or quantity of the air contained in the bag
to enable the fifh to defcend.

Some anatomifts have accounted for the diminution of the
volume of airin the bag, by fuppofing it to be carried into
the ftomach or cefophagus, and thence expelled, but this
could only teke place in thofe few fifhes which have a du&
of communication between thofe parts.

Others have fuppofed that the air-bag is diminifhed by
being compreffed at the will of the animal, either by the
great lateral mufcles, or thofe fituated at the anterior part of
the bag: it feeme, however, very doubtful whether the
aétion of either of thefe mufcles can materially affeG& the
whole bag; butif this were granted, it might be ftill ob- ©
jeGted, that in fome inftances the air-bag is fo thin as not to
be able to fuftsin much compreffion without danger of being
ruptured, and that in other inftances its parietes are fo thick
as to refilt a moderate degree of compreffion, and in the
cobitis foffilis, it being an offeous fac, it is incompreffible.

Shall we fuppofe that the gafeous contents of the bag are
encreafed and diminifhed, as occafion may require, by fecre-
tion and abforption? ‘There appears but one obje&tion to
this fuppofition, which is the rapidity that would be necef-
fary in effeGting thofe changes in the quantity of the air.
It may be remarked, however, that air is fecreted, under
fome circumftances, in the human ftomach almoft inftanta-
neoufly; the fecretion of faliva and the tears is, perhaps,
equally rapid: the vafcular aétion which conveys the flufh
to the cheeks furpafles in velocity any of the voluntary
motions of animals; it is, therefore, rot inconfiftent with
fome of the well known phenomena of the vafcular fyf-
tem to fuppofe that the volume of air in the {wimming blad-
der of fithes may be regulated according to neceffity, by
the veflcls diftributed to the parietes of the bag, or, per-
haps, by thofe of the ftomach, when thefe two parts com-
municate. It would be improper, however, to adopt this
opinion upon the mere ground of ita being poffible: future
experiments muft determine what really are the means em-
ployed bv fifhes to alter their gravity.

Plate XIV. of the Anatomy of Fifbes; contains the
illuttrations of the ftruQure of the air bag. Fig. 1. repre-
fents the air-bladder of the dory, (zeus faber) turned infide
out, in order to bring into view the internal coat and air

I glands,

FISH.

giends, &c.; a, the anterlor part of the bag; 4, the pof-
terior part: the argentine Cvat is feen through the internal
membrane, and at é the fiefhy looking coat which fupplies
its place ; the inner membrane adheres moft loofely at this
part; c,¢,¢,c, the four air-glands or vafcular bodies; d, the
blood .veffel which is diftributed to them with the accom-
panying vein; e, ce, the mufcles feen through the inner
coat.

Fig. 2. exhibits the air-gland of the cod (gadus morhua); a,
the furface prefented to the cavity of the bag.

Fig. 3. the ws the air bladder of the ee/, (murena anguilla )
ditided longitudinally, and the parictes {pread out; a, the
argentine coat; 5444, the internal membrane with its
blood-veflcls ; c, c, the two air-glands ; on the left fide the
inuier membrane is raifed to uncover the gland, and briog
into view the network of the air veffels upon it at d; e ¢,
portion of the du€& which goes to the ftomach.

Fig. 4. reprefents a portion of the eefophagus and ftomach
of the furgeon (acipenfer flurio) laid oper, with a part of the
air-bag attached to it; a, the cefophagus; J, the ftomech ;
e, the air-bladder; d, the du& leading from one into the
other, furrounded by an annular mulcle ; e, the orifice of
the duct. ! :

Fig. 5. is the double air-bag, with its du& in the carp
(cyprinus carpic) inflated and dried; a, the anterior pertion
of the bag 5 0, the pofterior chamber with thinner parietes ;
c, the du&t p-flixg fome diftence before 1t terminates in the
alimentary canal, a portion of which is preferved at d. ,

Fig. 6. exhibits the ftomach and air-bag of the serring
(clufea harengus) ; a, the anterior part of the ftemach ; b,
the potterior or infundibular porvon, from the extremiry of
which a du& is {een going off to the air-bag c, which is
Jonz and pointed at both ends. :

Fig. 7. is a view of the air-beg in the /lurus felis, cut
open to fhew the partitions of the interior, which produce
a cellular appearance.

Eledric Organs.

Thefe parts, and the very fingular faculty they beftow,
have been obferved to exift but in a very {mall number of
{pecies ; there are only five fifhes which are at prefent known
to poflets the ele&tric property. The torpedo (raja torpedv),
a eleiirical ecl (gymnotus eleciricus), the filurus eleéiricus,
the Jedian eel (trichiurus indicus), and the tetraodon eledri-
cus. )
The parts which produce the ele&ric phenomena have
been deferibed by feveral naturalilts in the ¢orpedo and gym-
notus, but moft minutely and correctly by the late Mr.
Hunter ;-and the eleétric apparatus of the filurus eledricus
has been defcribed and delineated within thele late years by
M. Geoffroy the French naturalift, but no account has yet
been given, as far as we know, of thefe organs in the electric
fpecies of trichiurus and telraodon,

Beiore entering upon the confideration of the phenomena
exhibited by the electric fifhes, we thall give a defeription
of the organs by which they are produced in the sorpedo,
the ele@ric eel, and the filurus elecricus ; and with refpect to
the two firlt, as the fubject is peculiarly interefting, we
fhall copy the detailed and accurate account publifhed by
Mr. Hunter in the Philofophical ‘Tran factions.

“ The el@ric organs of the torpedo are placed on each
fide of the cranium and gills, reaching from thence to the
femi-circular cartilages of each great fin, and extendiog lon-
gitadinally from the anterior extremity of the animal, to the
tran{verfe cartilage which divides the thorax from the abdo-
men ; and within thefe limits they occupy the whole {pace
between the fkin of the upper and of the under furfaces ;

Vou. XIV.

they are thickef at the edges near the centye of the fifh, and
become gradually thinner towards the extremities.

“Each eleGtric organ, at its inner longitudinal edge, is
unequally hollowed, being exaGly fitted to the irregular
projections of the cranium and gills. The outer longitudi-
nal edge is a convex elliptic curve, The anterior extremity
of each organ makes the fe@ion of 2 {mall circle ; and the
eae extremity makes nearly aright angle with the inner
edge,

“« Each organ is attached to the furrcunding parts by a
clofe cellular membrane, and alfo by fhort and {trong tendi-
nous fibres, which pafs dire@tly acrofe, from its outer edge,
to the femi-circular cartilages.

** They are covered, above and below, by the common
fkin of the animal; under which there is a thin fafcia {pread
over the whole organ. This is compofed of fibres, which
run longitudinally, or in the direétion of the body of the
animal. T'hefe fibres appear to be perforated in innumera-
ble places; which pives the fafcia the appearance of being
fafeiculated ; its edges all around are clofely conneéted to
the fia, and at lait appear to be loft, or to degenerate into
the common cellular membrane of the fkin.

“ Immediately under this is another membrane, ex2Gly
of the fame kicd, the fibres of which in fome meafure de-
cuffate.thofe of the former, p:ffing from the middle line of
the body outwards and backwards. The inner edge of thie
is loft with the firft defcribed; the anterior, outer, and
pofterior edges are partly attached to the femi-circular cat-
tilages, and partly loft in the common cellular membrane.

‘« This inner fa{cia appears to be continued into the clece
tric organ by fo many proceffes, and thereby makes the
membranous fides or fheaths of the columus, which are pre-
fently to be defcribed; and between thefe proceffes the
fafcia covers the end of each column, making the outer-
moft or firft partition.

“« Ezch organ of the fifh under confideration is ahout
five irches in length, and at the anterior end three in breadth,
though it is but little more than half as broad at the pof-
terior extremity.

** Each confifts wholly of perpendicular columns, reaching
from the upper to the under furface of the body, and vary-
ing in their lengths, according to the thickoefs of the parts
of the body where they are placed, the longeft column being
about an inch and an half, the fhorteft ebout one-fourth of
an inch in length, and their diameters about two tenths of an
inch.

« The figures of the columns are very irregular, varying
according to fituation and other circumftances. The
greateft number of them are either irregular hexagons, or
irregular pentagons; but, from the irregularity of fome of
th«m, it happens that a pretty regular quadrangular column
is fometimes formed. Thofe of the exterior row are either
quadrangular or hexagonal; having one fide external, two
lateral, and either one or two internal. In the fecond row
they are moftly pentagons.

** Their coats are very thin, and feem tranfparent, clofcly
conne@ed with each other, having a kind of loofe net-work
of tendinous fibres, paffing tranfverfely and obliquely
between the columns, and uniting them more firmly
together. Thefe are moftly obfervable where the large
trunks of the nerve pafs. The columns are alfo attached
by ftrong inelaftic fibres, pafling direét!y from the one to
the other.

‘© The number of columns in different torpedos of the fize
of that now offered to the fociety, appeared to be about
470 in each organ, but the number varies according to the
ize of the fith, Thefe —— increafe, not only in fize,

3 but

FISH.

but in number, during the growth of the animal, new ones
forming perhaps every year, onthe exterior edges, as there
they are much the {malleft. 'Phis procefs may be fimilar to
the formation of new teeth, in the human jaw, as it in-
creafes.

‘¢ Each column is divided by horizontal partitions, placed
over each other, at very {mall diflances, and forming nume-
rous interltices, which appear to contain a fluid. Thefe
partitions confit of a very thin membrane, corfiderably
traufparent. Their edges appear to be attached to one an-
other, and the whole is attached by a fine cellular membrane
to the infide of the columns. They are not totally detached
from one aroth-r; [have found them adhering, at different
places, by blood veffels paffing from one to another.

‘« The number of partitions contained ina column of one
inch in length, of a torpedo which had been preferved in
proof {pirits, appeared, upoy a careful examination, to be one
hundred and fity ; and this number in a given length of
column appears to be common to ail fizes in the fame ftate of
humidity, for by drying they may be greatly altered;
whence it appears probable that the increafe in the length of
a colimn, during the growth of the animal, does not en-
large the diftance between each partition in proportion to
that growth; but that new partitions are formed, and
added tothe extremity of the column from the fafcia.

«©The partitionsare very vafcular; the arteries are branches
from the veins of the gills, which convey the blood that has
received the influence of refpiration. They pafs along with
the nerves to the ele&tric organ, and enter with them ;
then they ramify, in every direétion, into innumerable foal
branches upon the fides of the columns, fending in from the
circumference all around upon each partition {mall arteries,
which ramify and anaftomofe upon it; and pafling alfo from
one partition to another, anaftomofe with the veffcls of the
adjacent partitions.

‘© The veins of the eleGtric organ pafs out, clofe to the
nerves, and run between the gills, to the auricle of the
heart.

‘© The nerves inferted into each ele@ric organ, arife by
three very large trunks from the lateral and potterior part of
the brain. The firft of thefe, in its paflage outwards, turns
round a cartilage of the cranium, and fendsa few branches
to the firft ill, and to the anterior part of the head, and
ahen paffes into the organ towards its anterior extre-
mity. he fecond trunk enters the gills between the firft
and fecond openings, and, after furnifhing it with fmall
branches, pafles into the organ near its middle. The third
trunk, after leaving the fkull, divides itfelf into two branches
which pafs to the electric organ through the gills ; one be-
tween the fecond and third openings, the other between the
third and fourth, giving {mall branches to the gill itfelf.
Thefe nerveshaving entered the organs, ramify in every di-
rection between the columns, and fend in {mall branches
upon each partition where they are lott.” Phil. Tranf. vol.
63, p. 481.

Plate XV. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, exhibits a view of the
upper or back furface of the torpedo, on which the eletric
organ of each fideis uncovered by raifing the integuments, in
order to fhew the extenfive portion of the body of the fifh,
which thefe parts occupy : 4, a, the integuments turned
back, difplaying on their infide an hexagonal net-work,
which was the continuation of the columns into the fkin ;
3, 2, 5, b, the ends of the column applied to the integu-
ments. An exactly fimilar appearance prefents itfelf on

raifing the ‘kin of the inferior or oppofite furface of the body
of the faith.

In Plate XVI. of the Anatomy of Fifkes, fig. t+ thews-

the eleGric organ of the torpedo on the right fide, divided
horizontally into nearly two equal parts at the place where
the nerves enter; the upper half being turned outwards.

aa, bb, cc, dd, the correfponding parts of trunks of
the nerves as they emerge from the gills, and ramify ia the
electric organ.

aa, the firft or anterior trunk arifing juft before the.

ills.
a bb, the fecond or middle trunk, arifing behind the fit.
il.
g cc, the anterior branch of the third trunk, arifing be sind
the fecond gill.

dd, the pofterior branch of the third trunk, arifing behind
the third gill.

Fig. 2. of the fame plate, exhibits a perpendicular fec-
tion of the torpedo, a little behind its mnfpiratory open-
ings.

ei the upper furface of the fith.

b, b, the mufcles of the back, as divided by the feGion.

c, the medulla f{pinalis.

d, the efephagus.

e, the left gill, {plit to expofe the courfe of atrunk. of a.
nerve through it.

f. the breathing furface of the right gill.

& & the fis.

4, bh, the perpendicular columns which compofe the
eleGtric organ, with a reprefentation of their horizontal pofi-
tions.

i, one of the trunks of the nerves, with its ramifica-
tions.

« The gymnotus eledricus m2y be confidered, both anatomi-
cally and phyfiologically, as divided into two parts; wiz,
the common animal part ; and a part which is fuperadded,
viz. the peculiar organ. I fhall at prefent confider it only
with refpe@ to the lait ; as the firft explains nothing relating
to the other, nor any thing relating tothe economy of fifh.
in general.

« The firft, or common animal part, is fo contrived as to
exceed what was neceffary for itfelf, in order to give fitua-
tion, nourifhment, and molt probably the peculiar property.
to the fecond. ‘The lalt part, or peculiar organ, has an im-
mediate conneCtion with the firft, the body affording it a
fituation; the heart, nourifhment; and the brain, nerves,
probably its peculiar powers. or the firft of thefe
purpofes, the body is extended in length, being much
longer than would be fufficient for what may be called its
progreflive motion. For the real body, or that part where
the vifcera and parts of generation are fituated, with refpea.
to the head, as in other fith, is extremely fhort; fo that,
according to the ordinary proportions, this fhould be
a very fhort fifth. Its great length, therefore, feems chiefly
intended to afford a furface for the {upport of the peculiar
organ ; however, the tail part is likewife adapted to the
progreflive motion of the whole, and to preferve the {pecific
gravity ; for the {pine, medulla fpinalis, mufcles, fin, air-
bladder, are continued through its whole length,

‘* Befides which parts, there is a membrane pafling from
the {pine to that fin which runs along the belly or lower
edge of the animal. This membrane is broad at the end
next to the head, terminating in a point at the tail. It is
a fupport for the abdominal fin, gives a greater furface of
{upport for the organ, and makes a partition between the
organs of the two oppofite fides.

“ The organs which produce the peculiar efle@ in the
eleGric eel conititute nearly one-half of that part of the
flefh in which they are placed, and perhaps make more than
one-third of the whole re There are two pair of thefe

organs,

FISH.

ergans, a larger and a fmaller; one being placed on each
fide. The large pair occupy the whole lower or anterior,
and alfo the lateral part of the body, making the thicknefs
of the fore or lower parts of the animal, and run almot
through its whole length; wiz. from the abdomen to near
the end of the ta‘l. It !s broadeft on the fides of the fith
at the anterior end, where it inclofes more of the lateral
parts of the body, becomes narroweit towards the end of
the tail, occupying lefs and lefs of the fides of the animal,
till at Lift ic ends almott in a point.

‘© Thefe two organs are feparated from one another at the
upper part by the mufcles of the back, which keep their
upper o- pofterior edges at a confiderable diftance; below
that, and towards the middle, they are feparated by the air-
bag, and at their lower parts they are frparated by the
middle partition.

“¢ They begin forwards, by a pretty regulcr edge, almoft
at right angles with the longitudinal axiz of the body,
fituated on the lower and lateral parts of the abdomen.
‘Their upper edge is a pretty ftraight line, with {mall inden-
tations made by the nerves and blood-veflcls, which pafs
round it to the fkin. At the anterior end they go as far
towards the back. as the middle line of the animal: but in
their approach towards the tail they gradually leave that line,
coming nearer to the lower furface of the animal.

«The general fhape of the organ, on an external or fide
view, is broad at the end next to the head of the animal,
becoming gradually narrower towards the tail, and ending
there almoft in a point. The other furfaces of the organ
are fitted to the fhape of the parts with which they come in
conta@t; therefore, in the upper and inner furface it is bol-
lowed, to receive the mufcles of the back.

‘¢ There is alfo a longitudinal depreffion on its lower edge,

“where a fubftance lies, which divides it from the {mall or-
gan, and which gives a kind of fixed point for the lateral
mufcles of the fin. Its moft internal furface is a plane
adapted to the partition which divides the two organs from
one another. The edge next to the mufcles cf the back is
very thir, but the organ becomes thicker and thicker
towards its middle, where it approaches the centre of the
animal. lt becomes thinner again towards the lower fur-
face, or belly; but that edge is not fo thin as the
other.

“Its union with the parts to which it is attached is in
general by a loofe, but pretty ftrong cellular membrane,
except at the partition, to whigh it 1s joined fo clofe, as to
be almoft infeparable.

“ The {mail organ lies along the lower edge of the ani-
mal ncarly tothe fame extent as the other. Its fituation is
marked externally by the mufcles which move the fin under
which it lies. [ts anterior end begins nearly in the fame
line with the large organ, and jut where the fin begins,
It terminates almott infenfibly near the end of the tail, where
the large organ alfo terminates.

‘© Tt is of a triangular figure, adapting itfelf to the part
in which it lies. Its anterior end is the narrowelt part ; to-
wards the tail it becomes broader ; in the middle of the organ
itis thickeft; and from thence becomes gradually thinner
to the tail, where it is very thin.

«* The two {mall organs are feparated from one another by
the middle mufcles, aud by the bones upon which the bones
of the fing are articulated.

‘© The large and the {mail organ on each fide ate feparated
from one another by a membrane, the inner edge of which isat-
tached to the middle partition, and its outer edge is loit on
the fkin of the animal.

To expofe the large organ to view, nothing mare is

neceflary than to remove the fkin which adheres to it by a
loofe cellular membrane. But to expofe the {mall o-gan
it is neceffary to remove the long row of {mall mufcles which
move the fin.

“ The firudure of thefe organs is extremely fimple and
regular, confifting of two parts; viz. flat partitions or
fepta, and crofs divifions between them. The outer edge
of thefe fepta appear externally in parallel lines nearly in the
dire@ion of the longitudinal axis of the body.

“ Thefe fepta are thin membranes, placed nearly parallel
to one another. Their lengths are nearly in the dirc€tion
of the long exis, and their breadth is nearly the femidiameter
of the body of the animal. — They are of different lengths,
fome being as long as the whole organ. I fhall defcribe them
as beginning priscipally at the anterior end of the
organ, although a few begin along the upper edge, and the
whole, paffing towards the tail, graduaily terminate on the
lower furface of the organ; the lowermoft at their origin
terminating fooneft. Their breadths differ in differeat parts
of the organ,

“* They are in general broadeft near the anterior end, an-
{wering tothe thickeft part of the organ,"and become gra-
dually narrower towards the tail ; however, they are very nar-
rowat their beginnings or anterior ends. Thofe neareft to the
mufcles of the back are the broadeft, owing to their curved
or oblique fituation upon thefe mufcles, and grow gradually
narrower towards the lower part, which is in a great meafure
owing to their becoming meore tranfverfe, and alfo to the
organ becoming thinner at that place.

* They have an ovtsr andan inner edge. The outer is
attached to the cin of the animal, to the lateral mufcles of
the fin, and to the membrane which divides the great organ
from the {mall; and the whole of their inner edges are fixedto
the middle partition formerly defcribed, alfo to the air-
bladder, and three or four terminate on that furface which
inclofe the mufcles of the back. Thefe fepta are at the
greateft diftance from one anothei at their exterior edges near
the fkin, to which they are united; and as they pafs from
the fin towards their inner attachments they approach one
another. Sometimes we find two yniting into one. On
that fide next to the mufcles of the back, they are hollow
from edge to edge, anfwering to the fhape of thofe mufcles;
but become lefs and lefs fo towards the middle of the orga,
and from that, towards the lower part of the organ, they be-
come curved in the other direGion. At the anterior part of
the large organ, where it is nearly of an equal breadth, they
run pretty parallel to “one another, and alfo pretty ftraights
but where the organ becomes narrower, it may be obferved,
in fome places, that two join or unite into one; efpecially
where a nerv- paffes acrofs. The termination of this organ at
the tail is fo very fmall, that I could not determine
whether it confifted of one feptum or more.

“6 The diftances between thefe fepta will differin fithes of dif.
ferent izes, Ina fifth of two feet four inches in length, I found
them },th of an inch diftant from oneanother; andthebreadth
of the whole organ, at the broade!t part, about aninch and a
quarter, in which fpace werethirty-four fepta.

* The {mall organ has the fame kind of tepta, in length
pafling from end to end of the organ, and in breadth
paffing quite acrofs: they run fomewhat ferpentine, not ex-
actly in itraight lines. Their outer edges terminate on the
outer furface of the organ, which is in conta& with the in-
ner furface of the external mufcle of the fin; and their inner
edges are in conta& with the céntre mufcles. They differ
very mach in breadth from one another; the broadeit being
equal to one fide of the triangle, and the narrowelt [carcely
broader than the point or edge. They are pretty nearly at

3 equal

342
°

FES HW.

equal diftances from one another; but much nearer than
thofe of the large organ, being only about igth part of an
inch afunder: but they are at a greater diftance from one
another towards the tail, in proportion to the increale of
breadth of the organ.

“The organ is about half an inch in breadth, and has
fourteen fepta. Thefe fepta, in both organs, are very ten-
der in confiftence, being eafily torn. ‘lhey appear to an-
{wer the fame purpofe with the columns in the torpedo,
makin» walls or butments for the fubdivifions, and are to
be confidered as making fo many diftin& organs.

“ Thefe fepta are interfeGted tranfverfely by very thin
plates or membranes, whofe breadth is the diftance between
any two fepta, and therefore of different breadths in dif-
ferent parts; broadeft at that edge which is next to the
fkin ; narroweft at that next to the centre of the body, or

to the middle partition which divides the two organs from
one another,

‘“‘ Their lengths are equal to the breadths of the fepta-
between which they are fituated. There is a regular fcries
of them continued trom one end of any two fepta to the
other. They appear to be fo clofe as even totouch. In
an inch in length there are about 240, which multiplies the
furface in the whole to a valt extent.

“The nerves in this animal may be divided into two
kinds; the firft, appropriated to the general purpofes of
hfe; the fecond, for the management of this peculiar func-
tion, and very probably for its exiftence. They arife in
general from the brain and medulla {pinalis, as in other fith ;
but thofe from the medulla are much larger than in filh of
equal fize, and larger than is necefflary for the common
operations of life,

“The nerve which arifes from the brain, and pafles down
the whole length of the animal, (which, I believe, exifts in
all fifh,) is larger in this than in others of the fame fize, and
paffes nearer to the {pine. In the common eel it runs in the
mulcles of the back, about midway between the {kin and
fpine. In the cod, it paffes immediately under the fkin.
From its being larger in this fith than in others of the fame
fize, one might fufpe that it was intended for fupplying
the organ in fome degree; but this {eems not to be the cafe,
as I was not able to trace any nerves going from it to join
thofe from the medulla fpinalis, which run to the organ.

‘© This nerve is as fingular an appearance as any in this
elafs of animals; for furely it muft appear extraordinary, that
anerve fhould arife from the brain to be loft in common
parts, while there is a medulla {pinalis giving nerves to the
fame parts. It muit fill remain one of the inexplicable cir-
cumftances of the nervous fyftem.

“©The organ is fupplied with nerves from the medulla
jpinalis, from which they come out in pairs between all the
vertebrae of the fpine. In their paflage from the f{pine,
they give nerves to the mufcles of the back, &c. They
bend forwards and outwards upon the {pine, between it and
the mufcl-s, and fend out fmall nerves to the external fur-
face, which join the fkin near to the lateral lines. Thefe
ramify upon the fkin, but are principally bent forwards be-
tween it and the organ, into which they fend fmail branches
as they pafsalong. ‘They feem to be loft in thefe two parts.
‘Fhe trunks get upon the air-bladder, or rather dip between
it and the mufcles of the back, and continuing their courfe
forwards upon that bag, they dip in between it and the or-
gan, where they divide into fmaller branches; then they
get upon the middle partition, on which they continue to
divide into ftill f{maller branches; after which they pafs on,
and get upon the fmall bones and mufcles which are the

bafes for the under-fin, and at laft they are Joft on that fin
After having got between the organ and the above-men-
tioned parts, they are conftantly fending {mall nerves into
the organs; firft into the great organ, and then iato the
{mall one ; alfo into the mufcles of the fin, andvat lait into
the fin itfelf. Thefe branches, which are fent into the organ
as the trunk paffes along, are fo fmall, that I could not
trace their ramifications in the organs.

“In this Gfh, as weil asin the forpedo, the nerves which
fupply the organ are much larger chan thofe beftowed on any
other part fur the purpofes of fenfation and ation ; but 1t
appears to me, that the organ of the torpedo ts fupplied with
much the larger proportion. If all tne nerves which go to
it were united together, they would make a vaitly greater
chord than all thofe which go to the-organ of thiseel. Per-
haps when experiments have been made upon this fith,
equally accurate with thofe made upon the torpedo, the reafon
for this difference may be affizned.

‘“« How tar this organ is vafcular I cannot pefitively de-
termine; but from the quantities of {mall arteries going to
it, Iam inclined to believe that it is not dificient in vef-
fels.

«* The arteries arife from the large artery which paffes
down the fpine ; they go off in {mall branches hke the inter-
coftals in the human fubj-€, pafs arourd the air-bladdcr,
and get upon the partition together with the nerves, and
dittribute their branches in che fame manner.

“ The veins take the fame courfe backwards, and enter
the large vein. which runs parallel with the artery.” Pial.
Tranf. vol. Ixv. p. 395.

Plate XVAL. jig. 1. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, exhibits
the whole of the two organs in the gymnotus e/eG@ricus on
each fide, the fkin being removed as far as thefe organs ex-
tend: a, the lower furface of the head ofthe animal; 4, the
cavity of the belly; c, the anus; d, the fin; e, the back of
the fifh where the fin has not been removed; ff, the fia
which runs along the lower edge of the filh; g gg, the flcin
turned back; 4, 4,4, the lateral mufcles of the above fin
removed and carried back with the fkin, to expofe the {mall
organ; 7, part of the mufcle left in its place; £44, the large
organ; ///, the fmall organ; mmm m, the fubltance which
divides the Jarge organ from the {mall ; 2, at this place the
above fubitance is removed.

In Plate XVIII. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. thews
a feétion of the whole thicknefs of the gymnotus eledricusy
near the upper part, a little magnified. The fkin is removed
as far back as the polterior edge of the organ, and the other
parts immediately belonging to it, fuch as the medulla fpi-
nalig. There are feveral pieces or feétions taken out of the
organ, which expofe every thing that has any relation to it.
At the upper and lower ends ot the figure, ff, the organ
is entire, the fkin only being removed; aa, the body of the
amimal near the back, covered by th= fkin; 64, the belly-
fia covered alfo by the fikin; ¢, part of the fkin removed
from the organ, and turned back d,d, the mutclea which
move the ftu laterally, and which immediately cover the
{mall organ; ¢, the middle mufcles of the fin, which lay
immediately between the two {mail organs; ff, the outer
furface of the large organ, as it appears when the fkin is res
moved ; g, the fmall. organ, 2s it appears when the lateral
mu{cles are removed ; 4, 4, the cut ends of the mufcles of
the back, which have been removed to expofe the deepet
feated parts; 4, the cut ends of the large organ, part of
which has alfo been removed to expofe the deeper feated
parts; &, the cut end of the {mall organ; /, a part of the
large organ, the reft having been removed; m, the cut end
of the above feGion; n, a {ection of the {mall organ; 0a

3 the

FISH.

the middle partition which divides the two large organs; p, a
fatty membrane, which divides the large organ from the
{mall ; g, the air-bladder; r, the nerves going to the organ ;
s, the medulla fpinalis; ¢, the fingular nerve.

Fig. 2. of Plate XVUII. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, isa
tran{verfe {ction of the eleGric eel, expofing at one view all
the parts of which it is compofed: a, the external furface of
the fide of the fih; 4, the under-fin; c,c,c,c, the cut ends
of the mufecles of the back ; d, the cavity of the air-bladder ;
¢, the body of the fpine; f, the medulla {pinal is; g, the large
artery and vein; 4,4, the cut ends of the two large organs;
i, i, the cut ends of the two {mall organs; 4, the partition
between the organs.

The ftruGture of the ele&tric organ is lef{s complicated in
the filurus cleGricus than in the torpedo or gymnotus. In this
fih, Geoffroy defcribes it to be extended all round the body
of the anim:|, immediately below the fkin: itis formed by
a confiderable colleGtion of cellular tiffue, fo thick and com-
pact, that onthe ficlt view it might be taken for a ftratum
of lard; but when clofely infoected, it is obferved that this
organ is compofed of -reai tendinous or aponevrotic fibres
interwoven with each other, and which, by their different
croffings, form a reticulation, the mefhes of which are not
diftinétiy vifible without the help of a magnifying glafs.
The {mall cells of this reticulation are filled with an albumino-
gelatinous matter, exa@ly refembling that met with in the
other eleG&tric fifhes. All communication is prevented in
the infide by a very {trong aponeurofis, which extends over
the whole ecleétric reticulation, and which adheres to it fo
clofely that it cannot be feparated without tearing it. It is
further covered by a thick layer of fat, which alfo contri-
butes to infulate the organ.

The nerves which are diftributed to the electric organ of
the fillurus differ from thofe of the torpedo, aud the eleGric
eel.

They proceed from the brain ; and are the fame which
are found in all fithes, under the lateral line of the body ;
but thefe two nerves of the eighth pair in the /i/urus elefricus
have a dire&tion and volume which are peculiar to that
fpecies: they defcend, approaching each other, on their
iffuing from the craniym, towards the body of the firit
vertebra, which they traverfe. They firlt introduce them-
felves through an orifice, peculiar to each other, and
‘then ifflue on the oppofite fide by one aperture : after re-
afcending they fuddenly feparate, and proceed under each
of the lateral lines. They are then found lodged between
the abdominal mulcles, and the aponeurofis, which extends
over the ele&tric reticulation. In the lat place, they fend
beneath the fin large branches, which proceed to the right
and left of the principal nerves Thefe branches are in
number twelve to fifteen on each fide; they pierce the
aponeurofis, which lines the interior furface of the reticular
tillue, and are loit in the latter. Bulletin de la focieté Phi-
lomatique, tom. iii, p. 1693 and an extract from Annales
du Mafeum N° 5, in Phil. Mag. vol. xv. p. 126.

In Plate XVIL.of the snatomy of Fifbes, jig. 2.
reprefents the filurus ele@ricus, with the organ expofed, by a
large portion of the integuments being railed ; a, the
aponeurofir, which extends under the whole of theveleciric
organ; 4, the thicknefs of the reticviation ; cc, the nerve of
the eight’: pair going to the ele€tric apparatus ; d, d, abdomi-
nal mufcles.

The /usfance which is found to fill the columns of the
torpedo, the interftices of the gymnotus, and the muicles of
the /filurus, is a peculiar combination of albumen and
gelatine; it is of the fame nature with the contents
of what Monroe has improperly called the mucous
duis in fifhes, and that tranfparent fubftance which

envelopes the fpawn of frogs; it does not diffolve, bur
becomes more folid when immerfed in water, in confequence
of the coagulation of its albuminous part; we have fub-
mitted it to the a&tion of tannin, with which it combines,
and forms an infoluble compound like gelatine.

The phenomena exhibited by eleGric fishes are of fo extra-
ordinary a nature that they have engaged the attention of
every phyfiologift who has had the opportunity of obferving
them; but although every occafion has been embraced to
meke experiments upon the fubj2&, much inveftigation is
ftill required to arrive at the explanation of the eleGric fae
culty, and even to determine difputed points of fa&. The
very rare occurrence of procuring any of thefe animals alive
in this country prevents us from adding any thing to the
{tock of knowledge already obtained upon the fubje&, we
can therefore only quote the obfervations and experiments
of other phy fiologitts.

The preceding défcription of the ele¢trical apparatus in
three [pecies would feem to prove, that a fimilar fyftem of
organization belongs to all fithes which enjoy the eleGtric
property. The effets of this ftructure are aifo fimilar,
and differ chiefly with refpe@& to the degree. All the eleGric
fifhes are capable of exciting in other animais a fenfation re-
fembling that produced from the fhock of an ele€-ical jar.
The gymnotus is endowed with the greateft power of this
kind; the ¢orpedo next, and the //urus the leatt of the
three.

The gymnotus is faid, by Garden, to grow fometimes, in
Surinam, 20 feet long, and to be able to give fhocks which
prove inltantaneoufly fatal to any perfoa receiving them.

Mr. Humbolt ftates, that a torpedo, about 14 inches long,
communicated fhocks which reached above the elbow, and
were difficult to bear even by a perfon accuftomed to re-
ceive fhocks from an eleétrical machine; whillt, on the other
hand, Walth found, in about 200 fhocks, that only one was
ftrong enough to pafs beyond theeclbow. Much of the
force of the fhock depends upon the natural ftrength of the
animal and its vigour at the moment of the experiment ; it
is faid to have very little ele@tric power in winter; it is
always much diminifhed in confequence of the fifh remaining
for any time out of the water. The fhocks, however, do
not appear to be leffened in ftrength by repetition, unlefs
the animal be otherwife exhaufted. Thus Ingenhouz: ob-
ferved, ‘* that when the fhocks of the torpedo followed each
other very falt, they were ftronger at laft thao in the
beginning.”

EleGric fifhes are capable of repeating the fhocks very
frequently in a fhort {pace of time. Mr, Walfh reckoned
fifty in a minute and a balf given by the forpedo; and upon
another occafion. he calculated, that 100 were delivered ig
about five minutes. :

When the forpedo adminifters a fhock it is always ob.
ferved to deprels the eyes and drop the triangular curtain
which covers the pupil, and generally to make fome move-
ment of the lateral fins. The other ele&tric fifhes do not
accompany thefe fhocks by any vifible mufcular effort.

The torpedo alfo differs from the others in fometimes be-
numbing the part which touches it.. Mr, Waalfh accounts
for the produ€tion.of numbnefs by fuppofing the fhocks to
be very minute, and fo clofely following each: other as not
to be diftinguifhable, which may be effected by a fucceflive
difcharge of the numerous columns of the organ, in the man
ner of a running fire of mufketry. In this-continued effort,
as well as the inflantaneous fhock, the eyes.of the sorpede,
ufually prominent, are withdrawn into their fockets: it is
from the benumbing property of the serpedo.that it derives
its name.

The faculty in thefe filhesa of exciting by the touch, the

fenfation.

FISH.

fenfation of a fheck, or of uumbnefs, in other animals, has
been naturally and generally referred to the principle of elec-
tricity ; even the Arabs, (according to Geoffroy) who always
diftinguifhed every animal by a generic and fpecific name,
confidering only the extraordinary property of the torpedo
and filurus eledricus, and comparing it with phyfical eleciri-
city, called both fifhes by the fame name, rdad or raach,
which is alfo employed in the Arabian language to fignify
thunder.

Mott phyfiologifts have confidered the eleétric organs of
fihes as refembling exaély the Leyden jar, or rather a
battery of them ; they have compared the nerves and albu-
mino-gelatinous fubftance to the metals, and the aponeu-
rofes to the glafs ; thus feppofing the cleric organ to con-
fit of conduéting and non-conduGing fubftances, and that
when the equilibrium is reftored between them, the fhock
is produced.

Unqueltionably there are many circumf{tances in which the
common cleric fhock, and that obtained from fifhes agree,
but there are other points in which they materially differ.

The fenfations occafioned by artificial and animal elcétri-
city are fimilar.

The fhock from an eleétric fifh is only communicable
through what are called conduéting fubflances, and is alfo
intercepted by the non-conduétors ; thus it may be received
through the medium of wire of different metals, wood,
water, and the animal fubftance ; while a perfon touching
it with glafs, fealing-wax, &c. receives no fhock, notwith-
itanding the fifh gives evidence of the difcharge by the mo-
tion of the eyes, &c.

The fhock will be tranfmitted to a number of perfons
taking hands; thofe at the extremities completing the ring
by touching the fh. In this manner Walfh has commu-
nicated a fhock to four or five people at the fame moment,
who experienced exaétly the feniation of a fhock from an
eleétric jar, except that it was weaker. Dr. Williamfon
gave fhocks to ten or twelve perfons at once by an eledric
eel.

The effe&t of the eleGtric filhes differs from common’elec-
tricity in feveral circumftances. However ftrong the fhock
may. be, it never has been feen to produce the lealt noife or
luminous appearance. Mott experimentalifts alfo agree, that
the fhock will not pafs through the [malleft portion of air;
the conduGting fubftances muit be in aétual contact with
each other,

Williamfon {crewed two pieces of wire in oppofite direc-
tions into a board, leaving an interval between their points
of the <';th part of an inch, his affiltant and himfelf held the
oppofite ends of the wire, and eftablifhed a communication
with the ee/ by means of their other hande, but no fhock
pafled. On repeating the experiment and {crewing the
wires fo as to bring their points within the diftance of the
thicknefs of double poft paper of each other, the fhock
was felt by both perfons, but {till no {park was difcernible,
which we conceive renders the accuracy of the experiment
doubtful.

Dr. Bancroft indeed afferts, that in Guiana the «/eGric eel
fhocked his hand at the diftance of fome inches from the
water; a refult, however, fo very different from the ob-
fervation of all other experimentalifts appears more than
queftionable.

The eleGricity of fifhes has not the effe& of attraCtiing
floating fubftanees. When a perfon isinfulated, and touches
the fifh, he receives a fhock as at other times, but gives no
appearance of excefs of electricity, however long he may
keep up his communication with the animal. A Leyden

phial alfo, being put into conta& with an electric fifh, never
becomes charged.

The eleGtric organ differs from the Leyden phial, as Volta
has very properly obferved, by being entirely compofed of
condu@ting fubftances. The aponeurofes and membranes
which form its various furfaces are not of an infulating na-
ture, like glafs, rofin, filk, &c. They cannot be expofed
to fri€tion, nor difpofed and charged in the manner of the
{mall plates of Franklin, or eletrophores. Volta, therefore,
concludes that the ele€tric organs do not aé&t upon the prine
ciple of a Leyden jar, or an ele€trophore or condenfer, but
that they entirely refemble the Galvanic pile, in which con-
ducting fubftances become exciters of eleétricity, hy being
placed ina particular relation with refpe& to each other.

It would appear that the eleStric’phenomena of fifhes are
produced in a manner differently from every {pecies of phy-
fical eleGtricity. The former are not accompanied with any
chemical changes, they do not aff: & our organs of fenfe, by
any difplay of light, extrication of odour, or explofive found.
Their mode of operation is not regular and uniform, or go-
verned by external influence, but depends upon the life, and
even upon the volition of the animal ; forall experimentaliits
agree in ftating that the eleGtric fifhes regulate the ftrength
and frequency of the fhocks at pleafure. There is no ap-
pearance of accumulation or of diminution of the ele@ric
power, except what arfes from the will of the animal ; the
laft fhocks which one of thefe fifhes adminifters being oftea
more {trong and frequent than the firit.

The nerves feem to be the principal agents in the exercife
of the electric faculty, as they are always found larger in the
organs thau would be required in parts of the fame magni«
tude, for any fpecies of fenfation or voluntary motion.

The great error of phyfiologifts has always been to account
for the operations of organized beings, upon the principles
which regulate the phenomena of inanimate matter. We are
led to make this obfervation from comparing the eleétric
faculty of fifhes, with the property of exhibiting Jight in
fome animals, and the power of generating heat, which is
found in all living bodies ; thefe three funétions, although
producing different refults, appear to be very fimilar in their
nature, and are equally inexplicable by the laws of phyfical
and chemical attraétions ; the ftrongeft proof of which ma
be found in the want of fuccefs, which has followed all the
attempts that have hitherto been made to explain them upon
thefe principles.

Of what ufe is the electric property to thofe fifhes which
poffefs it? Drs. Whilliamfon and Garden ftate, that it is
employed to kill, or at lealt flupefy other filhes, upon which
they prey.

The former relates, amongft his experiments on the ele@ric
eel, that fome {mall fifhes being thrown into the fame water
where it was {wimming, it immediately killed and fwallowed
them ; but a larger fith being thrown in, it was alfo killed,
although it was too large for the ¢e/ to {wallow ; another fish
was thrown into the water at fome diltance from the eel, it
fwam up to the fifh, but prefently turned away, without
offering it any violence. After fome time it returned, when,
feeming to view it for a few feconds, it gave the fifh a fhock,
upon which it inftantly turned up its belly and continued
motionlefs ; at the fame inftant Dr. Williamfon received a
fhock in his hand, which had been previoufly introduced ime
to the water. A third fith wasthrown into the water, to
which the eel gave fuch a fhock that it turned on its fide,
but continued to give figns of life ; the eel feeming to ob-
ferve this as it was turning away, immediately returned and
ftruck it quite motionlefs, The ce/ never attempted to {wallow
any of thefe fith after the firft, although he killed many of

them.

FISH.

them. When any of thelarger fihes that had been fhocked,
although apparently dead, were removed into water in an-
other veffcl, they prefently recovered. Phil. Tranf. vol. 65.
; be Garden gives precifely the fame account of the
eleGtric eel killing or benumbing its prey, and ftates that it
kills, by repeated fhocks, fifth which are larger than it can
{wallow.

It feems, therefore, that the eleétric property is not an
ufelefs one to thole fishes which poflefs it : befides being the
means of fecuring their prey, it mutt aifo form an excellent
detence fo them againft the larger fithes, who might other-
wife devourthem. For a more detailed account of the tor-
pedo, and gymnotus electricus, we refer the reader to Franc.
Redt Exper. Nat. 1666. Obfervazioni interno alle Torpedi-
ni, de Steof, Lorenzini,16738.— Koempf. Ameen. Exot.1712.
—A letter from Joo. Walth, efq. to Dr. Franklin, on the
eleatric property of the torpedo, in Phil. Tranf. vol. 63.
p- 461.—Experiments and obfervations on the gymnotus elec-
tricus, or elediriceel, by Dr. Hugh Williamfon, Phil. Tranf. vol.
65, p. 94.—Account of the gymnotus elediricus, by Dr. Alex.
Garden, Phil. Tranf. vol 65. p. 102.—Experiments made
at Leghorn on the torpedo, by Dr. John Ingenhouz, P..il.
Tranf. vol. 65, p. £.—Bancroft’s Natural Hiftory of Guiana,
—Hifloire Naturelle des Poiffone, par Lacepede, tom 2.—
A Letter from Profeffor Volta to fir Juf>ph Banks, on the
eleGtricity excited by the appofition of different conducting
fubftances, in Phil. ‘Tranf. for 1800, part.2.—Memoir on the
Comparative Anatomy of theclcétric organs of the torpedo,
the gymnotus elediricus, and the /ilurus eledricus by E. Geoftroy,
im vol. 5 of the Annales de Mufeum National,h—Experi-
ments on the forpedo, by Mefirs. Humbolde and Guy Lof.-
fac. in’ Annales de Chemie, No. 166.

Fisn, Migration of, denotes their departure from fome
parts of the ocean and their removal to other parts ;
and alfo to rivers at certain feafons of the year, for the pur-
pofe of depofiting their {pawn, or of obtaining the means
of fubfiftence.

The migration of certain kinds of fift in fhoals and infi-
nite multitudes, to certain coalts at certain times of the year,
isa thing of great advantage to mankind, asit gives oppor-
tunities of taking them with great eafe, and in vatt
quantities; but the reafon of thefe periodical returns of
the feveral kinds does not feem much under{tood, though
a little obfervation would probably clear it up. There is
a {mall infe& common in many feas, but peculiarly plenti-
ful on the coafts of Normandy in the months of June,
July and Auguit, This is well defcribed by Rondele-
tius, under the name of the fea-caterpillar: and at this time
of the year it is fo frequent in the place before mentioned,
that the whole furface of the water is covered with it as with
a feum. This isthe feafon of the year when the herrings
come alfo in fuch prodigious fhoals to thofe coafts. he
fifhermen complain much of thefe nalty vermin, which difturb
their fifheries ; but they do not confider that it is to thefe
alone that their fifheries are owing ; for it is evident that
the herrings feed on thefe creatures greedily, by the vatt
quantity found in all their itemachs: and it is highly pro-
bable, nay fearcely to be doubted, that the reafon of thofe
fifh.coming up in fuch numbers is to feed on them ; pro-
bably, if obfervation was made, the fame would be found
to be the cafe-in all the other places where the herrings come
in the fame fort of plenty. The mackarel come down in
the fame numbers regularly at certain times of the year,
and for the fame fort of reafon. ‘Uhis fith is an herb-eater,
and is particularly fond of that fea-plant called by natural-
ills the narrow-leaved purple palmated fea-wrack ; this grows

in great abundance on the eoatts of England, and many
other places, and isin its greateft perfection in the beginning
of the {ummer, tuough fome times later thanothers, according
to the feverity or mildnefs of the winter. The whole occa-
fion of thefe fifh coming in fuch quantities is to feed on this
plant; and thofe who would attend to its growing up,
would know when to expe@ the mackarel better
than thofe who liften for thunder for the fignal of
them. The tunnies come at certain feafons to the
coalts of Provence and Languedoc, in the fame fhoals
that herrings and mackarel do to other places. This feems
to be on another eccafion ; the fifh called by the French the
emperor, and by the fame confounded with the fwerd-fifh,
is the great enemy of thefe fifth, and in fummer is fo plenti-
ful in thofe feas, that they find no way of faving themlelves,
but by flying to the fhallow waters, where the other cannot
ealily tollow them ; hence they frequent the fhores. The
pilchards caught upon the coafts of Brittany, and making a
confiderable article of commerce for that province, are yet
aftronger proof of the natural means that bring fith in
fhoals to certain places, than any other. Thefe fifh evident-
ly come for food, and that not natural to the place, but
prepared for them by the inhabitants.

The people of Brittany purchafe trom Norway the offal:
and entrails of all the Jarge fifh caught in the northern feas;
this is of late years become a regular and confiderable arti-
cle of trade; they cut thefe to pieces, and ftrew them in
vaft quantities over the whole furface of the fea along their
coafts, at times when the winds do not fit fo as to blow-it
off. This always brings together the pilchards in as vatt
fhoal asthe herring and mackarel come in other places ; and
the fifhermen catch them in fuch quantities, as to be able
to fupply all the maritime places in the neighbourhood,
with them, at a {mall price. The falmon, a fifh bred ia
rivers, yet going at certain times to the fea, is another of
thofe fith which come up at times in valt fhoals. See Sar-
mon. We may here add that the defire of food urges fith of
one fpecies to follow thofe of another, upon which they
prey, through immenfe traéts of ocean, even from the vici-
nity of the pole down to the equator. Thus the cod from
the benks of Newfoundland purfues the whiting, which is
driven before it even to the fouthern fhores of Spain; and
the cachzlot, a fpecies of whale, is faid, in the fame man-
ner, to purfue a fhoal of herrings, and to fwallow great num-
bers at a mouthful.

In the Philofophical Tranfa@ions, N° 463. fe&..1. we
have a method of preparing {pecimens of fifh, by drying
their fkins, as pradtifed by Dr. Gronovius.

Fisx, Black. See Perca nigra and Sinurus Anguillaris.

Fisu, Petrified, in Natural Hiflory. The remains of
fcabrous or finny fifh inthe flrata, are not very commonly
found, compared with the vait numbers and variety of fhell-
fith whofe remains are found; but fome very perfe@ fpeci-
mens do occur in different itrata. Dr. Townfon (Philof.
of Mineral. p. 106.’) feemis to confider fifhes as peculiar to
fome patticular kinds of flrata; in which, however, he is
evidently miftaken, though often they are found in flaty
limettone, in the quarries of La Bolca and Pappenheim ;
fee W. Martin’s Outlines, &e. p. 29, and 79. Mr. Kirwan
(Geol. Eff. pages 234, 235, 239, 245, and 253.) men-
tions fifh as having been found in different parts of the world
in gypfum, in marlite, in argillite, in {fwine-ftone, and in ar-
gillaceous fand-itone.. Ot the mountains of Cattravan, great
diverfity of fifhes are found, in a white laminated ftone. And
in the blue nias, or water limeftone ftrata of England, beau-
tiful fpecimens ef flattened: fifh are faid to be found, at
Batvow on Soar, in Leicefteritite, (the other at near

redo

FISH.

Bredon in the fame eounty has quarries of the yellow or
magnefia limeftone, a circumftance not always adverted to,
in {peaking of barrow lime,) atid in other pl -2s on its range.
Mr. Graydon (Irifh Tranfactions, vol. v. p. 310.) {uppofes
the monte bolca fifh to have been fuddenly interred by be-
ing inveloped in a diffufion of lime, ariling from immenfe
mafies of calcareous itone, ejected in a calcined flate, by
fubaqueons volcanoes. To us it feems more probable that
thefe {quamal fifh were deltroyed by the original creation of
the matter which now entombs them, whofe diffufion in the
water wherein they lived, occafioned their fail to the bottom
and extenfion on their flat fide when dying, in the pofition in
which they now appear on the laminaot the lower ftone, before
the upper one, which entombs them, was produced by the
precipitation of the itony matter from the fluid that had
* occafioned their death ; and on fimilar principles, we think

it eafy to account for all the fofiil reliquia, or relics of the
primary creation of organized beings, fee Reriqusa ; under
which title, we propofe to give the heads of Mr. W. Mar-
tin’s excellent mode of arranging extraieous fofiils, from his
work above quoted. 3 aang

Fisu, with regard to commerce, 1s diftinguifhed into dry,
pickled, green, and red. Dry or falt tith, is that which
is falted, and dried either by the heat of the fun, or
by fire. Such principally are the cod, ftock-fith, her-
ring and pilchard. See FisHery. Green fifth, is that late-
ly falted, and which yet remains moift: as green cod, &c.
Pickled fifh, is that boiled and fteeped in a pickle made of
falt, vinegar, &c. as falmon, cod, herring, mackarel, pil-
chard, anchovy, and oyfters. ed fith, is fome frefh fifh
broiled on the gridiron, then fried in oil of olives, and
barrelled up with a proper liquor, as new olive oil, vinegar,
falt, pepper, cloves, and laurel leaves, or other herbs. The
beft fifth thus prepared are fturgeon and tunny.

Fisu, confidered as a food, makes a conliderable article
in the furniture of the table; and the breeding, feeding,
catching, &c. of them, conititute a peculiar art of no {mall
moment in the economy of a gentleman’s houfe and garden.
To this relate the ponds, ftews, &c. defcribed in their pro-
per places. See Fisn-pond, Stew, &e.

Fisu, Blowing of, isa practice fimilar to that of blowing
ficth, poultry, aud pigs, and adopted forthe fame deceitful
purpoles. The method of blowing fifh, efpecially cod and
whitings, is by placing the end of a quill or tobacco-pipe at
the vent, and pricking a hole with a pin under the fin which
is next the gill; thereby making the fifth appear to the eye
large and full, which, when dreffed, will be flabby, and httleelfe
than fkin and bones. But this impofition may be difcovered
by placing the finger and thumb on each fide of the vent,
and fqueezing it hard ; the wind may be perceived to go out,
the fkin will fallin, and the fifh appear lank and of little
value.

Fisu, Breeding of. See Fisu-ponn.

Fis, Caffration of, is a method firft practifed by Mr.
Tull, in order to prevent the exceflive increafe of fifh in
fome of his ponds, where the numbers did not permit any
of them to grow to an advantageous fize. But he after-
wards found, that the caftrated fifh grew much larger than
their ufual fize, were more fat, and always in feafon. This
eperation may be performed both on male and female fith ;
and the moft eligible time forit is when the ovaries of the
female have their ova in them, and when the veflels of the
male, analogous to thefe, have their feminal matter in then ;
becaufe at this time, thefe veffels are more eafily diftinguifhed
from the ureters, which convey the urine from the kidneys
into the bladder, and are fituated near the feminal veflels on
each fide of the {pine ; which, without fufficient attention,

may be miftaken for the ovaries, efpecially when thefe laft
are empty. The time leaft proper for this operation, is juft
after they have fpawned, becaufe the tifh are then too weak
and languid to bear with fuccefs, fo fevere an operation ;
however, with fkill and care, it may be performed almoft at
any time. When a fifh is to be caftrated, it mult be held
ina wet cloth, with its belly upwards; then with a fharp
pen-knife, having its point bent backwards, the operator
cuts through the integuments of the rim of the belly, taking
care not to wound any of the inteftines. As foon asa {mall
aperture is made, he carefully inferts ahooked pen-knife,
and with this dilates this aperture from between the two fore-
fins, almoft to the anus. He then, with two fmall blunt
filver hooks, five or fix inches long, and of this form r, by
the help of an affiftant, holds open tlie belly of the ffh; and
with a fpoon or fpatula, removes carefully the inteftines
from one fide. When thefe are removed, you fee the ureter,
aimall veffel, nearly in the direction of the fpine, and alfo
the ovary, a larger veffel, lying before it, nearer the inte-
guments of the belly. This laft veffel is taken np with a
hook of the fame kind with thofe before mentioned, and,
after detaching it from the fide farenough forthe purpofe,
divided tranfverfely with a pair of fharp {ciffars, care being
taken that the inteftines are not wounded or injured. After
one of the ovaries has deen divided, the operator proceeds
to divide the other in the fame manner : and then the divid-
ed integuments of the belly are fewed with filk, the ftitches
being inferted at a {mall diftance from one another. Mr. Tull
obferves farther, that the fpawning time is very various ;
that trouts are full about Chriltmas; perch in February’;
pikes in March, and carp and tench in May; and that
allowance muft be made for climates and fituation, with re-
gard to the fpawning of fifh. When the fifh are caftrated,
they are put into the water where they are intended to con-
tinue ; and they take their chance in common w thother fifh,
as though they were not caftrated. With tolerable care,
few die of the operation. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlviii. part ii.
art. 106.

Tisu, Eyes of. See Eyes and anatomy of Fisu.

Fisu, Fecundity of, has been taken notice of by various
writers, who have furnifhed inftances of it in fome particn-
lar fpecies that have been thought furprifing. M. Petit ts
faid to have found in the carp 342,144 eggs; and Lewen-
hoeck, in a cod of middling fize 9,384,00c. But Mr.
Harmer has lately purfued the inveftigation of this curious
fubje€t with peculiar attention and accuracy, and extended
his enquiries to a greater variety of fpecies than any other
perfon, The method which he adopted was that of weigh-
ing the whole {pawn very exaétly ; he then took a piece
weighing a certain number of grains, and carefully counted
the eggs contained in it; and by dividing the number of
eggs by the number of grains, he found, nearly, how
many eggs there were in each grain. His computation
of the number of eggs ex‘ended no farther than to thofe
which he could dittinguifh with his naked eye ; though by-
this limitation, he omitted many eggs, difcoverable by a
microfcope, that might juftly have been counted. The
weights he ufed were avoirdupoife, and he reckoned 4374
grams to an ounce.

The following table exhibitsthe general refult of his en-
quiries: the firit column contains the names of the fifth
which he examined; the fecond, their weight ; the third,
the weight of their {pawn ; and the fourth their fecundity ;
and the fifth the time of the year when each fpecies of fith
was examined. He has alfo added other columns, exhibit-
ing the portion of {pawn weighed, and the number of eggs
found in a grain, and the refult of examming feveral varie-

ties

F1S H.

ties of the fame fpecies of fith of different weights, which
the curious reader may confult. See Phil, Tranf. vol. lvii.
fer 1767. art. 39. p. 280.

Abftra& of the Table.

: Weight of 7. fc
Fith. Weight. forage Fecundity. Time
eS Grains. Eggs.
aa 25 8 2571 aaouee ae 4.
od- 12540 3686760 Dec. 23.
Sorin Z AN 7A ae 1357400 a 14.
erring _ sie) 480 36960 ees
Lobfter 36 o 1671 21699 Aug. Ir.
Mackarel 18 ) 12233 546681 June 18.
Sie Pa St 795 5 FS eR ANE
Pike 5 S1Co} 49304 prul 25.
Prawn (127 grains) 3806 May 12.
Roach 10 6% 361 81586 May 2.
Shrimp (39 grains) 7 6807 -May 3.
Smelt 2 ° 14gt 30275 ,beb. 21.
Soal 14 & 542! 100362 June 13.
Tench go 0 383252" May 28.

* N. B. Part of the fpawn of this fifh was accidentally
loft, and therefore this number is confiderably too fmall.
Such an amazing increafe, if allowed to attain maturity,
would overltcck nature ; andeven the ocean itfelf would not
be able to contain, much lefs to provide for its inhabitants.
But this furprifing fecundity is wifely directed to two im-
portant purpofes; it preferves the {pecies among innumer-
able enemies, and it ferves to furnifh the reft with fuitenance
adapted to their nature.

Fisu, Feeding of. 1. Ina ftew, thirty or forty carps may
be kept from October to March, without feeding ; and by
fifhing with trammels, or flews, in March or April, you may
take from your great waters, to recruit the flews; but you
muft not fail to feed all {ummer, from March to O&ober
agaia, as conflantly as cooped chickens are fed ; and it will
turn to as good an account.

2. The conftancy and regularity of ferving the fifh con-
duce very much to their well-eating, and thriving.

The care of doing this is beft committed to the gardener,
who is always at hand, and on the fpot.

3. Any fort of grain boiled is good to feed with, efpecially
peas and malt coarfe ground ; the grains after brewing, while
frefh and fweet, are alfo very proper; but one bufhel of
malt, not brewed, will go as far as two of grains; chippings
of bread, and orts of a table, fteeped in tap-droppings of
flrong beer, or ale, are excellent food for carps. Of thele the
quantity of two quarts to thirty carps, every day, is fufli-
eient; and to be fo fed morning and evening, is better than
once a day.

There is a fort of food for fifh that may be called acci-
dental, and is no lefs improving than the bet that can
be provided ; and this is when the pools happen to receive
the wafh of commons, where many fheep have palture ;
the water is thus enriched by the foil, and will feed a
much greater number of carps than otherwife it would

_ do; and farther, the dung that falls from cattle ftanding
in water in het weather, is alfo a very great nourith-
ment to fifth. See farther onthe method of feeding carp,
and the advantages refulting from it, under the article
Pisn-ponps.

The beit food to raife pikes to an extraordinary fatnefs
is eels; and without them it is not to be done, but in a
long time. Setting thefe afide, fmall perches are the beit
meat. Breams put. into a pike-pend breed exceedingly;

Vox, XIV.

and are fit to maintain pikes ; which will take care mney do
not increafe over much; the numerous fry of roaches and
rudds, which come from the greater pools inte the pike
quarters, will likewife be good diet for them.

Pike in all ftreams, and carp in hungry {pring waters, being
fed at certain times, will come up and take their meat al-
mott from your hand,

The bett feeding place is towards the mouth of the pond,
at the depth of about half a yard; for by that means the
deep will be kept clean and neat, the meat thrown into the
water, without other trouble, will be picked up by the fifh,
and nothing will be loft; yet there are feveral devices for
giving them fod, efpecially peas; as a fquare board like a
trencher, f{upported by four ftrings, one at each corner, with
leads at the bottom for finking it, on which the food may be
let down into the water.

When fith are fed in the larger pools or ponds, where their
numbers are great, malt boiled, or frefh grains, is the beft
food... Thus carps may be fed and raifed like capons, and
tench will feed as wel; but perch are not fora ftew in
feeding-time.

Fisu, Generation of. The general opirion of the world
as to the generation of fifh, is, that the female depofits her
{pawn or eggs, and that the male after this ejeéts the {perm
or male femen upon it in the water, by which it ts fecun-
dated. The fuppofed want of the organs of generation in
fh, has given an apparent probability to this; but Lin-
neus is very decided againft it. He affirms that there
can be no poflibility of the impregnation of the eggs of
any animal out of its body.

To confirm this, the general courfe of nature, not only in
birds, quadrupeds, and infeG&s, but even the vegetable world,
has been called in to his affiftance, as proving that all im-
pregnation is performed whilft the ova are in the body of the
parent, and he fupplies the want of the organs of genera-
tion by a very ftrange procefs, affirming that the males eje&
their femen always fome days before the females depofit
their ova or fpawn, and that the females {wallow this, and
have their eggs by that means impregnated byit. He fays,
that he has often feen three or four females at this time fre-
qiiently gathered about the male, and greedily fnatching up
into their mouth the fermen he ejects: he mentions fome of
the efoces,; fome, perch, and fome of the cyprini, in whick
he had feen this procefs. Mr. Tull afferts, that he has fre-
quently feen fifth in actual copulation, and that this is gene-
rally done before the ova arrive at maturi il. Tranf.
vol; xlviii. part ii, art. 106. p. 873. See Anatomy of Fisx.

Fifhes have different feafons tor depofitix eir fpawn ;
fome, that live inthe depths of the ocean, are faid to chonie
the winter months’; but, in general, thofe with which we are
acquainted choofe the hotteit months in fummer, and prefer
fuch water as is fomewhat warmed by the beams of the fun.
They then leave the deepeit parts of the ocean, which are
the coldeft, and fhoal round the costts, or fim up the fref
water rivers, which are warm, as they are comparatively fhal-
lew. When they have depofited their burdens they retura
to their old ftations, and leave their progeny to { for
themfelves. The fpawn continues ia its ege-ftate in fome
fith longer than in others, and this in
mal’s fize.

2 to the ani-

by their minutenefsand agility. They rife
more readily than grown fifh, and they can efcape into fhal-
low waters when puriued. But with all thee advantages,

é aA {carcely

FIS

'
fearcely one in a thoufand furvives the imminent perils of its
youth.

Fisn, Generical names of. See Genertcar Name.

Fisu, Gilding of. See Giivine.

Fis, Hearing of. See dnatomy of Frsx.

Fis, Jfinglafs. See Huso.
Fisu, Mand. See Isianv-fi/h.

Fisn, Milt of. See Mitt.

Fisu, Needle. See Neepur-p/h

Fisu, Noffrils of. See Anatomy of Frsu.’

Fisu, Royal, See Rovar Fisues.

Fisu, Shell. See Suevt and ConcHoroey.

Fisu, Stealing of, by perfons armed and difuiled, is felo-
ny without benefit of clergy by 9 Geo. I. cap. 22. Sve
Brack a& And by 5 Geo. III. cap. 14. the penalty
of tranfportation for feven years is infliéted on perfons
itealing or taking fifh in any water, within a park, pad-
dock, orchard, or yard; and on the receivers, aiders,
and abettors; and a forfeiture of five pounds to the
owner of the fifhery is made payable by perfons taking
or deftroying, (or attempting fo to do) any fifh in any river
or other water within any inclof.d ground, being private
property.

Fisu, Sevimming of. See Swimmine of fi/b, Air-blad-
der, and Anatomy of Fisu.

Fisu, Teeth of. See Anatomy of Fish.

Fisn, in Afronomy. See Pisces.

Fisx-days. See ABSTINENCE.

Fisu, in Heraldry. See Heraropry.

Fisu Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S. coaft of Africa.
S. lat. 34° 30'. E. long. 22° 39'.—Alfo, a bay on the W.
coaft of Africa. S. lat. 16° 40'.—Alfo,a bay on the N.E.
coatt of the ifland of St. Matthew, in the Mergui Archi-
pelago. ’

Fisn, Little, a bay on the W. coaft of Africa. S.lat 15°

o'.
5 Fisu Creeé, a river of Virginia, which runs into the Ohio.
N. lat. 39° 31’. W. long. 81° 5’—Alfo, a river of Mary-
land, which runs into the Chefapeak. N. lat. 38° 38'. W.
long. 76° 49!.

Fisu River, a river of Weft Florida, which runs inte Mo-
bile bay. N. lat. 30° 30’. W-long. 87° 50’.

Visi River, Great, Ria I’ Infanta of the Portuguefe, a
river of Africa, which rifes in the country of the Hotten-
tots, beyond the Snowy mountains, and, in its long courfe,
colle&s a multitude of itreamlets, moft of which are con-
Raatly fupplied with water. On each fide of its mouth isa
rocky and open fhore, but the proje&ing cheeks form
a fmall cove or creek, which was frequented by the Portu-
guefe fhortly after their difcovery of the Cape; though
rance of the fea wpon the bar that
evidently crofies the entrance of the river, it is difficult to
conceive how they could truft their fhips ia fuch an ex pofed
fituation ; vol fs, indeed, they were fo mall asto beable, at
high warer, to crofs the bar, ia which exfe they might lie,
at all feafons, in perfect fecurity. Great oth river is now
confidered as the eaftern boundary of the Cape colony.

FISHBORN Creex,a river onthe N. fide ofthe fle of
Wizht, which runs iato the fea. N. lat. 59° 44’. W. long.
x ‘

FISHER, Joan, in Biography,a worthy Englifh Catholic -
prelate, was bora at Beverly in Yorkfhire in the year 1450.
His father dying when he was very young, he was placed
under the inftruétions of a prieft of the collegiate church in
his native town. In the year 1474 he was entered a ftudent
at Michael houfe, Cambridge, a college that is now incor-
porated into Trinity-college. He took his degrees in the

FIS
year 1488 and 149t. In 1495 he was appointed one of

the proctors of the univerfity, and in a few monthis afterwards
he was chofen matter of Michael houfe, and entered into holy
orders. He foon became diftinguifhed on account of his
great learning ; and attained the high office of vice-chancellor
of the univerfity. Scarcely had he performed the duties
of chancellor two years, when he was feleéted as chaplain
and confeffor to Margaret countefs of Richmond, the king’s
mother. He fo entirely gained the confidence of this lady
that fhe committed herfelf and family to his government
and dire@tion. By his advice fhe eftablifhed a divinity pro-
fefforfhip at Oxford and one at Cambridge ; and founded
Chritt’s and St. John’s colleges in the latter univerfity,
In 1501 he was admitted doétor in divinity, and in the
following year the lady Margaret’s firft divinity profeflor
in Cambridge. In 1504 he was raifed to the bifhopric of

Rochefter, and was afterwards frequently offered more”

valuable fees, which he refufed, obferving, that “« though
others have larger revenues, I have fewer fouls under my
care, fo that when I fhall have to give an account of both,
which muit be very foon, I would not defire my condition
to have been better than it is.’ Fifher was now chofea
chancellor of the univerfity of Cambridge, and was much
engaged in fuperintending the building of Chrifl’s and
St. John’s coilege, being the moft aétive agent and executor
of the late countefs of Richmond. When St. John’s college
was finifhed Fifher went to Cambridge, and opened it with
due folemnity, and was commiffioned to draw up a body of
ftatutes for its government. The bifhop afterwards proved
a valuable benefactor to the college, and ‘was the means of
the appointment of that illuftrious man, Erafmus, to lady
Margaret’s profeflorfhip of divinity, and afterwards to the
Greek profeffor’s chair. To the innovations propofed
by Luther, bifhop Fifher was decidedly hoftile: he not
only endeavoured to prevent the propagation of Lutheranifm
in his own diocefe, and in the univerfity of Cambridge,
but wrote and preached with the utmoft zeal againft it,
He is generally thought to have hada principal fhare in
the compofition of the work afcribed to Henry VIII. and
publifhed with his name, in defence of the * feven facra-
ments,’’ againft Luther, though Burnet and others are not
difpofed to give it tothe bifhop. Fifherat this period was
very high ia favour with the king, and fo zealous in his
oppofition to the tenets of Luther, that he formed a defizn
of going to Rome to concert meafures with the pope for
oppofing their progre{s; bat he was diverted from his defign
by cardinal Wolfey’s convocation of a fyned of the whole
clergy of England for the fame purpofe. In this affembly
he appeared in the charatter of a zealous advocate for
reformation in the manners of the clergy ; and fome of his
{peeches on this and other important occations are preferved
in the Biographia Britannica. About the year 1527 the
king applied to him for his opiaion on the fubject of his
marriage with Catherine, his brother’s widow. This was
the rock on which he foundered. So long as his fentiments.
were congenial with thofe of the monarch he was in the
higheft elteem ; bat now he gave a deterinination which did
not correfpond with his paffions: he declared honeftl;,
and without any referve, ‘that there was no reafon to-
queftion the validity of the marriage, fince it was good and
lawful from the beginning? The bifhop had made up,
his mind on the bufinefs, and nothing could divert him-
from an avowal of it on all proper occafions, though he

probably forefaw that his own ruin would be the con-.

fequence of his unyielding: integrity. When the divorce

came to be argued before the two legates, Campeggi and”
Wolfley, bishop Fisher, who was one. of the queen’s coune.

5 ail,

— 4

Fs

cil, exerted himfelf with much zeal in her behalf, prefenting
‘the legates with a book which he had written in defence of
the marriage. The bifhop did not ftop here ; he oppofedthe
‘king in fome other of his projeéts, and refifted a motion
made for the fuppreffing of thefmaller monafteries, and grant-
ing their revenues tothe crown. The fpeech which he de-
livered on this occafion was received with great applaufe
by thofe who adhered to the papal church, and with equal
difapprobation by the advocates of the reformation. Some
expreffions which he ufed fo much offended the houfe of
eommons, who complained to the king of the refleCtions
which the bifhop had caft on the reprefentatives of the
people, that the king fent for the prelate, and having
heard his defence, difmifled him with an admonition, “ to
be more temperate in future.” In the year 1530 he was
twice in imminent danger of his life. His firfl efcape was
from poifon which a man by the name of Roufe threw into
fome gruel preparing for the bifhop’s dinner; his fecond
was froma bullet fired into his library where he ufually
fat. After this the bifhop retired to Rochefter, where he
{pent moft of his time. In 1531 the queftion was agitated
as to giving Henry VIII. the title of {upreme head ef the
ehurch of England: the bifhop took the negative fide of
the queltion, and oppofed the projeét with all his zeal. He
next offended his fovereign by giving credit, or at leait
liftening to the enthufiattic vifions of Elizabeth Barton,
the pretended holy maid of Kent. ‘This woman, who was
only an inftrument in the hands of defigning perfons, carried
on her impoftures with a view of alienating the affeGtions
“of the people from the king, and exciting infurrections
againft his goyernment, The bifhop, it was very evident,
had no ill defign in the part he took ; but finding the pro-
phetefs, as fhe was then denominated, was devoted to the
interefts of the queen; and having heard much of the fanGity
of her manners, of the vifions which fhe faw, and of the
predictions which fhe uttered, and which were faid to be
realized, he conceived fhe was defigned by providence to
-difplay and make triumphant the doétrines and authority of
the church of Rorre, over the principles of L.utherani{m,
which were rapidly fpreading in England. Fifher accor-
dingly liftened to her prophecies, and concealed one of them
-which feemed to affeé the king, or at leait to {trike a blow
at bis authority. She announced to her adherents, that
if Henry fhould proceed in his divorce, and marry another
owife; he would not be king feven months afterwards. The
woman was apprehended, and in the hope of pardon con-
-fefled the particulars of her impofture, and named all thofe
who had encouraged herdelufions. The bifhop was urged
to make fubmiffions to the king as the only way of
afluaging his anger ; he refufed, and in 1534 a bill of at-
tainder was pafled againft Elizabeth Barton and her ac-
_-complices. Bifhop Fither {till refufed to fubmit, and was
adjudged guilty of mifprifion of treafon, and condemned to
forfeit all his goods and chattels to the king, and to be
imprifoned during his majeity’s pleafure. It is not certain
that the act was enforced againit him; but when the a&
was pailed to annul the king’s marriage with Catherine of
Arragon, and to confirm that with Anne Boleyn, and
enjoining all to take the oaths accordingly, bifhop Fither,
Gntead of uniting with his brethren, left the capital. Op-
ortimity was, however, given him again and again ta con-
ider the oath, till at length he abfolutely refufed ; and was
attainted in the parliament which met in 1534, and his
‘bifhopric was declared void. ©The bifhop was thrown into
the Power, where he was @reated with much feverity, and,
“as it fhould feem, from fome of his letters, fearcely allowed
the common heceffaries of life. Here he would probably

FIS

have been permitted to have ended his days, had not a cardi-
nal’s hat been conferred on him by pope Paul III. which fo
enraged tie king, that he fwore it fhould never be per-
mitted to enter his dominions ; and if Fifher were determin-
ed to wear it, it fhould be on his fhoulders, for he would
not leave him a head for the purpofe.

From this time his deftru€tion was refolved on, and the
tyrant fent the folicitor-general, Rich, whofe name is ren-
dered infamous by undertaking the bufinefs, to pump out
of him his fecret opinions with tegard to the fupremacy,
declaring he had the king’s authority to fay that no ill ufe
whatever fhould be made of the communication, which he
fought merely on account of the high opinion he enter-
tained of his judgment and integrity. The bithop gave an
unreferved decifion on the fubjeé&t, which the folicitor car-
ried to his mafter; and on the inftant a fpecial commiffion
was iffued for trying him for high treafon. Rick was the
chief and indeed the only evidence that could affect the life
of the venerable prifoner, and yet a jury, as infamous as the
evidence, found him guilty. The bifhop pathetically ap-
peaied to tke court on the occafion, “I pray you, my lords,
confider that by all equity, juftice, wordly honefty, and
courteous dealing, I cannot be dire@tly charged with trea-
fon, though I had fpoken the words indeed, the fame not
being {poken malicioufly, but in the way of advice and
countel, when it was requefted of me by the king himfelf; and
that favour the very words of the ftatute do give me, being
made only againft fuch as fhall malicioufly gainfay the king’s
{upremacy, and none other: wherefore, although by the
rigour of the law you may take occafion to condemn me,
yet I hope you cannot find law, except you add rigour to
that law to caft me down, which hereby I hope I have not
deferved.”” To Rich he addrefled himfelf, « Mr. Rich,
I cannot but mervail to hear you come in to bear witnefs
againft me of thefe words, knowing in what fecret manner
you came to me.’’ He then affured the court that he
(Rich) had told him, the king wifhed him to declare, that
on the honour of a king, whatever he fhould fay by this
his fecret meflenger, he fhould reap no peril or danger there-
from, nor fhould any advantage be taken againft him for
the fame. Still the court gave fentence, and, notwith-
ftanding the honour of a king was oppofed to it, Henry
confirmed the bloody decree, and the worthy prelate was
beheaded on Tower Hill on the 22d of June 1535, at the
age of feventy-fix. Erafmus reprefents him as aman of the
greateft integrity, of deep learning, incredible fweetnels of
temper, and grandeur of foul. By friends and by enemies
he was regarded as a pious and charitable man, not only
learned himfelf, but a great encourager of learning. His
ehief work was a ‘¢Cummentary on the feven penitential
Pfalms.” Biog. Brit.

Fisner, in Zoology. See Mustera Zihellina.

FISHERMAN’s Cove, in Geography, a harbour on the
S. coat of Pitt’s Archipelago, within Nepean’s found.
N. lat. 53° 18! E. long. 230° 53’.

FISHERROW, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Edinburgh, at the mouth of the Efk, in the frith of Forth,
oppolite to Muffelburgh.

FISHER’S Canat, a branch of an inlet leading from
Fitzhueh’s found, on the W. coait of North America, fo
called by Capt Vancouver in 1793. At the entrance N.
lat..51° 57'. E. long. 232° 7'.

Frsuer’s Zfland, an ifland in the Atlantic, in Long ifland
found, near the §. coaft of Conneticut. It is about
ten miles in length and two in breadth, with a good foil,
favourable for rearing fheep and producing wheat and other
grain, Jt ig annexed to the townthip of South-hold, in

4A2 Suffes

Suffex county, on Long ifland. N, lat. 41° 12’. W.
long. 72°.

FISHERSFIELD, a townfhip of America, in the
fate ef New Hampfhire and county of Hillfborough, in-
corporated in .763, containing 526 inhabitants ; about 16
miles eafterly of Charleftown.

FISHERY, acommodious place for fifhing ; ora place
wherein great quantities of fifh are caught.

The principal fifheries of Europe for falmon, herring, cod,
and mackarel, are along the coafts of Englarid, Scotland,
and Ireland; for cod, on the banks of Newfoundland; for
whales, about Greenland ; for pearls, in the Eaft and Welt
Indies, &c.

Fisuery alfo denotes the commerce of fifh; more
efpecially the catching of them for fale. The fithery makes
a principal branch of the Britifh commerce. A great
quantity of veflels and feamen are employed therein ; and
befides what is {pent at home, large {ums are yearly returned,
merely for herring, cod, and pilchards, exported to Spain,
Italy, and feveral parts of the Mediterranean, and the
iflands of the Archipelago.

Yet are our countrymen reproached, and witha good
deal of juftice, for their remiflnefs in this branch of trade.
The advantageous fituation of our coats might be of im-
menife benefit to us, did we not let our neighbours over-
reach us therein. The Dutch, French, Hamburghers, &c.
have been accuftomed to come yearly in large thoals, and
not only take the fifh from our own coatts, but fell them to
us fer our money, when they have done.

Scotlatid fuffers incredibly on this feore: no country in
Europe can pretend to rival itin the abundance of the
fineft ifh, wherewith its numerous harbours, loughs, rivers,
&c. are ftored. In the river Dee, it-is faid, an hundred and
feventy head of falmon-is not very extraordinary for a fingle
draft of anet; and the pickled falmon fent hence is al-
lowed the beft in Europe. ‘The Scottifh iflands, efpecially
thofe on the weftern fide, do certainly lie the moft commo-
dioufly for carrying on the fifhing trade to perfeétion.

King Charles I. directed his attention to the Scottifh
fifheries in 1630 and 1633, in conjunétion with a company
of merchants-under his royal commiffion and patronage, and
enceuraged by his bounty. With this view he ordered
Lent to be more ftrictly obferved ; prohibited the importa-
tion of fifh taken by foreigners, and agreed to purchafe
from the company his naval {tores, and the fifh for his fleets:
‘but the civil wars foon fet this plan afide. The company
had built two ftorehoufes or magazines; one on the {mall
ifland ot Hermetra, on the north fide of North Uift, and
the other upon a {mall ifland in Loch Madie, a celebrated
bay of the above-mentioned North Uilt. . King Charles II.
in 1661, made a like attempt; and was joined in it by the
duke of York, lord Clarendon, and feveral other perfons of
rank and fortune. In profecution of the defigm the moft
Malutary laws were enaéted by the parliaments of England
and Scotland, in virtue of which all materials ufed in, or de-
pending upon, the fifheries, were exempted from all duties,
excifes, and other impofts. In England the company was
authorized to fet up a lottery, and to make a voluntary col-
jeétion in all parifh churches; and other encouraging mea-
‘fures were adopted. Some Dutch families were invited, or
permitted, to fettle at Stronaway:; but whil{t the plan ap-
peared to be judicioufly formed andlikely to fucceed, the
king having a prefling oceafion for money, was perfuaded to

withdraw what he had employed in the fifhery, at which .

the merchants joined with him, being difpleafed, did the

like themfelves. In 1677, a new royal company was elta-

blifhed in England, at the head of which were the duke of
4

FISHERY. L-@

York, the earl of Derby, &e. Befides all the priviléfes
which former companies had enjoyed, the king granted this
new company a perpetuity, with power to purchafe lands ;
and alfo 2o/. to be paid them annually out of the cuftoms
of the port of London, for every dogger or bufs they fhould
build and fend out, for feven years to come. A ttock of
10,980/. was immediately advanced, and afterwards 1600/,
more. ‘This {mall capital was foon exhaufted in purchafing
and fitting out bufles, and other incidental expences. The
coinpany, however, made a fuccefsful beginning, and one
of their buffes or doggers took and brought home 32,0ce
cod-fifh ; other veflels had alfoa favourable fifhery. But
mott of the bufles, having been built in Holland, and man-
ned with Dutchmen, the French, then at war with Hol-
land, took fix out of feven veflels, with their cargoes and
fifhing tackle; and the company, being in debt, fold, im
1680, the remaining flores, &c. A company of merchants
raifed a new fub{cription of 60,000/. under the privileges and
immunities of the formercharter. But this attempt proved
abortive by the king’s death and the troubles of the next
reign. Soon after the revolution the bufinefs was again
relumed on a mere extenfive fcale, the propofed capital
being 300,000/.: but this fcheme failed. Since the Union,
feveral efforts have been made to retrieve it; and in 175¢
there was a corporation fettled on that footing by parlia-
ment, called “the Scciety of the Free Britith Vifhery,””
for the term of twenty-one years, under the direétion of
a governor, prefident, vice-prefident, council, and other
officers, who were empowered to make bye-laws, &c. and
to raife a capital of 500,000/., and the Scotch fifhery,
encouraged by fifhing-chambers, ereéted in feveral cities,
which eftablifhments promifed a more permanent duration,
See Herring Fisuery.
FisHery, Anchovy. See ANcuovy.

Fisuery, Cod. The cod ts a fith of paflage, pretty
large, with a great head, and teeth in the bottom of the
throat ; its flefh white; its fkin brownifh on the back,
white under the belly, and covered with a few thin, tranf-
parent {cales.

It is excellent food when frefh ; and, if well prepared and
falted, will keep a long time. The fifh, thus prepared, is
commonly eaten among us in Lent, &c. under the denomi-
nation of /alt-fi/h, or /tock-fi/p. ;

There are two kinds of falt cod; the one called green,
‘or white ; and the other dried, or cured ; though it is the
fame fith, only differently prepared.

They are alfo diftinguifhed by the places from whenee
they are brought, as well as by the manner of curing, into
Aberdeen-fifh, Iceland-fith, green-fifh, ftock-fith, North-fea
cod, poor Jack, and barrelled cod.

Green cod.—Vhe chief fifheries fer green cod are in the
bay of Canada, on the Great and Little Bank, near the
coaft of Newfoundland, the ifle of St. Peter, or Pierre,
and the ifle of Sable ; and thither veffels are yearly fent
from divers parts both of America and Europe.

The veffels ufed herein are from a hundred to a hundred
and fifty tons burden; and thefe will bring thirty or thirty-
five thoufand fifh a-piece.

The moit effential articles in this fifhery are the perfons
who, know how to open the fifh, to cut off the heads, and
to falt them; upon the ability of which laft the fuccefs of
the voyage chiefly depends. ;

Several authors will have it, that the Bifeayans, in purfu-
ing their whales, made the firft.difcovery of the Great and
Little Banks of cods at Newfoundland, Canada, &e. a
handred years before Columbus’s time; and that it was a

Bifcayan

FISHERY.

Bifcayan Newfoundlander that gave the firft intimation
thereof to Columbus.

Others fay, that the Great Bank was difcovered by a
native of St, Malo’s, named Cartier. England claimed an
exclufive right to the North American feas, in virtue of the
difcovery oF thofe feas by Sebaftian Cabot, in the fervice
of Henry VII. But be the difcoverer of what name or
nation he may, the difcovery is certainly highly valuable ;
there is not a trading nation in Europe but allows the
eommerce of cod-fifh to be one of the moft fecure and gain-
ful that is known.

The belt, largeft, and fatteft cod are thofe taken on the
feuthern and weftern fides of the Great Bank, which is a
Kind of fubmarine mountain, ftretching from N.E. to
&.W., one hundred and fifty miles long, and fifty broad,
end at the diftance of twenty-five leacues from Newfound-
Tand: thofe on the north fide are generally much {maller.
The water on the bank is from 22 to 50 fathoms; on the
outfide from Go to 80; on the leffer banks much the
fame. A great {well and thick fog generally mark the

lace of this bank. The chain of lefler banks lies between
Raprosidisict and Cape Cod in New England; as the
Green, French, Porpoife, and Sable Banks, and alfo
Brown’s and St. George’s. Befides thefe banks, the
whole coaft of Newfoundland, New England, Nova Scotia,
and Labrador, is one continued fifhery.

The beft feafon for this fifhery is from the beginning of
February to the end of April; at which time the cod,
which, during the winter had retired to the deepeft part of
the fea, return to the Bank, and grow very fat.

Thofe caught from March to Juae keep well enough ;
but thofe taken in July, Auguft, and September, foon
fpoil. The fifking is fometimes done in a month, or fix
weeks ; and fometimes it holds four or five months. As
Lent draws on, if the fifhermen have but half their cargo,
they ftrive who fhall make homeward the firft ; the market
being then the beft.

Some will thus make a fecond voyage, before others
have got loading for the firft. Each fifher only takes one
cod at atime ; and yet the more experienced will take from
three hundred and fifty to four hundred per day ; but this
is the moft ; for it is very fatiguing work, both on account
of the weight of the fifh, and of the extreme cold which
reigns on the Bank.

The wages ufually allowed the captain and failors is one
third of the cod they bring home found.

They falt the cod on board. The head being cut off,
the belly opened, and the guts taken ont, the falter ranges
them in the bottom of the veffel, head to tail; and having
thus made a layer thereof, a fathom or two fquare, he
covers it with falt; over this he lays another layer of fifh,
which he covers as before : and thus he difpofes all the fith
of that day, taking care never to mix the fith of different
days together.

* By that time the cod has lain thus to drain three or four”

days, they are moved into another part of the veflel, and
falted afrefh. After this they are no more to be touched,
till the veffel has its burden.

Sometimes they put them up in barrels, for the conyeni-
ency of carriage. Ay

Dry Cod.—In the fifhing of dry c od,veffels of all fizes
are uled; though fuch are generally chofen as have large
‘holds, becaufe this fort of fifh incumbers more than it
burdens. *

As cod is only to be dried by the fun, the European
veffels are obliged to put out m March or April, to have
the benefit of the fummes for drying. Indeed, we fend

veffels for cod in June and July ; but thofe only buy what
had been fifhed and prepared by the inhabitants of
Newfoundland, and the neighbouring parts; in exchange
for which, we carry them meal, brandies, bifcuits, pulie,
molafles, linen, &c.

The principal fifhery for dry cod is along the coaft of
Placentia, from Cape Rofe to the Bay des Experts; in
which compa{s there are divers commodious parts for the
fifh to be dried in. ,

The fith intended for this ufe, though of the fame kind
with the green cod, is yet much fmaller; whence it is the
fitter to keep, as the falt more eafily penetrates it.

The method of fifhing is much the fame in both; only
this latter is the more expenfive, as it takes up More time,
and employs more hands; and yet {carce*half fo much falt is
{pent in this as in the other.

When feveral fifhing veflels meet, and intend to fifh in
the fame port, he whofe fhallop firft touches ground, be-
comes entitled to the quality and privileges of admiral; he
has the choice of his ftation, and the refufal of all the wood
on the ceait at his arrival. (10 & 11 W. III. c. 25.)

As faft as the captains arrive, they unrig all their
veffels, leaving nothing but the fhrouds to fuilain the matts ;
and in the mean time the mates provide a tent on fhore,
covered with branches of fir, and fails over them ; with a
feaffold, fifty or fixty feet long, and about one-third in
breadth.

While the fcaffold is making ready, the crew are fifhing ;
the procefs of which, as it is defcribed by Mr. Penaast in
his ** Arétic Zoology,”’ is as follow:

The boats or fhallops are 40 feet in the keel, rigged with
a main-matt and fore-matt, and lng-fails; furnifhed with
four oars, three of which row on ore fide, and the other
(which is twice as large) belays the other three, by being
rowed fideways over the ftern, by a man who ftands up for
that purpofe, with his face towards the rowers, counteraG@-
ing them, and fteering at the fame time as he gives way to
the boat. Each of the men in this boat is furnifhed with
two lines, one at each fide of the boat, each furnifhed with
two hooks; fo that fixteen hooks are here conitantly em-
ployed, which are thought to make a tolerable good day’s
work of it, if they bring in from five to ten quintals of fifh,
though they have ftowage for, and fometimes bring in
thirty. Two hundred quintals are called a faving veyaze,
buat not lefs: The bait is*fmall fith of all kinds: herring,
capaline, lance, tom cod or young cod; the firft of which
they falt, and keep for fome tme, in cafe of feareity of the
reft ; but thefe are much lefs eagerly taken by the ah when
falted. In cafe fmail tith cannot be gotten, they ufe fea-
fow], which are eafily taken in vait numbers, by laying nets
over the holes in the rocks where they come to root in
the night. If neither fmall fifh nor birds are to be pros
cured, they are forced to. ufe the maws of fihh which they
catch; but this is the worlt bait of any.

When the fifth are taken they are carried to the Mage,
which is built with one end over the water, for the conve-
niency of throwing the offals into the fea, and for their
boats being able to come clofe to difcharge their fifh. As
foon as they come on the ftage, a boy hands them te the
header, who ftands at the fide of a table next the water,
and whofe bulinefs it is to gut the ti and . ut off the
head, which he does by prefliag the back of the hea
againft the fide of the table, which is made fharp for that
purpofe, when both head and gets fall through a hole in
the floor into the water. He then fhoves the fith to the
{plitter, who ftauds oppofite to him; his butinefs is to fplit

the fifth, beginning at the head, and opening it down to the
tail ;

FISHERY.

‘tail; at the next eut lie takes out the larger part of the
back-bone, which falls through the floor into the waters
He then fhoves the fifh off the table, which drops inte a
kind of hand-barrow, which, as foon as it is filled, 1s carried
off to the falt-pile. The header alfo flings the liver into a
feparate bafket, for the making of train oil, ufed by the
curriers, which bears a higher price than whale oil.

In the falt-pile the fifh are fpread upon one another,
with a layer of falt between them. Thus they remain
till they have taken falt, and then the falt is wafhed
from them by throwing them off from fhore in a kind
of float, called a “* pound.”? As foon as this is completed,
they are removed to the laft operation of drying them ;
which is done on ftanding flakes, made by a flight wattle,
juft ftrong enough to {apport the men who lay on the fith,
fupported by poles, in fome places as high as twenty feet
from the ground; here they are expoled, with the open
fide to the fun; and every night, when it is bad weather,
piled up five or fix in a heap, with a large one, his back or
fkinny part uppermolt, to be a shelter to the relt from rain,
which hardly damages him through his fkin, as he refts
flanting each way to fhoot it off. When they are tolerably
dry, which in good weather is in a week’s time, they are
put in round piles of eight or ten quintals each, covering
them on the top with bark. In thefe piles they remain
three or four days to {weat ; after which they are again
{pread, and, when dry, put into larger heaps, covered with
canvas, and left till they are put on board.

When prepared they are fent to the Mediterranean,
where they fetch a good price; but are not eftcemed in
England, for which place another kind of fifh is prepared,
called by them ‘* Mud-tith,’? which, inftead of being fplit
quite open, like their dry-fifh, are only opened down to
the navel ; they are falted and lie in falt, which is wafhed
out of them in the fame manner with the others; but
inftead of being laid out to dry, are barrelled up ina pickle
of falt boiled in water.

The train oil is made from the livers ; and it is fo called
to diftinguith it from whale or feal oil, which they call fat
oil, and is fold at a.lower price (being only ufed for lighting
of lamps) than the train oil, which is ufed by the curriers.
It is thus made: they take a half-tub, and, boring a hole
through the bottom, prefs hard down into it a layer of
f{pruce boughs, upon which they place the livers, and
expofe the whole apparatus to as funny a place as poflible.
As the livers corrupt, the oil runs from them; and, ftraining
itfelf clear through the fpruce boughs, 3 caught in a veffel
fet under the hole in fhe tub’s bottom.

The founds and tongues are falted at the fame time with
the fifh, and barrelled up: the roes or eggs, being falted and
barrelled up, ferve to caft into the fea to draw fith to-
gether, and particularly pilchards.

By the definitive treaty between Great Britain and France
in 163, the French, who are allowed to fifh in the gulf of
St. Lawrence, are now abfolutely deprived of the powerful
fortifications of Cape Breton, and of the poffeffion of Canada
and all its dependencies; and are entitled to no poffeffions
contiguous to Newfoundland, except the {mall iflands of
St. Peter’s, or Pierre, and Miquelon, ceded by the fixth ar-
ticle of the faid treaty to his moft Chriftian majefty as a
fhelter for the French fifhermen ; and his meft Chriftian ma-
jefty engages not to fortify the faid iflands, to erect no
buildings upon them, but merely for the convenience of the
fifhery, and to keep upon them a guard only of fifty men
forthe police. And by the eighteenth article of the fame
treaty, it is exprefsly ftipulated between Great Britain and
Spain, that his Catholic majefty defiits, as well for himfelf

as for his fucceffors, from all pretenfions which he may have
formed in favour of the Guipufcoans and other his fubjeéts,
to the right of fifhing in the neighbourhood of Newfound-
land.

The French, by the treaty of 1783, were to enjoy their
fifheries on the northern and wettern coafts; the inhabitants
of the United States having the fame privileges as before
their independence: and the preliminaries of October, 18c1,
confirm the privileges granted to the French.

By 43 Geo. III]. c. 154. a bounty of 3s. per quintal
fall be paid on the importation of pickled falmon and dry
cod from the ifland of Newfoundland ; the malter and mate
of every fhip fo importing making oath, at the port of ims
portation, that fuch fifh was taken and cured by Britifh
fubjects carrying on the fifhery at Newfoundland or La-
brador ; and fuch fifh may be exported without repayment
of the bounty. For other regulations of this fifhery, fee.
10 & 11 W. III. c.25; 26 Geo. III. c. 26; 27 Geo. ILI.
c. 19; 29 Geo. III. c. 53.

Of all the migrating fithes, herrings excepted, the cod is
the moft valuable to mankind. This fifh, we may here
obferve, is fond of cold climates, and is fuppofed to refide
chiefly between the latitudes of 66’ and 45°. Thofe that
are taken north and fouth of thefe latitudes.are either few in
number, or badin quality. They are found as far north as
Greenland, but they are fmall and emaciated. In Europe
they chiefly frequent the coafts of Iceland, Norway, the
Baltic, the iflands and main land of Scotland. After pafl-
ing thefe latitudes, they decreafe in number. The Englifh
fifhermen take them on the Dogger-bank, the Well-bank,
and the Cromer, lying on the eait fide of the kingdom, op-
pofite to Norfolk, Lincoln, and Yorkfhire. Of thefe the
Dogger-bank is the moit extenfive and valuable for white
fifh in general, as we learn from the account tranfmitted to
Mr. Pennant by Mr. Travis, furgeon in Scarborough.
The Degger-bank lies 12 leagues from Flamborough-Head,
and 16£ from Scarborough: the north fide of the
bank ftretches off E.N.E. between 32 and 40 leagues.
The fithermen feldom find aay cod, fry, or other round fifh
upon the bank itfelf, but upon the floping edges and hollows
contiguous to it. The fhifting fand on the top of the
bank affords them no fubfiftence; and the fhallow agitated
water allows them no reft. It is in the hollows between
the Dogger and the Well-bank that the cod are taker
which fupply the London market. The fhore along the
coaft on the one hand, and the edges of the Dogger-bank
on the other, like the fides of a decoy, give a direction to-
wards our fifhing grounds to the fhoals of cod, and other
fifh, which migrate annually from the northern ocean into
our feas; and the great variety of fifhing grounds near
Scarborough, extending upwards of 14 leagues from the
fhore, afford fecure retreats and plenty of proper food for
all the various kinds of fifh, and alfo fuitable places for each
kind to depofit their {pawn in.

The beft bait for all kinds of fifh is frefh herring cut in
pieces of proper fize; and next to thefe, the leiler lam-
preys, {mall haddocks cut in pieces, fand-worms, mufcles,
and limpets; and, in defeét of thefe, bullock’s liver. The
hooks are {maller than thofe ufed in Iceland and Newfound-
land; being 24 inches long in the fhank, and near an inch
wide between the fhank andthe point. The line is made of
{mall cording, and is always tanned before it is ufed. "The
beft weather for fueceeding in fifhing is a half calm, when
the waves are juft curled, with a filent breeze.

In our feas the cod-fifh begin to fpawn in January, and
depofit their eggs in rough ground among rocks. Some
continue in the roe till the beginning of April. Thefe

_ fifhes

Eshoat tk. Y.

fifhes in general recover fooner after fpawning than any
other; and, therefore, it is common to take fome good
ones all the fummer. Thofe of a middling fize are mott
efteemed for the table, and are feleted by their plumpnefs
and roundnefs, efpecially near the tail; by the depth of the
pit behind the head, and by the regular cordulated eppear-
ance of the fides, as if they were ribbed. The cod, and
other fifh of this genus, are in higheft feafon in the winter ;
but even then, the glutinous parts about the head lofe their
delicate flavour after the cod hath been 24 hours out of the
water. The general weight of thefe fifh on the Dogger-
bank is from 14 to 40 pounds.

The Scottifh white fifhery, comprehending cod, ling,
hake, tufk, coal-fith, haddocks, and whitings, and flat
fith, as turbot, fate, foals, and flounders, abound fo uni-
verfally around the Scottifh fhore, that the whole northern
fea, from the Dogger-bank in lat. 54° to the northern ex-
tremity of Iceland in lat. 67°, and from the coaft of Norway
eaftward to unknown latitudes on the weft, may be con-
fidered as one great fifhery, in which Scotland, as lying in
the centre, has manifeftly the advantage over all other na-
tions. The white fifhery may be fuppefed to comprehend
the eaftern coaft fifhery from Berwick to the Pentland
firth, the Shetland or N.E. tifhery, and the Hebride or
N.W. fifhery. The mott confiderable of the banks in the
eattern fifhery, called by way of pre-eminence the ‘¢ Long
Fortys,’’ ftretches in a parallel line with the eafl coaft, from
the county of Durham to Kinnaird’s head, at the entrance
of the Murray firth; thus affording an uninterrupted line
of fifheries almoft from one extreme of the kingdom to the
other, and in fome parts at a very inconfiderable diftance
from the fhore. The Shetland fifheries are carried on by
two different methods; viz. by boats accompanied with
decked veffels, and by boats only. Thofe of the firft clafs
go out of fight of land, where, in go, 100, and 140 fa-
thoms water, they get the largeft fifhh. When they arrive
on the fifhing grounds, they fet their long lines, each line
of 56 fathoms having 15 hooks; and thefe lines are joined
to one another, till the number of hooks amounts to from
600 to 120. In the fifhery by boats of 2 tons burden,

' and 6 men each, they fifh in fummer at the diftance of 7 to

15 leagues from land, and in winter at the diltance of 3
leagues. The fummer fifhery is carried on from the 1ft of
June to the 1ft of Auguit: the boats go out three times a
week, and continue 24 hours each time. The large boate
carry from 100 to 120 lines; each line being from 54 to 60
fathoms in length, and hung with 15 hooks at 20 feet
diftance from one another. In winter they ufe hand lines,
when long ones cannot be managed. They bait with a
{mall fith called pollocks, when at fea; and if thefe cannot
be procured, they ufe cod, turbct, haddocks, or any other
fih. The Hebride or N.W. fifhery extends from the head
of the Solway firth to the coaft of Iceland, lying at the
diftance of 400 miles N.W. from the Long ifland in the
Hebrides. ‘The principal bank in the fifhing grounds, ly-
ing between the Hebrides and the main land, begins near
the mouth of Gureloch in Rofs-fhire, and is fuppofed to
ftretch in a N.W. diredtion, towards the Butt of the
Lewis, aud poffibly beyond that cape. This abounds in
all the varieties of white fifhh. A chain of finall banks
ftretches along the eaft fide of the Lewis, from 3 to 6-miles
off the fhore, and is carried on by the natives both in fum-
mer and winter. ‘The whole coaft of Sky is.alfo one con-
tinued fithery; and the feas of the South Hebrides prefent
a number of fifhing banks, which our limits will not allow
us to recite. But the mo extraordinary and valuable bank
is.called by the old natives the ‘ Mother-bank,”’ and lies

between Mull on the eaf, and Barraand South Uift on the
weft. There is a bank between the iflands of Coll and
Colland Tirey, in the direction of the {mall ifland of Ganna,
which lies in the centre. A valuable bank lies between the
iflands of Mull, Coll, and Ardnamurchan, on the main land
of Argylefhire. In the jound of Mull there is a {mall bank,
which itretches from Aros to Scalarda’e bay. There is an
inexhautllible fifhery along the coait of Argylethire, called
the Inner Sound; a bank lies between Loch Tarbat in Jura,
and the ifle-of Colonfa, 16 miles long and 1 broad. An-
other lies in the channel between Jura and Ilay on the weft,
andthe main land of Knapdale on the eaft. Thofe which
we have enumerated are the principal banks of the He-
brides, on the weft fide of the Mull of Cantire. On this
fide of the cape, within the firth of Clyde, there is a good
fifhing ground around the craig of Ailfa; from whence a
large bank ftretches from Ballintrae in Ayrfhire, and thence,
along the coaft, to the Mull of Galloway, where it is loft
in the Irifh channel. Another bank ftretches in a N.W.
direGtion towards Sunda ifland, and from thence towards
Knapdale, off the north fide of Arran, Such is the im-
menfe fcene of improvements, with regard to the Scottifi
white fifheries, that prefents itfelf to thofe who are anxicus
to promote the Buitifh fifheries. In fome re{peéts the
Scottith fifherics have the advantage of thofe of Newfound-
land. The banks of Newfoundland lie at the diltarce of
2500 to 3000 miles rrom London, Brittol, Liverpool,
Dublin, Cork, and Glafzow; and can only be frequented
during the months of February, March, April, May, and
June: whereas the Scottifh fifheries, when the propofed
navigations fhall be opened, will, upon a medium, be within
a week’s failing of thele commercial emporiums, which
they can fupply in feafons when the Newfoundland fifhery
cannot be carried on.

The Irith white fifheries are chiefly cod, ling, hake,
coal-fifh, and haddoek. In thefe fifheries the Lrifh are very
expert, being trained to the bufinefs by their fifhing on the
banks of Newfoundland, as well as the bays of that ifland ;
to which fifheries fome thoufands of Irifhmen refort every
feafon, and from whence they return with a {mall pittance
to their families. White fith abound on the weit coat of
Treland; but noregular fifhery has yet been eftablifhed with
fuccefs. See more on this fubje&t in Knox’s View of the
Britifh Empire, &c. ;

Fisrery, Coral. See Corar.

Fisuery, Herring, The herring is a {mall falt-water
fifh, with a blueifh back, and a white filvered bells, not
unlike a little fhad fith; whence it is called in Latin alofa
minor. Rondeletius calls it harengus. *

It is a popular error to believe the herring to be the halec
of the Romaus.. The Aalec was no particular fifth, but a
kind of fauce, made of any kind of falt-fih. The modern
herring feems to have been unknown to the ancients: it is
neither the Ae/ec,. ner alex, nor menis, nor Mncomeni, nor
the gerres, of Pliny. See Rondelet. de Pifcib. Marin.
lib. v. cap. 13. and Voffius de Idolel. See Herrinc.

Herrings are chiefly found in the North fea. In thofe
inacceffible feas, that are covered with ice during a great
part of the year, the herrings find a quiet and fafe retreat
from all: their numerous enemies: there neither man, nor
their fill more deftruGive enemy,,the fun-tih, or the cacha-
lot, the moft voracions-of the whale kind, dares to purfue
them. It is true, there are fifheries elfewhere, but none fo
copious.

They ufually make two fithing feafons for herrings; the
firft in June, July, and Augult; the fecond in autumn.
The latter of thefe is the more confiderable, on account

of

FISHERY.

of the fogs, which are very favourable to this kind of
filing.

The herrings ufually keep at fome diftance from the
eoalt in July and Avguft; and it is at this time only that
the fifhers follow them in the open fea. About the end of
Auguft, and until the middle of September, they come into
thallow water, where they remain for fome time in the bays
and inlets of the cca}; and this is termed the ground draw.
It hath been obferved, that the arrival cf the herrings on
the coaft of Shetland is certain, and almott to.a day, on or
before the 22d of June. As they invariably follow a
fouthern courfe, after leaving the Shetland iflands, they
reach the Hebrides in July, and kcep prefling forward till
the beginning of September, when they go into deep
water.

Frefh fhoals appear in November, and continue till Ja-
nuary ; but whether thefe herrings be the remains of the
former fhoals, in their return from the circumnavigation of
Britain and Irland, or a new migration from the frozen
regions, is a matter of uncertainty.

It is commonly faid, that nobody ever faw a herring
alive, and that they die the minute they are taken out of
the water; but there are initances to the contrary.

The herring is a fith of paffage; fo that it is allowed to
catch them on holidays and Sundays; in the Decretal there
is an exprefs chapter to this effect. They go chiefly in
‘fhoals, and are fond of following any fire, or light; and
in their paffage they refemble a kind of lightning them-
felves.

The winter rendezvous of the herrings is probably the
icy fea, within the arétic circle ; as this fea {warms with in-
fect food in greater abundance than in our warmer latitudes.
From this fea the great colony of thefe fifhes fets out about
the middle of winter; and this colony is compofed of fuch
numbers as to exceed the power of imagination. But they
have no fooner left their retreats than they have to encounter
with a multitude of enemies. The fun-fifh and cachalot
devour them in great abundance ; and befides, the porpus,
the grampus, the fhark, cod-fith, haddocks, pollocks, and
the numerous tribe of dog-ffh find them an eafy prey, and
defift from making war upon one another. ‘To thetfe ene-
mies we may add innumerable flocks of fea-fowl that chiefly
inhabit the northern regions towards the pole, which watch
the ourfet of their perilous migration, and {pread among
them extenfive ruin. Tn this ftate of danger, the defencelels
emigrants crowd clofer together, as if they could thus fe-
cure themfelves againit the attacks of their enemies. ‘The
main body begins to feparate, at a certain latitude, into
two great divifions; one of which moves to the weit, and
pours down along the coalts of America, as far fouth as
Caroliua, and becomes fo numerous in the Chefapeak bay
as to be a nuifance to the fhores. The other divifion
takes a more eaftern direGtion towards Europe, and falls in
with:the great ifland of Iceland about the beginning of
March. Upon their arrival on that coa(t, their phalanx,
which. hath already fuffered confiderable diminution, is
- peverthelefs found to be of fuch extent, depth, and clofe-
nefs, as to occupy a furface equal to the dimenfions of
Great Britain and Ireland; but fubdivided into columns of
5 or 6 miles in length, and 3 or 4 in breadth; each line or
column: being led, according to the ideas of fifhermen, by
herrings of more than ordinary fize. The herrings {win
ear the furface, finking occafionally for 10 or 15 minutes.
The forerunners of thofe who vifit the Britifh kingdoms ap-
pear off Shetland in April er May, and the grand body
begins to be perceived in June. Their approach is known
te the fithers by a fmall rippling of the water, the reflection

of their brilliancy, and the number of folan geefe, or gan-
nets, and other aerial perfecutors, who are eager to devour
them, and who, with the marine attendants, may ferve to
drive fhoals of them into bays and creeks, where many
thoufands of them are taken every night from June till Sep-
tember. Although the Shetland iflands break and feparate
the grand body Bis herrings into two divifions, they fill
continue their courfe towards the fouth, One divifion pro-
ceeds along the eaft fide of Britain, and pays its tribute to
the Orkneys, the Murray firth, the coafts of Aberdeen,
Angus, and Fife, the great river Forth, the coaft of Scar-
borough, and particularly the projeCting land at Yarmouth,
the ancient and only mart of herrings in England, where
they appear in October, and are found in confiderable quan-
tities till Chriftmas. The other divifion purfues its courfe
from the Shetland iflands, along the weit fide of Britain;
and thefe are obferved to be larger and fatter than thofe on
the ealt fide. After paffing the Shetland and the Orkney
ifles, they crowd in amazing quantities into the lakes, bays,
and narrow channels of the fhires of Sutherland, Rofs, and
Invernefs ; which, with the Hebride ifles, efpecially. the
Long ifland, form the greateft flationary herring fifhery in
Britain ; that upon the coaft of Shetland excepted. Some-
times this fhoal, in its fouthern progiefs, edges clofe upon
the extenfive coaft of Argylehire; fills every bay and
creek ; and vifits, in fmall detachments, the firth of Clyde,
Lochtfine, and other lakes witsin the entrance of that river ;
the coaft of Ayrfhire, and of Galloway, to the head of the
Solway firth. This fhoal proceeds from the weftern fhores
of Scotland towards the north of Ireland; where, meeting
with a fecond interruption, they are again divided into two
brigades. One fhoal pafles down the Ivifh channel, viiits
the ifle of Man, and affords an occafional fupply to the eaft
coaft of Irland, and the weft coaft of England, as far as
the Briftol channel. The other fhoal firts along the weft
coait of Tieland, where, after vifiting the lakes of Done-
gal, it gradually difappears, and is finally loft in the im-
menfity of the Atlantic. Herrings, it is obferved, are not
feen in quantities in any of the fouthern kingdoms, as Spain,
Portugal, or the fouth parts of France, on the fide of the
ocean, or in the Mediterranean, or on the coatt of Africa.

«© Were we inclined,”’ fays a well-known writer, * to
confider this partial migration of the herring in a moral
lizht, we might refleét with veneration and awe on the
mighty power which originally impreffed, on this mofk ufe-
ful body of his creatures, the infliné& that direéts and points —
out their courfe, that bleffes and enriches thefe iflands,
which caufes them at certain and invariable times to quit
the vat polar deeps, and offer themfelves to our expecting
flects.”’—“ This impreflion was given them, that they
might remove for the fake of depofiting their fpawa ia
warmer feas, that would-mature and vivify it more afluredly
than thofe of the frigid zone. It is not from defe of
food that they fet themfelves in motion, for they come to
us ful! of fat, and on theirreturn are alinoft univerfally ob-
ferved to be Jean and miferable. What their food is near
the pole, we are not yet informed; but in our feas they
feed much on the onifeus marinus, a cruttaceons infeét, and
fometimes on their own fry. They ave in full roe to the
end of June, and continue in perfeétion till the beginning of
winter, when they begin to depofit their fpawn. Though
we have no particular authority for it, yet, as very few
young herrings are found in our feas during the winter, it
feems moft certain that they return to their parental haungs
beneath the ice, to repair the vaft deftruGtion of their race
during fummer, by men, fowl, and fifth”?

It has been generally fuppofed that the Hollanders were

: the

FISHERY.

a

the firfl who began the herring-fifhery, and obferved the
feveral feafons of their paflage. Their firft regular fifhing
is fixed to the year 1168- It is recorded, however, in the
Batavian annals, that the Scots fold their herrings to the
inhabitants of the Netherlands as early as the ninth century.
This traffic laid the foundation of a commercial alliance be-
tween the two countries, which fubfifted, to their mutual
advantage, during many zges. Although many laws were
enacted during the reigns of James III. IV. V. and VI.
for recovering the fifheries of the eaftern fide of the king-
dom, which the Dutch had engroiled, greatly to the pre-
judice of the rightful owners; yet it is well known, that
fince the firfl eitablifhment of the herring fifhery, the Dutch
have enjoyed the principal part of it, aud it has very much
contributed to their advancement and profperity in former
times Our feas were their ‘original mines,’’ as they them-
felves have acknowledged.

In the year 13143 we have an aceount of the feizure of a
fhip of Lynn, m the port of Bergen, which had been fifh-
ing on the Norway -coaft for herrings. (Rymer’s Feed.
vol. ili. p. 400.) And as ladings of herrings carried to a
diftance muft have been felted, it is plain that falted her-
rings, either wet or elfe dried, called red herrings, were in
thofe times a merchantable commodity in foreign parts.
And in 1338 we have an account of fifty lafts BF ngs
fhipped from Portfmouth for the ufe of the army and fleet
of Edward IIf. in Gafeogny, which muft have been falted,
either wet or dried. (Feed. vol vil. p. 12.) And they were
barrelled and falted at the port of Whitby in Yorkthure, in
1394. Feed. vol. vii. p. 778.

But the prefent method of pickling them was not difco-
vered till the year 1416, though others date it from the
year 1397. Willughby, in his Hiftory of TVithes, ob-
ferves, that Will. Buekelfz, or Bachalen, a native of Bier
Uliet, near Sluys, who died in 1397, rendered his name
immortal by the difcowery of the fecret of curing and pick-
ling herrings, which he might probably have learned from
the people of Yarmouth, and other parts of England, where
herrings were not only falted and dried for red-herrings, but
falted and barrelled up wet, at different times, from the
year 1306 to 1360. Willughby fays, that the emperor
Charles V. coming to the Low Countries, made a journey
to the ifle of Bier Uliet, with the queen of Hungary, on
gs to view the tomb of this firft barreller of herrings.

t may be allowed, however, that Bachalen, or Ben-
kelen, might have made fome improvement in the prac-
tice; which his countrymen afterwards contributed
to perfeét. By their ingenuity and perfeverance they re-
duced the whole bufinefs of the fifheries into a regular fyitem,
which it would be the intereft of other ftates to follow.
‘They have likewife been wifely aided from time to time by
their refpeétive provincial legiflatures, not only in every
privilege and fupport, but alfo a well digefted body of laws
and regulations, extending to the moft minute circumttance,
from the commencement of the out-iit to the export of the
herrings.

Yarmouth has been long famous for its herring-fair, which
was regulated by an act, commonly called the ftatute of
herrings, in the thirty-firft year of Edward III. ,

This politic monarch, with a view of promotivg the
herring trade, became a purchafer of their fifh; and,
in 1358, fifty lafts of herrings were fhipped at Portfmouth
for the ufe of his army and fleet in Fiance. This prac-
tice was adopted by his fucceffors down to queen Eli-
zabeth, who alfo enforced the ecclefiattical laws refpeting
the obfervance of Lent in favour of the fifheries. Indeed
Yarmouth owed its.rife to the fifhery, for the place where

Vor. XIV.

it now ftands was only a fand-bank in the fea, which in
procefs of time became dry land, and drew thither fifher-
men from various parts of England, and alfo from France
and the Low Countries, for the purpofe of catching herrings.
The commencement of this fifhery appears, from feveral con-
curring circumftances, to have taken place foon after the
landing of Cerdic, the Saxon, in 495. (See Yarmouru.)
The Yarmouth herrings maintained their reputation, and
the inhabitants were reckoned the belt curers in Europe, fo
that the Dutch were in the number of their foreign cuftomers.
The Yarmouth people have greatly the advantage over the
Dutch, in being nearer the herring fhoals, and aifo in being
plentifully fupplied with wood; whereas the Dutch are
obliged to {moke their herrings with turf or firaw. The
fithing commences here about the twenty firlt of September,
and continues til! the twenty-fifth of November. "Ihe fifh-
ing grounds are from 10 leagues N. ot Yarmouth to the
South Foreland. Their {macks or veffels carry from thirty
to fifty tons, and each is equipped with go or 10> nets,
which are replaced about the nuddle of the feafon by
a freth fet, of the fame quantity and dimenfions. Each veffel
is furmifhed with a well, into «hich the fifh are conveyed by
a fort of machine, as foon as they are difengaged from the
nets; the bottom of the well being full of holes, through
which the blood and water are difcharged. There are two
apartments called wings, one on cach fide of the well, isto
which the men throw the herrings with fcoops; a third
throws in the falt, while a fourth and fifth throw up the
herrings to the furtheft part of the wings. By thefe means
they are preferved till each veflel hath got in 1o or 12
lafts, when the veffel returns to Yarmouth road, and the
fifth is removed afhore in {mall boats, and conveyed to the
fifh-houfe. Here they are falted on the floor, in which
ftate they lie for two days; they are then wafhed in large
vats of frefh water, put on the fpits, and dried with many
fires of billet-wood. If the herrings are intended for export-
ation, they are kept in this ftate from four to fix weeks,
when they are packed in cafks of 32 gallons; each cafk con-
taining 1000 herrings. One lait of falt cures three laits of
herrings. This ancient fifhery is now much on the decline;
and the town has fuffered much on this account.

The Dutch began their herring-fifhery on the twenty-
fourth of June, and employed no lefs than ten or eleven
hundred veffels therein. Thefe veffels area kind of barks,
called dufes, carrying from forty-five to fixty ton, and twe
or three {mall cannon.

Before the eftablifhment of the Society’of the Free Bri-
tifh Fifhery, the number of Dutch veflels employed inthis
fifhery was more confiderable, and amounted to fifteen hun-
dred or two thoufand.

None of them were allowed to ftir out of port without a
convoy, unlefs there were enough ot them together to make
eighteen or twenty-pieces of cannon; in which cafe they
were allowed to go in company. _ Before they fat out, t
made a verbal convention; which had the jame force as if
it were in writing. -

Thefe regulations of the admiralty of Holland were
partly followed by the French, and other nations; and
partly improved and augmented with new ones ; as, that
fifher fhould calt his net within an hundred fathoms of
another boat ; tliat while the nets were cait, slight thould
be kept on the hind part of the veilel; that when a boar
was by any accident obliged to leave off iifhing, the light
fbould be catt into che fea; that when the greater part of
a fleet left off fifhing, and calt anchor, the reit fhould do
the fame, &c.

By the a& for encouraging the Britith white herning-ffh-

4B ery,

FISHERY.

ery, in 1750, it is requited, that the buffes employed in this
fifhery, entitled to the bounty of 30s. per ton, fhall be
decked veffels, built in Great Britain, after the com-
mencement of the aét; and that each ot them fhall carry
twelve Winchefter bufhels of falt, for every laft of fifh
which fuch veffel is capable of holding, and as many more
new barrels as fuch a fhip is capable of carrying, and two
fleets of tanned nets; i. ¢. every veffel of feventy tons fhall
have one fleet of nets, each thirty yards full on the rope,
and feventeen fathoms deep, and others in proportion; and
be provided with one other fleet of fifty like nets, on board
a jagger or tender, which is to attend the faid fifhery.
Every fuch bufs properly mannéd and furnifhed, thall pro-
ceed either to Braffey’s Sound in Shetland; and be at the
rendezvous of the faid fifhery there, on or before the
eleventh day of June, but fhall not fhoot their net till the
thirteenth, and fhall continue following the fhoal and fithing,
as they move fouthward, to the firft of Otober; or to
Campbeltown in Argylefhire, and be at the rendezvous of
the faid fifheries on or before the firft day of December,
unlefs they fhall have fooner completed their loading of
fh.

By 26 Geo. III. c. 8r. continued by a fubfequent a&t, a
bounty of 20s per ton fhall be paid annually to the owner
of every decked veffel, not lefs than fifteen tons burden,

manned and navigated according to law, employed in the |

Britifh white herring-fifhery under certain regulations, and
with the alterations made by 42 Geo. III. c. 79. Every
bufs or veffel to be entitled to the above bounty fhall be
built in Great Britain, and have on board (in new barrels)
twelve bufhels of falt for every laft of fifth, which fuch thip
can carry, and alfo 250 fquare yards of netting, and not
lefs than five men for the firft fifteen tons, and one addi-
tional man for every additional five tons ; and fhall clear out
from fome port in Great Britain between June 1ft and No-
vember z2oth in the fame year, and proceed immediately
to the faid fifhery, and coztinue fifhing three months, unlefs
its cargo be completed. On its return the officer of the
cuitoms hall examine the condition and lading of the ship ;
and after other documents being produced the commiffioners
of the cuftoms in England, or the commiffioners of the
cuftoms or excife in Scotland, fhall caufe payment to be made
to the owner or owners, or his or their affigus, the fum of
20s. per ton, according to the admeafurement of {uch bufs
or veflels, Tor every barrel of herrings twice packed and
completely cured, which fhall, during one year, be landed
from any veflel entitled to the aforefaid bounty of zo:. per
ton, there fhall be a bounty of 4s. But if the number of
barrels of herrings imported fhall, in one year, exceed the
proportion of 2+ barrels of herrings, packed and cured as
‘aforefaid, for every ton burden of fuch veflel, then there
fhall be paid for every barrel foexceeding the faid proportion
a bounty of 15. only. For all herrings which {hall be
landed from any boat or veffel not entitled to the bounty
of 20s. per ton, and whieh fhall afterwards be properly
falted and cured, there fhall be paid a bounty of os. per
barrel. For the encouragement of the fifhery, calied the
Deep fea fifhery, over and befides the bounties before
granted, there fhall be paid the following premiums; i. e.
Jor the greateft quantity, of herrings caught by the crew of
any one veflel, entitled: to the forementioned bounties of
20s. per ton, and 4s. and rs. per barrel, and imported by
fuch veffel between June 1 and: November 31ft in any
one year, the premium of eighty guineas; for the next
greateft quantity ixty guineas; and for the next forty gui-
neas.; and for the next twenty guineas. By 36 Geo. III.
e. 81, the curers of fith in Great. Britain were allowed to

take falt, for the purpofe of curing fifh, but by the 38th
of Geo. III. which fubjeéts falt to the excife duties, and.
enacts new regulations, this a€t may be confidered as virtu-
ally repealed, at leaft as to its principal claufes. There are
other provifions included in the flats. 27 Geo. III. c. 10.
35 Geo. III. c. 56, all which provifions and powers con-
tained in preceding acts are revived by ftat. 42 Geo ITI.
c. 79, except as to the bounties, which bounties by this aét,
are‘as follow: From the 5th of April 1803, one-half of
the bounty of 2os. per ton, and one-half of the bounties
granted by the preceding aéts for every barrel of herrings.
landed from any raft or veffel, in refpeét of which a bounty
of 205. per ton is granted by the faid aéts, fhall ceafe and
determine. For other regulations of the herring fifhery,
fee Herrinec.

The manner of fifhing has nothing particular in it. The
nets wherein the fifh is drawn fhould regularly have their
mefhes an inch fquare, that none of the lefler fry may be
taken.

The commerce of herring, both white, i.e. pickled, and
red, is very confiderable ; but there are fo many different
forts, prepared in fuch different ways, and different places,
that it is hard to fay any thing precife thereupon.

The white herrings cured by the Dutch ufed te be in the
greate‘t repute; they were diftinguifhed into four kinds,
according to their fizes. The geodnefs of this commodity
confifts in its being fat, flefhy, firm, white; being never
caught but when in feafon, chiefly in the month of July
being taken alive out of the nets; being falted the fame day
it is taken, and with good falt, and well barrelled.

The Irifh herrings have been efteemed the next in value
after thofe of Holland; and principally thofe of Dublin,
which are fcarce inferior to the beft herrings of Rotterdam
or Enkuyfen. ;

It was about the year 1764, that the Irith parliament
began to frame fuch laws, and to grant fuch aids as the
nature of the fifheries fuggelted, ‘The principal fifheries
of this country are in Loch Suilly, the Roffes, Killebegs,
and Inverbay, on the coaft of Donegal; and an inferior
kind of herrings is occafionally taken on the coaft of Sligo
and Mayo, as far fouthward as Broadhaven. The fifhery
at Inverbay begins in July, and continues till the beginning
or fometimes the end of September. The other fitheries
commenee in November, and end in January. Toe herrings
taken by the Britith veffels are preferred; on account of
their being gutted, and cured in barrels of 32 gallons.
The Irifh ungutted herrinys, on the other hand, are in fome
parts of the coat falted in holes dug in the earth, till the
fifhers have an opportunity of felling them to the buffes ;
they are then packed or piled up in the hold of the veflel,
and are thus carried to Cork, and other ports, when the
are put ito barrels of 25 gallons, and exported to the Weit
Indies. Of the winter herrings taken in Loch Suilly, 5co
will fill a barrel; and of the early herrings, 800. The
buffes are from 20 to 100 tons burden, and are under
certain parliamentary regulations, refpecting netting, and
the number of men. ©The nets are tanned witha mix-
ture of tar and fi/h oil, in the proportion of five parts of tar
and one of oil; and improvements have been made in the
method of working the nets. ;

The Scotch herring is not fo well prepared, gutted,
falted, or barrelled, as the Dutch ;- and yet its talte is
excellent, that of thofe caught on the weftern coait efpe-
cially ; nor is it to be doubted, but that if the Scots were
as careful in thefe circumftances as their neighbours, their
herrings would be the beft in the world. ait ;

The whole coaft of Scotland may be cannes as one

continued

~~

.weftern or Hebride fithery.

- benefit.
.nefs to Berwick is the occafional refort of herrings, in their
‘autumnal voyage fouthward, yet in this courfe of 300 miles,
(including the Murray firth,) there is not a fixed or ftation-

EES 'Y.

continued fithery, diftinzuifhed, however, by the names of
the Shetland, or northern fifhery, that on the eaft fide of
the kingdom from the Pentland firth to Berwick, and the
The principal town on the
Shetland iflands is called Lerwic, fituated on a narrow
channel of the Main-land, called Braffa or Brafley-found.

Hither the Dutch and other foreigners have been accuftomed

to refort to the fifheries at the appointed feafons, when
Lerwic hath had all the appearance ofa continued market or
fair. The eaftern fifheries along the eaftern fhores of Scot-
land, though lefs confiderable than thofe on the coatts of
Shetland, might with proper attention be of great national
But though the whole line of coaft from Caith-

ary fifhery, fuch as that at Yarmouth, Donegal, and Got-

_tenburgh, where the herrings arrive almott toa certainty,

explored, and that have produced the greateit quantity of

that populous, though remote part of the kingdom.

and geierally at the fame period of time. The fhores on
the eaftern fide of Scotland, that have been moft generally

herring, are thofe of the Forth and the Murray firth. ‘The
herring fifhery in the Forth was conduéted formerly by open
boats, which amounted to the number of 6 or 800, and
many thoufand barrels of herrings were annually exported,
befides fupplying the home demand. The coatt fifhing on
the Murray firth was conducted on the fame plan, governed
by the fame regulations, and proportionally beneticial ig
t
employed from 5 to 700 boats. Thefe fifheries, at prefent
in a low ftate, might be extended to any degree; and alfo
the deep water fifhery, to the diftance of 20 miles from the
coaft, where the herrings are larger and fatter than thofe
taken inthe Forth, or near the fhores, and are nearly equel
to the herrings taken in decp lochs of the Weft Highlands.
This deep water fifhery fhould be carried on by builes or
decked veffels, from 20 to 80 tons burden, which onght to

‘be at the Shetland iflands early in the feafon, and the pro-
_duce fhould be fpeedily carried to the proper markets;

whilft the buffes may continue the fifhery down the channel
till the end of the feafon. In this manner the markets
would be conftantly fupplied, greatly to the benefit of the
merchant, the fifhers, and the labouring poor, along the

. whole coaft, The Hebride, or weftern fithery, was fre-

quented in very early times by the French and Spaniards,

‘who trafficked there with the natives for fifh; whence we

may conclude that the natives were fifhers, and that foreign-
ers were the carriers. It is probable that the fithery was
then carri¢d on by little open boats, or berlins, fach as the
Highlanders generally ufe at the prefent day. This tifhery
was the thoroughfare, as we may call it, of the great weftern

‘ fhoal of herrings, in their annual tour frem the Shetland

iflands to Ireland, which, in the opinion of fome writers,
they environ, and from whence they return by the oppofite

- channel, in the fame manner as the ealtern fhoals environ
_ Great Britain, and return north by the weltern channel.

This Hebride fifhery, confidering the manner in which it
was conducted, may be juttly flyled the fchool of naviga-

«tion; and on this account, as well as for its produce, de-

-ferves Britifh encouragement.

Asa nurfery of feamen, the

pboat ‘ifhery will exceed that of the bufles with regard to

numbers of perfons employed ; but, on the other hand, it

¢annot be put into competition with the buffes in vefpe& of
nautical knowledge.

bein

The herring fifhed in England is inconfiderable ¢ the fith
too dry for the market. However, at Yarmouth

and Leoftoff they have in former times taken and cured

about 50,0co barrels of re@-herrings in a year; and very
large quantities are alfo caught at the mouth of the Thames
by the fifhing-fmacks of London, Folkftone, Dover, Sand-
wich, &c. for the London markets, and wear the fea-coait
of Kent and Suffex for general confumption. Some fhoals
are alfo forced, by the great fwell of the Atlantic, into the
Briftol channel, and particularly into the bay of Barnftaple,
where they have been fometimes taken and cured for expor-
tation, in very confiderable quantities.

Curing and preparing herrings.—1, For white or pickled
herrings : as {oon as the herrings are taken out of the fea,
one of the crew, appointed for this office, cuts them open,
and takes out the guts, and every thing but the milts and
roes, which are always to be left in the body of the filh.
Then wafhing them in frefh water, they are left the {pace
of twelve or fifteen hours in a tuh full of ftrong brine made
of frefh water, and fea-falt.

When they are taken out, they drain them; and whea
well drained, put them up in barrels; taking care to dif-
pofe and range them evenly, in rows, or layers, prefiing
them well down, and ftrewing a layer of falt both at top
and bottom.

When the barrel is full, they ftop it up very clofe, that
no air may get in, ner any brine out; either of which is
very prejudicial to the fith.

The Dutch, after opening and gutting the herrings, cure
and falt them by lining or rubbing their infide with falt ;
they are then packed, with handfuls of falt between each
row, and {topped up clofe.

2. For red-herrings : the fith being caught, they proceed
to wafh, gut, and lay them in brine, as for pickled her-
rings ; only they let them lie double the time in brine, wiz.
twenty-four hours ; inafmuch as they are to take all their
falt here, whereas the other kind takes half its falt in the
barrel.

When the herrings are taken out of the brine, they {pit
them, i.e. ftring them by the head on little wooden {fpits,
and thus hang them in a kind of chimney, made for the
purpofe ; and when the chimney is as full as it will hold,
which lefs than ten or twelve thoufand feldom effeéts,
they make a little fire underneath, of brufh-wood, which
yields a deal of fmoke, but no flame. >

Here the herrings remain till fufficiently fmoked and
dried; which ordinarily is in twenty-four hours. Ther
they are taken down and barrelled up for keeping.

Their goodnefs confifts in being large, frefh, fat, oily,
foft, and pliable, their outfide of a yellow, golden colour ;
their having roes, or milt, within them, and being well
falted- and barrelled. See Hersixe.

Fisnegy, Ling. This fifh abounds near the Scilly ifles,
and on the Yorkfhire coait. In the latter fituation they are
in perfection from the 1 of February to the 1f of May,
and fome till the end of that month. In June they fpawn,
depofiting their eggs in the foft oozy ground of the mouth
of the Tees. At that time the males feparate from the
females, ard refort to fome rocky ground near Flambc rough
Head, where the fithermen take great numbers without ever
finding any of the female or roed fil among them. While
a ling is in feafon its liver is very white, and abounds with
a fine flavoured oi! ; but when the fifh goes out of feafon
the liver becomes red, like that of a bullock, and affords no
cil. When the fith is in perfection, a very large quantity
of oil may be melted out of the liver by a flow fire; byt
if a violent fudden heat be uled for that purpofe they yield
very little. Great quantities of ling are falted for exporta-
tion, as well as for home eonfumption. When it is cut or
{plit for curing, jt muit meafure 26 inches or upwards from

4 B 2

+}
rae

-FISHER Y.

the fhoulder to the tail; iflefs than that, it is rot reckoned
a fizeable fifh, and confequently not entitled to the bounty
on exportation; fuch are called drizzles, and are in feafon
all fummer. The w wal fize of a ling is from three to four
feet ; but fome have meafured feven feet.

Fisuery, Lobfer. Lobfters are taken along the Britifh
channel, and on the coaft of Norway, whence they are
brought to London for fale; ‘and alfo in the frith of
Edinburgh, and on the coaft of Northumberland.

By 10 & 11 W. III. cap. 24, no‘lobiler is to ‘be ‘taken
under eight inches in length, from ‘the peak of the nofe to
the end of the middle tin of the tail’; and by 9 G. IT.
cap. 33. no lobfters are to be taken or deftroyed on the
coaft of Scotland from the firlt'of June, to the firlt of Sep-
tember, on pain of 5/.

Fisuery, Mackarel. The mackarel is a falt-water fifh,
without fcales. Its body is round and flefhy ; terminating
almoft in a point, at each extreme.

Some perfous, well filled in naval archite&ture, hold its

figure the moft commodious for ‘fwimming of all others, and.

propofe it as a model for the building of thips.

It is ordinarily about a foot long; when in the water it
appears yellow, and when out of it of a filver white, ex-
cepting four ftreaks, or {peckles, of a deep blue, en the back
and fides. Its ufual weight is about two pounds. During
winter a film grows on the eyes of this fifh ; in the {pring
they are half blind; and in fummer the film is caft. See
MaAckare..

The mackarel is a fummer fifh of paffage, found in large
fhoals in divers parts of the ocean, not far north ; but efpe-
tially on the French and Englith coatts.

The fifhing is ufually in the months of April, May, and
June, and even July, according to the place. ‘They enter
‘the Englifh channel in April, and proceed up to the ftreights
of Dover, and,the mouth of the Thames, as the fummer
advances; fo that by June they are on the coafts of Corn-
wall, Suffex, Normandy. Picardy, &c. where the tifhery is
moft confiderable. An inferior fort is alfo taken during the

tharveit months. hey are an excellent food, frefh, but

their tafte and flavour are much impaired a few hours after
they are taken ; and not to be defpifed when well prepared,
pickled, and put up in barrels; a method of preferving them
chiefly ufed in Cornwall.

Naturalifts have obferved, that the water wherein macka-
rel have been boiled, often yields a light, after ftirring it a
little. See Free, and Juminoufne/s of the Sea.

The fifh is taken two ways; either with a line, or nets:
the latter is the more confiderable, and is ufually performed
inthe night time. he rules obferved in the fifhing for
mackarel are much the fame as thofe already mentioned in
the fifhery of herrings.

There are two ways of pickling them: the firft is, by
opening and gutting them, and filling the belly with falt,
crammed in as hard as poffible with a flick ; which done,
they range them in {trata or rows, at the bottom of the
veffel, ftrewing falt between the layers,

In the fecond way, they put them immediately into tubs
full of brine, made of frefh water and falt ; and leave them
to fteep, till they have imbibed {alt enough to make them
keep; after which they are taken out, and barrelled up,
taking care to prefs them clofe down.

Mackarel are not cured or exported as merchandize, ex-
cept a few by the Yarmouth and Leoftoff merchants, but are
generally confumed at home; efpecially in the city of Lon-
don, and the fea-ports between the Thames and Yarmouth,
eaft, and the Land’s End of Cornwall, weft. By itat.
35 Geo. III. c. 54. the curers of mackarel in Great Bri-

tain may import any quantity of foreign falt, or take any
quantity of Britifh falt, from any falt-works and falt-pits,

and remove coait-wife the falt fo imported, or taken for the

purpofe of curing mackarel (or any cod, ling, hake, or fal-
mon, being taken in the mackarel fithery) for home cen-
fumption, duty free, except the cufloms due on importa-
tion, in as full a manner as the herring and pilchard fifhe
are enabled to do for home confumption. For every barrel
of white mackarel, twice packed, and completely cured,
containing 32 gallons, which fhall be exported from Great
Britain into any parts beyond feas, (except into any part of
the Mediterranean) a bounty of 2s. 8d. fhall be paid; and
for every barrel of mackarel which fhall be landed from any
boats or veffels, and which fhall be properly falted and cured,
fhall be-paid a bounty of 15. ,

Fisuery, Qy/fer, is principally carried on at Colchefter,
in Effex; Feverfham and Milton, in Kent; the Ifle of
Wight; the Swales of the Medway ; and Tenby, on the
coaft of Wales. From Feverfham, and adjacent parts, the
Dutch have fometimes loaded a hundred large hoys with
oyfters in a year. They are aifo teken in great quantities
near Portfmouth, and in all the creeks and rivers between
Southampton and Chichefter; many of which are carried
about ‘by fea to London and to Colchefter, to be fed in the
pits about Wavenhoe, and other places. By 31 G. ITI.
c. 51. if any perfon {hall within any net, traul, dredge, or
any other engine, take or catch any oyt{ter or oyfter brood,
within the limits of any oyfter fifhery in this kingdom, or
ufe any fuch engine for the purpofe of catching oyfters or
oyiter brood, though none be taken; or drag upon the
ground of any fuch fifhery with any net er other engine ;
every fuch perfon, except the owner, leffee, or occupier of
the faid fifhery, or perfon lawfully entitled to catch oyfters
therein, fhall be deemed guilty of a mifdemeanor, and may
be indiéted at the affizes or quarter feffions for the county
or divifion ; and every fuch siflendek being conviéted by ver-
diét before the juftices in feffions, or on his own confeffion,
may be punifhed by fiue and imprifonment, or either of
them, as the court may think proper; fuch fine not to ex-
ceed 2</. or be lefs than gos. ; and fuch imprifonment not
to be for more than three months, nor lefs than one month.
Offenders may be apprehended by warrant of any juftice,
who may commit them to the common gaol or other prifon,
until the next aflizes or quarter feflions, unlefs they enter
into recognizance with two fureties in 20/. each to appear
and anfwer to fuch indi€tment, &c. See Oyster.

Fisnery, Pearl. See Peary fifkery.

Fisnery, Pilchard, The pilchard is a {mall falt-water
fifh, bigger than the anchovy, but lefs.than the herring,
which in other refpects it refembles, Its head is yellow ;
its belly white ; and its back a fea-green. It isexcellent when
freth, or lightly falted. See PircHarp. '

There are certain featons for fifhing the pilchard ; which,
like the herring and anchovy, isa fifh of paflage from the
northern latitudes ; and its arrival is indicated by fimilar figns
with thofe of the herrings. They are prepared and falted
much as the anchovy is; with this difference, that the head
is cut off the latter: but the pilchard is diftinguifhable
from the anchovy, even though its head were off likewife ;
the pilchard having a very flat back, and the anchovy'a
round one,

The chief pilchard fifheries are along the coafts of Dal.
matia, to the fouth of the ifland Iffea; on the coafts of Bre-
tagne, from Belle ifland as far as Breft; and along the
coaits of Cornwall and Devonfhire ; when they appearabout
the middle of July, and range between Fowey harbour-and

the

_ lofs of the owners.

FISHERY.

the Scilly iflands about September; fome few occafionally
returning after Chriftmas.

It is a faying of the Coraifh men, with regard to the pil-
chard, that it is the leaft fith in fize, moft in number, and
greateft in gain, of any they take out of the fea. This ob-
fervation is-amply confirmed by Dr. Borlafe’s account of
this fifhery ; for befides the great number of perfons em-
ployed by it, the poor are fed with the offals of the cap-

tures, the land with the refufe of the fifth and falt, the mer-

chant finds the gains of commiffion and commerce, and the
fifherman the gains of the fifh. The ufual produce of the
number of hogfheads exported each year, for tea years,
from 1747 to 1756 inclufive, from the four ports of
Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance, and St. Ive’s, amounted to
29,795 hogtheads. Every hogfhead for ten years latt
pait, together with the bounty allowed for each hogthead
exported, and the oil made out of each, has amounted, one
year with another, at an average, to the price of 1/. 135.
and 3¢.; fo that the cafh paid for pilchards exported has,
at a medium, annually amounted to the fum of 49,532/.
tos. The number taken at one fhooting out of the nets is
amazingly great. In 1767, there were at one time in-
clofed in St. [ves’s bay 7000 hogfheads, each hogfhead con-
taining 35,00 ofifh; inall 245,000,c00/.

That on the coafts of Dalmatia is fo plentiful, that it
not only furnifhes all Greeee, but a great part of Tialy.

_ That on the coafts of Bretagne has employed yearly above

three hundred floops, and moit of the feamen of the
country.

The fith caught on our own coats, though bigger, are
not fo much valued as’ thofe on the coafts of France; owing
principally to their not being fo thoroughly cured.

The feafon is from June to September.

The pilchards, like the herrings, naturally follow the
light, and will gather about a boat that bears alight in the
night time; which coutributes much to the facility of the
fifhery.

Onthe coafts of France they make ufe of the roes of cod-
fifh asa bait; which thrown into the fea makes them rife
from the bottem, and run into the nets placed for that
purpofe.

On our coafts there are perfons, called in Cornwall Ayers,
polted afhore, who, {pying by the colour of the water
where the fhoals are, make figns to the boats, to get among
them, to cait their nets.

When taken, the fifh are brought toa warehoufe on fhore,
where they are laid up in broad piles, f{upported by backs
and fides. .

As they pile them, they falt them with bay-falt; in
which they lie foaking twenty or thirty days, and difcharge
a great quantity of blood, with dirty pickle, and bittern ;
which lait draws much of the oil from the tifh, to the great
When taken out of the pile, there re-
mains a quantity of falt, blood, feales, &c. at bottom,

which, with frefh falt, ferves for another pile.

They now proceed to wath them in fea-water to clear off
the dirt and blood; and, when dry, they put them up in
barrels, and prefs them hard down to {queeze out the oil,

“which iffues away at a hole in the bottom of the cafk ; and

in this ftate they are fit for fale or ufe, :
Fisuery, Sa/mon. The falmon is a northern fifh, occu-

_ pying the European feas, the latitudes lying between France

and Greenland, being unknownin the Mediterranean fea,

and other warm climates, and, according to fome, breeds in

the fea: but the opinion of others feems better warranted,

‘that it breeds in the clear fandy parts of rivers, remote from

their mouths. They commonly {pawn'in November ; and

when they have founda place fit for the purpofe, the male
and female unite in forming a proper receptacle for it in the
fand or gravel, about the depth of cighteen inches ; in this
the female depofits her fpawn, and the male his milt, which
they cover carefully, ‘as it is faid, with their tails ; for after
{pawning, they are obferved to have no {kin on that part.
The {pawn lies buried till the fpring. The milter and
fpawuer, having performed their officey betake themfelves to
the fea; and if their return be prevented by weirs, or the
like, they -become fick, lean, and are then called kipper,
pine away, and die in two years time. If they {pawn in
the mean time, the produce is a diminutive falmon, called
JSkegger, which will never arrive at the natural bulk ; it being
the fea that makes them grow big, and the rivers fat. The
female is diftinguifhed from the male, in that its nofe is
longer, and more hooked, its feales not fo bright, and its
body fpeckled over with dark brown fpots, its belly flatter,
and its flefh net fo red; more dry, and lefs delicious to the
taite. In fpawning time, when they repair fromthe fea up
to the rivers, fearce any thing can ftop their progrefs.
Many have feen them leap up catara@ts and precipices many
yards high. They will afcend rivers 500 miles from the
fea, and force themfelves againft the moit rapid ftreams.
They are frequently taken in tbe Rhine as high as Bafil
in Switzerland ; they gain the fources of the Lapland rivers
notwith{tanding their {trong torrents; and furmount the
perpendicular fall acrofs the Liffy, at Leixlip, 7 miles above
Dublin, though nearly 30 feetin height. As foon as they
come to the bottom of the cafcade, they feem difappointed
oa meeting the obftruétion, and retire fome paces back ;
they then review the danger that affails them, furvey it
without motion, advance, and again retreat; till at lag,
fummoning up all their force, they take a leap from the
bottom, with the body quite ftraight, and witha {trong
tremulous motion ; and they moft frequently clear every ob-
ftruétion. It fometimes happens, however, that they want
ftrength to make the leap, in which cafe they are entangled
in their defcent by bafkets placed on purpofe, from which
they cannot efeape. The thooting of falmon, in their leap,
is fometimes practifed for amufement. See Sarmon.

When the falmon firft enter the freth water, they have a
number of infeéts, the /ernee falmonee of Linneus, adher-
ing to them, efpecially above the gills, which are figns
that the fith is in high feafon: thefe die and drop off foon
after the falmon have left the fea. About the latter end of
March the {pawn begins to exclude the young, which gra-
dually increafe to the length of four or five inches, and are
then termed {melts or {mouts ; and about the beginning of
May the Tweed, &c. is full of them; but they are fon
hurried away to the fea. About the middle of June, the
earlieit of the fry begin to drop, as it were, into the river
again from the fea, being about twelve, fourteen, or fixteen
inches, aad they gradually increafe in number and fize till
about the end of July (at Berwick thé fith in this ftage is
called gilfe) ; when they again leffen in number and increafe
in tize, fome being, in Augutt, fix, feven, eight, or nine
pounds in weight.

The chief falmon fitheries in Europe are along the coatts
of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The fifhing ufually
begins about the firit of January, and ends by the lait of Sep-
tember. It is performed with nets, in the places where
the rivers empty themfelves into the fea, and along the fea
coaits thereabout. The fith are feen to crowd thither fre-
quently in fhoals from all parts in fearch ofthe freth water ;
they ulfo-fith for them higher up in the rivers: fometimes with
nets, and fometimes with a kind of locks, or weirs, made
for the purpofe, with iron grates therein, fo sae as

that

BLS HE RY.

that the fith, in going up the fiver, open them with their
head; but are no fooner entered than the gate claps to.
‘Thus the falmon are inclofed as in a refervoir, where it is eafy
totake them. In fome places they fith for falmon in the
night time, by the light of torches, or kindled ftraw.
The tifhermen watch when the fith draws towards the light,
whereof he is naturally a great lover, and ftrikes him witha
fpear or lifter. In‘ fome parts of Scotland it is
faid, they ride a fifhing up the rivers, and, when they
{py them in the fhallow parts, fhoot them with fire-
arms.

Salmon form, in feveral countries, a great article of com-
merce ; being cured in different ways, by falting, pickling,
and drying. here are ftationary fifheries in Icelané, Nor-
way, and the Baltic; but thofe at Coleraine in Ireland, at
Berwick in Great Britain, and in fome of the rivers of Scot-
land, are the moft confiderable. The capture in the Tweed
near Berwick, about the month of July, is prodigious; a
boat load, and fometimes near two, are taken in a tide ; and

_it is common to take from fifty toa hundred fifh at one hawl.
At this time the coopers in Berwick begin to falt both fal-
mon and gilfes in pipes, and other large veffels, and then

_ barrel them to fend abroad. The falmon barrel holds above
forty-two gallons, wine meafure. Most of the falmon taken
before April is fent frefh to London ; and that which they
fail to fend is boiled, pickled, and kitted. -Frefh falmon
kas alfo been fent to London in the latter end of September ;
but then the fith are full of large roes, very thin bellied,
and are efteemed neither palatable nor wholefome. In the
month of July a flone of fiefh falmon, of eighteen pounds
ten ounces and a half, has been fold at Berwick for eight-

. pence ; but the more common price is between fixteen-pence
and two fhilliags and fix-pence. The feafon for fithing in
the T'weed begins the thirtieth of November, though the
fifhermen work very little till after Chrifkmas, and ends
on Michaelmas day. There are on this river forty-one cov-
fiderable fitheries, befide others of lefs value, which former-

_ ly rented for near 5400/. per annum.

Scotland poflefles allo great numbers of fine fitheries on
both fides of that kingdom. The falmon are cured in the
fame manner as at Berwick; and a great quantity is fent to
London in the fpring ; but after that time the adventurer
begins to barrel and export them to forcign countries ;
though the demand for them is much abated of late years.
‘They have alfo in Scotland a great deal of falmon, falted in
the common way, which, after foaking in brine for a com-
petent time, is well prefled, and then dried in fmoke: this
1s called Lipper, is chiefly made for home confumption, and,
if properly cured and prepared, is reckoned very delicious
food. The great fifheries are thofe of the Tweed, the
Forth, the Tay, the Dec, the Don, the Devron, the Spey,
the Findhorn, the Nefs, the Braulie, and thence northward
to Dungfbay head, the coaft of the Pentland firth, the coaft
froma cape Wrath-to the Mullof Cantire, all the Hebride
ilands, and the coatts of Airfhire, Galloway, and the Sol-
way firth, where the rivers, bays, or lakes areopen. The
feafon of fithing at Aberdeen is from the goth -of
November to the 8th of September; but few fifth come
into the rivers before the 1{t of January, from which time,
to the middle of May, the falmon are boiled and killed for
the London market, and fent off almoit every week, by
{wift failing floops, called fmacks, retained for the purpofe.
Thofe that are caught through the fummer are falted for
fareign exportation. No falmon is allowed to be barrelled
and cured, except by the town’s coopers, who are required
to put the initial letters of their names on their barrels ;
nor can they be fhipped for exportation till the letters A.

B. D. have been burned on each barrel, by an officer ap-
pointed for that purpofe. No fith that hath been bit by
feals, none under acertain fixed weight, nor any that have
been damaged in the carriage from the river, are to be
put into a barrel, without having the word rebate
burned on the end of the cafk. The barrels are
of a fixed fize, containing about 250 pounds of fifh, fo
carefully packed that they do not differ’ a pound of fifh
from one another. After they are packed from the vats in-
which they had been falted, great care is taken to keep
them brim full of pickle, till the bungs are fixed down, a
day or two before they are fhipped. By this attention the
Aberdeen falmon hath acquired {uch a character abroad, that
it generally fetches the higheft price, and no queftions are
afked refpeéting the quality.

The north of Ireland abounds with this fifh: the moft
coniiderable fifhery is at Cranna, about a mile and a half
from Coleraine, rented, in 1754, for 620/.a year. It is
fituated on the river Bann, where they fifh with nets eighteen
{core yards long, and are continually drawing night and
day through the whole feafon, which lafts about four
months ; eight hundred and forty fifh have been taken at a
fingle draught. There is alfo a weir on the river, which
takes the fith that efcape the nets. In 1760, three hundred
and twenty tons were taken in the Cranna fifhery. The
falmon are cured in this manner: they are firft {plit, and the
guts and gills, and many of the bones, are taken out, and
then rubbed with fine falt ; and after lying in pickle in
large tubs for fix weeks, are packed up onltheas of coarfe
brown Spanifh falt in cafks, fix of which make a ton.
Thefe are exported to Leghorn and Venice, &e. at the
price of twelve or thirteen pounds a ton. Pennant’s Brit.
Zool. v, ili. p. 284. 294. See a further account of this
fifhery under CoLerAtne.

The ftat. 4 & 5 Anne, cap. 21. was made for the in«
creafe and prefervation of falmon in rivers in the coun-
ties of Southampton and Wilts, requiring that no falmon
be taken between the firft of Auguft and the twelfth of
November, or under fize, &c. And by 1 Geo. I. cap. 18.
falmon taken in the rivers Severn, Dee, Wye, Were, Oufe,
&c. are to be eighteen inches long, at leaft; and the nets
fhall not be lefs than 24 inches in the mefh ; nor fhall any
falmon be fent to London out of the faid rivers under fix
pounds weight; or the perfons catching them {hall forfeit
5/. This ftatate contains feveral other regulations. And’
by 30 Geo. II. cap. 21. no falmon is to be caught in the
rivers Thames and Medway between the eleventh of No-
vember and twenty-fourth of Augult, or to be: of lefs
weight than fix pounds.

Salmon is alfo fifhed for in rivers, after the manner of
trout, with a line and hook. He bites beft in the after-
noon, about three, in May, June, July, and Augutt ; the
water being clear, and a little breeze of wind itirring ; ef-
pecially if the wind and ftream fet contrary ways. The
falmon is caught like a trout, with worm, fly, and minim ;
and efpecially the garden-worm, if well fecured, and kept
twenty days in mofs. The falmon never ftays long in a
place, but is continually fhifting to be as near the fpring-
head as poffible, and {wimming generally in the deepeft and
broadeft parts of the rivers, near the ground. Put two
or three garden-worms well feoured on your hook at once,
as if you were baiting for trout: and be fure to give him
time to gorge his bait, before you ftrike. Some ufe a wire-
ring on the top of the rod, through which the line may be
let run to any length at pleafure, by a reel near the hand.

Fisuery, Seal, &c. The fifhery for feals is very pro-
I ductive

FISHER Y.

ductive and gainful. The fkin of the feal is tanned and
made into fhoes, commonly called dog-fkin fhoes; it alfo
ferves for the bottoms of chairs, and for various other pur-
pofes. The oil is ufed in chambers, and fells at a much
higher price than that of the cod-fifh, which is burned in
ftreet-lamps. The greateft feal fifhery is on the coait of
Labrador in North America. The boats ufed in the cod-
fifhery of Newfoundland are about 50 feet in length, decked
at both ends; they have two mafts, and a fhort bow{prit;
they are built of fir or f{pruce, and will fail, as the feamen
fay, in the wind’s eye. In the winter feafon, when the
Newfoundland cod-fifhery is finifhed, thefe boats, with 30
or 40 men in each, repair to the frozen fhores of Labrador,
where the winds and tides often drive immenfe floats of ice
into the bays, and on thefe floats a great number of feals.
As the koats belong to different merchants, the float of ice
is-marked out in equal portions, and each boat’s crew
are ftriétly limited to the part afligned them. Having
fettled thefe regulations, they attack the feals in their re-
fpective departments. ‘The firft man of the party advances
towards a feal, which he {trikes immediately above the nofe
with a club; then attacks another and kills it ; and marches
forward to a third, which he alfo kills. Thus advancing,
the whole field of ice becomes a fcene of blood, ftrewed
with dead feals. When the firft feal is killed, the next per-
fon in rank tears off the fkin, which he leaves on the {pot,
and advances tothe fecond, and fo on. A third perfon
takes a layer of fat, with which the feal is covered next
the fkin, which he leaves on the {pot, and immediately
follows the two others. Thus the killer, the flayer
of fcin and ef fat, with the remaining crew, will fome-
times clear to the value of soo/. within the interval of
24 hours. When this happens, they return with what they
calka full cargo, which abundantly reimburfes their em-
ployers. The feal-fifhing in Scotland is in fome refpecis
fimilar. The Scottifhfeas are open through the whole
year, and the feals, being of the amphibious kind, frequent
the caverns and openings of the rocks upon the fhore,
where they bring up their young. The Hebrides, and the
northern fhores of the main land, are the principal refort of
the feals. On the weftern coaft of North Uift, a part of
the Lorg ifland, lies the rock Confmil, about a quarter of
amile in circumference, which is ftill famous for the yearly
fifhing of feals there the end of Oétober. This rock be-
Jongs to the farmers of the adjacent lands; one of whom
furnifhes a boat, to whom a particular fhare is due on that
account, befides his proportion as a tenant. ‘The minifter,
tLeward, and fubordinate officers have their fhares by virtue
of their refpeétive offices. ‘The farmers man their boats
with a competent number of perfons;-and when the crew
are landed, a fignal is given for a general attack, the pafles
being furrounded, and they beat down the feals with their
ftaves. The feals on this onfet make towards the fea with
full fpeed, and often force their paflage over the necks of
the ftouteft affailants, who always aim at the foreheads of
the feals, giving many blows before they are killed; and
fometimes the feals lay hold of the ftaves with their teeth,
and carry them away to the fea. Thofe that are in the boat
fhoot at them as they run to fea, but few are caught
that way. Some of the largelt feals lofe their lives by en-
deavouring to fave their young, which they tumble before
them towards the fea, and in this act they are cruelly
knocked on the head with fticks or ftaves. Three hun-
dred feals, it is faid; have been killed at one time in this
place. They are attacked in OGober, becaufe in the be-
ginning of this mouth they bring forth their young on the
weit fide of thefe iflands; but thofe on the eaft fide are

of a {maller flature, and bring forth their you*g in the mid-
dle of June.

The feals eat no fifh till they firft take off the hkin;
they take hold of the fifh between their teeth, and pluck
the fin off each fide with their fharp-pointed nails. The
natives fay that the feals are regularly coupled, and refent
an encroachment on their mates at an extraordinary rate.
It is faid that the feals make their mutual addrefles by falu-
tations; and the female puts away its young as foon as it is
able to provide for itfelf, in doing which it recurs to many
fevere blows. In the fkin of the females there is a hole,
within which the teats are fecure from injury, as it creeps
along the rocks and ftones; and on this account nature has
formed the point of the tongue cloven, in order to enable
the young to fuck. ‘The natives falt the feals with the
afhes of burnt fea-ware, and fay they are good food. The
vulgar eat them commonly in the fpring, and ufe a
long pointed flick inftead of a fork, to prevent the trong
fmell which their hands would otherwife retain for feveral
hours afterwards. This four-footed creature is reckoned one
of the {wifteft in the fea: and it is likewife faid, that in-
cold weather it will leap to the height of a pike above water ;
that the fkin of it is white in f{ummer, and darker in winter ;
and that its hair itands up with the flood, and falls again at
the ebb. The natives cut the fkin in long pieces, and ufe
them as ropes to fix the plough to their horfes when they
till the ground.

The dafking fharks ave fuppofed to be migratory fifhes
from the Arétic circle ; they frequent the coa{t of Norway,
the Orkney and Hebride iflesy the firth of Clyde, the bay
of Ballyfhannon in Ireland, and the weft coaft of Wales,
particularly Carnarvonfhire and Anglefey. ‘They appear
in the firth of Clyde, near the ifle of Arran, in {mall fhoals
of feven or eight, but more generally in pairs, fome time in
Jure, and remain till the end of July, when they difappear.
Although they are in fize from ro to so fect in length, they
are fo tame and itupid, that they will fuffer themfelves to
be ftroaked in the water. They lie on the furface, fome-
times, on their bellies, and fometimes on their backs, as if
they were afleep. When the harpooner ftrikes his weapon
into them, which he does as near the gills as poffible, and
they perceive themfelves wounded, they fling up their
tail and plunge headlong into the bottom,

that their efforts are ineffectual, they fwim away with fuch

towed away by them aguinit.a frefh gale. They fometimes
run off with 200 fathoms of line, and with two harpoons in
the body ; and will contend for 24 hours before they are
{ubdued. When they are killed, the liver, which is the
only ufeful part, is taken out and melted in kettles pro-
vided for that purpofe. A large fith, particularly the fe-
male, «will yield eight barrels of oil, two of ufelefs fediment,
and afford a profit of 20/. The oil is of the moft valuable
kind, being pure and {weet, extremely proper for lamps,
and much valued by tanners. It isalfo ufed by the fihers
for curmg burns, bruifes, and rheumatic complaints.

The catching of /ea-dogs is a kind of defenfive fithery,
Thefe animals, though {carcely exceeding the fize of a large
cod, are equally deltru€tive to nets, and to all the {fpecies of
fith which they can avercome. They had become {fo offen-
five on the coafts ef Newfoundland and Labrador, that the
enraged fifhermen made war upon them as a common enemy,
and with fuch fuccefs, that they have almott extirpated the
whole {pecies fromthe American fhores. They abound on
the coait of Shetland, particularly the Hebrides, where they

are

FISHER Y.

are taken in cohfiderable numbers. Being fplit and dried,
they are conveyed by the women through different parts of
the country, and fold or exchanged for neceffaries ; thefe
forming a petty inland commerce.

Fisuery, Sturgeon. he fturgeon is a large fea-fith,
which at its feafon runs up the rivers; having a fharp-
pointed {nout, a flat belly, and blueifh back. Sturgeons,
as well as whales, are reckoned among the number of royal
fifhes. ;

There are flurgeons of all fizes ; and we even read of
fome twenty feet long; but the middle fize are reckon-
ed the beit ; though fome prefer the {maller. See Srur-
GEON.

It is of the roe or eggs of this fifth that the cavear, or
kavia, fo much prized by the Italians, &c. is prepared. See
Cavear.

Sturgeon, when frefh, eats delicioufly. To make it keep,
they falt or pickle it in large pieces, and put them up in
cags, from twenty-five to fifty pounds.

The greateft fturgeon fifhery in the world is in the
mouth of the Volga, in the Cafpian fea ; where the Mufco-
vites find employment for a great number of men. We have
alfo had a confiderable fupply of fturgeon from North Ame-
rica, which rivals that of the Baltic.

They are not caught in nets, but in a kind of inclofure,
formed by huge ftakes, difpofed in triangles, reprefenting
the lecter Z feveral times repeated. Thefe kinds of fifheries
are open on the fide towards the fea, and clofe on the other ;
by which means the fifh, afcending in its feafon up the
river, embarrafles itfelf in thefe narrow angular retreats ;
and not being able to turn itfelf, to go back again, on ac-
count of its bulk, is eafily ftruck, and killed with a fort of
harping-iron. ‘They are alfo taken during fummer, in the
lakes Frifchechaff and Curifchhaff, near Pallau, in large nets,
made of fmall cord; the adjacent fhores are formed into
diftrifts, and farmed out to companies of fifhermen; fome
of which are rented fer fix thoufand guilders, or near 300 /.
per annum.

The chief obje& of this fifhery isthe ree or fpawn, which
is a commodity as much ufed in Mufcovy as butter in Hol-
land ; and there are fome fturgeons that furnifh each four
hundred pounds thereof. It is only the leffer and younger
fturgeon that they pickle for eating.

Fisuery, Zurdot. The method of taking turbot and
other fifh by the people of Scarborough is this: when
they go out to fith for turbot, each perfon is provided with
three lines; each man’s lines are fairly coiled upon a flat
oblong piece of wicker-work. The hooks being baited and
placed very regularly in the centre of the coil, each line is
furnifhed with 14 {core of hooks, at the diftance of fix feet
two inches from each other. The hooks are faftened to the
lines upon {neads of twitted horfe-hair, 27 inches in length.
When fifhing, there are always three men im each coble, and
confequently nine of thefe lines are fattened together, and
ufed as one line, extending im length nearly three miles, and
furnifhed with 2520 hooks. An anchor and buoy are fixed
at the end of each man’s line ; in all four anchors, which are
commonly perforated ftones, and four buoys are made of
leather or cork, ‘The lines are always laid acrofs the cur-
yent, and remain upon the ground about fix hours. The
coble is 20 feet 6 inches long, and five feet in extreme
breadth : it is about one ton burden, rowed with three pair
of oars, and admirably conftru€ted for the purpofe of en-
countering a mountainous fea. When the wind fuits, they
hoift a fail.

Fisnery, Whale, or Greenland Fisurery. This huge
fifth, we have elfewhere obferved, chiefly cash ~t in the

North fea. Thelargeft fort aye found about Spitzbergen,
fome of them being there two hundred feet in length. Thofe
on the coafts of America are about ninety, or a hundred 5
and thofe on the coaft of Guyenne, and the Mediterranean,
are the {malleft of all. :

The firlt perfons that feem to have been employed in the
whale fifhery were the Norwegians, probably foon after
their difcovery of Greenland, about the year 837: for
we find that king Alfred received information from
Ogher, a Norwegian, -in 887 or 890, that the Norwe-
gians were employed in this fifhery. He tells the king,
that he failed along the Norway coaft, as far north as
the whale-hunters commonly ufed to travel ; but it “feems
that all knowledge of this gainful employ was loft, at leaft
in this country, for. almoft feven centuries. The Bifcay-
ners were alfo concerned in it, for the fake not only
of the oil, but alfo of the whale-bone, before the Englith 5
for, though their north-eaft difcoveries in 1553 had
pointed out the way to the whale-tithery at Spitzbergen,
they were fo ignorant of the bufinefsin 1575, as to be
under a ueceffity of precuring information and affiftance
from Bifcay for this purpofe. The firft mention that
occurs in the Englith hiltory of whale-fins, or whale-bone,
is in 1593, when eight hundred fins, part of the cargo
of fome Bifeay fhips, that had been wrecked three years
before, were brought to England from the bay of St.
Laurence in America by an Englith fhip; previous to
which time, the ladies’ ftays, as Mr. Anderfon obferves,
muft have been made of {plit or fome other tough. and
pliant wood; the whale fifhery being carried on for the
fake of the oil long before the difeovery of the ufe of
the whale-bone, which was firft brought to England,
with the blubber or oil, in 1617. The Englith, having been
accuftomed to the Northern feas, by their repeated trials
for a north-welt and north-ealt- paflage to China, in 1598
commenced their fifhery for whales at or near Spitzber-
gen, where thofe animals refort in greater numbers than
any where elfe. But the firft Englifh voyage for the
purpofe of killing whales was undertaken by the Ruffian
company in 1611, who fent two fhips thither, with fix
Bifcayners, expert in the bufinefs; the fhips were loft,
though their men and boats, &c. were faved by a fhip of
Hull, then at Spitzbergen. In 1618, the Eaft India ad-
venturers joined {tock with the Ruffian company for pur-

fuing the whale fifhery, and fitted out thirteen fhips, but -

the voyage proved unfuccefsful. "The maner of managing
the whale-fifhing, both by the Englifhand Dutch, was then
quite different from the prefent mode: the whales, having
never been difturbed, reforted to the bays near the fhore, fo
that their blubber was eafily landed at Spitzbergen, where
they erected cookeries, i.e. coppers, Kc. for boiling their
oil; and thefe they left ftanding from year to year, ard
only brought home the purified oil, and the whale-bone.
The Englifh, having been the firft in that fifhery; kept
poffeffion of the beft bays; the Hollanders, coming later,
were ovliged to find bays farther to the north ; the Danes,
who came later into this trade than the Dutch, got in
between the Englifh and Dutch; the Hamburghers came
after the Danes, andafter them came the Freneh, and alfo
the Bifcayners, the moft ancient whale-fifhers in: Europe,
except the Norwegians, and purfued the fame method,
But, fince thefe times, the whales are lefs frequent in the
bays, and. are commonly among the openings of the ice
farther from the land ; fo that the blubber is now cut from
the whales after they are killed, in the manner defcribed in
the fequel of this article, and brought home to be boiled
and purified, and the whale-fns are alfo to be cleaned at

6 home.

——

FISHER Y.

home, This latter method of fifhing, being dangerous to
fhipping, difcouraged our Englifh adventurers who traded
in a company; fo that they foon after, viz. in 1619,
relinquifhed the fifhery. Some private adventurers pro-
fecuted the trade with various fuccefs in 1621, 1622, and
1623, when they were molefted by the Dutch, who were
then fuperior in number of fhips, and had the prince of
Orange’s commiffion ; for in :622 the Dutch, for preventing
of diflurbance in their whale fifnery, had ereéted an ex-
clefive company, who, by their own power, might protec
it: however, the fifhery was laid open, in 1643, to all the
inhabitants of the feven provinces. Asto the claims which
different European nations have alleged in favour of a
monopoly of the whale-fifhery at Spitzbergen, it hae been
urged by the Englifh that they were the firft difcoverers,
by tir Hugh Willughby, in 1553; by the Dutch, who
deny his haying been fo far north as Spitzbergen, and main-
tain their having firft difcovered it in 1596; by the Danes,
that Spitzbergen is a part of Old Greenland, poffeffed in
early times by them. But all nations have now wifely
given up their exclufive pretenfions, and that part of the
world remains now alike free to all nations for this fifhery.
In 1636, king Charles I. confirmed by his proclamation
the Greenland whale-fifhery folely to the Ruffia company,
who foon relinquifhed it. In 1672 an attempt was made
for reviving this fifhery, when an a& was paffed for the
encouragement of it; and thisaét was continued in 1690,
but without any great effect. A cerporation was eita-
blifhed by a& of parliament, in 1693, for carrying on this
fifhery, callei the Greenland Company.

In 1725, the Englifh South-fea company revived this
trade: but, after great loffes, were obliged to difcontinue
it, in1733. At thistime a bounty of 20s. per ton was
granted by parliament to Britith fhips of two hundred
tons and upwards, fitted out for the whale-fifhery, which
bounty was not only continued, in 1740, but an additional
bounty of ros. per ton was granted during the war with
Spain, in which we were then engaged; and in 1749 a
farther bounty, or allowance of 20¢s., over and above that
of 1733, was granted to all Britifh whale-fifhing fhips,
and extended to fhips of the Britifh American cclonies ;
and in 1755 this bounty was extended to fhips under two
hundred tons burthen ; and, asa farther encouragement to
this fifhery, foreign proteftants, ferving three years in it,
were naturalized on certain conditions. See Hackluyt’s
Coll. Voyages, and Anderfon’s Hiitory of Commerce.

But, notwithftanding the great importance and numer-
ous advantages of this trade to England, and the encourage-
ment which the legiflature has given it, the Dutch carried
it on with much greater fuccefs than the Englifh; and it
became one of the principal branches of their flourifhin
trade. The chief merchants of the feveral provinces af
fociated themfelves into a body for carrying it on, and fent
every year a great fleet of veflels to the North feas for
that purpofe. They attempted to make their firft eftablith-
ments in Greenland; but not fucceeding, they have fince
fixed their fifhery about the weftern coaft of Spitzbergen,
from the latitude of 76 dex. 40 min. to 80 deg. and from
eait to weft about eighty-nine leagues.

To give fome idea of the manner and importance of this
trade, we fhall here fubjoin the difcipline for along time
ebferved in the whale-fifhery, the method of fifhing ;
the cargo and equipage of a veflel; and the produce
thereof.

The difcipline is adjufted by a landing regulation, confitt-
ing of twelve articles ; the principal of which are :

That in cafe a fifhing-vellel be fhipwrecked and the eap-

+ Vou. XIV.

tain and crew faved, the next yeffel they mect fhall take
them in; and the fecond veffel take half of them from
the firft; but that no veffel fhall be obliged to take any
of the loading of a veffel fhipwrecked ; that as to the effedts
of a thipwrecked veffel, which are abfolutely relinquithed,
and which another captain fhall find, and take up, upon
his arrival in Holland, he fhall account for one half of
them to the proprietors of the fhipwrecked veffel, clear of
all expences; that if the crew defert a fhipwrecked veffel
they fhall have no claim to any of the effeéts faved, but
the whole fhall go to the proprietor; but if they be pre-
fent when the effeéts are faved, and affit therein, they
fhall have one-fourth thereof; that if a perfon kill a fifth
on the ice, it fhall be reputed his own, fo long as he
leaves any perfon with it ; but the minute he leaves it, it
becomes the due of the firlt captain that comes that way ;
but that, if a fifh be tied to an anchor, ora rope faftened
to the fhore, it fhallremain to its tir proprietor, though
he leave it alone ; that if any perfon be wounded or lamed
in the fervice, the commiffioners of the filhery undertake to
procure him a reafonable fatisfaétion ; to which the whole
fleet fhall contribute.

Befides this general regulation, to the obfervance of
which all the captains, pilots, and matters of veflels, were
obliged to fwear, before they put to fea, there was alfo a
particular one for each fhip’s crew, which they were all
{worn to execute, in prefence of one of the commiffioners,
who went aboard every fhip, to receive the oath.

This regul:tion was a kind of charter-party, importing,
that they would attend prayers morning and evening, on pain
of an amercement, at the difcretion of the captain; that
they would not get drunk, nor draw their knives, on for-
feiture of half of their wages; nor fight, ou forfeiture of
the whole; that no one fhould lay wagers on the good or ill
fuccefs of the fihhing, nor buy or fell on thefe conditions,
in cafe they took one or more fifh, on penalty of twenty-five
florins; that they would be contented with the provifions
allowed them ; and that they would never light fire, candle,
or match, by night or day, without the captain’s leave, on
the like penalty.

After the readiug of this regulation, the crew were all
called to receive the cuftomary gratuity betore their fet-
ting out, with an aflurance of another fum at their return in
proportion to the fuccefs of the fifhing.

The captain, on this occafion, received from an hundred
to an hundred and fifty florins ; the pilot from forty to fixty ;
each harpooner from forty to fifty florins ; the other officers
from twenty-fix to thirty-lix florins; the elder failors twenty ;
and the younger twelve.

The fleets, which confifted moftly of fluyts from two to
three hundred tons, and from thirty-fix men to forty-two,
ufually fet fail about the beginning of April, and took its
courfe by the ifles of Iceland, from 60 to 61 degrees of lati-
tude ; after which, leaving them to the welt, it fteered
northward, through 73, 74, and 75 deg. of latitude, where
they began to iind the ice.

It was among thefe huge heaps of ice, wherewith the
whole quarter is filled, that they firft began to fpy the
whales ; and there moft of the veffels fxed their abode for
the hihing. Butas the hth were larger and fatter the farther
north they went, jome captains would venture as far as 80
or $2 deg. of north Jat.. Each veffel of three hundred tons
had fix fhalleops; and each jhalloop bad fix harpooners,
with five feamen to row it. To every fhalloop there were
feyen lines, of three inches circumference; five of them
in the hind part of the veffel, and two before. . The hind
lines together mide Ax hundred fathoms, and, with the

a€ addition

FISHERY.

addition of the other two, eight hundred and eighty. If
the whale dived deeper, or rau farther underneath the ice
than this ftint, the line muft be cut, left the fhalloop fhould
be drawn after it.

In the Englith whale-fifhery every fhip has fix or feven
boats; each of which has one harpooner, one boat-
fteerer, one manager of the line, and four feamen to row
it. In each boat there are two or three harpoons, feveral
lances, and fix lines faftened together, each line being a
hundred and twenty fathom long. To each harping iron
is faftened a ftrong flick, about fix feet long, and a foft
pliable line, about tix fathom long, called the fore-gauger,
which is faftened to the lines in the boat. When more
line is wanted, the lines of a fecond boat are faftened to
thofe of the firft.

The inftrument, wherewith the whale is ftruck, is a
harping-iron or javelm, five or fix feet long, pointed
with fteel, in a triangular fhape, like the barb of an
arrow.

The harpooner, upon fight of the fifh, from one end of
the fhalloop where he is placed, ‘flings the harping-iron
with all his might again{ft his back ; and, if he be fo
happy as to make it penetrate the fkin and fat into the
fiefh, he lets go a ftring faftened to the harping-iron, a
the end whereof is a d-y-gourd, which {wimming on the
water, difcovers whereabout the whale is; for the minute
he is ftruck he plunges to the bottom, commonly fwimming
againft the wind. : t

If the whale return to breathe in the air, the harpooner
takes ‘occafion to give him a frefh wound, tll, fainting
by the lofs of blood, the men have an opportunity ot ap-
proaching him, and thrufting a long ileeled lance under
his gills into his breaft, and through the inteftines, fooa
difpatch him; and when the carcafe begins to float, they
cut holes in the fins and tail; and, tying a rope in thefe
holes, they tow him to the veflel, where he is fattened
along the larboard fide of the fhip, floating upon his back
almoit level with the fea. They then begin to take the
blubber or fat, and the fins, as they are called, or whale-
bone. ¢ »

In order to this, feveral mea ftand upon the fifh, with a
kind of iron calkers, or fpurs, te prevent their flipping ;
and cut off the tail, which is hoilted upon deck, and
then cut ont {quare pieces of blubber, weivhing two or
three thoufand pounds, which are hoifted on board with
the capitan, where each piece is again cut into {meller
pieces, each of two or three hundred pounds weight ;
and thefe are thrown into the hold, and left to drain for
three or four days. When all the blubber is cut from
the belly of the fifh, it is turned on one fide, by means
of a piece of blubber left in the middle, called the cant,
or turning-piece ; and then they cut out this fide in large
pieces, called hockies, as before, and alfo the whale-bones
with the gums, which are preferved entire, and hoifted
on deck, where the blades are cut and feparated, and
left till they have time to clean and fcrape them. The
fih is next turned on its back and the blubber cut out
from the baek and crown bonef; and laft of all they cut
the blubber from the other fide as before. .They then
cut out the two large jaw-bones, fituate in the under-
lips, which are hoifted on deck, cleanfed and faftened to
the fhrouds, and tubs are placed under them-to receive
the oil which they difcharge; this oil belongs to the
captain, and likewife the tail and fins. The careafe is
Jeft to float, and fupplies food for Greenland birds,
ealled mallemucks, &c. In three or four days they hoift
the pieces of blubber out of the hold, chop them, and

put {mall pieces through the bung-holes into their cafks,
A whale, the longeft blade of whofe mouth is nine or
ten feet, generally fills thirty butts with blubber; but one
of the largeft fifth will fill feventy butts and more. A
good large whale is valued at about r1ooo/. fterling. A
full fhip of three hundred tons is worth, clear of all ex
pence, at leaft sooo/, There is a premium affigned. to
every perfon in the fhip for every whale: the captain has
three guineas; the mate, one; each harpooner, one; the
furgeen, one; carpenter, one; ceok and boat-fteerers, half
a guinea each; a common man, acrown; and each boy,
half a crown. The captain and harpooners have no wages;
but the captain is allowed twenty-five pounds, and the har-
pooners, nine guineas each. Ina fuccefsful voyage they
have fix fhillings for every ton of oil boiled in Greenland-
dock ; but the reft of the fhip’s company have monthly
wages, belides the fifh-money, but no oil-mouey.

Nothing now remains, but to fail homewards, where the
fat is to be boiled, and melted down into train-oil.

The whale-iifhery of the Caroline iflands is more eafy and
agreeable than that of all other places, and, befide the great
profit, affords a pleafant {peétacle to multitudes of people
on the fhores.

There are ten or twelve of thefe ifles difpofed in form of
a circle, fo that they make a fort of port, in which the fea
is perpetually calm and pleafant.

When a whale appears in this gulf, the people all get
into their canoes, and rowing toward the fea, keep between
the creature and its retreat, and drive him forwards towards
the ifles at the bottom of the port. ‘Chey drive him in this
manner before them into the fhallows, where they plunge
into the water themfelves, and fome get ropes and chains
about him, while others dart him with their fpears. Their
agility and addrefs are wonderful in this. ‘The creature can
never get away when they have once got him faftened, but
is foon killed, and got to the fhore. 5

Fisnery, Produce of one Year’s Whale. ‘To ftate the
produce, we make choice of the fifhery of 1697, as being
one of the createft and moft fortunate that ever was known 5
to which we fhall add that of the year 1725.

In the year 1697, there were a hundred and eighty-nine
veflels of divers nations ; whereof a hundred and twenty-one
were Dutch, forty-feven Hamburghers, two Swedifh, four
Danith, twelve of Bremen, two of Embden, and one of
Lubeck; who caught in all 1968 fifh. ;

In the year 1725, there were two hundred and twenty-fix
veilels ; whereof one hundred and forty-four were Dutch,
twelve Englith, forty-three Hamburghers, twenty-three of
Bremen, two of Berghen, two of Flenfburg. ‘Their cap-
tures were 349 fifh.

The Dutch captures in ial 41,344 puncheons of

produced - - blubber.
The Hamburghers - 16,414. Ey
The Swedes - - 540°
The Danes - - 1710
The Bremeners - 3790
The Embdeners - - 68

The Englifh captures in 1725, produced 1000 puncheons’
of blubber, and 20 tons of whale-bone.
Now, ettimating the puncheon of blubber at thirty florins’
Dutch, or 2/. 155. Englifh, the current price in the year
1697, the total produce of the year’s fifhing amounts to
175,031/. 10s. fterling. As to fins, or whale-bones, fetting
them at two thoufand weight fer whale, and an hundred
weight at 4/. 4s. they will yield 165,312/. which, added to
the-former fum, rise to 340,943/. Los, cs
vw.

FISHERY.

Mr, Anderfon, in his Hiftory of Comnierce, vol. ii.
P- 350 obferves, from an account of the Dutch whale-
fifhing for forty-fix years, ending anno 1721, that in this
time they had employed 5886 fhips, and caught 32997
whales, which valued one with another at s5oo/. give an
amount for the whole value of above 16 millions fterling,
gained out of the fea moftly by the labour of the people,
deducting the expence of the wear and tear of fhipping, the
eafks, and the provifions.

The whale-fifhery begins in May, and continues through
themonths of Juneand July; but whether the fhips have good
or bad fuccefs, they muft come away and get clear ef the ice
by the end of Auguft; fo that in the month of September at
fartheit they may be expected home ; but the more fortunate
fhips may return in June or July.

The ftatute 26 Geo. III. c. 41. preferibes the conditions
en which fhips going on the Greenland whale-fithery tha!l
obtain licences from the commiffioners of the cuftoms. A
certificate fhall be produced; figned by an officer of the
cuitoms, after due examination of each fhip, ftating that
the fhip is legally qualified for the voyage, by being navi-
gated by a malter and three-fourths Britifh fubjeéts, aad
having en board a competent number of men, boats, lines,
provifions, &c. Every thip of the burden of 200 tons, de-
figned for this fithery, fhall have on board 4o fifhing lines
of 120 fathom each, 40 harpoon irons, 4 boats with 7 men
at the leaft, including a harpooner, a fleerfman, and a line
manager, to cach boat, befides the malter and furgeon, and
6 months provifion at the leafl for fuch a wumber of men;
and every {hip of larger burden, an increafe of 6 men, one
boat, ro fuch lines, and 10 harpocn irons more, for every
50 tons above the faid 200 tons, together with provifions
in proportion; and every fhip hall have apprentices inden-
tured for 3 years, in the proportion of one at the leat for
every 35 tons burden, and one frefh or green man for every

o tous burden. On the return of fuch fhip, her condition
fhall be certified by the proper officer of the cuftoms, to-
gether with a variety of particulars relating to her voyage,
cargo, &c. &e.; and then the commiffioners at the port
where fuch ship fhall arrive fhall affign a bounty or pre-
mium of 30s. per ton, according to the admeafurement of
fuch fhip duly certified.. This bounty fhall be reftri€ted to
fuch fhip as fhall have failed from the port whence fhe
cleared on or before the roth of April in each year, and
fhall have continued in the Greenland feas, Davis’s ftraits,
or feas adjacent, endeavouring to catch whales, and not have
departed thence before the roth of Auguft next following,
unlefs fuch fhip, if 300 tons, be laden with 30 tons of oil,
or blubber in proportion, and 1+ ton of whale-fins in like pro-
portion to the tonnage, or be forced by accident to depart
from thefe feas. Each fhip entitled to the bounty muft
have kept a log-book. ‘The owners may infure the bounty,
in cafe of the lofs of the fhip. Whiale-fins, oil or blubber
of whales, feal oil or feal fins, or any ether produce of
feals or fifh caught in the feas of Greenland, or Davis’s
ftraits, or parts adjacent, may be imported duty free. No
harpooner, line-manager, or boat-{leerer, belonging to any
fhip in this trade, fhall be liable to be imprefled from this
fervice. The Greenland feas, Davis’s ftraits, and feas ad-
jacent, fhall be deemed and extend to the latitude of 59°
30! N., and no farther. The ftat. 29 Geo. III. c. 52.
C. 53. contains fqme additional regulations. This act is
continued by 41 Geo. III. c. 97.

Southern Whale Fifhery. Vhe ftatutes 35 Geo. IIT.
¢.92. and 42 Geo. III. c. 18. aflign premiums to 16 thips
employed in this fifhery, under certain prefcribed reitric-
tions: 12 of which fhall be fitted and cleared out between

January 1ft and December 31ft, 1802, and between Ja-
nuary 1ft and Decémber 31ft in each of the three fucceeding
years, fhall fail to the fouthward of the equator, there carry
on the fifhery, and return to’ fome port of Great Britain
before December 1ft in the year fubfequent to that of
their being cleared out; to 4 of thefe which fhall arrive firft
within the time limited, with the greateft quantity ef oil
or head-matter, being not lefs in the whcle than 20 tons in
each, there fhall be allowed 300/. each; and 2zo0c/. to each
of the 4 fhips which fhall next arrive with the next greateft
quantity of oil or head-matter; and roo/. to each of the
4 veflels which fhall next arrive with the greateft quantity
of oil, &c. not lefs than zo tons. To 4 other fuch hips,
which fhall proceed to the wettward of 36° of S. latitude,
and fhall carry on ‘the faid fifhery, and fhall return, before
the-3 1ft of December in the fecond year after their clearing
out, to fome port of Great Britain, there fhall be allowed
400/. each, having not Iefs than zo tons of oil or head-
matter, as aforefaid. The ftat. 35 Geo. EII. c. 92. re-
quires fuch fhips to be navigated by perlons, of whom the
mafter and at leaft three-fourths of the mariners are his ma-
jelty’s fubjects. Or if fuch fhip clecr out from any port of
Great Britain, fuch fhip may be navigated by perfons being
proteftaats, and who, not being fubjects of his majetty, have
been before employed in carrying on the faid fifhery, and en
clearing out have taken the oath of fidelity and allegiance to
his majefty, and another oath that it is their intention to
eftablifm them elves and their families in Great Britain, &e.
No premium fhall be paid to any fhip that has not an ap.
prentice indentured for three years for every 50 tons bur-
den; nor unlefs {uch fhip fhall have regularly kept a log-
book on board. The commiffioners of the cuitoms in
England and Scotland are to pay the premiums, which are
to be claimed within two months. Ships concerned in this
fifhery may fail and pafs for that purpofe to the caitward of
the Cape of Good Hope, and to the weftward of Cape
Horn, or through the traits of Magellan ; but fuch fhips
fhall be obliged to take out a licence for each refpeétive
voyage from the Eatt India company, &c. &c. Every fhip
intending to navigate any fea comprifed within the boun-
daries of the exclufive trade of the South Sea company, de-
{cribed by an aét of the gth of queen Anne, mutt take a
licence for the voyage from the faid company. By ftatute
42 Geo. III. c. 18. any hip fitting and clearing out, and
licenfed according to the preceding a€ts, failing to the eait-
ward of the Cape of Good Hope, and having paffed beyond
123° of E. longitude, may pafs to the northward as far as
1° of N, latitude, but no further to the northward, until
fuch fhip fhall have failed or pafled to the eaitward of 180?
E. longitude from London.

Fisuery, Whitings. hefe fith frequent the Englifh
feas in large fhoals, particularly during the fpring, keeping
at the diltance of half a mile to three miles from the fhore.
They are taken in abundance by the line, and afford excel-
lent diverfion. They are the mot delicate and wholefome
of any of the genus, but do not grow to a large fize near
the coaft, where thé ufual length is 10 or 12 inches. In
the deep water on the edge of the Dogger-bank, they have
been found to weigh from four to eight pounds.

Fisnery, free, in Law, or the exclufive right of fifhing
in a public river, is a royal franchife (fee Francuiss) ;
and is confidered as fuch in all countries wherethe feodal law
has prevailed. (Seld. Mare Claufum. 1. 24. - Dufrefne. v.
503. Craig de Jur. Feod. ti. §15.) However, the mak-
ing of fuch grants, and thus the appropriating of that which
it feems unnetural to reftrain, the ufe of running water,
was prohibited for the future by king John’s great charter ;

Ce aad

»

FIS

and the rivers that were fenced in his time were directed to
be laid open, as wellas the forefls to be difafforefted. This
epening was extended by the fecond and third charters of
Henry ITI. to thofe alfo that were fenced under Rich-
ard I. ; fo that a franchife of free tifhery ought now to be
at leaft as old as the reign of Henry IL. This differs from
a feveral filhery ; becauie he that has a feveral fifhery muft
alfo be (or at leaft derive his right from) the owner of the
foil, which in a free fifhery is not requifite. (M. 17 Edw. IV.
6. .P.18 Edw. IV. 4. T.10Hen. VII. 24. 26. Salk.
637-) It differs alfo from a common of pifcary, in that the
free fifhery is an exclufive right, where the common of pif-
cary is not fo; and, therefore, in a free fifhery, a man has
a property in the fifh before they are canght; in a common
of pifcary, not till afterwards. (F. N. B. 88. Salk. 637.)
Some, indeed, have confidered a free fifhery not as a royal
franchife, but merely asa private grant of a liberty to fifh in
the /everal fifhery of the grautor. (2 Sid. 8.) But to
confider fuch right as originally a flower of the prerogative,
till reftrained by magna carta, and derived by royal grant
(previous to the reign of Richard I,) to fuch as now claim
it by prefcription, and to diftinguifh it (as judge Black{tone
does) from a /everal/ and a common of fifhery, may remove
fome difficulties (fays the learned Judge) in refpe& to this
matter, with which our books are embarrafled. For it muft

be acknowledged, that the rights and diftinGtions of the’

three fpecies of fifhery are very much confounded in our
law-books; and that there are not wanting refpeCtable
authorities (fee Hargrave’s Notes on Co. Litt. 122.) which
maintain, that a feveral fifhery may exilt diftiné&t from the
property of the foil, and that a free fifhery implies no ex-
clufive right, but is fynonymous with common of pifcary.
Black {t. Com. vol. ii.

FISHERIES, Briti/h Society for Encouragement of.
By ftat. 35 Geo. II]. c. 100. the governor, deputy-
governor, and directors of the Britith fociety for extending
the fifheries, and improving the fea coatts of this kingdom,
incorporated by 26 Geo. III. c. 106. are empowered to
give the following premiums and loans to perfons at the
fociety’s fettlements; viz. 6o/. a year, in premiums or
rewards, to fober and induflrious perfons refiding at any of
thele fettlements, who are moft expert in fifhing, curing of
fifh, preparing of foap or oil from fifth, making of nets, &e.;
and alfe to lend at legal intereft a fum not exceeding soc/.
for the purpofe of purchafiag, building, or equipping boats
or other veflels for the fifhery ; and alfo fuch Etles {ums
on loans to fuch perfons as may build houfes or tenements at
any of the fettlements of the fociety, the fum fo lent not
exceeding one-third of the value of {uch buildings, payable
by inftalments in the courfe of five years; and alfo fuch
fums in loans, not exceeding 200/., on proper fecurity to
be repaid in one year, to fuch perfons as may undertake to
provide ftores of oatmeal or falt, or other neceflaries, at
either of the faid fettlements, the fum not to exceed two-
thirds of the value of the commodity ; and alfo fuch fums
of money, not exceeding 2¢0/., in loans to fuch perfous as
may eftablifh a manufactory of fail-cloth or cordage, &c.
fuch fum to be repaid in three years, and not to exceed
two-thirds of the value of the material provided.

FISHES, aboard a Ship, are pieces of timber, conyex
on one fide, and concave on the other, ufed to ftrengthen
the mafts and yards, when they begin to fail, through an
extraordinary weight of fail, or after damage in battle, or
tempeftuous weather. They both nail the fifhes on with
iron fpikes, and alfo would them as they call it, that is,
wind ropes hard about them. There is alfo a tackle called
the fifh, which hangs at ee end of the davit by the ftrap of

FIS

the block, in which is the runner of the fifh-hook; by
which means the fluke of the anchor is haled up to the fip’s
bow, or chainwale. (See Brocxs.) Perhaps this tackle
was called a fifh, from that which the ancients called a dol-
phin, which was a pointed and vaftly heavy piece of iron,
which they ufed to heave up by a tackle to a good height,
and then, when they came near enough to the enemy’s fhip,
let it fall at once, to break or pierce a hole through the
bottom of the enemy’s veffel, to fink her.

~FISH-GIG, an inftrument ufed to ftrike fith at fea,
particularly dolphins. It confifts of a ftaff, three or four
barbed prongs, and a line faftened to the end, on which,
the prongs are fixed; te the other end is fitted a piece of
lead, which ferves to give additional force to the ftroke
when the weapon flies, and to turn the points upward after
the fifh is penetrated.

FISH-GARTH, according to Skinner, fignifies an
engine to take fifh; but it fhould rather feem to denote the
dam or weir in a river, where thefe engines are latd ang
ufed.

FISH.GLUE. See IcutTHyocoxva and Give.

FISHING, the aé or art of catching fifh.

Right of fifhiag and the property of fifth belong to the
lord of the manor, when he hath the foil on both fides of a
river ; but where a river ebbs and flows, and is an arm of
the fea, they are common to all; and he who claims a pri-
vilege to himfelf muft prove it. In the Severn, the foik
belongs to the owners of the land on each fide ; and the foil
of the River Thames is in the king, &c. but the nfhing is
common to all, There are feveral ftatutes for preventing
the deftrution of the fry of fifh ; and perfons ufing nets fos
that purpofe, or taking falmen or trout out of feafon, or.
any fifth under certain lengths, are liable to forfeit 20s. ;
and juftiwes of peace and lords of leets have power to put
the acts in foree. See 1 Eliz. cap.17. 3 Jac. J. cap. rz.
30 Geo. II. cap. 21. See Salmon Fisuery, and Stealing
of Fism.

Fifhing is diftinguifhed with regard to its inftrument into
that performed with the net, for fifth that go in fhoals; and
that with the hook, for folitary fith ; which latter is pro-
perly called angling.

Fifhing, again, is diflinguifhed with regard to its objeé-
into that performed in falt water, and that in frefh. The
firft practifed for whales, herring, cod, falmon, pearls,
mackarel, and other fea-fifh. ‘The latter praétifed for pike,
trout, carp, tench, perch, dace, eels, &e. '

The inftruments principally ufed in angling or fifhing
with the hook, are the rod, line, hook, and fly. j

The points on which the art of fifhing chiefly turns are
the proper feafon, place, bait, and manner of application.
What relates to each thereof; we fhall here give the reader
in the feveral kinds of fifhing- chiefly praétifed among us.

In March, April, and September, the warmeit days are
the bett for fifhing, and the bait muft be deep; for the fifh’
in thefe cool months lie nearthe bottem. In fly-tifhing, it
is always obferved, that the fifh will rile belt after a {mall
fhower of rain, that has juft beat down the flies upon the
water without muddying it. March, April, May, and.
June, are the beft months for fly-fifhing, and the bef& hoars
are about nine in the morning, and three or four ia the afier-.
noon; ina ftill warm evening they will bite as long as the
day light lafts, at thofe feafons when the gnats are feen moft
plentifully about in the air.

In the extremity of heat, when the earth is parched with
drought, there is but little fport to be expected in fithing
in any water. In-cold weather, when there is a white
hoary froft in the morning, the fith will not bite kindly

all

FISHING.

all day, except in the evening, if that-fiould prove ferene
and warm.

‘Too much wind is neverconyenient for ffhing, though a
little is rather advantageous than otherwife. It is bad nfh-
ing about fheep-fhearing time, in waters where the fheep are
wafhed ; for the fifh glut themfelves in fuch a manner ‘with
what is wafhed from thefe creatures, that they will not take
any bait till that feafon is over.

North and eaft winds are enemies to fifhing ; and it is not
right to fifth foon after the time of the hth fpawning, for
they are thea fick, and have no great appetite, fo that they
do not bite readily. All tith have a natural fore-knowledge
of a fhower of rain, and when clouds are coming on that
will fall in rain, they will not bite; the expert angler,
who is ufed to this, often efcapes being wet to the fkin
by it.

The fubterranean or wnder-ground fifhing of the lake
Ribefkajamnia has been much talked of by thofe who have
written of the Zirchnitzer fea, of which it isa part; but
on the whole it amounts to no more than this. The waters
of this lake emptying themfelves through fubterranean paf-
fages into another Jake below, the whole body of the wa-
ter, with the fifh in it, is frit received into a large opening,
which conveys it into a fort of fubterranean bafon, in the
bottom of which there are many holes, and through thefe
the water is let out, but the fifh left behind. The people
of the place who know this, defcend through the large hole
into this fubterraneous bafon with torches in their hands,
and as the waters run off, they feize upon the fifh wherever
they can catch them. This fort of ffhing is attended with
One inconvenience ; for the people being obliged to ftand up
to the middle more or lefs in the water, the horfe-leeches,
which are extremely plentiful there, feize upon their legs
and other parts, and are only to be got off by fome perfons
making water upon the part ; the heat and naufeous tafe of
the urine always making ‘them let go their hold. Phil.
Tranf. N° gi. For a curious method of fifhing in China,
fee Cuina.

Fisuinc, White-bait. See Bair.

The feafon for taking white-bait is only from the firft of
Auguft to the frft of O&ober. 30 Geo. II. cap. 21.

Fisuinc, Barbel. See Barsus.

No barbel is to be taken in the Thames or Medway under
twelve inches in fize, from the eye to the end of the tail, and
only between the twenty-fourth of Auguft and the twenty-
frit of March. 30 Geo. II. cap, 2r.

Fisuine, Carp. The carp is generally held the queen
of frefh-water lifh. It is exceeding fubtle, and of all others,
the eel only excepted, lives longeft out of water. Mr.
Ray affures us, that in Holland they have a fpeedy way of
fattening them, by hanging them up ina net in a cellar,
and feeding them with white bread and milk. ‘The fith is
wrapped upina quantity of wet mofs, {pread on a piece of
net, and then gathered into a purfe in fuch a manner, hew-
ever, as to-allow him room to breathe. The net is then
plunged into water, and hung up to the cieling of a cellar:
the dipping muft at firft be repeated every three or four
hours, but afterwards it necd only be plunged into water
Once in about fix or feven hours, Bread foaked in milk is
firft given him in fmall quantities: in a fhort time the fith
wilt bear more, and grow fat by this treatment. Many have
been kept in this way, breathing nothing but air, for feveral
days fucceffively. (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixi, part 1. p. 310.)
They breed feveral times in the year ; for which reafon we
feldom meet with male or female without either milt or
fpawn. Their natural place is fome ftill water; in running
waters they rarely, if ever, breed. ‘To make them fat and

large, it is a good way, when the pond is low, in April,
to rake all the fides thereof with an iren rake, and fow hay
feeds thereon, By autumn there will be a crop of {s,
which coming to be overflowed as the pond rifes, will be a
fine feeding-place for them. See Fisu-Ponps.

Great patience is requifite in angling for carp, on account
of their incredible policy. They always choole to lie in the
deepeft places ; they feldom bite in celd weather; and ia
hot, aman cannot be too early or too late for them. When
they do bite, there is no fear of the hold. The tackle muft
be- very ftrong, and it will be proper to bait the place be-
forehand, where itis to be fifhed for, with a coarfe paite.
It may be alfo proper to bring the carp to the place intended
for angling, by throwing in cow-dung and blood, or bran
and blood mixed together, or fome chicken guts cut {mall.
The baits are the red-worm, in March; the cadew, in
June; and the grafs-hopper, in July, Auguft, and September.
Proper paftes may alfo be prepared for them; as honey and
fugar, wrought together with flour, and thrown in pieces
into the water fome hours before you begin to angle.
Honey and white crumbs of bread mixed together alfe
make a good pafte. The following pafte is much recem-
mended: take common wheat flour and veal, or any other
young meat, of each equal quantities; beat them together
in a mortar till the meat is thoroughly diffolved or broke to
pieces ; thenadd about half the quantity of honey ; beat it
well together again, and add more flour till the whole is of
a proper confiftence. This has the advantage of a patte,
and of an animal bait, and hangs well upon the hook, fo
that it feldom fails of fuccefs.

The beft feafon for catching fuch as are intended for fale
is autumn.

Fisuinc, Chub. The chevin or chub is a frefh-water
fifh with a large head. It {pawns in March, and is very
{trong, though inaGtive, yielding in a very Little time after
it is truck; and the larger it is the quieter. His bait 1s
any kind of worm or fly, particularly the large yellow moth ;
alfo grains, cheefe, the pith in the bone of an ox’s back,
&c. He affets a large bait, and variety of them at the
fame hook. Early in the morning angle for him with
{nails ; but, in the heat of the day, choole fome other bait 5
and in the afternoon, fifh for him at ground or fly. See
Cuus.

No chub is tobe taken under nine inches from the eye
to the end of the tail, and only between Auguit 24th and
March 21ft, in the river ‘Thames and waters of Medway.
30 Geo. II. cap. 21.

Fisninc, Dace or Dare. See Dace.

No dace are to be taken in the Thames or Medway under
fix inches from the eye to the end of the tail in fize, and
only between Auguit 24th and March 21ft, 30 Geo. 11.
cap. 27.

Fisuinc, Ee/. See Etx.

"The filver eel may be caught with divers baits, particularly
powdered beef, garden-worms or lobs, minnows, hens guts,
filh, garbage, &c. But as they hide themfelves in winter
in the mud, without ftirring out for fix months, and in the
fummer, they take no delight to be abroad in the day, the:
mot proper time to take them is in the night, by fattening
a line to the bank fide with a hook in the water; or a line
may be thrown at large, with a good ttore of hooks baited,
and plumbed with a float, to difcover where the lme lies in
the morning. A {mall roach does w ell here for a bait, the
hook being laid in his mouth. For other methods of
catching eels, fee Bosuinc, Burrers, Errypear, and
SNIGGLING.

No. leaps or rods for eels are to be laid in the Thames and

Mecway

FISHING.

Medway but from April 21f to O&dber goth; but they
may be hooked for all the year. 30 Geo. II. cap. 21.

Fisuinc, Flounder. ‘he flounder is a flat fea or river
ffh, caught in April, May, June, and July, in any time
of the day, in a {wift ftream, and fometimes alfo in a ftill
deep. The beft bait is red worms, wa{ps, and gentles.

Flounders may be taken in the rivers Thames and Med-
way at any time of the year; but their fize muft not be
lefs than fix inches from the eye to the end of the tail.
30. Geo. II. cap. 21. ;

Fisninc, Gudgeon. The gudgeon is a fmall fith of a
very delicious tafte. It fpawns three or four times in the
fummer-feafon, and feeds in ftreams and on gravel, flighting
all kinds of flies; butiseafily taken with a {mall red worm,
fithing near the ground; and being a leather-mouthed fifh,
will not eafily get off the hook when firuck. ‘The gudyeon
may either be fifhed with a float, the hook being on the
ground, or by hand, with a running line on the ground,
without cork or float. He will bite well at wafps, gentles,
and cadworms; and one may even fifth for him with two or
three hooks at the fame time, which makes good {port.
When you angle for gudgeons, ftir up the fand or gravel
with along pole, which will make them gather to the place
and bite the fafter.

The feafon for gudgeon fifhing in the Thames and Med-
way is from Auguit 24th to Mareh 21ft. 30 Geo. Il.
ap. 21.

Fisuinc, Pearch or Perch. The pearch or perch is
hook-backed, not unlike a hog, armed with ttiff prickles,
and his fides with dry thick fcales; he is voracious, and
will yenture on his own kind even with greater courage than
the pike. He feldom grows much above afoot long. He
fpawns in February or Merch, and bites bett when the {pring
is far fpent. ‘The proper baits are the bradiing, minnow,
and fmall frog; as alfo the lob-worm, bob, oak-worm,
‘gentle, wafp, and cad-bait. The minnow yields the beit
{port, which is to be alive, and {tuck on the hook through
the upper-lip or back-fin, and kept fwimming about mid-
water. If the frog be ufed, he is to be faitened to the
hook by the fkin of his leg. When the fifh bites, as he is
none of the leather-mcuthed kind, he mult have time to
‘pouch his bait. The beit place to fith for him is in the
turning of the water-eddy in a good gravel bottom

No perch is to be taken in the Thames. or Medway
under fix inches from the eye to the end of the tail, and
only between Augult 24th and March 21ft. 30 Geo. II.
cap. 21.

Fisuing, Pike. The pike is reputed the tyrant of the
frefh waters. .By the common confent of naturaliits, he is
the longett-lived of all fithes. The larger he is found, the
coarfer is his flefh; and.fo- vice verfa. This filh never
{wims in fhoals, but always fingle, being very rapacious,
and preying even on his own kind. The pike {pawns in
February and March. The beft fort is in rivers; the worlt
in meres and ponds.. His ordinary food is frogs, and what
fish he can lay hold on,

There are. two ways of fifhing for the pike: by the /ed-
ger bait and the walhing-bait. 1. The ledger-bait is that
fixed in one certain place, and which the angler may leave
behind him. Of this kind the belt is fome living bait, as a
dace, roach, gudgeon, or a living frog. To apply it, if
a fifh, ftick the hook through his ypper-lip; then faften-
ing it to a ftrong line twelve or fourteen yards long, tie
the other end of the line to fome flake in the ground, or
bough of a tree, near the pike’s ufual haunt, letting the
line pafs over the fork of a flick placed for the purpofe,
fufpending the hook, and about a yard of line in the wa-

ter, but foas that when the pike bites, the fork may giy,
way, and let him have line enough to go to his hold a
paunch. If the bait bea frog, the arming wire isto be
put in at his mouth and out at his vent, and one of his
legs to be flitched or tied over the upper joint of the.
wire. 2. The walking-bait is that which the fifher calls
in, and conducts with ared, &c. This is perforated by
a troll, with a winch for winding it up. At the top
of the line is to be placed a ring for the line to be run
through. The line, for two yards and a quarter next
the hook, to be of filk double, and armed with wire the
length of feven inches. On the fhank of the hook is te
be faftened a fmooth piece of lead, fo as to fink the fifth.
bait, which is to be a gudgeon with its head downwards.
Thus ‘difpofed, the bait is to be caft up and down; and
if you feel the fifh at the hook, give him length enough
to run away with the bait, and paunch it; then ftrike
him with a fmart jerk. To fifh with a dead bait, ufe a
yellow frog, dace, or roach, anointed in gum of. ivy,
diffolved in oil of fpike, and ca{t it where the pike fre-
quents. After it has lain a httle while at the bottom,
draw it to the top, and fo up the ftream, and you will
quickly perceive a pike in earneft purfuit thereof. This
fifh bites beft about three in the afternoon in clear water,
with a gentle gale, from the middle of fummer to the
end of autumn; but in wiater all day long ; and in the
{pring he bites beft early in the morning, and late at
night. Another method of fifhing for pike, fee under
Huxinc. :

No pike or jack is to be taken in the Thames or Medway
under twelve inches from the eye to the end of the tail, and
only between Auguft 24th and March 21ft. 30 Geo. II.
cap. 21.

5 Perse Roach. ‘The roach or rochet is no delicate fifh.
Thofe in rivers are more valued than thofe in ponds, though
the latter are much the larger. They {pawn about the
middle of May.

‘To angle for this fih in April, cads or worms are proper
baits; fo are {mall white fnails or flies in fummer. ‘ihe
bait is always to be under water, for this fifh will not bite
at top. Others ufe May-fly in that feafon with good
fuccefs. In autumn, a pafte muft be ufed, made of the
crumb of white bread moulded with a little water, laboured
with the hands into a tough pafte, and coloured not very deep,
with red lead. In winter, gentles are the beft bait.
Sprouted malt, the young brood of wafps, and bees dipt-
in blood, and the thick blood ef fheep half dried, are nol-
trums in this fort of fifhing.

In the neighbourhood of London they have a peculiar
method of fifhing for roach; they take a ftrong cord, at
the end of which is faftened athree pound weight; anda
foot above the lead a packthread of twelve feet is made
fait to the cord; and to the packthread, at proper dif-
tances, they add twelve ftrong links of hair with roach
hooks at them, baited with a white {nail or perriwinkle.
Then holding the cord in their hands, the biting of the
fifh draws the packthread, and this the cord, which gives
them notice what to do. By this means they fometimes
dray up half a dozen, and very commonly two or three at a,
draught. By 30 Geo. II. cap. 21. no roach is to be taken
in the Thames or Medway under {ix inches from the eye
to the end of the tail, and only between Auguit 24th and
March 21 ft.

Fisuinc, Smelt. See Smext. oY

By 30 Geo. II. cap. 21. no {melt is to be taken in the
Thames or Medway lefs than five inches from the eye to.
theend of the tail, or at any time, except from Jana

25t

FISHING.

25th to June rt; and thofe that are caught in other waters:
mutt be of the above fize. 33 Geo. II.

Fisuinc, Seal. See Soar.

Fisuinc, Zench. The tench is a fine frefh-water fith,
having very {mall fcales, but large, {mooth fins, with a red
circle about the eyes, and a little barb hanging at each
corner of the mouth. It takes more delight among weeds
in ponds than in clear rivers, and covets to feed in foul water.
His flime is faid to have a healing quality for wound-
ed fith ; upon which he is commonly called the f/hes’
phyfician. When the carp, pike, -&c. are hurt, it is
faid they find relief by rubbing themfelves againit the
tench.

The feafon for catching this fifth is in June, July, and
Auguft very early and late, or even all night, in the ftill
partof rivers. His bait isa large red worm, .at which he
bites very eagerly, efpecially. if firft dipped in tar. He
alfo delights in all forts of paftes made up of ftrong-
feented oils, or with tar; or a pafte of brown bread and
honey ; nor does he refufe the cel-worm, lob-worm,
flag-worm, green gentles, cod-bait, or foft boiled bread-

rain.
5 Whien a number of tenchare to be taken out of a muddy
pond, the method is to take a large cafting net, well leaded,
and with the mefhes from the crown to a full yard anda
half, not too fmall; for then, if the pond be deep, the fith
will itrike away before the net gets to the bottom. ‘The
place where the net isto be thrown into muft be cleared of
weeds, &c. with a rake, A bait is next to be prepared
for drawing the fifh together: for this purpofe put a quar-
ter of a peck of wheat into three quarts of water, fend
it to an oven, and let it be well foaked; then add to it five
pints of blood, and as much bran as is neceflary te give it
the confiftence of a pafte; mix with it fomeclay, and add
a quart of lob-worms chopped to pieces. Let the whole
be wrought up into a {tuff patte, and rolled into balls of the
fize of ahen’s egg, and throw thefe into the pond in the

Jace where the net is to be caft. Let thefe, and fome grains,
te occationally thrown in, and the place be thus baited for
feveral days. When the fifh may be fuppofed to be well
acquainted with the place, let a good baiting be given in the
morning, andin the clofe of the evening let the cafting-net
be evap thrown in. When thenet is funk, the mad all
about it is to be ftirred with a long pole with a fork at the
end; thenet is to lie half an hour, andthe mud to be thus
flirredall the time ; by this means the tench will be raifed,
and will betakenin pulling out the net ; butif the net were

to bethrown in and taken out in the common way, there,

would hardly be one fifh taken; fer the cuftem of both
tench and carp, when they are frighted, is to plunge their
heads up tothe eyes in the mud, and thus placed with their
tailsere&t, the net mut draw over them, without the pofhi-
bility of entangling them.

Fisuinc, Trout.~ The trout is a delicious frefh water fifh,
fpeckled with red and yellow, coming in and going out of
feafon with the buck, and f{pawning in the cold months of
Otober and November, whereas all the other {pecies {pawn
‘in hot fummer weather. There are divers kinds of this fith,
all valuable ; but the beft are the red and yellow trouts ; and
of thefe the female, diitinguifhed bya lefs head and deeper
body, is preferred. They are known to be in feafon by the
bright colour of their {pots, and by their large and thick
Takes which laft may {ferve alfo as a rule for other fih.
Through the whole winter they are fick, lean, and unwhole-
fome, and frequently loufy. Asthe fpring comes on, de-
ferting the ftill, deep waters, they repair to the gravelly
ground, again which they continue to rub till they get nd

of their lice, which area kind of worms with large heads.
From that time they delight to be in the fharp ftreams, and
fuch as are fwift, where they lie in wait for minnows and
May-flies. Arthe latter end of May they are in their prime

The ufual baits whereby the trout is caught are the worm,
minnow, and fly, either natural or artificial. The proper
worms are the brandling, lob-worm, {quirrel-tail worm
which has a ftreak round the back, a red head, anda noel
tail, earth- worm, dung-werm, and maggot or gentle, efpe-
cially the three firft; the brandling is cemmonly found in an
old dunghill, or under cow-dung, or elfe among tanner’s
bark.;,the others are found in the earth, and under large
ftones, or ftumps of trees; but whatever worms are ufed,
they are the better for keeping, which is to be done in an
earthen pot, with mofs, frequently changed. Totakethe
trout with a ground bait, the angler fhould have a light,
taperrod, with a tender hazel top; and may angle witha
fingle hair of three links, the one tied tothe other, for the
bottom of the line, and a line of three-haired links for the
upper parts: with this fort of tackle, if the f{portf{man has
room enough, he will take the largeft trout in any river. The
angler mu‘ always keep out of fight, and the point of the rod
mut be down the ftream. The feafon for fithing for the
trout for the ground bait begins in March, and the morn-
ings and evenings are the beft time of the day ; but in cloudy
weather the {port may be followed all day long. There
mutt be a plummet at ten inches from the hook, which the
angler muft feel always touching the ground; and this muft
be heavier as the ftreamis fwitter. When the minnow is
ufed, chufe the whiteft, and that of middling fize ; flip the
hook through his mouth, and the point and beard out at
the tail, fo as it. may lie almoft ftraicht on the hook. Then
try, againii the ftream, whether it will turn. The tacklein
this cafe may be ftronger, for the trout will feize this baits
as foon‘as it comes in fight ; the upper part of the. line may
be of three filk and three hairs, and the lower of two of
each ; and the hook may be mederately large. In defe&
of a minnow, a {mall loach, ora ftickle-back, may ferve the
turn ; or, for wantof either, an artificial one may be made
ef cloth by the life, which is found every whit as good a
bait as the natural one. 7

The moft agreeable manner of ffhing for trout is with
the fly : the rod in this cafe muft be light and pliable, and
the line long and fine ; if one hair be trong enough, as it
may be made by proper fkill in the angler, there will be
more fifh caught than when.a thicker line is ufed ; and the
fly-fither fhould have the wind in his back, and the fua’
before him. See AnGuino:

By 1 Eliz. cap. 21. no trout is to be taken under eight
inches in length; and by ftat. 24. Anne, cap. 21. fea-trout
is not to be taken in particular rivers, creeks, or arms of
the fea between June 30th and Noy, fith. By 30 Geo. II.
Cap. 21. no trout is to be taken in the Thames or Medway
between November s1th and Augult 24th, or to be of lefs
weight than one pound.

FisuinG-daits. See the preceding articles, and ANGuNe.

Fisuine-fly, a bait ufed in angling for divers kinds of
fifh. The fly is either natural or artificial.

Natural flies ave innumerable: the more ufual on this
occafion are the dun-fly, the ftone or May-fly, the red-fly,
the moor-fly, the tawny-fly, the vine-fly, the fhell-fly, the
cloudy and blackith-fly, the flag-fly ; alfo caterpillars,
canker-flies, bear-flies, &c. all which appear fooner or later,
according to the forwardnefs or backwardnefs of the
{fpring. To. know the particular fly the fifth: moft covets,
when you come in the morning to the river-fide, beat the
budhes with your rod; and take wp what variety you can of

ali

FISHING.

all forts of flies ; try them all, and you will quickly know
which are in mot{t efteem ; not but that fith will fometimes
change their fy ; but it is only when they have fometimes
glutted themfelves therewith.

There are two ways to fifh with natural flics, either on
the furface of the water, or a little underneath it.

In angling for chub, roach, or dace, move not your
natural fly {wiftly, when you fee the fifh make at it; but
rather Iet it glide freely towards him with. the ftream;
but if it be in a ftill and flow water, draw the fly flowly
fideways by him. which will make him eagerly purfue it.

The artifctal fly is moft fuccefsfully ufed in bluttering
weather, when the waters are fo troubled by the winds that
the natural fly cannot be feen, nor reft upon them.

Of this artificial fly there are reckoned ten principal
forts:

1. The dun-fly, in March, made of dun wool, and the
feathers of a partridge wing. 2. A dun-fly, made of black
wool, and the feathers of a black drake; the body made
of the firft, and the wings of the latter. 3. The’ ftone-fly,
in April, the body made of black wool, dyed yellow under
the wings and tail. 4. The ruddy-fly, in the beginning of
May ; the body made of red wool, and bound about with
black filk, with the feathers of a black capon, which hang
‘dangling on his fides next his tail. 5. The yellow or
greenifh fly, in June; the body made of black wool, with
a- yellow lift on either fide, and the wings taken off the
wings of a buzzard, bound with black broken hemp.
6. The moorith-fly ; the body made of dufkifh wool, and
the wings with the blackifh mail of a drake. 7. Tawny-
fly, till the middle of June ; the body made of tawny wool,
the wings made contrary one again{ft the other, of the
whitifh mail of a white drake. 8. The wafp-fly, in July;
the body made of black wool, ca{t about with yellow filk,
and the wings of drakes’ feathers. 9. The fteel-fly, in the
middle of July; the body made of greenifh wool, caft
about with the feathers of a peacock’s tail, and the wings
made of buzzards’ wings. to. The drake-fly, in Augutt ;
‘the body made of black wool, caft about with black
filk, his wings of ‘the mail of a black drake, with a black
head.

The beft rules for artificial fly-fithing are,

1. To fith in a river fomewhat difturbed with rain, or in
a cloudy day, when the waters are moved by a gentle
breeze; the fouth wind is beft; and if the wind blow
high, yet not fo but that you may conveniently guide your
‘tackle, the fifth will rife in plain deeps; but if the wind be
fall, the belt angling is in fwift ftreams.

2. Keep as far from the water-fide as may be ; fifh down
the itream, with the fun on your face, and touch not the
water with your line.

3. Angle always in clear rivers with a fmall fly and flender
wings, but in muddy places ufe larger.

4. When after rain the water becomes brownifh, ufe an
orange fly ; ina clear day, a light-coloured fly ; a dark fly
for dark waters, &c.

5. Let the line be twice as long as the rod, unlefs the
river be encumbered with trees. ‘

6. For every fort of fly have feveral of the fame, differing
in colour to fuit with the different complexions of feveral
waters and weathers.

7. Have a nimble eye and a¢tive hand, to ftrike prefently
with the rifing of the fith, or elfe he will be apt to throw
eut the hook.

8. Let the fly fall firft into the water, and not the line,
which will feare the fifh.

9. In flow rivers or ftill places, caft the fly crofs ever the

river, and let it fink a little in the water, and draw in gently
back with the current.

Salmon fligs fhould be made with their wings ftanding
one behind the other, whether two or four. That fish de-
lights in the gaudieft colours that can be; chiefly in the
wings, which muft be long, as well as the tail.

Visuinc-floats are little appendages to the line, ferving
to keep the hook and bait fufpended at the proper depth,
to.difcover when the fifh has hold of them, &c.

Of thefe there are divers kinds, fome made of Mufcovy
duck quills, which are the beit for flow waters; but for
ftrong ttreams, found cork, without flaws or holes, bored
through with au hot iron, into which is put a quill of a fit
proportioa, is preferable; pare the cork to a pyramidal
form, and grind it {mooth.

FisuinG-hooé, a little engine of fteel-wire, of a proper
form to catch and retain th.

The fifhing-hook, in general, ought to be long in the
fhank, fomewhat thick in the circumference, the point
even and ftraight ; kt the bending be in the fhank. For
etting the hook on, ufe ttrong, but {mall filk, laying the
hair on the infide of your hook ; for if it be on the outlide,
the filk will fret and cut it afunder.

There are feveral fizes of thefe fifhing-hooks, fome big,
fome little; and of thefe fome have peculiar names, as,
I. Singte-hooks, z. Double-hooks, which have two bend-
ings, one contrary to the other. 3. Snappers or gorgers,
which are hooks to whip the artificial fly upon, or to bait
with the natural fly. 4. Springers or fpring-hooks, a kind
of double hooks, with a itpring which flies open, being
{truck into any fifh, and fo keeps its mouth open.

Fisuine-line. See Angling Line.

Fisuine-nets. See Net.

FisuinG-red, a long, flender rod or wand, to which the
line is faftened for angling.

Of thefe there are feveral forts, as,

1. A troller or trolling rod, which has a ring at the end
of the rod fer the line to go through when it runs off a
reel. 2. A whipper or whipping-rod, a top-rod that is
weak in the middle, and top-heavy, but all flender and fine.
3. A dopper, which isa ftrong rod, and very light. 4. A
{napper, or {nap-rod, that is, a {trong pole, peculiarly ufed
for the pike. 5. A bottom-rod, being the fame as the dop-
per, but fomewhat more pliable. 6. A {niggling or poking-
ftick, a forked ftick, having a fhort {trong line, witha needle,
baited with a lob-worm: this is only for eels in their holes,

Fifhing-rods are made of different materials and ftrength,
according to the purpofes for which they are nfed: in fifh-
ing with mvre than one hair, and with a filk-worm gut,
red deal is reckoned the bet, with hickery top, and the
length of the whole rod fheuld be about four yards; but
for a {mall fly and fingle hair, the length of three yards
will be fufficient, with the top of yellowifh hickery, and
about nine inches of whalebone, near as long as the ftock,
which fhould be of whire deal. The ftocks or buts of
rods are generally of ground hazle, ath, or willow, about
two or three feet long; and every joint fhould gradually
taper to the top. Hazle tops are preferred, though fome
ufe the Bamboo cane, and fay it exceeds the beit hazle.
For ground angling, efpecially in muddy waters, the cane
or reed is preferred for a ftock ; with a hazle top, confilt-
ing of one, two, or three pieces, and a {mall piece of round,
{mooth, taper whalebone, which is whipped to the hazle
with itrong filk, rubbed with fhoe-maker’s wax ; the whole
length of the rod being five yards or five and a half yards.
The beft method of piercing hazle and bone is firft to
whip the end of the hazle with thread, and to bore it with _

a Square

FIS

a fquare piece of iron of a proper fize ; and then make the
thick end of the bone, firft dipped in pitch to go into it 5
after which let it be fcraped, filed, and neatly whipped.
However, the neateft rod may be thus made: get a thick
white deal or fir-board, free fiom knots, and fever or eight
feet long; let this be divided by a joiner into feveral
breadths, and with his places let him fhoot them round,
fmooth, and taper. To one of thefe faften an hazle rod,
fix or feven feet long, which may confift of two or three
ieces ; to the top of which fix a piece of yew, about two
Pet long, made round, taper, and {mooth, and to the yew
a piece of {mall, round, fmooth whalebone, five or fix
inches long. The fir may be coloured by warming it at
the fire, and with a feather dipped in aqua-fortis, ftroking it
over and chafing it into the wood, which will make it of a
pure cinnamon colour.
It is found ufeful to have rings or eyes made of fine wire,
and placed upon the rod from one end to the other, in
fuch a manner as that when the eye is laid to one you

-may fee through all the reft: through thefe rings the

line is made to run, which will thus be kept in a due
poiture ; and you maft have a winch or wheel affixed to
the rod about a foot above the end, by which, when-
ever it is proper, you may give range to the fifh. See
ANGLING.

FisuinG-vefels, or thofe ufed in the feveral fifheries at
fea, or on the coafts, are the bufs, coble, cock, dogger,
driver, eel-boat, fly-boat, fluyt, hooker, Peter-boat, {mack,
ftand-boat, trawler, trinker, &c.

Fisuinc Bay, in Geography, a bay of America, in
Maryland, lying on the eaft fide of Chelapeak bay, partly
in Dorchefter and Somerfet counties, the entrance of which
is between Goldfborough and Devil’s iflands. This bay
receives feveral rivers from each of the above-mentioned
counties ; the chief of which are Wicomico and Nanticoke,
and alfo Tranfquaking and Blackwater creeks.—Alfo, a
bay on the fouth fide of lake Ontario, about 37 miles E.
of fort Niagara.

_Fisuine Creeé,a townfhip of America, in Pennfylvania,
fituated on Sufquehanna river.—Alfo, a river of Virginia,
which runs into the Ohio. N. lat. 39°35’. W. long. 80° 57’.
—Alfo, a river of Kentucky, which runs into Cumberland
river, N. lat. 36° 49’. W. long. 84° 19!—Alfo, a river of
Pennfylvania, which runs into the Sufquehanna. N. lat.
40°19’. W. long. 76° 56'—Alfo, a river of New Jerfey,
which runs into Delaware bay. N. lat. 39° 5’. W. long.
74. 54.

USE Point, a cape on the eaft coaft of Borneo.
S. Jat. 1° 38" E. long. 116° 30.

FISHKILL, a poft town of America, in Dutchefs
county, New York, five miles E. of Hudfon river or Fith-
kill, containing about 30 houfes, a church for epifcopalians,
and another for Low Dutch. The townhhip is very exten-
five, and contains fix churches, and 6168 inhabitants, of
whom 524 are flaves ; 66 miles N. of the city of New York.
Fifhhill landing is a part of the above town on the river,
where is a poft-office.

Visu-k1£1, or Crees, is the fmall river on which the above-
mentioned town ftands, and from which it derives its name.
Jt difcharges itfelf into Hudfon river, nearly oppofite to
New Windfor.—Alfo, the name of a fmall tream which
runs S.W. into Oneida lake.—Alfo, a ftream which rifes

‘from Saratoga lake, and runs fix miles eafterly to the Hud-

fon. Its mouth is oppofite to Batten-kill, two miles above

Saratoga town, memorable on account of general Burgoyne’s

army having laid down their arms as_prifoners on its north

fide, during the conteit between Great Britainand America.
Von. XIV.

FIS

FISHLIN, one of the fmaller Shetland ifles, five miles
S. from the ifland of Yell. N.lat. 60°13’. W. long. 1° 23'.
FISH-PONDS, refervoirs of water for the breeding,

feeding, and preferving of fifh.

The quality of the pond, water, &c. proper for this end
is fearce determinable by any certain fymptom or rule: for
fome very promifing ponds do not prove ferviceable that
way. One of the beft indications of a breeding pond is,
when there is good ftore of rufh and grazing about it, with
gravelly fhoals, fuch as horfe-ponds ufually have ; and when
a water takes thus to breeding, with a few milters and
fpawners, that is, males and females, two or three of each,
a whole country may be ftocked ina fhort time.

Eels and perch are of very good ufe to keep down the
ftock of fifh; for they prey much upon the fpawn and
fry of bred fih, and will probably deftroy the fuperfluity
of them.

As for pike, perch, tench, roach, &c. they are obferved
to breed almoft in any waters, and very numeroufly ; ouly
eels never breed in ftanding waters that are without {prings;
and in fuch are neither found, nor increafe, but by putting
in; yet where fprings are they are never wanting, though
not putin. And, which is moft flrange of all, many fay

there is not in an eel the leaft token of propagation, either
by milt or fpawn ; fothat how they are produced 1s a quet-
See Err.

refrefhed with a little brook, or with the rain-water that
falls from the adjacent hilly ground. Add, that thofe
ponds which receive the flale and dung of horfes, and other
cattle, breed the largeft and fatteft fith.

Fifh-ponds are not only a thing of convenience to great
families, but may be made a very profitable article with
the farmer under due management. Watery and boggy
land is often fit for no other ufe, and thefe are then a great
improvement of it. Ponds made in dry grounds in the
flat bottoms between hills, will alfo ferve not only to fup-
ply the cattle with water, but the profit of the fifh that may
be bred in them is greater than many are aware of, and
comes without any labour or expence.

In making the pond, obferve that the head be at the lowe
part of the ground; and that the trench of the flood-gate
or fluice have a good fwift fall, that it may not be long ia
emptying on occafion: mf

The beft way of making the head is by driving three or
four rows of ftakes about fix feet long, and at about four
feet diftance from one another, the whole length of the
pond head: the firft row of thefe isto be driven in four
feet deep, that they may be very firm and fecure ; and if
the bottom be not good, but be of a loofe fand, fome lime
is to be added, which will harden into a fort of ftone. The
earth dug out of the pond is to be laid between thele fakes
and rammed hard down, Other rows of ftakes mult be
added behind and ever thefe, and the fpaces filled up till
the whole is as high and as thick as is neceflary. The
Face of it muft be made even and flanting, and there wait
be a wath left to carry off the fuperfuous water m flo
&e.

If the pond carry fix feet of water, it is enough; but it
muft be made eight fect deep, te receive the trefhes sud
rains that may fall into it.

It would alfo be advantageous to have fhoals on the fides
for the fifh to fun themfelves in, and lay their [pawn on ;

4 beada,

ods,

‘ FISH-PONDS.

befide, in other places, certain holes, hollow banks, fhelves,
roots of trees, iflands, &c. to ferve as their retiring-places.
Confider farther, whether your pond be a breeder; if fo,
never expect any large carp from thence, the greatnefs of
the number of {pawn overltocking the pond.

Carp and tench will live and thrive very well together in
the fame pond. Where pike are kept, there fhould be
roach, or fome other quick breeding fifh, to fupply them
with food.

Some think that pike and tench may be kept in the
fame pond. They imagine that pike will not feed npon
tench ; but they are miftaken, for the pike is fonder of this
than of almoft any other fifh. Ponds with clear gravelly
and fandy bottoms are ufually the beft for breeding of
fith, and foul water with muddy bottoms is the beft for
them to fatten in. Carp have been known to grow in one
year from five to eighteen inches tong in ponds where the
water of the common fewers of any town have run into it.

The ordinary growth of a carp is not above two or three
inches in that time, fo that all the excefs is to be attributed
to the fatnefs of the water of the fewers.

The carp, which was firft brought into England by
Leonard Mafcal, about the year 1514, is the molt valuable
of all kinds of fifh for the ftocking of ponds, becaufe of
its quick growth and great increafe. Ifthe breeding and
feeding of this fith were more underftood and pra¢tifed, the
advantages would be very great, and fifh-ponds become
as valuable an article as gardens. ‘The gentleman who has
land in his own hands may, befide furnifhing his own table,
and fupplying his friends, raife a great deal of money, and
very confiderably improve his land at the fame time, fo as
to make it yield more this way than by any other employ-
ment whatever. The fale of earp makes a part ce the
revenue of the nobility and gentry in Pruffia, Pomerania,
Brandenburg, Saxony, Bohemia, Mecklenburg, and Hol-
ftein. For this purpofe particular attention fhould be paid
to the foil, water, and fituation of the carp-pond: the beft
kinds of ponds are thofe which are furrounded by the fineit
pattures and corn-fields of a rich black mould, having foft
{prings on the fpot, or running water that is neither toa
cold, nor impregnated with acid, calcareous, felenitic,
or other mineral particles. The water, indeed, may be
foftened by expofing it to the air and fun in a referveir, or
by forming an-epen channel for it at fome diftance from the
pond. They fhould likewife be fheltered againit the eafterly
and northerly winds, and be fully expofed to the influence
of the fun,

It is found by experience moft convenient to have three
kinds of ponds for carp; vix. the {pawning pond, the
nurfing and the main pond. The firft fort of pond muit
be well cleared of all other kinds of filh, efpecially thofe
ef the rapacious kind, fuch as the pike, perch, eel, and
trout, and alfo of all newts, of lizards, and the water-
beetles. It fhould be fupplied with foft water, and be ex-
pofed to the fun and air. A pond of one acre requires
three or four male carp, and fix or eight female ones, and in
the fame proportion for each additional acre. The beit
earp for breeding are thofe of five, fix, or feven years old,
in good health, with full fcale, fine full eyes, and a long
body, and without aay blemifh or wound. The pond should
be ftocked ona fine calm day, towards the latter end of
March or in April. Carp fpawn in May, June, or July,
aecording to the warmth of the feafon; and for this pur-
pofe they {wim to afteady, warm, fheltered place, where
they geuthy rub their bodies againft the fandy ground, grafs,
or ofiers, and by this preflure the {pawn 1fues out. At the
{pawning feafon all kinds of fowl should be kept from the

ponds. The young fry, hatched from the {pawn by the ge~
nial influence of the itn, are left in this pond through the
whole fummer, and even the next winter, if the pond is
deep enough to prevent their fuffocation under the ice ina
fevere winter; otherwife the breeders and fry are put into
feparate ponds, more convenient for the wintering.

Ponds of the fecond kind are the nurferies; the young
fhould be removed into the nurfery in March or April, ona
fine calm day; a pond of an acre will admit a thoufand or
twelve hundred of this fry. When they are firft put in,
they fhould be well watched and driven from the fides of the
pond, left they become the prey of rapacious birds. In
two fummers they will grow fo much as to weigh four, five,
fometimes fix pounds, and to be flefhy and well taited.

The main ponds are the laft fort; into thefe are put carp,
that meafure a foot, head and tail inclufive. Every fquare
of fifteen feet is {ufficient for one carp; their growth de-
pends upon the room, and the quantity of food allowed
them. The beft feafons for ftocking the ay be are
{pring and autumn: carp continues to grow for along time,
and to a very coufiderable fize and weight. Mr. Forfter
mentions one which he had feen in Pruffia abeve a yard long,
and of twenty-five pounds weight; and two or three hun-
dred between two and three feet long, and which, as he
was told,’were of between fifty and fixty years ftanding.
Geftrer mentions an inftance of one that was 100 years old:
thefe were tame, and came to the fhore in order to be fed, and
{wallowed with eafe a piece of white bread of the fize of a
halfpenny roll, Ponds fhould be well fupplied with water
during the winter, and when they are covered with ice,
holes fhould be opened every day for the admiffion of freth
air, through want of which carp frequently perifh. See
Carp Fisuine, and Breeding of Fisu. f.

For the general management of fifh-poads referve fome
great waters for the head-quarters of the fifa, whence you
may take, or wherein you may put any quantity thereof ;
and take care to have ftews, and other auxiliary waters, fo
that you may convey any part of the ftock from one to the
other, aud lofe no time ia the growth of the fifh, but em-
ploy the water as you do your land, to the belt advantage.
View the grounds, and fiud out fome fall between the hills
as nearly flat as may be, fo as to leave a proper current for
the water; if there be any difficulty in judging of fuch,
take an opportunity, after fome fudden rain, or the breaking
up of a great {now in winter, and you will plainly fee
which way the ground cafts, for the water will take the
true-fall, and run accordingly.

The condition of the place muft determine the quantity of
ground to be covered with water. or example, we may
propofe in all fifteen acres in three ponds ; or eight aeres in
two, and no lefs; and thefe ponds fhould be placed one
above another, fo as the point of the lower may almoft reach
the head or bank of the upper; which contrivance is no lefs
beautiful than advantageous.

The head or bank, which, by ftopping the current, is to
raife the water, and to make a pond, mult be built with the
clay and earth taken out of the pan or hollow dug in the
lowell ground above the bank: the fhape of the pan is to
be an half oval, whereof the flat is to come to the bank,
and the longer diameter to run {quare from it. :

All fh-ponds fhould be drawn once in three or four years,
and the tifh forted; if it be a breeding-pond, the fmaller fill
fhould be taken out to ftore other ponds with ; and in feed-.
jng-ponds all the fh fhould be kept as nearly as may be of
a fize, for the larger and {maller never all thrive well to-
gether.

Flounders will both thrive and breed in any pond, efne-

t cially

FIs

cially in'a ‘clay pond, and will be much larger’ than in
rivers.

Bitterns, herons, otters, water-rats, and fea-gulls, are all
great deftroyers of fifh, and the ponds fhould be kept as clear
as poflible of them; but the greateft of all deftruétion in
fifh-ponds is occafioned by frotts.

To remedy this, fome propofe to break the ice and lay in

ipes, itraw, and other things, to give air tothe fifh; but
all thefe fail when the ponds are foul; but when they are
clean, the fith feldom fuffer any harm, be the froft ever fo
long, though no holes be broke in theice. The {tench of
foul water feems to be the occafion of the death of the fifh,
in this cafe of its being locked up by frofts, and not the
want of air. The cleaning of ponds frequently is of great
ufe as well on this as on many other occafions ; and it is done
at no expence, becaufe the mud, ferving as manure to the
lands, more than pays the expence of taking it out.

When the ground is boggy, and carts cannot come up to
take the mud, it is beft to cut the ponds long and narrow
in form of moats, that it may be thrown out at one tofs by
the labourers in clearing them; forif it require two toiles,
the difference will be juft the double price of labour.

. Inmany fituations where fifh-ponds can be readily formed,
it may not unfrequently be advifeable to have recourfe to
them in the view of profit from the fifh, and their conve-
nience in family ufe. It is not eafy to afcertain what quan-
tity of produce, or profit, might be derived from ponds of
this defeription under different circumitances, as very few
experiments have yet been detailed from which conclufiors
can be drawn. It would lead to much intereiting informa-
tion on the fubject, if the annual increafe in the weight of
‘different forts of fifh, in different ftages of their growth,
and under different circumftances of foil and water, were
corre€tly determined.

It has been ftated by Mr. Lowden of Berkthire, in the
«¢ Annals of Agriculture,” that a pond of the extent of
three acres and a half, drawn, after three year’s ftocking
with ftores of one year old, afforded 195 pounds weight of
earp, and 230 pounds weight of tench; which in the whole
was 425 pounds, which fold for twenty ponnds ten fhillings,
or nearly 2/. 65. od. the acre per annum. And that the
fame pond, when ftocked with tench only, on being drawn
three years afterwards, produced about twenty-fix pounds.
Therefore, fuppofiag that, in a pond which fupports two
thoufand four hundred fifh, half a pound be gained an-
nually, it will be 1200 pounds weight, which, at 67. the
pound, will afford thirty pounds, and for fifteen acres, forty
fhillings the acre ; and when at o¢. the pound three pounds
the acre.

As there is litile trouble in this fort of farm managenient,
fuch prosits fhould not be difregarded or overlooked in par-
ticular fituations. Inthe diftri€t noticed above, it is ftated
that the ufual price, when fold by the pound, is one fhilling
for tench, and ten-pence for carp. And that this is the
beft manner of difpofing of them that can be adopted.
But when they are fold by the number, as per hundred, &c.
they are moftly meafured from the eye to the tail, and dif-
pofed of in this manner.

Tench.
Lite aie Bod
Under 12 inches - - 3 Or 6
12 -—— - = SE STOr iG
14 —-- - aL aS

Carp
Heat oOCE:
Under 12 inches - Ge tom te
14 - - - 6" to" +o
16 ——- - - 8 °o.O0

In what relates to the proper ftocking and managing of
ponds for the raifing of fifh, inthe intention of deriving ad-
vantage from the fale of them, much itill remains to be
accomplifhed before the greateft poflible profit can be ob-
tained.

In different fituations the methods of flocking are ex-
tremely different. It is the pra¢tice in Berkfhire to itock
with carp and tench in the proportion of one hundred to
the acre, while in Suffex they ftock in the quantity of,
feventy five brace to the acre. Stocking in too large a pro-
portion may be injurious to the profit, as fith require the
food to be abundant in moft cafes.

The forts of pond-fifh moft profitable to farming pro-
prietors, are probably thofe of carp, tench, perch, and oc-
cafionally eels. But in thinly ftocked ponds, the two lait
forts fhould not be both admitted at the fame time, as they
devour young fry very largely. Where ponds are large,
carp and tench anfwer well together ; but in thofe of the
{maller kind, the former is apt to deprive the latter of its

. food, in confequenee of being fo much more powerful.

Carp feldom affords much profit in {mall ponds, but tench
fucceed well in thofe of almoft any dimenfions. Carp,
perch, and eels, fometimes anfwer pretty well together, and
likewife tench with eels. Where the ponds are but {mall,
the beft practice is perhaps to keep the carp and tench fe-
parate.

Carp frequently injure themfelves by breeding, but this
is not often the cafe with tench.

The fituations in which fifh-ponds can be made, in the in-
tention of farm-profit, are principally in the dips, hollows,
and other parts of ground where the quality of the land is
very bad, but where there is the convenience of plenty of
water proper for the purpofe.

In a national point of view, ponds of this fort can hardly
yet be confidered of much importance, but they fhould not
be negle@ted by thofe who are engaged in the improvement
of landed property.

Though fifh-ponds are numerous in many diftri€te of the
kingdom, it is perhaps only in the counties of Suffex and
Surry that any thing like a fyftem has been eftablifhed for
raifing fifth with the intention of prefit; but in thefe coun-
ties fifh-ponds have long been formed for letting to dealers
in pond-fifh, and’ ftocking in order to the difpofal of the

roduce as an article of farm-ftock, like that of any other
Find. It is not, however, improbable but that as the na-
ture and management of pond-fifh become more perfectly
underftood, fuch a. practice may be confiderably ex-
tended.

FISH-TOWN, in Geography, a town of Africa, at
the mouth of the river Calbari.

FISKEROE, an ifle or peninfula on the Laponic
fhore, part of which belongs to Ruifian Lapland.

FISKO, a {mall ifland of Sweden, between the ifand
of Aland and the coat of Finland. N. lat. Go® 28. E.
long. 20° 45’.

FISMES, :a town of France, in the department of the
Marne, and chicf place of a caaton in the diltri& of
Rheims, fituated on the Veile; 15 miles N.W. of Rheims.
N, lat. 49° 184, E.long. 3° 46'. The place contains 2129,

4D2 jad

FIs

and the canton 11,152 inhabitants, on a territory of 182%
kiliometres, and in 23 communes.

FISSATO, a fea-port town of Africa, in the country of
Tripoli; go miles N.W. of Tripoli, N. lat. 33° so!. E.
Jong. 12°.

FISSENIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Mefopotamia, feated on the Bafil or Royal river, towards
Babylonia.

FISSIDENS, in Botany, from ffus, cloven, and dens,
a tooth, an Hedwigian penusof mofles, diltinguifhed by its
author, from his own Dicranum, only by the male flowers
being axillary on the fame plant with the female ones; a
difference which, though corroborated by the habit in moft
cafes, not in all, we think too difficult to be of any praGtical
ule. See Dicranum.

FPISSILIA, from the fiffile or eafily cloven corolla.
Jaff. 260.. Willd. Sp. Pl..v. 10194. Ibamarck t. 28: An
evergreen tree of the i/le de Bourbon, where it is.called dois
#e perroquet, becaufe the fmaller kinds of parrots are fond
ef the fruit. The /eaves are alternate, on fhort ftalks, el-
liptic-lanceolate, entire, bluntifh, thick and coriaceous,
fmooth, with one rib and a few flight veins. Stipulas none.
Flowers axillary, fomewhat racemofe, occafionally folitary,
on longifh {mooth italis, refembling thofe of an orange but
fmaller. Fruit a fmall drupa, encompaffed with the en-
larged, cup-fhaped, entire, permanent calyx.

This is the Olax p/ittacorum of Vahl’s Enum. y, 2. 33.
« Leaves ovate-oblong or lanceolate, flightly veiny.
Branches round.”? See Oxrax, to which genus itis with
indubitable propriety referred by Vahl, though they are
placed in two very different natural orders by Juflieu, who
knew Olax but imperfectly. What he terms barren fila
ments in the flower, Linnzus, lefs authentically perhaps,
takes for neétaries.

FISSUM-Forivum, a leaf that is cloven, or divided ver-
tically more or lefs deeply. See Lear.

FISSURA, in Anatomy, a name given to feveral open-
ings, particularly in the banes of the head ; as the fuperior
erbital fiffure of the {pheroid bone, the inferior-fphero-
maxillary fiffure formed between the f{phenoid and fuperior
maxillary bones, &c.

Fissura Magna Sy/lvii, a divifion in the fubftance of
the brain, feparating the anterior from the middle lobe;
See Brain.

FISSURE, a term in: Surgery. All pra€titioners and
authors have, from the earlieft times, underftood by the
word ffJure, a folution of continuity in a bone, having the
appearance of a hair. Hence the expreffion rima capil-
laris, capillary fifure, which, in fhort, is nothing more than
a very fine, minute crack ina bone.

The old furgeons ufed to believe, that this fort of frac-
ture took place both in the flat and the long cylindrical
bones; and it was M. J. L. Petit, who firft brought into
doubt the opinion, in as far as it related to bones of the
latter clafs. The fubje& was noticed by this writer, in his
«<< Traité des Maladies des Os.”? In this work, he reprefente
fragtures, faid to occur exatly in the direétion of the
length of the bones, asonly imaginary. His reafon for this
fentiment is, that there is no force capable of breaking a
bone in this way, which would not much more eafily occa-
fion a fra@ture of the tranfverfe kind.

The figns of a fiffure, as fated by Fabricius ab Aqua-
pendente, are very equivocal and fallacious: he obferves:
*¢ quod fios fecundum longitudinem fraGtum fit, primé adeft
membri craffities ultra naturalem ftatum, deinde dolor, tum
membri inequalitas.”” Butall thefe fymptoms, when they

FIs
make their appearance, ought rather to be afcribed to the
effects of the contufion, than to any other circumftance,
It is alfo evideut, on reading Fabricius ab Aquapendente,
that he meant by a longitudinal fraéture, what is now called,
anobliqueone. Indeedas M. J. L. Petit notices, Fabricius
would never have advifed extenfion to be made for a fraéture
which was exa¢tly in the direction of the length of a bone,
fince this practice is obvioufly not applicable to the cafe,
and he would never have recommended making preflure
round the broken part, which could not be ina difplaced
condition, even were the bone actually fra¢tured in a longi-
tudinalmanser. Duverney in his ‘¢ Traité des Maladies des
Os,’’ bas adduced no folid arguments in favour of the
doétrine of longitudinal fra€tures.

The reader may find the prefent fubje& very judicioufly
inveltigated at the beginning of M. J. L. Petit’s work, It
appears from the facts and reafons there brought forward,
that, on the benes of the extremities a fiffure can only oc-
cur, in cafes of gun{hot-wounds, where the f{plinters fome-
times extendas tar as the neareft joint. Such fractures are
not ealy of deteGtion. They are moft frequently attended
with fymptoms, arifing more from the violence and fhock
always occafioned by gun-fhot injuries, and the confequent
mifchief excited in the fubftance or medullary ftru@ture of
the bone, than from the particular nature of the fracture
itfelf.

But though authors differ in opinion, in regard to fiffures
on the long cylindrical bones, they are al! of one fentiment
in acknowledging the occurrence of fuch fra&tures on the
bones of the cranium, in confequence of blows upon the
head. Here the accident is often termed by Latin
writers /cifura. The crack is either plainly perceptible, or
{earcely difcoverable ; in which latter cafe, the expreffion of
capillary fifJure is often ufed. In both cafes, the folution
of continuity may take place, either precifely in the place
again{ft which violence has been directed, or at fome other
part of the fkull. Encyclopedie Méthodique; Partie
Chirurgicale. Art. Fiffure.

Fissure, in Geology and Mining, generally fignifies the
fame with Fau/t, which fee; but Mr. W. Martin, a late,
and generally a very correct writer, defines it (Outlines of
the Knowledge of Extraneous Foffils, p. 172.) to mean, a
partial and fuperficial rift, rarely extending through more
than one ftratum: which definition, by the notes in this
page, is made to apply nearly to mineral veins ; like thofe in
the Limeftone diftrict of Derbyfhire, and by which two
things very different in their nature, and the mode and
period of their formation, are confounded together, as we
have obferved, when treating of Faults.

Fissure Fofils, in Mineralogy, or yenous or venigenous
minerals, are thofe found in veins or fiffures, and which are
generally cryftallized in a more or lefs perteét {tate ; fee Ve-
NIGENOUS Fo/fils, Ripers, VEINS, &c.

Fissures, ia the Hiffory of the Earth, certain interrup-
tions that horizontally or parallelly divide the feveral {trata
of which the body of eur terreftrial globe is compofed.

FISTELLA, or Ferza, in Geography, a town of
Moroeco, the inhabitants of which are rich, courteous, and -
warlike ; 150 miles N.E. of Morocco. ae

FISTER, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Bergen ;
16 miles N.E. of Stavanger.

FISTRITS, or Bysrrzir, New, a town of Bohemia
in the circle of Bechin; 28 miles E, of Budwais.. N. lat.

gat B. long. 15 ons

FISTRITZ, a river of Moravia which runs into the
Marfch, near Olmatz,

4 FISTUCA,

FIs

“FISTUCA, in Antiquity, an intrament of wood ufed in
driving piles, and fitted with two handles. It was either
raifed with pullies fixed at the head of large beams, and then
Jet fall again direétly on the piles, or was wrought by the
hand only.

FISTULA, Lat. a pipe, a flute, a flageolet, awhiltle.

Fistruva, in the dncient Mufic, an inftrument of the
wind kind, refembling our flute or flageolet.

The principal wind inftruments of the ancients were the
tibia and filtula; though how thefe were conftituted, or
wherein they differed, or how they were played on, does
not at prefent appear. All we know is, that the fiftula
was at firft made of reeds, and afterwards of other matters.
Some had holes, fome none; fome again were fingle pipes ;
ethers a combination of feveral; witnefs the fyringa of
Pan.

Fisruta, Liturgical, was the pipe, being generally made
of gold or filver, through which during feveral ages, per-
fons who communicated under both kinds, drank out of the
chalice. ‘The ufe of it was retained in the abbey of St.
Dennis, near Paris, as long as it {ubfifted, as likewife by the
kings of France, when they received the facrament at their
coronation. ‘

' Fistura Panis, Pan’s pipe.
RINGA.

Fisruxa, in Surgery, has ufually been defined, “ finus
anguftus, callofus, profundus ; acri fanie difluens;’’ or, as
Dionis tranflates it, “un ulcére profond, et caverneux, dont
Pentrée eft etroite, et le fond plus large; avec iffue d’un
pus acreet virulent; et accompagné de callofités.”” In the
words of Mr. Pott, a fiftula is “¢a deep, hollow fore, or
finus, all parts of which are fo hardened, or fo difeafed, as
to be abfolutely incapable of being healed while in that
{tate ; and from which a frequent, or daily difcharge is made
of athin, difcoloured fanies, or fluid.”’

A fiftula generally leads down to fome cavity, commonly
fituated in the cellular fubftance, between the integuments
and mufeles, or in the interfpaces between the mufcles them-
felves. The cavities with which fiftulee communicate are
ufually termed /inu/es. Thefe, in fome meafure, ferve as
receptacles for whatever matter is fecreted by the parietes
of the abfcefs, and when preflure is made upon fuch finufes,
a much larger quantity of fanies, or matter, flows out of
the external fiftulous opening, than appearances would in-
duce one to expect.

The reader will excufe us from devoting much time te
criticiims on the ordinary definitions of a fiftula; but we
cannot refrain from obferving that a filtula might be better,
and more fmply called a narrow track oer paffage, leading
from the feat of an abfcefs, giving vent to more or lefs of
the matter outward, and having little or no tendency to
heal. However, in cafes of fiftule in perinxo, and of thofe
of the parotid duét, the foregoing definition will not be al-
together accurate, fince the fiftulous paffage leads from
parts where urine and faliva exift, inftead of pus. In- the
prefent ftate of furgery, fo many diforders are termed fiftu-
lous, which have uo claim to the appellation, (according to
the ftri& fenfe of the expreffion,) not being accompanied
with any callofities or fanious difcharge, that perhaps a fur-
geon would be lefs liable to imbibe erroneous notions from
the fignification which we have fuggefted, than from the
ancient one, We are ready to acknowledge, however, that
almoft all definitions are difficult, obje€tionable in fome way
or another, and expofed to controverly, and we gladly quit
the fubject ourfelves, ever ready to retragt our own explana-
tions in favour ef better ones.

See Syrinx and Sr

FIS

The finufes which are formed in cafes of ulcers and
abfceffes are moft frequently occafioned by the confinement
of purulent matter, which readily makesits way in different
directions in the cellular fubftance, which is the fofteft and
mott yielding part of the texture of the body. If a timely
opening be made into abfceffes, the formation of fiftule
and finufes is generally avoided. But though a pun@ure be
made by the furgeon at a feafonable period, if the aperture
fhould-not be-made in a depending fituation, fo that the
mafs of pus cannot freely flow out, fome of the matter will
be continually oozing cat in a flow way, prevent the part
from healing, and be the canfe of a fiftula. The cavity of
the abfcefs, in confequence of being kept for a confiderable
time diftended with matter, inftead of contraéting and gras
nulating, will acquire a difeafed ftate, in which a thin
fanious difcharge will be emitted, and the parts lofe all ten-
dency to get well of themfelves.

The foregoing obfervations are equally applicable to cafes,
in which an abfcefs burlls of itfelt, in a place which is very
unfavourable for the efcape of the pus.

Another circumitance under which fiftule are neceffarily
produced, is when a dead portion of bone, or fome extraneous
body lodged in the flefh, maintains a continual fuppuration
around it. In this fort of cafe, the opening by which the
abfcefs firlt breaks never clofes as long as the fecretion of
pus within goes on; the matter is everynow and then
oozing out, and the track through which it pafles becomes
fiftulous.

No term in furgery has been fo much mifapplied as the
word fiftula; and fince the expreffion has always conveyed
to the practitioner’s mind the idea of a difeafe attended with
a great deal of callous induration, this abufe of language
has too often led, efpecially in former days, to methods of
treatment equally unneceffary, hurtful, and barbarous.
Even at prefent, fo many diforders are called fiftule without
deferving the name, at leaft, without being accompanied
with any callous hardnefs, that, as we have already faid,
young furgeons weuld avoid imbibing many prejudices, by
merely confidering the phrafe ‘fiftula,’? as implying an
outlet for fome difcharge, which outlet, owing to fome par-
ticular caufe, has not much propenfity te heal. The truth
of what we have here remarked will be better feen, when
the fubjeGts of fiftula in ano, and fiftula lachrymalis, are pre-
fently treated of.

We fhall next notice fome of the modes of treatment
which have been put into praétice for the purpofe of curing
fiftulous complaints. Some of the plans alluded to may
now be faid to be exploded; but there is an advantage in
knowing what has been done by our predeceffors, and, for
this reafon, we fhall enter into fome details, which otherwife
would not have been given.

In recent cafes of filtule, many writers have recom-
mended what they call ou/nerary injeGions to be made ufe
of, and when the difeafe is in a more advanced ftate, and
the fides of the finus from length of time are in a callous
{tate, e{charotic injetions and powders are prefcribed. Such
applications, however, have feldom or never produced any
real good effects, and the too frequent indifcriminate employ-
ment of them has often rendered finufes hard and callous,
which previoufly were by no means indifpofed to heal.

In all cafes in which the fides of a finus are in an indu-
rated callous ftate, fome recommend laying open the cavity
from one end tothe other, and removing all fuch parts as
have become hardened, fo as to convert the whole difeafed
place into one wound, which is to be treated en common

principles,
The

BEST U' LA:

The fimple divifion of a fiftula throughout its whole ex-
tent Is, even at this day, the moft approved plan of treat-
ment generally {peaking ; but the additional method of
cutting out all the furrounding indurated parts has long
been abandoned by all good furgeons. The abfurdity and
bad effects of fuch treatment were well explained by Pott,
in his treatife on the filtula in ano, and, fince his time, the
lamett praCtitioners in this country have not difgraced them-
felves by the performance of excifions of this nature.

Though there cannot be a doubt, that dividing fittule
throughout their whole exteut is generally the moft eligible
mode of cure, it muft be acknowledged that, in certain
inttances, the greatnefs of the pain, the dilagreeablenefs of
the fear, and the degree of danger, are formidable objec-
tions. ;

For example, the practice of cutting thus extenfively is
not applicable to cafes in which fiftule extend a very con-
fiderable way up the rectum; and certainly no prudent
furgeon would advile fiftule to be cut open which run to
an immoderate depth, and, as very often happens, below
large blood-veffels, nerves, and tendons.

In thefe laft-mentioued, and feveral other kinds of fittule,
the French furgeons are advocates for the employment of a
feton. They obferve that the obje& in the treatment of all
fiftulous difeates, is to make the fides of the finus adhere
together, fo that no cavity may remain. They ftate, that
the moft effectual plan of fultilling this indication is firkt to
make an opening in the moft depending part of the fiftula,
in order to give free vent to the matter ; and, fecondly, by a
gentle irritation to excite a certain degree of inflammation
over the inner furface of the cavity. It is well known that
in the inflammatory fate, coagulating lymph is effufed, and,
becoming vafcular, renders the fides of the filtula perma-
nently aderent together.

According to the French writers, the two indications, juft
now fpecified, may be beft fulfilled, in the majority of cafes,
by introducing a feton from the orifice of the fiftula down
to the very bottom of the finus, where a counter-opening
is to be made

The feton fhould he made of filk or cotton, and more or
lefs thick, according to the fize of the fiftula. The fkein
of filk or thread is to be gradually leffened, as the cure ad-
vances, one or two threads being removed every two or
three days. At length, when the cavity of the finus is
almott filled up, and. the ‘difcharge has confiderably dimi-

‘nifhed, the feton may be entirely removed. A moderately
tight bandage over the drefiings will then ferve to com-
plete the cure.

Setons are not generally preferred for the cure of fiftule
by Englith furgeons. Indeed it is obvious, they can only
be ufed when the whole courfe of the filtula can be traced
with a probe, and its termiuation is fo fituated that a
counter-opening ca be made into it. This may be faid
never to be the cafe with fiftuke in ano.

The fimple divifion of fiftulous finufes is generally the
mott judicious mode of cure. It is only when a fiftula runs
under parts, which it would be dangerous or hurtful to cut,
that the kuife mult give place to other means. A direétor,
a crooked biftoury, anda probe, are the inftruments which
are uledin dividing fillule.

Many fittule are kept up hy the prefence of extraneous
bodies, dead pieces ef bose, &c. In fuch inftances, it is
manifcft that the accomphfhment of a cure cannot be effe-
ed, elther by injections, fetors, or laying open the finufes 3
but can oly be brought about by the removal of the foreign
fubttance, or difeafed portion of bone.

We hall now treat of the fiftula in ano, fiftula lachrymalis,
and fiftule in perinzeo, all which are furgical difeafes of the ©
greatett importance.

Fiftula in ano.—Clear and precife definitions of difeafes, .
and the application of fuch names to them, as are expreffiye
of their true and real nature, are (fays that celebrated fur-
geon Mr. Pott) of more confequence than they are
generally imagined to be: untrue or imperfect ones occa,
tion falfe ideas ; and falfe ideas are generally followed by
erroneous practice. ‘

The fame writer remarks that it would be no difficult
matter to produce initances of diforders, whofe treatment
has, for a great length of time, been accommodated more to
the titles impofed upon*them, than to their true and real
charaéter. Among thele, the fiftula in ano is mentioned as
a moft glaring proof.

‘The cuftom of giving the appellation of fiftula to every
impofthumation, and to every colle¢tion of matter formed
near tothe anus, has, by conveying a falfe notion of them,
been productive of fuch methods of treating them, as
(though perhaps fuited to fuch idea) are diametrically oppo-
fite to thofe which ought to be purfued; fuch as have often
rendered thofe cafes tedious and painful, which might have
been cured eafily and expeditioufly; and, confequently,
fuch as have brought difgrace on our art, and unneceflary.
trouble on mankind. m ; ;

‘* A {mall orifice or outlet, froma large or deep cavity.
difcharging a thin gleet or fanies, made a confiderable part
of the idea which our anceftors had of a filtnlous fore,
wherever feated. With the term ffulous, they always cen-
nected a notion of callofity ; and, therefore, whenever
they fouud fuch a kind of opening yielding fuch fort of dif-
charge, andattended with any degree of induration, they
called the complaint a filtula. Imagining thiscallofity to be
a difeafed alteration made in the very {tru€ture of the parts,
they had no conception that it could be cured by any
means but by removal witha cutting inftrument, or by de-
flruction with efcharotics ; and therefore they immediately
attacked it with knife or cauftic, in order to accomplifh one
of thefe ends; and very terrible work, by their own ac-.
counts, they often made, before they did accomplifh it.. -

« Several of the above-mentioned circumitances fo fre-
quently attend colle¢tions of matter near to the re€tum ; and
therefore, for want of proper attention to the true nature
of the cafe, the cuftom of calling them all fiftule has gene- ,
rally prevailed, though witheut any foundation in truth or
nature. ;

«© That abfcefles, formed near the fundament, do fome-
times from bad habits, from extreme negle@, or from grofs
mif-treatment, become fiftulous, is certain ; but the majority
of them have not, at firlt, any one character or mark of a true
fillula ; nor can, without the moft fupine negle& on the fide
of the patient, or the mgft ignorant mifmanagement on
the part of the furgeon, degenerate, or be converted into.
one.

“¢ ColleGions of matter from inflammation, wherever
formed, if they be not opened in time, and in a propermanner,
do often burft. The hole, through which the matter finds
vent, 1s generally {mall, and not often fituated in the moft
convenient or moit dependent part of the tumour : it tliere-
fore is unfit for the difcharge of all the contents of the ab-
{cefs; and, inftead of clofing, contraéts itfelf to a fmaller
fize ; and, becoming hard at its edges, continues to drain off
what is furnithed by the undigefted fides of the cavity.

_ This is often the cafe in the moft mufcular or flefhy.
parts of the body, where the cellular and adipofe membrane,
~ does

FISTULA.

does not abound ; but is more particularly fo in the neigh-
bourhood of the anus, where that membrane is large in
quantity, well flocked with fat, and not compreffed by the
action of any large or {trong mufcles.”?

After taking notice of the frequency of abfceffes about
the anus, and their being attended with confiderable indura-
tion, which does not fubfide, particularly when they have
been allowed to burit of themfelves, Mr. Pott remarks that
the fmailnefs of the accidental orifice, the hardnefs of its
edges, its being found to be the outlet from a deep cavity,
iis difcharging every dayathin, gleety, difcoloured kind
ef matter, attended with great induration of the furround-
ing parts, are all of them circumftances raifing and confirm-
ing the idea of a true fiftula.

«To this idea (fays Mr. Pott) the general treatment of
thefe cafes has therefore been made to accord: upon this
has been built the prevailing doétrine of free excifion, or as
free deftru€tion, without any regard to the original produc-
tion of the complaint, its particular feat, its date, or any
other attendant circumftances; and without examining
whether it would not admit a more eafy and a more expedi-
tious method of cure. In hort, this notion, that all finufes
near the rectum are neceflarily fiftulous, has occafioned the
prefcription of fuch a manner of treating them, from their
very firft appearance as they can hardly ever ftand in need
of at any time; and a more ill founded fuppofition that the
induration of the parts about may be owing to a difeafed
callofity, is urged asa reafon for ufing them with more fe-
verity than even fuch a ftate would require.””

Mr. Pott next obferves, that whoever would obtain a
true notion of the difeafe in queftion, muft confider it under
all the forms in which it makes its appearance. Thefe,
which are many and various, both with regard to afpect,
fituation, and fymptoms, are what fhew the different nature
of the complaint in different ftates, and are the circum-
fiances which ought to regulate a furgeon’s conduct in the
cure of it.

Sometimes (fays Mr. Pott) the attack is.made with fymp-
toms of high inflammation; with pain, fever, rigor, &c.
the fever fubfiding as foon as {uppuration is fully efta-
blifhed..

_ “In this cafe, a part of the buttock, near to the anus,
is confiderably {wollen, and has a large circum{cribed hard-
nefs. Ina fhort time, the middle of this hardnefs becomes
red and inflamed ; and, in the centre of it, matter is
formed.

“ This, in the language of our ancetftors, is called in
general a phlegmon; but, when it appears in this par-
ticular part, a phyma.

«¢ The pain is fometimes great, the fever high, the tumour
large, and exquifitely tender ; but however difagreeable the
appearances may haye been, or however high the fymptoms
may have rifen before fuppuration, yet, when that end is fairly
and fully accomplished, the patient generally becomes eafy and
cool, and the matter formedunder fuch circumftances, though
it may be plentiful, yet is good.

* On the other hand the external parts, after much pain,
attended with fever, ficknefs, &c. are fometimes attacked
with cenfiderable inflammation, but without any of that
eircumfcribed hardnefs which characterized the preceding
tumour; inftead of which, the inflammation is extended
largely, and the fkin, wears an eryfipelatous kind of an appear-
ance. In this the difeafe is more fuperficial, the quantity
of matter fmall, and the cellular membrane floughy to acon-
fiderable extent.

*¢ Sometimes, inftead of either of the preceding appear-
ances, there is formed. in this part what the French call

une fuppuration gangrenenfe ; in which tlie celluler and adi-
pofe membrane is affe&ted in the fame manner as it is in the
difeafe called a carbuncle.

In this cafe, the fkia is of a dufky red, or purple kind of
colour, and although harder than when in a natural ftate,
yet it has by no means that degree of tenfion or refiftance
which it has either in the phlegmon, or in the eryiipe-
las. ;

“ The patient has generally at firft a hard, full, jarring:
pulfe, with-great thirft, and very fatiguing reftleffneis. If
the progrefs of the difeafe be not ftopped, or the patient
relieved by medicine, the pulfe foon changes into an unequal,
low, faultering one; and the ilrength and the fpirits fink in
fuch manner as to imply great and immediately impending
mifchief. 'The matter formed under the {kin fo altered is
{mall in quantity, and bad in quality ; and the adipofe mem-
brane is gangrenous and floughy throughout the extent of
the difcolouration. This generally happens to perfons
whofe habit is either nacurally bad, or rendered fo by
intemperance.

«In each of thefe different affeGtions, (continues Mr.
Pott,) the whole malady is often confined to the fin and
cellular membrane underneath it; and no other fymptoms
attend than the ufual general ones, or fuch as arife from
the formation of matter, or floughs in the part immediately
affeGted. But, it alfo often happens, that, added to thefe,
the patient is made unhappy by complaints arifing from an
influence, which fuch miichief has on parts in the neigh-
bourhood of the difeafe; fuch as the urinary bladder, the
vagina, the urethra, the hemorrhoidal veffels, and the rec-
tum ; producing retention of urine, ftrangury, dyfury, bear-
ing down, tenefmus, piles, diarrhoea, or obltinate coltive-
neis: which complaints are fometimes fo preffiag, as to
claim all our attention. On the other hand, large quantities
of matter and deep floughs are fometimes formed, and great
devaftatton committed on the parts about the rectum, with
little, or no previous pain, tumour, or inflammation.

« Sometimes the difeafe makes its firlt appearance in’an
induration of the fkin near to the verge of the anus;- but
without pain or alteration of colour, which hardnefs gradu-
ally ioftens and fuppurates. The matter, when let out, in
this cafe, is {mall in quantity, good in quality ;-and the
fore is fuperficial, clean, and well condittoned.. On the
contrary, it now and then happens, that, although the pain
is but little, and the inflammation <pparently flight, yet the
matter is large in quantity, bad in quality, extremely offen-
five, and proceeds from a deep. crudé*hoilow, which bears
an ill-natured afpect.

“©The pace, alfo, where the abfcefs points, and where
the matter, if left alone, would burft its way ont, is various
and uncertain.. Sometimes itis in the buttock, at a dif
tance from the anus; at other times near its verge, or in the
perinzeum ; and this difcharge is made fometimes from one
orifice only, fometimes from feveral. In fome cafes, there
is mot only an opening through the fkin externally, but
another through the inteftineinto its cavity ; in others there
is‘only one orifice, and that either external or internal.

s¢ Sometimes the matter is formed at a confiderable dif-
tance from the rectum, which is not even laid bare by it ; at
others it is laid bare only, and not perforated ; it is allo fome-
times not only denuded, but pierced; and that in more
places than one. The original feat of this mifchief is, in
fome cafes, high up in the pelvis, near the lower vertebre
of the loins, and the os facrum ; and the matser comes from
parts fo difeafed, and fo out of reach, that the cafe is hope-
lefs from the firft.?

We hhall here avoid inferting a few remarks, which Mr..

Pott

FISTULA.

Pott has next added, for they feem to reft on dodtrines
which are now generally abandoned. The different cafes
which have been mentioned fhew, that there is a great va~
riety of ftates and circumftances, and that the difeafe muft
of courfe have the treatment varied accordingly. When
inflammation attacks the cellular fub{tance furrounding the
yeGtum, fuppuration can very feldom be prevented from
taking place. In conformity to the advice of Mr. Pott,
therefore, the beft practitioners feldom have any objeét of
this kind in view; but, when called at an early period of
the affection, endeavour to moderate the fymptoms, promote
fuppuration, open the abf{cefs, as foon as the matter is formed,
and treat the fore in fuch manner as fhall be likely to pro-
ducé a fpeedy and lafting cure.

Mr. Pott remarks: whea there are no fymptoms which
require partieular attention, and all that we have te do is
to aflift the maturation of the tumour, a foft poultice is the
beft application. When the difeafe is fairly or the phleg-
monoid kind, the thinner the {kin is fuffered to become,
before the abfcels is opened, the better; as the induration
of the parts about will thereby be more diffolved, and, con-
fequently, there will be the lefs to do after fuch opening
has been made. This kind of tumour is generally found
in people of full, fanguine habits; and who, therefore, if
the pain be great and the fever high, will bear evacuation,
both by phlebotomy and gentle cathartics ; which is not
often the cafe of thofe who are faid to be of bilious
conftitutions ; in whom the inflammation is of larger extent,
and in which the fkin wears the yellowifh tint of the
eryfipelas: perfons of fuch kind of habit, and in fuch cir-
eumitances, being in general feldom capable of bearing large
evacuation.

According to Mr. Pott, the eryfipelatous inflammation
generally makes its attack with naufea, vomiting, flight
rigour, heat, thirft, and reftleffnefs.

«« The quicknefs of the pulfe, and heat ef the fin (faye
this diftinguifhed furgical writer) are indications for fome
degree of evacuation, and, indeed, fometimes render it re-
quifite; but, it is a very prevailing opinion with many
practitioners, that thefe evacuations fhould be freely made,
and frequently repeated: in fhort, that the cure of this
kind of inflammation is fafely to be effeCted by them ; which
is fo far from being true, that the practice has proved fatal
to many. If, for inftance, blood be drawn off in {uch
quantity, as that the patient’s pulfe finks fuddenly, or
his {trength be confiderably reduced by purging, it is no
very uncommon thing for the inflammation to leave the
part firlt affected; and for fuch complaints to come on imme-
diately, as foon pxove defiruétive, and afford no opportunity
to repair the mifchief which the evacuation has _pro-
duced.

«© When the inflammation is of this kind, the quantity
of matter formed is {mall, compared to the fize and extent
of the tumour; the difeafe is rather a floughy, putrid ftate
of the cellular membrane, than an impofthumation; and,
therefore, the fooner it is opened, the better. If we wait
fer the matter to make a point,’we fhall wait for what will
not happen; at leaft, not till after a confiderable length of

time, during which,-the difeafe in the membrane will
extend ittelf, and confequently, the cavity of the finus, or

abfcefs, be thereby greatly inereafed.

«¢ When, initead of either of the preceding appearances,
the {kin wears a dufky purplith, red colour; has a doughy,
unrefifting kind of feel, and is very little fenfible; when
thefe circumitances are joined with an unequal, faultering
kind of pulle, irregular shiverings, a great failure of ftrength

and fpirits, and inclination to dofe, the cafe is formidable,
and the event generally fatal. :

«« The habit, in thefe circumftances, (continues Mr. Pott)
is always bad; fometimes from nature, but much more fre-
quently from gluttony andintemperance. What affiftance
art can lend muft be adminiftered {peedily ; every minute is
of confequence; and, if the difeafe be not ftopped, the
patient will fink. Here is no need for evacuation of any
kind; recourfe muft be immediately had to medical affift-
ance; the part affected fhould be frequently fomented with
hot fpirituons fomentations; a large and deep incilion
fhould be made into the difeafed part ; and the applications
made to it fhould be of the warmeft, moft antifeptic kind.’?

Mr. Pott afterwards notices the occafional occurrence of
ftrangury, dyfury, and a total retention of urine, when
abfceffes form in the neighbourhood of the reétum and
bladder, particularly, when they are fituated near the neck
of the latter part. Such complaints may continue from
the firft attack of the inflammation till the abfceis breaks,
or they may only laft a few hours. " “

My. Pott obferves, that ftrangury and dyfury in general
are eafily relieved by bleeding, gum arabic, and nitre. ¢* But
(fays he) the total retention (of urine) is, while it con-'
tinues, both fatiguing and alarming. ‘They, who have not
often feen this cafe, generally have immediate recourfe to
the catheter, and for this they plead the authority of pre-:
cept; but, the practice is fo effentially wrong, and I have
feen fuch terrible confequences from it, that L cannot help:
entering my proteft againit it. ;

«« The neck ef the bladder, from its vicinity to the parts
where the inflammation is feated, and from its being in-
volved in the fame comm6n membrane, does certainly
participate, in fome degree, of the faid inflammation. This. -
will, in fome meafure, account for the complaint; but,
whoever confiders the extremely irritable ftate of the parts
compofing that part of the urethra, (if I may be allowed fo:
to call it,) and will, at the fame time, reflect on the amazing
and well-known effe&s of irritation, will be convinced, that
the principal part of this complaint arifes from that caufe ; °
and that the difeafe is, ftri€tly fpeaking, fpafmodic. The
manner in which an attack of this kind is generally made,
the very little diftenfion which the bladder often fuffers,
the {mall quantity of urine fometimes contained in it, even
when the ye weeelse are moft preffing, and the moit certain
as well as {afe method of relieving it, all tend to itrengther’
fuch opinion, :

‘« But (proceeds Mr. Pott) whether we attribute the evil
to inflammation, or to fpafmodic irritation, whatever can,
in any degree, contribute to the exafperation of either,’
mutt be palpably and manifeitly wrong. |The violent paf-
fage of the catheter through the neck of the bladder, (for -
violent in fuch eircumitances it muft be,) can never be right.
Twill not fay, that it never fucceeds ; but I will fay, that it’ -
can hardly ever be proper to make the attempt.

“© Tf the initrument be fuccefsfully introduced, it mutt
either be withdrawn as foon as the bladder is emptied, or
it muft be leftin it: if the former be done, the fame caufe
of retention remaining, the fame effet returns; the fame =
pain and violence muit again be fubmitted to under (moft
likely) increafed difficulties. On the other hand, if the »
catheter be left in the bladder, it will often, while its neck
is in this ftate, occafion fuch difturbance, that the remedy,
(as it is called,) will prove an exafperation of the difeafe,
and add to the evil it is defigned to alleviate. Nor, is this
all; for the refiftance which the parts, while in this ftate, - .
make, is fometimes fo great, that if any violence be ufed,
the inftrument will make for itfelf a new rout in the neigh=« -

bourieg

FISTULA.

bouring parts, and lay the foundation of fuch mifchief as

‘frequently baffles all our art—an accident, (fays Mr. Pott,)
which [have known to happen to thofe, whofe judgment

“and dexterity have never been doubted.””

* Mr. Pott remarks, that the true, fafe, and rational method
of relieving this complaint is by evacuation and anodyne re-
laxation : this not only procures immediate eafe, but does
at the fame time ferve another very material purpofe, which
is that of maturating the abfcefs. Lofs of blood is
neceflary ; the quantity to be determined by the ftrength
and ftate of ‘the patient. The inteftines fhould alfo be
emptied, if there be time for fo doing, by a gentle cathartic :
but, (fays Pott,) the moft effectual relief will be from the
warm bath orfemicupium, theapplication ofbladderswith hot
water to the pubes and perineum; and, above all other reme-
dies, the injection of cly ters, confifting of warm water, oil,
and opium.

For the painful tenefmus, which is no uncommon ~

“attendant on inflammations about the re&tum, Mr. Pott re-

commends a dofe of rhubarb, joined with fome warm
“anodyne; and, in cafe chis plan fails, he prefcribes ftarch
. clyfters with opium.

The bearing down in women may be cured by the fame
means.

For the obftinate coftivenefs, and piles, which fometimes
accompany abf{ceffes about the re€tum, Mr, Pott advifes

phlebotomy, laxative clyfters, and a low cool regimen, a
foft poultice being externally applied, which foftens the
indurated piles, and promotes fuppuration.

We fhall next follow Mr. Pott in confidering this difeafe,
when the firft fymptoms attending the inflammation are gone
off, and matter is ether formed and colleGted, fo as to require
being let out, or this lalt ftep having being neglected, the

“pus has made its own way out.

Mr. Pott reduces all cafes of this clafs to two general
heads:

1. Thofe-inftances in which the inteftine is not at all
interefted.

2. Thofe in which it is either laid bare, or perforated.

When the matter is fairly formed, makes a, point, and
requires peing let out, the opening ought always to be
made where fuch point is fituated, where the fkin is moft
thin, and the fluctuation moft palpable.

Mr. Pott, after cenfuring the plan of opening abfceffes
about the anus, expofes the abfurdity of the opinien once
“prevalent, that an ablcefs, opened by a knife, muft be im-
‘mediately examined and {ftuffed with dreflings, while that,
‘on which a cauttic has been applied, mult be let alone,

“until the efchar is caft off. ‘ Let the one be treated as the
other is, (obferves this eminent furgeon,) and as they both
ought to be, and the event will be found to be alike in each;
excepting this material difference in favour of the knife, that
it will not neceflarily occafion any deftruction of parts, lofs
“of fubitance, nor any deformity, which is at all comparable
“with what mutt follow the ufe of the cauttic.
_ In making the opening, the knife or lancet fhould
‘be paffed in deep enough to reach the fluid, and, when it is
in, the incifion fhould be continued upward and downward,
in fuch a manner as to divide all the kin covering the
‘matter. By thefe means, the contents of the ab{cefs will be
‘difcharged at once ; future lodgment of matter will be pre-
vented ; convenient room will be made for the application
of proper dreffings; and there will be no neceflity for
making the incifion in different direCtions, or for re-
“moving any part of the fkin compofing the verge of the
“anus.”
Mr. Pott has explained with great ability, that though
Vow. XIV.

all abfceffes of this kind are called fiftule, and have been
fuppofed to effect the rectum, yet the place where the
matter is formed is at fuch a diflance -frem the inteftine,
that the latter part cannot be at all concerned, and none of
thefe cafes are, in the firft inftance, fiftule. It does not
follow, as a matter of courfe, that we have any thing to do
with the reétum at all, not more than if it were not near
the difeafe, which fhould be regarded.and treated as a com-
mon ab{cefs. ;

It is accurately obferved by the celebrated furgical
writer, whofe remarks are freely quoted in this article, that
wherever matter is formed in confequence of inflammation,
it always leaves, upon being let eut, a proportional hollow,
and fome degree of induration. ‘lhe former of thefe is of
different fize, according to the quantity of matter, and the
latter depends both on the degree of previous inflammation,
and the more or lefs perfeét fuppuration of the abfcefs.

The idea, formerly attached to the two circumftances
of hollow and hardnefs, was, that the firft arofe entirely
from lofs of fubftance ; the fecond, from a difeafed alteration
of the parts. | Hence preceding furgeons, as foon as they
had difcharged the matter, ufed to fill and diftend the
cavity, with a view of obtaining a gradual regeneration of
flefh, and the dreffings were generally of an efcharotic
quality, intended for the diffolution of the hardneis.

«¢ The practice (fays Mr. Pott) is a neceffary confequence
of the theory. Whoever fuppofes difeafed callofity, and
great lofs of fubftance, will neceffarily think himfelf obliged
to deflroy the former, and prevent the cavity formed by
the latter from filling up too haftily. On the other hand,
he who confiders this matter as it really is, that is, he who
regards the cavity of the abfcefs as being principally the
éfieét of the gradual diftration and fuppuration of its fides,
with very little lols of fubftance, compared with the fize of
the faid cavity ; and who looks upon the induration round
about as nothing more than a circumftance which neceflarily
accompanies every inflammation in membranaccous parts,
efpecially in thofe which tend to fuppuration, will, upon
the {malleit refleétion, perceive, that the dreflings applied
to fuch cavity ought to be fo {mall in quantity, as to permit
nature to accomplifh that end which fhe always aims at
as foon as the matter is let out ( I mean, fays Pott, the ap-
proach of the fides of the cavity toward each other); and
that {uch {mall quantity of dreffings ought to confiit of mate-
rials proper only to encourage ealy and gradual fuppuration.

“The fa& is fo obvious to common fenfe, that it mutt
appear to every one, who will coolly and impartially con-
fider it.

«¢ What is the part in which the difeafe is feated? and
what are the alterations which fuch difeafe produces? The
part is mere cellular membrane; and the alteration is
obftruction and inflammation, ending in the formation of
matter. But do thefe create any new body? Do not the
fides of the abfcefs {till remain cellular and adipofe mem-
brane, only inflamed, thickened, hardened, and rendered
purulent? Can fuch alteration require any thing more
towards reftoring the parts to a natural itate than a free fup-
puration from the parts fo altered? Or, can it make extir-
pation or deftru€tion neceflary ? Moft certainly it cannot.
How then is fuppuration to be produced ‘and maintained?
Not by thrufting in fuch applications as by their quantity
diftend, and by their quality irritate and deftroy; but
by drefling lightly and eafily with fuch as appeale,
relax, and foften.’’

When an abfcefs near the anus is opened, the cavity, ae
Mr. Pott obferves, is found proportioned to the vee
of matter, If the hollow be immediately tilled with drefl-

4k ings

EIS TULA.

ings-of any kind, the fides of it will be prevented from
approaching toward each other, or may even be farther fe-
parated. But, if this cavity be not filled, or have little
or no dreflings of any kind introduced into it, the fides im-
mediately collapfe ; and, coming nearer and nearer, do, in a
very fhort time, convert a large hollow into a {mall finus.
“The fame thing happens when the collection of matter has
burft of itfelf.

» Mr. Pott acknowledges, that the finus will not always

become perfeétly clofed, particularly in cafes of fiftula in-

ano; but, ftill he contends, that the conduét of nature is
not the lefs evident, nor the hint, which art ought to bor-
row from her, the lefs palpable.

Whenever extenfive ulcers or cavities exift, whether in
eafes of niftula in ano, or other diforders, much will depead
npon the patient’s centtitution, and the care taken of it.
When the habit is good, or properly corre€ted, any dreflings
which are not offenfive in quantity or quality will prove ef-
feétual ; but if the conftitution be out of order, or badly
treated, the furgeon may try (as Mr. Pott remarks) the
whole farrago of externals, and only wafte his own and his
patient’s time. :

This able writer explains, that afl thefe cafes are at firft
mere abfcefles ; the confequences of inflammation ; and re-
quire no other treatment than what would be proper in the
fame kind of eafe in all other parts. Some few of them
are fo circum{tanced, with regard to the inteftine, that it
is quite unneceflary to meddle with it at all; but whether
that be the cale or not, whether the divifion of the re@um
become a neéceflary part in the cure or not; they moft cer-
tainly do not deferve the name of fiftule, nor require that
fort of treatment which fiftule: are faid and thought to ftand
in need of; though by being, from their very firft appear-
ance, fuppofed to be fuch, they are frequently, by mifma-
nagement, rendered truly fiftulous.

By light, eafy treatment, fays Mr. Pott, large abfceffes,
formed in the neighbourhood of the reCtum, may fometimes
be cured’ without meddling with this inteftine at all. But
it much more frequently happens that the inteftine, al-
though it may not have been pierced by the matter, has
yet been fo denuded, that no confolidation of the finus can
be obtained except by laying the cavity of the abfcefs, and
that of the inteftine, into one.

Sometimes the practitioner may perceive the neceflity for
fuch a divifion at firlt; that is, on opening the abfeefs he
may find the inteftine fo bare, that it is evident no cure can
be accomplifhed without this operation, In other inftances
reafonable hopes of fuccefs may be entertained at firft ; but
they may end in difappointment.

Mr. Pott obferves, that when the gut is found to be in
fuch itate, that there is no reafon to expe@ a cure without
its being divided, that operation had better, on many ac-
courts, be performed at the time the abfcefs is firft opened,
than be deferred to afuture one. When done, as it always
may be done, the pain which the patient muft feel when
the abfcefs is opened will be fo trivially increafed, that the
difference will hardly be diftinguifhed, either with regard to
time or fenfation. If the divifion be delayed, the patient
mutt either be under the continual apprehenfion of a fecond
cutting, or fuffer one when he does not expect it.

The objeé of the operation is to divide the reQum from
the verge of the anus as high as the top of the héllow in
which the matter is formed, fo as to lay the two cavities
of the gut and abfcefs into one; and by means of an open,
inftead of a hollow or finuous fore, to obtain a firm and lalting
@ure.

The beft inftrument for the operation is the curved,
probe-pointed knife, which, being introduced into the finus,
while the furgeon’s fore-finger is in the inteftine, will enable
him to divide all that can ever require divifions and that with
lefs pain to the patient, with more facility to the operator,
as well as with more certainty and expedition, than any
other inftrument whatever. If there be no opening in the
inteitine, fays Mr. Pott, the fmalleft degree of force will
thraft the point of the knife through, and thereby make
one: if there be one already, the fame point will End and
pafs through it. In either cafe it will be received by the
finger in ano; will thereby be prevented from deviating ;
and, being brought out by the fame finger, mult neceflarily
divide all that is between the edge of the knife and the
verge of the anus; that is, mutt by one fimple incifion, which
1s made in the {malleft {pace of time imaginable, lay the two
cavities of the finus and of the inteftine into one.

With refpe& to the diftin@tion between thofe cafes in
which the inteftine is pierced by the matter, and thofe in
which it is not, although it may be ufeful when the dif-
ferent ftates of the difeafe are to be deferibed, yet, in prac-”
tice, as Mr. Pott obferves, when the operation of di-
viding the inteftine becomes neceflary, fuch diltinétion is of
no confequence at all; it makes no alteration in the degree,
kind, or quantity of pain, which the patient is to feel; the
force required to pufh the knife through the tender gut is
next to none; and, when its point is in the cavity, the cafes
are exaétly fimilar.

Immediately after the operation, Mr. Pott recommends a
foft doffil of fine lint to be introduced from the reétum, be-
tween the divided lips of the incifion, as well to reprefs any
flight hemorrhage, as to prevent the immediate re-union of
the faid lips; and the reft of the fore fhould be lightly
drefled with the fame. This firft dreffing fhould be permit-
ted to continue, until a beginning fuppuration renders it
loofe enough to be taken away eafily; and all the future
ones fhould be as light, foft, and eafy as poflible; confiiting
only of fuch materials as are likely to promote kindly and
gradual fuppuration. Mr. Pott remarks, the fides of the
abfcefs are large; the incifion mutt necefflarily for a few
days be inflamed ; and the difcharge will for fome time be
difcoloured and gleety. This induratien, and this fort of
difcharge, are often miftaken for figns of difeafed callofity
and undifcovered finufes; upon which prefumption, efcha-
rotics are freely applied, and diligent fearch is made for new
hollows. The former of thefe, as Mr. Pott relates, moft
commonly increafe both the hardnefs and the gleet, and,
by the latter, new finufes are fometimes really produced.
Thefe occafion a repetition of efcharotics, and, perhaps, of
incifions; by which means, cafes which at firft, and in their
own nature, were fimple and ealy of cure, are rendered
complex and tedious.

Mr. Pott cenfures, in ftrong terms, the former cuftom of
applying to the wound the hydrargyrus nitratus ruber, and
other efcharotic powders. What, fays this writer, would
any patron of this method of drefling fay to a man, who
fhall order a large tent, well charged with red precipi-
tate, to be thruft up the undivided, unweunded re€tum of a
perfon who, from any caufe whatever, had an inflammation
of the hemorrhoidal veffel, and infide of the faid ivteftine ?
Would he not fay that fuch tent would prove a fatiguing
inflammatory fuppofitory? And would he not be right in
faying fo? 1s then the retum rendered lefs fenfible and
lefs irritable by being wounded? or, can that very applica-
tion, which proves a painful ftimulus to’a gut not divided,
become an eafy digeftive to one that is? Jf any man thinks
that it will, Mr. Pott would advife him to make the expe-

2 riment

FISTULA.

riment on himfelf ; and an appeal might thea be made to
the teftimony of his own unprejudiced fenfations.

“ In thort,’’? obferves this author, “to quit reafoning,
and {peak to feét only: in the great number of thefe cafes
which muft have been in St. Bartholomew’s Hofpital within
thefe ten or twelve years, I do aver, that I have not met
with one in the circumftances before defcribed, that has not
been cured by mere fimple divifion, together with light,
ealy dreflings; and that I have not in all that time ufed, for
this purpofe, a fingle grain of precipitate, or ef any other
efcharotic.”

We have now to confider the fiftula in ano in that {tate in
which the matter has made its own way out, without the
help of art.

The furgeon having omitted to open the abfcefs with a
lancet, or knife, the matter makes its own way out by burft-
ing the external parts fomewhere near to the fundament, or
by making a hole through the inteftine into its cavity, or
fometimes by both. In either cafe, as Mr. Pott explains,
the difcharge is made fometimes by one orifice only, and
fometimes by more. Thofe in which the matter has made
its efcape by ove or more openings through the fin only,
are called blind, external fifule; thofe in which the difcharge
has been made into the cavity of the inteftine, without any
orifice in the fkin, are named J/ind, internal; and thofe
which have an opening both through the {kin and into the
gut, are called complete fifule.

Thus, as Mr. Pott remarks, all thefe cafes are deemed
fiftulous, when hardly any of them ever are fo; and none
of them neceflarily. They are {till mere abfcefles, which
have {pontaneoufly burt, and, if properly treated, will not
demand the kind of treatment applicable to a true fiftula.

The fame excellent writer informs us, that the moft fre-
quent cafes of all are the blind external, and the complete

JSiyiule. Each of thefe ftates may be known by introducing
a probe into the finus through the orifice in the fkin, while
the fore-finger is within the reGium.

Whether the cafe be what is called a complete fiftula, or
not ; that#s, whether there be an opening in the fkin only,
or one there and another ia the inteitine, the appearance to
the eye is much the fame. Upon difcharge of the matter
the external {welling fubfides, and the inflamed colour of the
fin difappears; the orifice, which at firlt was floughy and
foul, aftera day or two are pafled, becomes clean, and con-
tracts in fize; but the difcharge, by fretting the parts about,
renders the patient {till uneafy.

Mr. Pott next obferves, that as this kind of opening fel-
dom proves fuflicient for a cure, (though it fometimes does,)
the induration, in fome degree, remains; and if the orifice
happens not to be a depending one, fome part of the matter
lodges, and is difcharged by intervals, or may be prefled
out by the fingers of anexaminer. ‘The difeafe in this ftate
is not very painful; but it is troublefome, natty, and offen-
five: the continual difcharge of athin kind of fluid from it
creates heat, and caufes excoriation in the parts about ; it
daubs the linen of the patient, and is at times very fetid.
The orifice alfo fometimes contracts, fo as not to be fuf-
ficient for'the difcharge, and the lodgment of the matter
then occafions frefh ditturbance.

Surgeons in former times ufed to adopt three modes of
curing fittule which had burit; vis. cauftic, the ligature,
and incifion.

The fear of bleeding and a cutting inftrument, and the
idea of deftroying callofity, were the chief motives for the
employment of the two frft means. However, as they are
now univerfally abandoned, we fhall not waite the reader’s
time in fhewing the great objections to them,

4

With regard to the plan of curing fiftule ia azo in this
ftate, by incifion, the fame method fkould be followed as
the one already recommended in the cafe of a colieCtion of
matter formed juxta anum,

Notwithftanding the opinions of fome former very emi-
nent furgeons, fuch as Chefelden, De la Faye, and Le Dran,
that the mere divifion of the inteftine and finus would not
effet a cure, and, that unlefs we cut out or extirpated a
portion both of the faid intefline and the fin of the anus,
durable relief-would not be obtained, it was ably contended
by Mr. Pott, and all experience {trongly fupports him, thas
the deftruGtion of any of the parts is not only unnecefiary,
but injurious. As fuch practice is now gone completely out
of vogue, we need not take up any more time in expreffing
our difapprobation of it.

When the fiftula extends- high up the rectum, further
than the finger introduced within the anus can reach, it is
found to be quite unneceflary to divide the finus through-
out its whole length, even were fuch proceeding praética-
ble and free from danger. - If the furgeon fairly divide that
part of the fiftula asd inteftine which he can coiveniently
reach with his finger, he need not cencern himfelf about
the deeper part of the diieafe, as in general a cure will fol-
low without further trouble, in relation to any operation.
The experience of Pott taight him this important faét,-
and fucceeding praétitionera have daily opportunities. of
feeing the fame truth confirmed.

Thus far we have followed Mr. Pott in confidering the
difeafe either as an abfcefs from which the matter has been
let out by an incifion made by a furgeon, or from-which the,
contents have been difcharged by one fingle orifice, formed
by the burfting of the fin tees about the fundament.
We fhall now purfue the fame writer’s plan, and confide
the cafe, in which, initead of one, there are feveral open-
ings.

“This ftate of the cafe,”? obferves Mr. Pott, ‘* gene-
rally happens when’ the quantity of matter collected has
been large, the inflammation of confiderable extent, the
adipofe membrane very floughy, and the {kin worn very
thin before it burft. It is indeed a circumftance of no
real confequence at all; but from being mifunderftood, or
not properly attended to, is made one of additional ter-
ror to the patient, and additional alarm to the inexperienced
practitioner; for it ig taught, and frequently believed, that
each of thefe orifices is an outlet from, or leads to, a dif-
tin€&t finus or hollow; whereas, in truth, the cafe is meft
commonly quite otherwife. All thefe openiags are only fo
many diftinét burilings of the fin covering the matter ; and
do all, be they few or many, lead and open immediately into
the one fingle cavity of the abfcefs: they neither indicate,
nor lead to, nor are caufed by, diftin@ finufes; nor would
the appearance of twenty of them (f poffible) neceffarily
imply more than one general hollow.

«“ Tf this account be a true one, it will follow, that the
chirurgic treatment of this kind of cafe ought to be very
little, if at all, different from that of the preceding ; and that
all that can be neceflary to be done, muit be to divide cach
of thefe orifices in fuch manner as to make one cavity of
the whole. This the probe-knife will eafily and expeditionfly
do; and, when that is done, if the fore, or more properly
its edges, fhould make a very ragged, uneven appearance,
the removal of a {mall portion of fuch trregular angular
parts will anfwer all the purpofes of makiag room for the
application of the dreffings, and for producing a fmooth,
even cicatrix after the fore fhall be healed.

«< When’ a confderable quantity of matter has been re-
cently let out, and the internal parts are nat only in a crude,

4 E2 undis

ELSTWE As

undigefted flate, but have not yet had time to collapfe, and
approach each other, the infide of {uch cavity will appear
large ; and if a probe be pufhed with any degree of force
it will pafs, in more than one direGion, into the cellular
membrane by the fide of the rectum. But, (continues Mr.
Pott;) let not the unexperienced pratitioner be alarmed at
this, and immediately fancy that there are fo many diftinét
finufes ; neither let him, if he be of a more hardy difpofi-
tion, go to work immediately with his director, knife, or
{ciffars; let him enlarge the external wound by making his
incifion freely; let him lay all the feparate orifices open into
that cavity; let him divide the iateftine lengthwife by means
of his finger in ano; let him drefs lighcly and. eafily ; let
him pay proper attention to the habit of the patient ; and
wait and fee what a few days, under fuch condué&, will
produce. By this he will frequently find, that the large
cavity of the abfcefs will beeome {mall and clean; that the
induration round about will gradually leffen ; that the probe
will not pafs in that manner into the cellular membrane ; and,
confequently, that his fears of a multiplicity of finufes
were groundlefs. Ox the contrary, if the fore be crammed,
or dreffed with irritating or efcharotic medicines, all the ap-
pearances will be different, the hardnefs will increafe, the
lips ef the wound will be inverted, the cavity of the fore
will remain large, crude, and foul; the difcharge will be thin,
gleety, and diicoloured ; the patient will be uneafy and fe-
verifh, and if no new cavities ate formed by the irritation of
parts, and confinement of ‘matter, yet the original one will
have no opportunity of contracting itfelf, and may very
poffitly become truly filtulous.”’

Without pofitively denying that there is ever more than
one finus extending along the fame fide of the retum, Mr.
Pott maintained, that for one inftance in which the cale is
really fo, forty are only fuppofititious ones. He allows that
feparate openings in the flcin, from the fame cavity or finus,
are common; but denies that perfectly diftinét finufes,
running along the fame fide of the rectum, are at ail
ufual.

Sometimes the matter of an ab{cefs, formed in the neigh-
bourhood of the anus, inftead of. making its way through
the {kin, externally near the anus, or in the buttock, pierces
through the inteftine only. This is what is called a bind
internal fifiula. In thisénftance, when the matter has dif
charged itfelf, the fwelling fubfides, and the patient expe-
riences fome degree of relief. If the evacuation of the
matter does not terminate in a cure, which fometimes, though
very feldom happens, fome fmall degree of induration ge-
nerally remains in the place where the origina tumour was.
As Mr. Pott deferibes, when this hardne{s is preffed upon,
a {mall difcharge of matter is frequently made per anum ;
and fometimes the expulfion of air from the cavity of the
abicefs into that of the inteftine may very palpably be felt
and clearly heard. The ftools, particularly if hard, and
requiring force to be expelled, are fometimes fmeared with
matter; and although the patient by the burfting of the
abfcefs is relieved from the acute pain which the collection
occafioned, yet he is feldom free from a dull kind of unea-
finefs, efpecially if he fits for any confiderable length of
time in one pofture. Mr. Pott remarks, that the real dif-
ference between this kind of cafe, and that in which there
is an external opening, with regard to the method of cure,
is very immaterial; for an external opening muft be made,
and then all difference ceafes. In this, as in the former, no
cure can reafonably be expe&ted, until the cavity of the ab-
fcefs, and that of the rectum, are made one; and the only
difference is, that in one cafe we have an orifice at or near
the verge of the anus, by which we are immediately enabled

to perform that neceffary éperation: in the other, we muft:
make one.

We have next to treat of that ftate of the difeafe which
really deferves the epithet of fiftulous, according to the’
common definition. Mr. Pott obferves, that various caufes
may produce fuch a condition of the parts concerned. °
Thefe caufes are divided by this celebrated furgeon into
two claffes ; viz. thofe which are the effe& of negle&, dif-
tempered habit, or of bad management, and which may be
called, without any great impropriety, local difeafes; and
thofe which are the confequence of diforders, whofe origin
and feat is not in the immediate tinus or fittula, but in parts
more or lefs diftant, and which, therefore, are not local
complaints.

The former are generally cureable by proper treatment ;
the latter are frequently irremediable by any means what-—
ever.

In the firft defcription of cafes, Mr. Pott ranks all thofe
which were originally mere colleétions of matter within
the coats of the rectum, or in the cellular fubftance fur-
rounding this inteftine ; but which, by being long negle&ted, _
grofsly managed, or by happening in habits which were dif-
ordered, and for which diforders no prover remedies were
adminiftered, fuffer {uch alteration, and get into fuch flatey.
as to deferve the appellation of filtule-

In the fecond kind of cafes, Mr. Pott claffes all thofe iv
which the difeafe has its origin and firit ftate in the higher
and moré diftant parts of the pelvis, about the os facrum,
lower vertebra of the loins, and adjacent parts; and are
either ftramous, or the confequenceof longand much diitem-
pered habits; or the effe& of, or combined with ether dif-
tempers, local or general, fuch as a difeafed neck of the
bladder, or proftate gland, or urethra; the lues vene-
rea, &Xc.

Mr. Pott notices, that among the very low people who
are brought into hofpitals, we frequently meet with caféa
of the firft defcription ; cafes which at firlt were mere fim=
ple abfceffes, but which, from uncleanlinefs, from intempe-
rance, negligence, and diftempered conititutions, become
really fiftulous.

In thefe examples the general eff2@s of intemperance,
debauchery, and conftitutional difeafe, are to be correct-
ed, or removed, before furgery can afford any material
relief.

When thefe great objeéts have been attended to, the fur-
gery required confifts in laying open and dividing the finus
er finufes in fuch manner, that there may be no pofiible
lodgment for matter, and that fuch cavities may be fairly
opened lengthwife into that of the rectum. If the internal
parts of thefe hollows are hard, and do not furnifh good
matter, Mr. Pott advifes us to fcarify them with the point
of a knife, but not to ufe efcharotic applications. . When,
either from the multiplicity of external orifices, or from the
loofe, flabby, hardened, or inverted ftate of the edges of the
wound, near the aaus, no hopes of healing the parts in an
even way can be entertained, fuch a portion of them may
be cut away as will juft ferve that purpofe. Mr. Pott re-
commends the dreflings to be foft, eafy, and light.

When the infide of the finus is occupied with fungous
flefh, a flight touch of the lunar cauftic may become
neceflary. ret te

In the mean while, the remedies for the improvement of
the fyitem muft be continued, and local meafures alone not
trufted.

When the bad ftate of the fore arifes from the manner
in which it has been crammed, irritated, and eroded, leaving

°

FISTULA,

off fuch treatment muft of courfe be the means of bringing
the difeafe into a better condition.

Mr. Pott remarks, that a patient who has been fo treated
has generally fome degree of fever, has a pulfe, which is too
hard and too quick, is thirfly, and does not get his due
quantity of natural reft. A fore which has been fo drefled
has generally a confiderable degree of inflammatory hardnefs
round about; the lips and edges of it are tumid, full, in-
flamed, and fometimes inverted ; the whole verge of the anus
is fwollen; the hemorrhoidal veffels are loaded; the dif-
charge from the fore is large, thin, and difcoloured ; and all
the lower part of the re€tum participates of the inflamma-
tory irritation, producing pain, bearing-down, tenefmus, &c.
Contraria contrartis (continues this able writer) is never
more true than in this inftance ; the painful unealy ftate of
the fore, and of the reGum, is the great caufe of all the
mifchief, both general and particular; and the firft intention
mutt be to alter that. All efcharotics muft be thrown out
and difufed; and in lieu of them a foft digeftive fhould be
fubitituted, in fuch manner as not to caufe any diftenfion,
or to give any uneafinefs from quantity. Over this a poul-
tice fhould be applied. Thefe drefliigs fhould be renewed

twice a day; and the patient fhould be enjoined abfolute rett..

At the fame time attention fhould be paid to the general
difturbance which the former treatment may have created.
Blood fhould be drawn off from the fanguine ; the feverifh
heat fhould be calmed by proper medicines; the languid and
low fhould be affifted with the bark and cordials; and eafe
in the part mutt at all events be obtaitied by the injection
of anodyne clyfters of ftarch and opium.

Tf, as Mr. Pott obferves, the finus has not yet been laid
open, and the bad ftate of parts isoccafioned byefcharotic or
altringent applications, no operation of any fort fhould be at-
tempted, until both the patient and the parts are eafy, cool,
and quiet. When this defirable change has taken place,
the finus may be fuccefsfully divided, and, if requilite, a {mall
portion of the ragged edges be taken away.

Lumbar abfcefles fometimes form finufes, which run down
by the fide of the rectum, and burlt near the fundament.
The difcharge from thefe is generally large, fetid, thin, and
fharp. Hence, we cannot wonder that the finufes and ori-
fices become hard and callous; that is, truly filtulous. But
it muft be obvious to every one (fays Mr. Pott) who will
confider it, that the furgical treatment of thefe fores and
finufes can be of very little confequence towards curing the
difeafes from which they arife, and which are generally out
of the reach of our inflruments and applications. The pro-
per treatment alfo of fuch diforders will be fpoken of in
another part of the Cyclopedia. See LumBar b/c.

Cancers and cancerous fores are fometimes formed in the
cavity, or the neighbourhood of the reétum and fundement,
where they make moft terrible havoc. See Rectum.

Fiftulous fores, finufes, and indurations about the anus,
which are confequences of difeafes of the neck of the blad-
der and urethra, and are named fittule in perinzo, require
feparate and particular confideration, into whieh we fhall
prefently enter. Pott’s Treatife on the Fiftula in Ano.

- Fifiula Lachrymalis.—Every owe who has acquired that
degice of anatomical knowledge which is effeatially requifite
ina good furgeon, is well aware that the tears and febaceous
fluid with which the furface of a healthy eye is naturally
kept in a moift tate, are conveyed, as {von as they become
fuperfluous, through certain tubes or dué€ts, down into the
nofe. We leave it to the anatomift and phyfiologift to de-
termine, whether it is by fome ation like that of a fyringe,
or of a capillary tube, or whether it is by the mufeular power

of the lachrvmal paflages themfelves, that the tears are made

to defcend from the eye into the cavity of the nofe. The
fecretion from the lachrymal gland, membranous lining .of
the eyelids, and Meibomian glands, conftitutes what is com-
monly called the tears, the ufe of which is to lubricate the
eye in its inceflant motions, to keep the furface of the cor-
nea ina moiit, clean, bright ftate, fitted for the tranimiffion
of the rays of light, and laftly, to wath away any duit or
other hurtful particles, which may accidentally fall upou,
and irritate the organ. Mr. Pott, in his excellent account
of this fubjeét, has obferved, that this fluid (meaning the
tears) is derived principally from a large gland, named the
lachrymal, fituated under the upper edge of thejorbit, near
the outer corner of the eye, which gland is of the conglo-
merate kind, and lies in a-{mall depreflion of the os frontis.
Its excretory ducts, or thofe by which it difcharges the fe-
creted fluid, pierce the tunica conjunctiva, juft above the
cartilaginous border of the upper eye-lid.

When any irritating particles come inte contaé with the
eye, a large quantity of fluid is immediately fecreted by the
lachrymal gland, and is as quickly diffufed, by the motion
of the eye-lids, over the furface of the eve; by which
means, fuch particles are wafhed and wiped off. Sometimes,
alfo, as Mr. Pott remarks, the paflions of the mind produce
an immediate increafe of this fecretion, which is then ftri@ly-
ealled tears. A conitant fecretion of too large a quantity
caufes a difeafe, called epiphora (which fee); and a defi-
ciency of it makes the motions of the eye-lids difficult and
painful.

Although the fluid, fecreted by the lachrymal gland, is
confiderable in quantity ; yet, when it is not fuddenly pro-
duced by irritation from without, or paffion within, it is fo
conftantly and gradually carried off, as to create neither
trouble, uneafinefs, nor blemifh.

The edge or border cf each eye-lid, continues Mr. Pott,
is formed by a thin eartilage, the firure and confiitence of
which keep the lids properly expanded. Thefe cartilages
are covered by a fine membrane, and are called cilia. Their
internal edges do, upon every motion, {weep over every
point of the furface of the cornea. This motion, though
almolt imperceptible, unlefs attended to, is very frequently
performed ; and as the fecretion of the fluid is alio conftant,
the eye is by this means kept always: motft,, clean, and-
bright.

Mr. Pott next relates, that at the extremity of each-of-
thefe cartilaginous borders of the eye-lds, -on the fide next
the nofe, is a {mall papilla or emiuence; and in the middle
cs each of thefe is a {mall hole, which, being fituated inthe
cartilage, is not liable to collapfe wile the parts are in a
found fiate, but remainsalways open. ‘They are called the
punda lachrymalia, and their office is to receive the lachry-
mal fluid, as it runs off the cornery along the edges of the
eye-lids, fo as to prevent it from trickling down the cheek.

From each of the panéta lachrymalia proceeds a {mall
membranous tube. Thefé tubes foon enter, or: rather ex-
pand into, a little fort of pouch, placed near the inner angle
of the eye, under the orbicularis palpebrarum mufcle. The
bag in queftion is named the lachrymal fac, and its office is
to receive all the lymph tranfmitted through the punéta and
duéts. The upper part of the fac lies in an excavation,
formed partly by the nafal procéfs of the upper maxillary
bone, and partly by the os unguis. * The lower part of it is
confined in a long channel, and forms a tube,or du&, which,
defcending obliquely backward, communicates with the
cavity of the nofe, behind the -os fpongicfum fuperfus, by
an opening of rather different fizes in different fubje@s.

This paflage, fays Mr. Pott, is called the dudus na/falis,
and through it- whatever is received by the lachrymal fae

; \ from

FISTULA.

froth the punta does, in a healthy and found ftate of thefe
parts, pa{s into the nofe,

The membrane which lines the lachrymal fac and nafal
duct fecretes a kind of mucus.

In the healthy ftate, the fluid fecreted by the lachrymal
sland readily paffes off through the punéta, fac, and du@,
into the nofe; but when they are in a difeafed ftate, the
cafe is otherwife. The membrane lining the fac and dué& is
fubje& to inflammation, by which it is often fo thickened
as to render the paflage more or lefs impervious. Hence,
the lachrymal fac becomes filled with its own mucus, and
with the fecretion tranfmitted into it from the eye; and
when no more of this laft fluid can enter the punéta lachry-
malia, it falls over the eys-lid, down the cheek. The ob-
flruGtion continuing, and the mucus and tears ftill lodging,
the fac is dilated, and that tumour in the inner corner of
the eye, and that difcharge from the punéta lachrymalia,
upon preffure, are occafioned, which charaéterife the firlt
ftate of the fiftula lachrymalis. See Pott’s Obfervations on
the Fiftula Lachrymalis.

From what we have already ftated, the reader mult begin
to fufpect that tke term /ifula lachrymalis neceffarily means
no callous, indurated difeafe, accompanied with an acrid,
fanious difcharge ; but merely a diforder, confifting of an
obftrugtion in fome part of thofe paflages throngh which
the tears have to pafs into the nefe, and attended with dif-
ferent appearances in different perfons, and under different
circumi{tances. Here the phrafe ¢ fiftula”? is fometimes, in
confequence of ancient eltablifhed ufage, fo unreafonably
employed, that it is applied toa certain flage of the difeafe,
now treated of, in which there is even no ulcerated opening
at all, nor any other circumftance which, according to the
diétates of common fenfe, could bring into the mind the
idea of a fiftula.

When the obitruétion to the paffage of the tears into the
nofe is only fuch as to occafion a watering of the eye, and
a confequent neceflity of wiping away the effufed fluid, the
diforder is commonly named epiphora; but when a fluid,
Somewhat. fimilar to pus in appearance, accumulates in the
lachrymal fac, and regurgitates through the punéta lachry-
malia, on the fac being comprefled, the complaint receives
the name of fifula lachrymalis.

The eminent Scarpa, imprefled with a convi&tion of the
bad effects in practice refulting from the ufe of terms which
convey erroneous notions, has propofed callisg that flage
of the difeafe which is attended with a difcharge of a vifcid,
eurdly, yellowish matter from the punéta lachrymalia, whea

the lachrymal fac is compreffed, the puriform di/charge of

the palpebra. The term /iffula lachrymalis is retried, by
this author, to that ftate of the complaint in which the
lachrymal fac is not only greatly diftended, but ulcerated,
and in a fungous ftate on its internal furface ; and in which
there is alfo an external opening, occafionally attended with
‘a caries of the os unguis.

The varieties of the difeafe commonly called fiftula la-
chrymalis are referred, by Mr. Pott, to five principal circum-
fLances, viz.

1. The degree of obftruGion in the nafal du@.

2. The ftate of the cellular membrane covering the fac.

3. The flate of the fac itielf.

4. That of the bone underneath.

5- The general {tate and habit of the patient.

Sometimes the lining of the fac and dud is fo thickened,
that the fluid cannot pafs through them into the nofe; and
this forms the whole of the complaint. The cellular mem-
brane on the outfide not being difeafed, there is no appear-
ance of inflammation. In this cafe, as Mr. Pott defcribes,

the dué& is ftopped, and the facculus dilated, but without~
any alteration in the colour of the fkin. A fulnefs appears
in the corner of the eye next the nofe; and upon the appli-
cation of a finger to this tumour, a clear, vifcid mucus is
difcharged through the punéta lachrymalia. The. patient
feels no pain, nor finds any inconvenience, except what is
produced by the difcharge of this macus, and by the trick-
ling of the tears down the cheek.

The fame writer next notices, that, in fome cafes, the
mucus is not perfe@tly and always clear, but is fometimes
cloudy, and looks as if it had a mixture of milk or cream in
it. At firfl waking, fome of it is generally found in the
corner of the eye; and the eye-lafhes, beiug {meared over
with it during fleep, moft commonly adhere together in the
morning.

Mr. Pott remarks that this is the moft fimple ftate of the
difeafe, and what the French have called the hernia, or hy-
drops facculi lachryinalis. It is frequently met with in
children who have been ricketty, or are fubjecé to glandular
obftruQions; and, in this ftate, it fometimes remains for
fome years, fubjeét to little alterations, as the health or habit
fhall happen to vary ; the fac being fometimes more, fome-
times lefs, full and troublefome. ‘The mucus which is preffed
out is fometimes more, fometimes lefs, cloudy; and, now
and then, it is attended with a flight ophthalmy, or an in-
flammation of the eye-lids, but which, by common care, is
eafily removed.

When the fac is not much dilated, the difcharge {mall,
and produced only by preflure, the chief inconveniences are
the weeping eye, and the gumming together of the eye-lids
after fleeping ; but thefe, by bemg attended to, may be
kept from being very troublefome; and, if the diieafe
makes no farther progrefs, may be fo regulated as to render
any more painful procefs totally unneceflary.

When the dilatation is confiderable, fays Pott, the {well-
ing is more vifible, and the quantity of mucus is larger. It
is alfo in this {tate more frequently mixed and cloudy, and
more troublefome, from the more frequent neceflity of
emptying the bag. But if the patient be adult, it may,
even in this more dilated ftate of it, be kept from being very
inconvenient.

If an inflammation comes on, the tumour is thereby con-
fiderably increafed, the difcharge is larger, as well during
fleep as upon preflure; the fkin covering it lofes its natural
whitenefs and foftnefs, becomes hard, and acquires an in-,
flamed rednefs; and with the mucus a mixture of fome-
thing, which in colour refembles matter, is difcharged, ef-
prea if the preflure be made with any force, or continued
or any time. ‘This circumiftance, added to the. painful
fenfation and inflamed appearance of the parts, has been
productive of a fuppotition, that there is either an ulcer or
an abfcefs within the fac or du€t; an opinion which Mr.-
Pott has takem great pains to refute.

We thall here introduce Scarpa’s fentiments concerning:
the manner in which the fluid which diftends the fac is,
formed. The vifcid, curdly, yellowifh fluid, mixed with
tears, which regurgitates from the punéta lachrymalia, is-
not altogether fecreted by the fac itfelf, as fome have con-
jectured. The greateft part of it paffes into the fac ffom,
the eye-lids, through the punta lachrymalia, from which it
regurgitates on preflure being made on the fac. This puri-
form fluid is chiefly fecreted by the lining of the eye-lids,'
efpecially by the lower eye-lid along the tarfus, and by the
glands of Meibomius. The febaceous matter, which is.
furnifhed by thefe glands, is not only fecreted more abun-.
dantly, but aflumes an irritating quality. Befides the feba-,
ceous fluid from the glands juft now {pecified, a thin mucus,

Ww

FISTULA,

is effufed from the lining of the eye-lids; which mucus
greatly increafes the quantity of vifcid matter which is
ipread over the eye and eye-lids.

It becomes manifeft that the puriform fluid, which comes
out of the lachrymal fac, is derived from the fources which
have been pointed out, by turning the eye-lids, particularly
the lower one, outward, and comparing their appearance
with that of the found ones of the oppofite fide of the face.
The lining of the former always feems redder than natural,
and exhibits a villous appearance, particularly along the
tarfus. The margin of the eye-lid is {wollen, aud marked
with a great number of little varicofe veflels. ‘The glands
of Meibomius are more turgid and prominent than natuval,
and, when looked at with a magnifying glafs, frequently
feem to be fomewhat ulcerated.

The villous texture, which the infide of the eye-lids
wcquires in thefe cafes, is converted into an organ which
fecretes an unufual quantity of a fluid like vifcid lymph,
which, being blended with the febaceous fecretion from the
glands of Meibomius, makes the tenacious matter which is
fmeared over the eye-lids, and which, pafling through the
punéta lachrymalia, fometimes diftends the lackrymal fac in
a very extraordinary degree.

If the lachrymal fac be empticd of this matter by means
of preflure, and the eye and infide of the eye-lids be care-
fully wafhed, fo that none of the glutinous fecretion which
iffues from the fac may remain upon them, and the infide of
the eye-lids be turned ont halt an hour afterwards, their
inner furface, efpecially that of the lower one, will be ob-
ferved to be covered with a new effufion of mucus, mixed
with a febaceous fecretion; which fluids have manifeftly
not regurgitated from the lachrymal fac to the eye, but
have been formed between the eye and eye-lids by the villous
infide of the laft-named parts, and the glands of Meibo-
mius,

As a further proof, that the lachrymal fac has no other
concern in this difeafe than that of receiving the tears and
puriform fluid which are tranfmitted from the eye-lids,
Scarpa mentions, that if the morbid fecretion from the eye-
lids be retarded or ftepped, either by accident or the effe&
of applications, little or none of the vifcid, curdly fluid ac-
cumulates in the lachrymal fac, or can be preffled out of the
punéta lachrymalia.

The membrane which lines the lachrymal fac is one that
has no febaceous glands, and is only calculated for the fe-
cretion of athin mucus. A {mall addition of this latter may
be made to the puriform fluid and tears which are colleéted
in the fac, but the quantity cannot be confiderable.

_ We fhall now refume the account of the different ftates
of the diforder, as delivered by Mr. Pott. The inflamma-
tion of the integuments covering the fac is a circumf{tance
which makes a confiderable difference, both in the appear-
ance of the difeafe and its requifite treatment. In fome
cafes, it is confined merely to the furface of the tumour; in
others, it fpreads ftill farther, affecting the eye-lids, cheek,
and fide of the nofe. -

' When the parts are in this ftate, continues Mr. Pott, the
mucus within the bag has generally the appearance of being
‘matter, that is, it wears a deep yellow colour, and is of a
“more thin confiftence. If the punéta lachrymalia are na-
turally‘large and open, and the inflammation confined to the
furface of the fac, its contents will pafs off pretty freely,
and the {kin will remain entire. This is what the ancients
‘called the fimple or imperfed anchylops.

But, fays Mr, Pott, when the fkin covering the lachry-
mal bag has been for fome time inflamed, or fubje& to fre-
quently returning inflammations, it moft commonly happens

that the punéta lachrymalia are affeted by it; and the
fluid, not having an opportunity of paffing off through
them, diftends the inflamed fkin, fo that at laft it becomes
fleughy, and burlts externally. This was named the perfed
aigylops or agylops. The difcharge which ufed to be made
through the punéta lachrymalia, while the fkin was entire,
is now made through the new opening, and by excoriating
the eye-lids and cheek, increafes the inflammation, and
gives the difeafe a much more difagreeabie appearance. In
fome, the matter burfts through a fmall hole, and, after it
has difcharged itfelf, the tumour fubfides, the neighbouring
parts become cool, and, though the fisin covering the fur-
face of the fac is floughy and toul, yct there is no reafon to
believe that the facitfelf is much difeafed below. In others,
the breach is large, the fim remains hard and inflamed,
and, from the appearance of the fore, there is reafon to fup-
pofe the whole infide of the bag to be in a difeafed ftate ;
and, in fome cafes which have been much negle¢ted, or irri-
tated by ill treatment, the cavity of the fac feems to be
filled with a loofe, ill-natured fungus, which gleets largely,
and produces inflammation and excoriation of all the parts
about.

Mr.. Pott obfezves, that there is another circumitance
which is fometimes found to attend this diforder, viz. a
carious ftate of the bones. The practitioners, in ancient
times, ufed to fuppofe this complication was a very frequent
one; and hence tuey fo freely had recourfe to the cauttic,
cautery, and fcalpra, in the treatment. But caries is now
a{certained to attend the complaint but feldom.

When the fiftula lachrymalis is a fymptom of the lues
venerea, as it fometimes is, the bones are indeed often
carious; but then the fiftula is not the original complaint,
but produced fecondarily, and is a confequence of the dif-
eafed ftate of the os ethmoidesand offa {pongiofa of the nofe,
and is not curable by any local means or applications, but
depends entirely on the cure of the difeafe of which it is a
fymptom.

A very material difference, as Mr. Pott accurately ex-
plains, will be occafioned both in the appearance of the
diforder, in the prognoftic, and in the proper method of
treatment, by the combination of other difeafes, either’ of
the conftitution, the parts themfelves, or adjoining ones.
The patient, for example, is fometimes fubjeét to an habi-
tual ophthalmy or lippitudo, which will increafe the de-
formity, and give a good deal of additional trouble during
the cure. Mr. Port alfo obferves, that an ozena, or fome
other diféafe of the membrane and cells of the ethmoid bone,
or a polypus within .the nofe, may be combined with a fif-
tula lachrymalis. Struamous complaints are other frequent
attendants ; and, if we may believe Mr. Pott, it fometimes
becomes cancerous.

We fhall now proceed to {peak of the treatment of the
difeafe; and, for the fake of rendering this fubject as eafily
intelligible as poffible, we fhall imitate the above-mentioned
writer, by dividing the diforder into four ftates.

The firft confifts of a fimple dilatation of the fae, and an
obftruétion of the nafal duét, difcharging, upon preflure, a
mucus either quite clear or a little cloudy.

In the fecond, the tumour is fomewhat larger; the fkin
which covers it is ia an inflamed ftate, But entire; and the
difcharge made through the puncta lachrymalia is of a pale
yellow or purulent colour,

In the third, the fkin covering the fac.is become floughy,
and burft, by which means the {welling is in fome meafure
leffened ; but the mucus which, while the fkin was entire,
ufed to be prefled out through the puna lachrymalia, now

difchanges itfelf through the new aperture, The nafal dua,
both

.

FISTULA.

both in this and the preeeding ftate, is not otherwife difeafed
than by the thickening of its lining.

In the fourth, the paflage from the lachrymal fac into the
nofe is totally obliterated; the infide of the former being
either ulcerated or filled up with a fungus, and attended
fometimes with a caries of the bone underneath.

In the firft or moft fimple fate of the difeafe, wiz. that
of mere obftruction, without inflammation, various plans
have been devifed with a view of reftoring the parts to their
natural flate and ufe, without making any wound at all.
The chief of thefe methods have been the introduétion of a
probe, the injection of a fluid, and a conftant compreffion,
made on the outfide of the fac, in the corner of the eye.

A French furgeon, named Anel, invented a probe of fo
fmall a fize as to be capable of pafling through one of the
puncta lachrymalia, down into the nofe. As the inftrument
was thus pufhed through the lachrymal fac and nafal duct,
M. Anel conceived that it would be able to break any {mall
obftru@tion which might be met with.

The fame gentleman alfo invented a fyringe, furnifhed
with a very minute pipe, which admits of being introduced
into one of the puncta lachrymalia; and in this manner any
fluid may be injeéted into the fac and duct, in order to clear
away any thickened mucus or matter, which may be the
caufe of the tears not finding their way, as they ought to
do, down into the nofe.

With regard to the introdu€tion of a {mall probe through
one. of the punéta Jachrymalia, Mr. Pott obferves that the
plan has a very plaufible’appearance, but is unequal to the
tafk affigned: the very fmall fize of the probe, its flexibility,
and the little refiftance which it is capable of making, are
manjfeft deficiencies in the inftrument. He allows that fuch
2 probe may be pafled through one of the punéta down into
the nofe’; but he contends, that the pain which it gives,
aid the inflammation which it often excites, are much
greater than any benefit which does or can arife from it.
As for the idea, that this probe may be of ufe in removing
any obftruétion in the punéta lachrymalia, it isan unfounded
one; for fuch an obftruétion is feldom met with at all, and
hever can exift in this ftate of the fiftula lachrymalis, one
principal fymptom of which is a difcharge into the inner
corner of the eye, when prefftre is made on the fac. This
difcharge is made from the fac, through the punéta, and
‘proves that the latter are open. The ob{truction really
forming the difeafe is one that hinders any thing from paffing
from the fac into the nofe, and not from the eye into the
fac.

On the fubje& of the fcrew, which Fabricius of Aqua-
pendente invented, for making preffure on the lachrymal
fac, we need only fay, now that it has gone into perpetual
difufe, that though it anfwered the purpofe of compreffing
the fac very well, it did not operate in any way whatever on
the obitruction in the nafal du@, the primary caufe of the
difeafe.

M. Anel’s fyringe is entitled to a much higher fhare of
recommendation than has been given to his probe. Indeed,
the plan of injecting fluids through one of the punéta lachry-
malia into the lachrymal fac, for the purpofe of removing
any flight, recent obftruction in the nafal du&t, is what re-
ceives the fanétion of all the beft furgeons and oculifts of
the prefent day. It is evident, however, that it isa method
which can only be adopted while there is no ulcerated open-
ing in the fac, and only then, with much hope of fuccefs,
as long as the ftoppage in the nafal dud is flight, and fuch
as would be oceafioned by the lodgment of thickened
mucus.

Before entering upon the defcription of the manner in

which the eminent Mr. Ware employs Anel’s fyringe for
the cure of the epiphora, or firft {tage of the fiftula lachry-
malis, it is proper to acquaint the reader that, in the year
4780, fir William Blizard made the propdfal of injecting
quickfilver inftead of water into the lachrymal fac, by means
of a pipe {mall enough to be introduced through one of the
punéta lachrymalia, and fixed on the end of a long glafs
tube. In fhort, the inftrument is exaétly like what ana-
tomifts commonly ufe for injeéting the lymphatics. The

‘glafs tube being filled with the mercury, as high as the

practitioner may deem neceffary, and the little pipe intro-
duced into one of the punéta lachrymalia, the quickfilver
defcends by its fZecific gravity into the lachrymal fac, as
foon asa little {crew is turned, and, by reafon of its weight,
is, in fir -W. Blizard’s opinion, more calculated than water
propelled from a fyringe for removing the obftru@tion in the
nafal'duc&t. ‘The force with which the mercury acts de- -
pending entirely on its weight, it muft be manifett that the
higher the column of the metal is made, the greater mult be
the power with which it operates.

There cannot be a doubt that fir William Blizard’s
method is an exceedingly good one; but perhaps it has no
real advantage over the ufe of* the fyringe, fince the fluid
injeGed by this inftrument is one which is always ready at
hand, and operates with as much power as mereury, when
the practitioner choofes to propel it with force into the
lachrymal fac.

Mr. Ware made a trial of fir William Blizard’s method,
but at length preferred the employment of Ancel’s fyringe.
With this he ufually inje€ts warm water through the lower
pundctum lachrymale into the lachrymal fac, while a finger
is put over the lower punétum, in order to prevent the fluid
from making its way outward. The lachrymal fhould alfo
be now and then compreffed, for the purpofe of promoting
the defcent of the water down into the nofe. Ln particular
inftances, Mr. Ware has ufed the injeétion three times a
day; but, in general, much lefs frequently.. This gentle-
man relates, that his practice has been attended with con-
fiderable fuccefs. ’

Mr. Ware commonly commences his method of treat-
ment by injeéting fome water through the inferior panftum
lachrymale, and he repeats the operation four or five days
in fucceffion. If, inthis fpace of time, none of the water
fhouldjpafs through the duétinto the nofe, and the watering of
the eye be as troublefome as it was before the injeGtion was
employed, he commonly orders the angular vein to be open-
ed, or aleech to be applied near the lachrymal fac. How-
ever, Mr. Ware is careful in forbidding the leech to be put
on either of the eye-lids, left it fhould occafion an extrava-
fation of blood in the adjacent cellular membrane.

About the time when bleod is taken away from the vici-
nity of the eye, Mr. Ware is in the habit of changing the
injeGtion, and trying the effects of a weak, vitriolic, or
anodyne lotion. In fome inftances alfo, when, after feve-
ral attempts, he has not been able to inject any part of the
liquid through the duct, he has introduceda golden probe,
about as large as a briftle, through the fuperier punétum
lachrymale, and, attending to the direction of the duét, he has
infinuated the end of the inftrument through the obftruétion,
and conveyed it fully into the nofe. Immediately after
doing this, Mr. Ware has found, that a liquid, injected
through the inferior pun&tum, has paffed without any diffi-
culty into the nofe; and, by repeating thefe. operations a
few fucceflive days, the pervious {tate of the paflage has
been re-eftablifhed, and a cure accomplifhed.

"On fome other oceafions, Mr. Ware has advifed a ftrong-
ly flimulating fternutatory to be fiuffed up the nofe, about
aB

_diable by fome of the above means.

° FISTULA.

‘an hourbefore bed-time. Thusa large difcharge has been
excited from the Schneiderian membrane, which difcharge,
according to Mr. Ware’s account, has had the effeét of
materially contributing to remove the ftoppage in the nafal
du&.

Very few cafes prefent themfelves which are not reme-
In certain examples
which have been attended with a feetid difcharge, Mr. Ware
has corre€ted this bad quality, by inje&ting a vitriolic lotion
into the lachrymal fac.

The celebrated Scarpa of Pavia, who has lately pub-
lifhed fome excellent obfervations on the difeafes of the eyes,
has fet forth the do€trine, that the primary and principal
caufe of the Fftula lachrymalis does not exilt either in the
Jachrymal fac orthe nafal du&, as furgeons have hitherto
fuppofed, but in the morbid ftate of the eye-lids. Hence
the fame writer contends, that every method of treatment

which is merely calculated to heal the ulceration of the fac,

or remove the obftruction inthe nafal du@t, cannot accom-

_plifha permanent cureof the difeafe, without theemployment
_of fuch other remedies as are proper for correcting the dif-

eafed fecretion from the eye-lids.
In the firtt ftage of the Gftula lachrymalis, called by Scar-
a “il fluffo palpebrale puriforme,”’ this furgeon’s practice
confilts in fulfilling two indications; viz. firll, that of check-
ing the fecretion from the lining of the cye-lids, and the
glands-of Meibomius, from which difeafed fluid he thinks
that the fiftula lachrymalis originates; fecondly, that of

' diligently wafhing out the lachrymal paffages throughout

their whole extent.

For the firft objeé&t, Scarpa recommends the ufe of Janin’s
ophthalmic ointment, which is compofed of half an ounce
of hog’s lard, two drams of prepared tutty,. the fame
quantity of Armenian bole, and one dram of the calx hy-
drargyri alba. ‘The lard, after being wafhed three times
with rofe water, isto be well mixed with the other ingre-
dients, after they have been made into a fine powder.

When this ointment is firft ufed, it is to be rendered weaker
by the addition of a larger proportion of lard than what is
above-mentioned. A bit ofthe ointment, about the fize of
a barley-corn, is to be put on the end of a blunt probe,

‘and applied between the eye-lids and eye-ball, near the ex-

ternal angle, every morning and evening, and all the edgés
of the palpebre are alfo to be fmeared with the fame appli-
cation. ‘The patient is then to fhut his eye, and gently rub
his eye-lids, in order to diffufe the ointment all over their
internal furface. A comprefs and bandage are next to be

applied. At the end of two hours the eye may be unco-

vered, and wafhed with cold water. A collyrium of zincum
vitriolatum, and mucilage of quince feeds, is alfo to be ufed

- three or four times a day.

When there are {mall excoriations upon the edges of the

_ eye-lids, Scarpa recommends the unguentum hydrargyri ni-

trati to be applied at bed-time to the little fores. When
this remedy fails, he fays the argentum nitratum mutt be
gently rubbed along the margin of the eye-lids, and the eye
immediately afterwards wafhed with new milk.

Juft before every time of making thefe applications to the
eye-lids, Scarpa, in order to tulfil the fecond indication
above {pecified, advifes fome plantain-water, containing a

little fpirit of wine, to be injected into one of the puncta

t

Tachrymalia, by means of Anel’s fyringe.

With regard to the truth of the theory advanced by
Scarpa, concerning the primary caufe of the fiftula
lachrymalis, we cannot help having our doubts ; but of
the prattice which we have been defcribing we have
to exprefs ourentire approbation. Ifthe origin of the

Vou. XIV.

difeafe always depended on the morbid feeretion from the
lining of the eye-lids and the glands of Meibomius, why do
we not havea fiftula lachrymalis as an attendant on nume-

‘ rous ophthalmies in which we know and fee that fuch fe-

cretion is ina difeafed ftate? Befides, in the praétice of
furgery, we have moft pofitive evidence that the duétus na-
falis very frequently becomes obftru€ted by the preflure of
polypi and other tumours in its vicinity; and although
this caufe cannot be afligned as the ordinary one of the dif-
order, yet it proves that a filtula lachrymalis may fometimes
originate without the fecretion of the eye-lids being cou-
cerned in its production. Experience alfo thews that
colds which inflame and thicken the Schneiderian membrane,
fometimes bring on obftru€tions in the rafal duét. “Nor is
the ftatement of Scarpa altogether correét, when he ob-
ferves that the difeafe can never be permanently cured by re-
medies which only operate in clearmg away the obftructian
in the duct, without acting upon the difeafed inner furface
of the eye-lids. We have daily proofs that the epiphora,
the incipient itate of the filtula lachrymalis, or, as Scarpa

.terms it, the palpebral puriform difcharge, can be cured by

merely injecting warm water, with Anel’s fyringe, through
the lower punétum lachrymale. .

The ample experience of Mr. Ware is a confirmation of
what we have juft now remarked.

Much, however, as we have differed frem Scarpa in rela-
tion to the primary caufes of the fiftula lachrymalis, we
entertain the moft favourable opinion of that part of his
practice which arifes out of his theory. We allude to the
plan of applying fome fuch ointment as Janin’s, or the un-
guentum hydrargyri nitrati, to the edges and infide of the
eye-lids, Scarpa’s defcription of the difeafed ftate in which
the inner furface of thefe parts is found, is perfe&ly accu-
rate, and whether fuch ftate be regarded with him as a
caufe, or with us only as an effeét, there can be no doubt
that fomething fhould be done to rectify it.

We have now to {peak of the treatment of the fecond and
third {tages of the fittulalachrymalis, or of thofe in which
the fkin covering the lachrymal fac fs either inflamed or
burtt.

This part of furgery has only attained its prefent improved
flate within the fewlaftyears; and Mr. Pott, whowrote fo well
on every furgical {ubjec&t which attracted his notice, has re-
commended in his worksa mode of treating thefe ftates of
the fiftula lachrymalis. much lefs fimple and efficacious than
what modern furgeons now univerfally prefer. For inftance,
when the fac is burit, he diredts the opening, if neceflary, to
be enlarged with a knife, and, in other cafes, an incifion to
be made through the fkin into that cavity. He then ad-
vifes us to diftend the wound moderately with dry lint, or
prepared {ponge, fo as to beable, in two or three days, to

- afeertain the ftate of the infide of the fac, and of the du@us

nafalis. *When the formeris not floughy nor difeafed, and
the obftru€tion in the latter flight, a cure will fometimes en-
fue, according to Mr. Pott, on a free difcharge taking
place, and fuperficial dreflings being applied to the fore.

When this methiod is not attended with fuccefs, Pott
advifes us to render the nafal du& pervious, by introduciug
aprobe, a piece of catgut, or a bougie, from the wound
down into the nefe. When one of thefe inftruments will net
pafs all the way down at once, it is to be gently introduced

again and again until a paflage is obtained.

About the year 1781, Mr. Wathen tried the effec of in-
troducing a cannula into the nafal du@. His obje& was
not only to form a communication between the eye and the
nofe, but, by letting the wound heal over the inftrument,
to hinder the ebilruQion from returning afterwards. In

4F this

FISTULA.

this way many curés were effected; but, aftera time, the
method was found to be fubjeé to difficulties. The tubes,
as Mr. Ware relates, frequently changed their pofition in
the dut; fometimes they rofe too high; at other times
they funk toolow; and, in confequence of thefe accidents,
the tears often became obftruéted again, and all the old
fymptoms returned.

A. French oculift, M. Pellier, invented fome cannulex,
which had two projeéting edges; one at the top forming a
‘kind of brim, and another about the middle of the inftru-
ment. The intention of thefe was to keep the tube from
afcending or defcending, after granulations had occupied
the {pace between the two projecting brims.

Notwith{tanding the favourable accounts which have been
given of cannulz for the cure of the filtula lachrymalis,
Mr. Ware has experienced much difappointment from their
ule; and, among the objections to them, mentions the diffi-
culty which fometimes attends the attempt to withdraw
them from the duét, in which they have become fixed.

For the fecond and third ftages of the fiftula lachrymalis,
the treatment which now obtains univerfal preference is
that which Mr. Ware introduced into praétice. Whenever
a patient applies to this gentleman for relief, on account of
au obftruction in the nafal duct, he always thinks it right to
endeavour to free the canal from any thickened mucus which
may be lodged there, by injecting {ome warm water through
the lower pun&um lachrymale. At the fame time he tries,
when neceflary, the effect of other remedies, mentioned in
his writings on the epiphora. But if no benefit be per-
ceptible after employing thefe means about a week or ten
days; orif, fromthe long continuance of the obftruction,
fuch treatment cannot be expected to fucceed; he recom-
mends the operation which we are about to defcribe. How-
ever, with refpe& to children, Mr. Ware advifes it to be
deferred till they are eight or nine years old.

If the difeafe has not occafioned any external opening in
the lachrymal fac, or if there is an opening which is not
fituated ina right line with the longitudinal direétion of the
nafal duct, Mr. Ware advifes a punéture to be made inte
the fac, ata {mall diftance from the internal commiflure of
the eye-lids, and nearly in a line drawn horizentally from this
commiffure towards the nofe. ‘This openingis to be made
with a very narrow {pear-pointed lancet. ‘The blunt end
of a filver probe, which muft be rather f{maller than the
probes commonly ufed by furgeons, ought next to be intro-
duced into the wound, and be gently, but iteadily, pufhed
on in the direction of the nafal du@, with a force fufficient
to overcome the obftru@tion in this canal, and until there is
weafon to believe that it has freely entered into the cavity of
thenofe. Mr. Ware remarks that the pofition of the probe,
when thus introduced, will be nearly perpendicular; its fide
will touch the upper edge of the orbit ; and the fpace be-
tween its bulbous end in the nofe andthe woundin the flkin
will ufually be found in a full grown perfon to be about an
inch and a quarter, or an inch and three-eighths. The
probe is then to be withdrawn, and a filver ftyle, of a fize
nearly fimilar to that of the probe, but rather {maller, about
an inch and three-eizhths in length, with a flat head, like
that of a nail, but placed obliquely, in order that it may be
clofe on the fin, is to be introduced through the duét in
place of the probe, and to be left, for a continuance, in
this fituation, For the firft day or two after the ftyle has
been introduced, Mr. Ware informs us that it is fometimes
advifable to wafh the eye with a weak faturnine lotion, for
the purpofe of obviating any tendency to inflammation,
which may have been excited by the operation. However,
the fame gentleman obfervesthat thisinflammation is in general

fo flight, that he has feldom found it ne¢effary to ufe any
application for its removal. The ftyle fhould be withdiawa
once every day for about a week, and afterwards every
fecond or third day. Each time fome warm water fhould
be injeéted through the dué into the nofe, and the inftru-
ment be then replaced in the fame manner as before. Mr,
Ware next blacken3 the head of the ftyle with fealing
wax.

On the firft trials of this method, Mr. Ware entertained

no expe@tation that any relief would be obtained till the »

ufe of the ftyle was left off. He had the gratification of
finding, however, that the watering of the eye ceafed as
foon as the ftyle was introduced, and the fight became pro-
portionally better and ftronger.

In cafesin which there is no external opening in the la-
chrymal fac, or no opening which will anfwer the purpofe,
Mr. Ware only makes a pun@ture of juft fufficient fize to
admit the end of the probe or ftyle. This aperture foou
changes into a filtulous orifice, through which the {tyle may
be paffed without the leaft pain. In fhort, fays Mr. Ware,
in about a week or tendays, the treatment becomes fo eafy,
that the patient, or any friend, is fully competent to do what
isneceflary. It merely confifts in withdrawing the ftyle
two or three timesa week, occafionally injecting fome warm
water, and then replacing the inftrument in the fame pofi-
tion which it held before.

With refpe& to the time which the ftyle fhould be worn,
no determinate rule can be laid down. Mr. Ware acquaints
us that fome perfons, who find no inconvenience from the
{tyle, and are afraid to leave it off, wear it for years. Many
others leave it off in about a month or fix weeks, and con-
tinue quite well.

The fores which are frequently met with over the lachry-
mal fac generally heal as foon as the tears begin to find a paf-
{age down into the nofe. ‘Two examples, however, are re-
lated by Mr. Ware, in which the ulcerations did not heal
until the patient had taken a weak folution of the hydrar-
gyrus muriatus and bark.

The fourth and lait ftage into which the fiftula lachry-
malis is divided, is that in which the natural paffage from
the fac into the nofe is fo difeafed as to be quite obliterated,
or in which bones are carious.

In either of thefe circumftances the obje&t to be at-
tempted is to form an artificial paflage for the defcent of
the tears into the nofe.

Mr. Pott has explained, in a very clear manner, that the
upper and hinder part of the lachrymal fac ‘is firmly attached
to the os unguis, a {mall and very thin bone jult withia the
orbit of the eye. This bone is fo fituated, that if it be by
any means broken through or removed, the two cavities of
the nofe and of the orbit communicate with each other;
confequently, the os unguis forms the partition between the
hinder part of the lachrymal bag, and the upper part of
the cavity of the nofe. It is, lays Mr. Pott, by making
a breach in this partition, that we attempt the formation
of an artificial paflage for the lachrymal fluid.

For making a perforation in the os unguis Mr. Pott al-
ways employed a curved trocar, the point of which was
turned obliquely downward from the angle of the eye to-
wards the infide of the nofe. Some make the breach in
the bone witha knife; others with fome fuch inftrument as
a gimblet. As foon’as the communication between the fac
and infide of the nofe is made, the cireumftance will be
indicated by a difcharge of blood from the noftrilyand air
from the wound, upon blowing the nofe.

Without lengthening this article by detailing how the

ancients

. FISTULA.

ancients ufed to make the breach in the os unguis with the
actual cautery, which the celebrated Scarpa even now pre-
fers, or by explaining how practitioners a very few years
back were wont to. maintain the breach open by cramming
in tents, prepared {ponge, a piece of bougie, &c. we fhall
proceed at once to defcribe what is generally regarded as the
beft plan of keeping the artificial opening pervious.

Here we have to make the reader acquainted with an
improved mode of treatment, for which the public and the
profeffion are indebted to the ingenuity of Mr. Ware.
After the perforating inftrument is withdrawn, this gentle-
man advifes us to introduce a nail-headed ftyle, about an
inch in length, through the new aperture, in the fame man-
ner in which fuch an inftrument is pafled through the nafal
duét, in cafes in which the obitruétion is not fo great as to
prevent its paffing in this direCtion. The ftyle may alfo be
left in the opening made in the os unguis, with as much
fafety as in the natural duius nafalis, and this for as long
a time as may be deemed requilite for removing all chance
of the new paffaze becoming clofed again, Pott on the
Fiftula Lachrymalis. Ware on the Epiphora and Fittula
Lachrymalis. Scarpa fulle Principali Malattie degli Occhi.
Venezia, 1802.

Fiflule in Peringo.—Very often, in confequence of various
irritations affecting the urethra, inflammations and abfcefles
are occafianed areund this canal. Thefe collections of matter
may burft inwardly into the urethra, or externally, orin both
ways, in which latter cafe more or lefs of the erine flows out of
the opening, whenever the patient has need of difcharging
this fluid. Sometimes the artificial paflage through which
the urine is evacuated heals up, after the irritation in the ure-
thra is leffened. In other inflances, the caufe of the preter-
natural opening remains unremoved, and the urine pafling
into the abfcefs by the inner orifice, and, making its efeape
by the external one, keeps up a conftant irritation in the
fore, prevents the fides of the paffage from uniting, and
converts them into a hard callous fubftance, the inner fur-
face of which, as Mr. Hunter has remarked, lofes the dif-
pofition to union, and aflumes the nature of an outlet. Every
opening which is thus caufed, which partakes of this na-
ture, and is fituated in the perineum, or even in the fcrotum,
is, with the general confent of furgeons, denominated a

» fiftala in perinao.
» The kind of irritation in the urethra moft frequently oc-
cafioning fiftule in perinzo, is that which attends the ob-
Struétion produced by ftri€tures in this canal. When this
Jatter difeafe is very bad, and the urethra confiderably ob-
ftructed, nature frequently endeavours to procure relief by
ulceration on the infide of that part of the urethra which is
between the bladder and the ftri€ture The urine then pafles
into the loofe cellular membrane of the f{crotum and penis,
and the irritating quality of this fluid becomes a caufe of
duppuration wherever it is extravafated, and even of morti-
fication, firft, of all the cellular fubftance, and then, of fe-
veral portions of the fkin. If the patient continues to live,
all thefe floughs are detached, and the fores contract, till
nothing but the fiftulous aperture remains, through which
the urine makes its efeape. In fome examples the urine in-
finuates itfelf into the corpus fpongiofum urethre, is dif-
fufed all over this fubftance, even into the glans'penis, and
produces a floughing of all the parts in which it is lodged.
© Jn irritable conftitutions, in old perfons, and in fubjects
whofe fyitems have long been under the influence of the
Eaft or Weft India climate, fitule in perinzo feem to be
more eafily excited. We have often feen, in fuch patients,
abfceffes and openings, through which the urine flowed,
eccafioned by gonorrhwas, which could not be regarded as

fevere ones, and by ftri€tures which had not made fufficiest
obftruGion in the paffage even to render the perfons them-
felves con{cious of having any ftoppage of this kind at all.

Mr. Hunteradvifes us to treat inflammations which occur
in the vicinity of the urethra in the fame manner as inflamma-
tions in other parts. Refolution is very defirable, though
hardly to be expected, when a ftriGure is the caufe, in which
cafe f{uppuration almoft inevitably enfues. When matter is
formed, the fooner an external opening is made into the
abfcefs the better, as by this means we may fometimes,
though not often, prevent it from buriting inwardly inte
the urethra. Mr. Hunter recommends the external open-
ing to be made large.

In certain inftances it happens, when the colleGion of
matter burftsinternally, that the itri€ture is removed by the
ulceration, and is thus fortunately cured. But when the
ftriture continues, as it almoft always does, an attempt
muft be made to deitroy it by fome of the metheds which
will be defecribed in a fubfequent part of the Cyclopedia.
(See Stricture.) While the urine paffes through the
artificial paflage no cure can be hoped for.

From what has been already delivered, it muit be obvious,
that in every inftance in which a ftri€ture is known or fuf-
pected to have occafioned the abfcefs and fiitula in perinxo,
it is proper to examine the urethra with a bougie. Ifthe
obftruétion has been more or lefs deftroyed by ulceration,
fo that this inftrument, of a certain fize, can be paffed,
its employment fhould be almoft inceffantly continued, and
its fize regularly increafed as faft as circumitances will al-
low, in order to procure a free paflage onward to the blad-
der. Some practitioners, in the fame kind of cafe, would
prefer the ufe of bougies armed with cauttic; but this fubje&
more properly belongs to the article in which ftri€tures will
be confidered.

Some praGtitioners recommend hollow bougies to be worn
after the ftri€ture is in part removed, with a view of prevent-
ing the urine from pafling into the artificial opening. -Mr.
Hnuater remarks, that this inftrument allows the urine to
dribble away continually; but that its orifice may be itop-
ped up, and the urine only allowed to flow when the patient
has an inclination to make the evacuation. The hollow
bougie, according to the fame great furgeon, becomes,
under certain circumftances, the wort inftrument poffible ;
for if its canal is not of a fize fufficient to let the water pafs
as freely as the contra¢tion of the bladder requires, the fluid
will eatily pafs by the fide of the bougie, and not being
able to get more forward than the remaining. part of the
ftriGture, will of courfe run into the abfcefs in the perinzum.
In order to avoid this difagreeable occurrence as much as
poffible, the hollow bougies fhould be as large es the itric-
tured part will allow, and their fides fhould be as thin as pof
fible, fo that their cavity may be the wider. On. thefe ac-
counts the elaftic. gum catheters ought to be preferred to
common hollow bougies, made with fpiral wire, covered
with waxed cloth.

Mr. Hunter himfelf entertained doubts whether the abfcefs
in the perinzum was really prevented from healing bythe paf-
fage of the urine through it, and, confequently, he had novery
high opinion of the ule of hollow bougies. He obferved,
that after lithotomy the parts healed very readily, when they
were free from difeafe. Hence he fupe&ed that in ab-
{ceffes, and fores in the perineum, the want of difpofition to
heal arofe from the itriQures not being fufficiently fubdued,
or the deeper parts not being in a healthy ftate.

When {uppurations in the perineum are neglected, and
no attempt is made to cure the ftriture, the latter fometimes
clofesentirely, no bougie can be pafled through it, and all

4¥F2 the

SISTULA.,

the urine paffes through the artificial paflage. For fuch
inftances cauftic bougies are fuch as ought to be employed.

In cafes in which fuppuration takes place in the peri-
neum, in confequence of itri€tures in the uxethra, the fur-
geon fhould not limit his attention to the removal of the
latter affeCtion only; he fhould alfo make ufe of every means
which is proper for diminifhing the local inflammation,
Bleeding, and expofing the parts to the fteam of hot water,
are mealures fraught with peculiar efficacy. All prac-
titioners likewife acknowledge the great benefit which is
derived from the ufe of opium, adminiftered both by the
mouth and in glytters. Irritation and fpafm will be moft
effeCtually relieved by conjoining with the foregoing treat-
ment the employment of the warm bath.

In fome examples matter fofms in the perineum, and
purils both internally and externally, fo that a paflage is
made, through which the urine efcapes; but in confequence
of the abfcefs being circumferibed by the adhefive inflam-
mation, which fhuts up the cavities of the cellular fub-
ftance, the urine does not become diffufed.

The avoidance of fuch an extravafation, however, is fre-
quently not in the power of the furgeon ; an unfortunate
truth, becaufe floughing and abfcefles generally arife in
every place into which the irritating fluid infinuates itfelf.

As the mifchief continues to increafe as long as the urine
cannot find a free vent outward, and is, confequently, in-
jected more and more into the cellular membrane, the .prac-
titioner mutt not be guilty of delay. It very often happers
that all the methods related above prove infufficient, or un-
produétive of the prompt relief which is urgently demanded.
‘In this citcumftance the furgeon muft try by other means
to unload the bladder, and prevent the increafing extrava-
fation in the cellular membrane of the permeum, ferotum,
and adjacent parts. Thefe two great defirable objets may
be effeéted by making an opening into the urethra, fomewhere
beyond the ftriture; though the nearer to it the better.

With this view, Mr. Hunter advifes a diretor or ftaff
to be introduced into the urethra, as far as the ftri€ture, and
an incifion made down upon the end of the inttrument. The
cut is then to be lengthened a little towards the anus, fo as
to open the urethra juft beyond the ob{truction.

In cafes in which the ftri@ure happens to be fituated op-
pofite the fcrotum, we are recommendéd by Mr. Hunter to
make an opening into the urethra in the perineum. It is
obvious that in fuch inflances we cannot have the ftaff to
guide us, and we muft be dire&ted by our knowledge of
anatomy. A cannula is then to be pafied from the wound
to the ftriG@ure, and another cannula from the glans penis
alfo to the obftruétion, fo as to meet the other tube. A
perforating inftrument is then to be puthed from one can-
nula into the other, by which means the itricture will be pe-
netrated. The next ftep is to withdraw the two tubes, and
introduce a gum-catheter, which is to be worn tillthe wound
3s healed,

Thefe proceedings, however, are only to be confidered
as proper in certain very urgent cafes. In others, the in-
creafing diffufion of urine may be ftopped by merely making
an opening into the urethra, fomewhere between the {tric-
ture and bladder; and, indeed, in the generality of in-
ftances, a diligent ufe of bougies, and making depending
apertures for the difcharge of the urine, which becomes
extravafated, will remove all occafion for more fevere mea-
fures.

Nor fhould the important confiderations which we have
*juft been foeaking of monopolize all the pratitioner’s at-
tention. Other mattersalfo require his care. ‘That inflam-
mation, which is conftantly excited wherever the urine is

extravafated, fhould be diminifhed as much as poffible,
Fomentations and poultices fhould be applied, and the fame
{caritications and incifions which ferve to let out the-urine,
and prevent its {preading further in the cellular fubftance,
will alfo ferve to give vent to whatever pus may be colleéted,
When there are floughs, which is too frequently the cafe,
the incifions fhould of courie rather be made ia the infen-
fible dead parts than in the living ones. However, the
advantage of having a depending opening ought even to
be paramount in the furgeon’s mind, to the faltely humane
motive of not fubjeéting the patient to pain. By fubmitting
to requilite operations, it is true the latter fuffers for a time,:
but it is equally obvious that he would certainly fuffer
much more, and perhaps ultimately die, were fuch opera~
tions negle@ed. It is frequently the cafe in furgery, that
thofe proceedings which to an unthinking perfon feem
bold, bloody, and cruel, are in reality, with regard to
what the patients muft feel, the moft tender and humane,
and, with regard to his fafety, the moft difcreet. Were
the furgéon’s knife not ufe¢ when difeafes require it, the
patient certainly would not feel the fharp edge of the
inftrument ; but he could not in this way elude pain, which
would be tenfold greater, when refulting from the increafing -
ravages of the difeafe, than When infliéted by the furgeon,

with this material difference, that in one inftance it is fuf~

fering for the chance of a recovery ; in the other, it is fuf-

fering in all probability to die.

} In cafes of old fiftule in perinzo, in which the dangers arif-

ing from an extravafation of urine are over, either common qr

armed bougies are to be ufed for the purpofe of making the

urethra as free from obftruétiou as poflible. When the {tric-

tures give way, and the urine can flow freely forward,

thertiiulats openings in the perineum often fpontaneoufly-

eal.

When the urethra is completely free from ftrictures, and
i the fiftulz in perinzo do not beal, the finufes are to be
aid open like all others which have no difpofition to get
well. One great object in performing fuch operations is
to cut as little as poflible of the found urethra. On this ae-
count, Mr. Hunter advifes us to find the inner orifice of the
filtule, if poffible, by introducing a ftaff, which is to meet
the end of a probe pafled through the tiftule into the ure-
thra. Surgeons ought to underftand, that though filtulze
in perinzo often have feveral external openings, they feldom
or never have more than one internally, with which they coms
municate with the urethra. A direétor is the moft
convenient inftrument when the ftraight courfe of the fiftula
will allow it to be introduced. When the filtulous
paflage is tortuous, a probe is bett, becaufe it can be bent
into any fhape.

The probe or direGtor being introduced fo asto meet the
ftaff, the furgeon is carefully to lay openthe finus, through
which it paffes, and he is to do this till he has. cut as far as-
the ftaff.

When no probe nor dire&tor can be made to enter fo far
as to touch the ftaff, the furgeon muft lay open as much of
the finus, as what the inftrument enters, and then endeavour
to find the continuation of the fiftula. 3

As foon as the fiftulous finufes are all laid open down to
their termination in the urethra, a gum catheter fhould be
introduced, and worn at firft almoft without intermiflion.
However Mr. Hunter recommends the catheter to be
difufed, as foon as the fores become ftationary, as it fome-
times has the effe&t of preventing them from healing.

The fame eminent furgeon alfo advifes us to drefs the
wounds at firft down tothe bottom. If this prudent. method
were negleted, the fuperficial parts might clofe, while the

deeper

FIS

deeper ones remained unhealed, and frefh abfceffes and
fiftule be the confequence.
Fistura, Salivary. See Sarivary Fifula,
Fisrura Pulmenis, in Anatomy, aterm ufed by fome
writers for the a/pera arteria.
Fisruva Sacra, is that part of the back-bone which is
perforated.
Fisruza Urvinaria, the fame with the urethra.
FISTULAR, or Fisrutous, is applied by the fur-
geons to woundsand ulcers which degenerate into filtulas.
Fisruzar is alfo applied to the leaves of plants. which
are round and hollow within; as the leaves of leeks,
&e.
Visrurar Mowers, among Herbali/ls, are thofe made up
of many {mall, long, hollow flowers, like pipes.
FISTULARIA, in Jchthyology, a genus of abdominal
fifhes, the {nout of which is cylindrical ; jaws diftant from
the eyes; gill-membrane with feven rays; body round, and
gradually tapering from the jaws to the tail.
< Species,
‘Tapacarra. Tail bifid, and ending inafetaceous pro-
eefs. Linn. Petimbuaba, Marcg. Tobacco-pipe fish, Will.
A very fingular fpecies, found in the feas of America and
- Japan. The ufual length of this fith appears to be from
twelve to eighteen inches, exclufive of the briltle-form pro-
cefs which proceeds from the extremity of the body
between the two lobes of the caudal fin, and in general
meafures rather more than one-fourth the length of the
body. Some writers, however, affure us that the tobacco-
pipe filh grows to the length even of three or four feet.
The fhape is that of an eel, the fkin fmooth, of a livid
brown colour above, and filvery beneath; the back and
fides are marked with longitudinal feries of blue fpots, dil-
pofed on each fide the middle of the back in two diftin&
lines ; the lateral line is ftraight, and the fins pale red. In
dome examples of this fifh the tail exhibits two of the above-
mentioned filiform appendages inftead of one ; whether this
ought to be confidered as an accidental circumftance, or as
a criterion of fexual difference is uncertain; Dr. Bloch
obferves that the fnout of thofe with two appendages to
the tail is ferrated. According to the remarks of Count de
Cepéde the {pine of this fith 1s very peculiar in ftruéture,
the firft vertebra being of immoderate length, the three
next much fhorter, and the reft gradually decreafing as they
approach the tail. The fpecies fubfifts on fmaller fifhes,
marine infeéts or worms, &c. which the itructure of its
fnout enables it to obtain, by introducing that part into the
_cavities of the rocks.
Cuinensis. ‘Tail rounded, and without the long appen-
dage. Linn. Chinefe trumpet fifh.
A native of the Indian feas, and poffefling the fame
habits as the former. Its general fhape refembles that of
the common eel. The head is elongated, fomewhat bony,
and compreffed at the fides; the {nout tubular and rather
broad; mouth fmall; eyes rather large; and the body
covered with fcales of moderate fize. ‘The prevailing colour
is reddifh-brown, of a pale hue, with three or four whitifh
ftripes extending from the gills to the tajl; the upper part
of the body variegated with dufky f{pots, and the'fins pale

_ yellow.
_ Parapoxa. Body reticulate with prominent lines ; tail
lanceolate. Gmel. Pallas. Paradoxical filularia.

_ A fpecies apparently defcribed in the firft inftance by

Seba, and fince with yet greater accuracy by Pallas. This
_ fifh is of the fmaller kind, being only from two or three
inches in‘Jength, or four inches at the utmoft. The body

ELT

is whitifh-afh, with obfolete brown rivulets; the firft
dorfal fin and tail blackifh; compreffed, and fpinous at the
interfections of the lines. The back is triangular, and the
belly towards the ventral fins nearly of the fame figure 5
behind them narrower, and equally fix-fided; tail coms
prefled, and feven-fided’ ‘The head is rather {mall; eyes
large, at the bafe of the fnout, and witha triangular. {pine
on each fide before the orbit. The fnout is remarkably
long, ftraight, horny, and terminated in a mouth of {mall
dimenfions. ‘The napeis armed with three {pines ; the gill-
openings are fhallow, fmall, and radiated with a few pro-
minent lines. he firft dorfal fin is long, reclined, and
banded with black; the peétoral fins are very broad; the
ventral remarkably large, with the rays deeply cleft and
divided, and conne@ed by means of a lax membrane in the
form of a longitudinal pouch.

FISTULATOR, Lat. a piper.

FISTULOUS U cer. See Fistuva.

FIT, in Medicine, an accefs, exacerbation, or paroxy{m
of difeafe. The term is applied particularly to intermittent
or periodical difeafes; as we fay an ague-fit, the cold or
hot fit of the fame complaint ; and alfo to all fudden or vio-
lent difturbances of the fyflem, as to the attack of apo-
plexy, epilepfy, hyfteria, &c. The word fits, when ufed
without any epithet, applies principally to hytterical attacks
in women, to the convulfions of children, and, among the
vulgar, to epilepfy. See Convutsions, Epiversy, and
Hysreria; alio Cotp fi.

Fits of ea/y reflection and ly tranfmiffion, See Licut.

Fits of the mother. See Hysteric affedion.

FITAQUE, or Firogui, in Geography, a town of
Japan ;. 30 miles E. of Jeddo.

FITCHBURG, a pott-town of America, in Worcefter
county, Maffachufetts; 25 miles N. of Worcefter. It con-
tains 1390 inhabitants.

FITCHEE, or Ficuer, in Heraldry, is when the
lower part of any crols is fharpened into a point fit to fix
into the ground. Thus, he bears azure, a crofs-potent
fitchee.

The origin hereof M‘Kenzie afcribes to the primitive
Chriftians, who ufed to carry. their croffes with them
wherever they went : and when they ftopped at any place in
a journey, fixed them in the ground.

FITCHES, in Agriculture, a common name often ap-

lied by farmers to vetches. Crops of this fort are grown
in the field both as a green food for live-ftock, and their
produce in feed. They are mottly fown broadcait over the
land, and_harrowed in bya light harrow; but occafionally
in drills at narrow diftances.

The feafons for putting the crops into the ground are
either the autumn or ipring, according as they are
wanted.

They are occafionally likewife cultivated as a green crop,
for being turned into the foilas a manure. This is afually
done juit before they come into bloflom, when they are in
their moft luxuriant ftate. See Manure.

When ufed green for foiling cattle, they are an excellent
food; and when given in the pod extremely fattening. See
Tares and VeTcHEs.

FITCHET, aname ufed in fome places for the wea-
fel; called alfo the jitchel and the foumart, See VIVERRA
Putorius.

FITSIL Heap, in Geography, acape of Scotland, on
the W. coaft and S. extremity of Mainland, one of the
Shetland iflands. N. lat. 59° 50’. W- long. 1° 44".

FITTING-OUT, iw Naval! Language, the act of pro-
viding a ship with a fufficient number of men, to navigate

aud

Fie

and arm her forattack or defence; asalfo of furnifhing her
with proper matts, fails, yards, ammunition, artillery,
cordage, anchors, and other naval furniture, together
with fufficient provifions for the fhip’s company. See
Crew.

FITTRE’, or Fippri, in Geography, a country of
Africa, otherwife called Luffi, and Couga or Cougu,
ituated on the borders of a large lake to the fouth of Be-
garmee. It is governed by a fultan, and his dominions
have been much diminifhed by the encroachments of the
fultans of Begarmee and Wadey. The inhabitants live in
{mali tents, and are faid to be in a low degree of civiliza-
tion. They have no falt, except what they procure from
the afhes of goflab. The lake is fituated 210 miles S.
ef Bornou. N. lat. 15° 50!. E. long. 22° 30!

FITZ, a Freachterm, literally denoting fon; fometimes
given by way of addition to the natural fons of the kings
of England; as James Fitz-Roy, duke of Grafton,
&e.

FITZHERBERT, 5% Anruony,in Biography,a learn-
edlawyerand judge,who flourifhedinthereignof Henry VIT1.
was the yourtger fon of Ralph Fitzherbert, efq. of Norbury,
in the county of Deiby. He was educated at Oxford,
and purfued his {tudies, as preparatory to the pra€tice at
the bar, in one of the inns of court in the metropolis. He
attained the degree of lergeant at law in 1511, and received
the honour of knighthood about the fame time. In 1523
he was appointed one of the juftices of the court of
Common Pleas, in which office he pafled the remainder of
chis life, and was difttiguifhed by many valuable legal
works, as well as by fuch an honourable difcharge of the
duties of his office, as made him efteemed an oracle of the
law. In the difcharge of his duty he feared no man, and
oppofed the arbitrary proceedings of Wolfey in the height
oF his power. On his death-bed he is faidto have exacted
a promife from his children that they would neither accept
grants, nor make purchafes of lands of the diffolved religious
foundations, to which they conftantly adhered. He died
in the year 1538, leaving a numerous pofterity. His
principal writings are, “© The grand Abridgment,’’ a col-
leGtion of cafes abridged: ‘* The office and authority of
Juftices of Peace;’? ‘¢The office of Sheriffs, Bailiffs of
Liberties, Conftables, &c.’’ and** The new Natura Brevium.”’
He is fuppofed to have been the author of a work entitled
«« Of the furveying of Lands ;” andalfo of « The book of
Hutbandry.” —Biog. Brit.

FirzkerBert, Tuomas, grandfon of fir Anthony,
was born in the county of Stafford in the year 1552, where
he received the early parts of his education, after which
he went to Oxford to purfue his ftudies. On account of his
rigid adherence to the catholic principles, in which he had
been brought up, he expofed himfelf to occalional reproofs
from his fuperiors, and at length became an object of per-
fecution, and was committed to prifon in the year 1572.
Tarfh_ meafures rarely make a man lefs tenacious of his prin-
ciples ; and, upon his liberation, he became more ative in
promulgating the doétrines of popery than he had ever
been, till at length he was obliged to feek fafety in con-
cealment. In the year 1580 he connected himfelf clofely
with fome Jefuits fent into England as miffionaries, aflifting
them as far as he was able with money and advice. By this
condu& he incurred the penalties of ‘premunire,’? and,
alarmed at the rifks he was every day running, he went to
France. This was in the year 1582; he interefted himfelf
very much in behalf of Mary queen of Scots ; and when the
death of that unfortunate princefs rendered his exertions no
Jonger of any avail, he went to Madrid to implore the pro-

-over the Englith miffion there.

FIT

tetion of Philip II. in behalf of the catholics, and their
religion in England. From Madrid he went to Rome, took
a lodging near the Englifh college, and obferved the fame
devotions as the inmates of that houle, and {pent the re-
mainder of his time in writing books in defence of the ca
tholic religion. In 1614 he became a member of the
fociety of Jefus, was admitted to prieft’s orders, and almoft
immediately afterwards removed to Flanders, to prefide
Here he difplayed great
learning and talent, and acquired fo much efteem by his be-
haviour and conciliating manners, that he was invited to ac-
cept the retorfhip of the Englifh college at Rome, the
duties of which he difcharged with high reputation for
twenty-two years. He died at Rome in the year 1640, at
the very advanced age of eighty-eight. As an author his
works are numerous, but being chiefly on controverted
points of religion, they have little claim to notice. Biog.
Brit.

Firzuersert J/land, in Geography,a {mall ifland in the
Florida ftveam, at the entrance of the gulf of Mexico.
N. lat. 24° go!. W. long. 81° sol. i

FITZHUGH?’s Sounp, a narrow channel of the N.
Pacific ocean, between Calvert’s ifland, and the W. coaft of
North America.

FITZJAMES, James, in Biography, duke of Ber-
wick, natural fon of king James II. by Arabella, fitter to the
great duke of Marlborough, was born in 1671 at Moulins,
in France, where his mother was, in her return from the
baths of Bourbon. He was educated for the military pro-
feffion, and diftinguifhed himfelf at an early age at the fiege
of Buda and battle of Mohatz in 1686 and 1687. On his
return his father conferred upon him the title of duke of
Berwick, &c. with the orderof the garter. At the revo-
lution he accompanied the abdicated king to France, and
afterwards went over to Ireland to command in the abfence
of lord T'yrconnel. He fuftained important commands at
the fieze of Londonderry and the battle of the Boyne, and
when all was loft in that country he returned, and ferved in
the armies of France. Inthe fervice of Louis XIV. he
diftincuifhed himfelfin a very high degree, and in 1703 he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the troops fent into
Spain to the affiftance of Philip V. and intent folely upon
his duty as a general, he in a fingle campaign reduced a
number of important places. Asareward for his great
prowefs, and for the many vi€tories which he had obtained,
he was made marshal of France in 1706. In the fame year
he returned to the command in Spain, and fignalized his
military {kill by a campaign, in which, without fighting a
battle, he obliged the enemy to evacuate Caftile, ‘con-
ducting them,”’ fays his biographer, “from poft to poft asa
fhepherd leads his flock.”? In 1707 he obtained a fignal vic-
tory over the Englifh and their allies, for which he received
the higheft honours in rank and titles that the crown of
Spain could confer. He was afterwards entrufted with the
army on the Rhine, oppofed to that of the empire, and in
1710 he commandedin Dauphine, where with great fkill he
foiled all the attempts of the duke of Savoy with a fuperior
army to break into France. He was now created a duke
and peer of France by the title of Fitz-James. Notwith-
ftanding his attachment and obligation to France, in the
year 1719 he obeyed the orders of Louis, in taking the
command of an army deftined to invade that country, and
{oon made himfelf mafter of Fontarabia. He was after-
wards commander-in-chief of the troops in the fouth-weftern
provinces of France; and in the year 1730 was made
governor of Strafburg, War being renewed between the
empire and France, he was appointed general of the French

4 army

FIV

army in Germany, and, in 1734, undertook the fiege of
Philipfourgh, during which he was killed by a cannon-fhot
on June 12th, at the age of fixty-three. We was naturally
of a cold, referved, and auftere temper, but he was a man of
principle, fincere, upright, and diftinterefted. He made few
promifes and profeffions of friendfhip, but no man per-
formed more fervices to his friends. He avoided all in-
trigues, and never fpoke ill of any man. As a general
his great talent was in defenfive war, and he defired nothing
fo much as to havea good fortification to defend. He elti-
mated his own merit with modefly, but fuch was the public
and general opinion of him, that his death was regarded by
the French, in whofe caufe he died, as a great national
calamity. Moreri.

FITZROY Isxanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland near
the N.E. coaft of New Holland; 5 miles N.E. of cape
Grafton.

FITZSTEPHEN, Wituram, in Biography, who
flourifhed in the 12th century, was defcended from a noble
Norman family, and born in London. When he had made
a confiderable progrefs in literature at home, he went to
France to complete his ftudies. Upon his return he entered
into the monattic ftate at Canterbury, and by his learning
and talents obtained the notice and patronage of the arch-
bifhop, Thomas Becket. To this prelate he became at-
tached by habits of intimacy and {trict friendfhip, adhering
moft zealoufly to him and his caufe in the different reverfes
of his fortune. After the murder of Becket he exhibited
his attachment by drawing up a life of that prelate in the
Latin language. The life of the archbifhop is introduced
by a defcription of the city of London, and a detail of the
manners and cuftoms of the inhabitants in that period. This
is faid to be the earlieft account extant of London, and is
to be feen in Stowe’s Survey. Fitzltephen died in the year
I1gt.

FITZWILLIAM, in Geography, a townfhip of Ame-
rica, in Chefhire county, New Hampfhire, about 16 miles
E. of Conneticut river, and feparated from Royallton in
Maffachuferts by the ftate line; incorporated in 1773, and
containing 1240 inhabitants.

FIVE Bonnets, a clufter of fmall iflands in the
Mergui Archipelago. N. lat. 10° 29).

Five Brothers, a clutter of {mall inflands
Huron. N. lat. 44°55!. W.long. 83° 28’.

Five Fathom bank, a fhoal in the Ealt Indian fea. S. lat.
5° 53 EB. long. 119° 2'.

Five Fingers’ point, a cape on the S.W. coaft of New
Zealand, forming the north cape of the fouth entrance into
Dufky bay ; the rocks of which bear fome refemblance to
the five fingers of the hand, whence itsname. The land of
this point is a narrow peninfula ftretching off from Refolu-
tion ifland, of a moderate and equal height, and wholly
covered with wood.

Five J/land harbour, abay on the W. coatk of the ifland
of Antigua. N. lat.17° 13’. W. long. 61°35’.

Five Nations of North America, fo called by Engliih
writers, are the Iroquois of the French, being the Mo-
hawks, Oneydoes, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Sennekas,
forming five clans joined in an old confederacy of offence and
defence. :

Five-leaved Grafs, Cinquefoil, in Heraldry, is uled by
fuch as would introduce a blazon by herbs and flowers in-
ftead of metals and colours, to figuify vert, or green.

FIVEL, in Geography, a river of Holland, which runs
into the Ems, near Delfzy!, and gives name toa {mall coun-
‘ry on its banks between Groningen and the mouth of the
. ~ >> {mall towns and villages,

in lake

Anint:

FIX

FIUMARA pb: Muro, a town of Naples, in Calabrig
Ultra; 8 miles N. of Reggio, ~

FIUMARELLA, La, a riverof Naples, which runs
into the gulf of Squillace, 2 miles S. of Cantazaro.

FIUME. See Sr. Veir.

Fiume Fredde, atown of Naples, ia Calabria Citra;
11 miles W.S.W. of Cofenza.

FIUMICINO, a fea-port inthe dominions of the Pope,
at the mouth of the Tiber, with a cuftom-houfe, where
veflels pay for their goods on board; 2 miles S.W. of
Porto.

FIXATION, the a& of fixing, or of rendering a thing
firm and fixed.

Fixation is applied in the general to any procefs that
fixes and binds together what, of its own nature, is volatile;
and enables it to fuftain the lofs of fire for fome confiderable
time.

Geber defines fixation an operation whereby a volatile
thing, i. e.a thing that cannot endure the fire, is rendered
capable of enduring it. In the general, fixation is the
changing of a volatile body into a fixed one.

Fixation, among Alchemifis, denotes a peculiar pre-
paration of mercury, whereby it isto be putin a condition
to bear the fre without evaporating, or the hammer without
flying or feparating.

The alchemifts hold, that if they had the true fecret of
fixing mercury, without the addition of any foreign, lefs
heavy and folid ingredient, they could make gold, or at
leaft filver.

M. Homberg had a long procefs of many months to pre-
pare an oil from the fecal matter of human excrements ;
which he imagined would have fixed mercury into filver ;
but it failed.

FIXED Arr. See Arr, Carsonic 4cid, and Gas.

Fixep Bodies, in the general, are thofe which neither the
fire nor any corrofive has fuch effe& on, as to reduce or re-
folve them into their component elements ; i. e. abfolutely to
deftroy them.

Chauvin holds it not fufficient to denominate a body tixed
that it can with{tand the fire or any one agent, but it fhould
withftand all. He contends, that fixity fhould not be re-
ftrained, as it ufually is, to an exemption from evaporation,
but from deftruction, or refolution into primary elements :
inthis fenfe, gold, precious ftones, and glafs, and even fui-

phur, and mercury itfelf, are properly fixed bodies; for
mercury and fulphur retain their nature notwithitanding all
their evaporation.

The chemiits divide all natural bodies into fixed and vo-
latile ; 7. e. fuch as bear the utmott force of the fire without
diffipating or {pending themfelves in fume, and fuch as de
not.

Of fixed bodies, the principal are plati
precious ftones, particularly the diamond ;

Of all metals, gold and filver alone are Gxed; f. e. on Te-
maining a long time expofed to the moft intenfe flame, they,
alone, lofe nothing of their weight.

Whence this property fhould arife is dificult to fay. If
the teader is not contented with the caufes enumerated under
Fixiry, he may add the following one from Boerhaave, viz.
the homogeneity and equality of parts. The }
of gold being all homogeneous and equal, will equally
fuftain each other, and leave equal pores between them ;
through which pores, when fufed, the fire finding an eafy
equal paflage, goes off, without carrying any thing ef the
metal with it: orrather the particles of gold being of all
others the moft folid and heavy (as appears from the weight
of that metal) and of all others the moit itrongly united or

bound

gold, filver,

Sy XC.

the rarts, ¢. gt

Fix

fheund together (as appears from the immenfe ductility of
that metal), the force of the fire is not fufficient to over-
come fo powerful a refiftance ; the folidity of the particles,
and their freedom from air, prevents their. being rarefied, or
fet farther apart, which might leffen their fpecific gravity,
and diminifh their wis cohefionis ; fo that what has the chief
effe& in'the raifing’of fumesand vapours, viz. the rarefaction
or expanfion of the body being here precluded, the
metal maintains its natural weight and tendency to the
‘centre. ;

Mr. Boyle, the Prince of Mirandola, M. Homberg, and
others, have made numerous experiments on gold, filver, &c.
to fee how far their fixity extended ; in thefe pure gold,
kept inan intenfe heat for two months, loft nothing fenfible
of its weight : filver, under the like circumflances, and the
like time, loft one-twelfth part of its weight: but
“Mr. Boyle attributes this to the metal’s not being fine and

re.

Indeed, by the great burning-glafles of Meffrs. T{chirn-
*haufen and Villette, the moft fixed bodies, as gold itfelf,
‘are rendered volatile, and lofe’of their weight ; fo that there
is no body in all nature abfolutely fixed.

Fixep Ecliptic, a certain imaginary plane, which never
changes its pofition in the heavens from the aétion of any
of the parts of the folar fyftem on each other; but, like
a centre of inertia, remains immoveably fixed. The ex-
iftence of fuch a plane is demonftrated by Laplace, who has
fhewn the method of determining it from the fituations,
velocities, &c. mafles of the planets, and other bodies of the
folar fyftem. The rule for determining it is as follows.

If at any inftant of time whatever, and upon any plane
pafling through the centre of the fun, we draw ftraight
lines to the a{cending nodes of the planetary orbits referred
to this plane; and if we take on thefe lines, reckoning
from the centre of the fun lines equal to the tangents of the
‘inclinations of thefe orbits to this plane ; andif, at the ex-
tremities of thefe lines, we fuppofe mafles equal to the
mafles of the planets, multiplied refpectively into the fquare
roots of the parameters of their orbits, and by the colines
of their inclinations; and laftly, if we determine the centre
of gravity of this new fyftem of bodies, then the ftraight
line, drawn from the centre of the fun to this point, will
‘be the tangent of the inclination of the invariable plane to
the affumed plane ; and continuing this line to the heavens,
will there mark its afcending node.

Whatever changes the Iucceflion of ages may produce in
the planetary orbits, and whatever be the plane to which
they are referred, the plane determined by this rule will al-
ways be the fame. It is true, its pofition depends on the
maffes of the planets; but thofe which have fatellites have
the greateft influence onits pofition, and the maffes of the
others will foon be fufficiently known to determine it with
exaCinefs. In adopting the values and the elements of
their orbits, as given under Eremenr, we find that the
longitude of the afcending node of the invariable plane was
402° 56' 56".1 at the commencement of 1750, and at the
fame time its inclination to the ecliptic was 1° 35! 40".9.
In this computation we have negleGed the comets, which,
neverthelefs, ought to enter into the determination of the
invariable plane, fince they make part of the folar fyftem.
It would be eafy to include them in the preceding rule, if
their mafles, and the elements of their orbits, were known.
But in our prefent ignorance of the nature of thefe objects,
we fuppofe their maffes too {mall to influence the planetary
fyftem, andthis is the more probable, fince the theory
of the mutual attraétion of the planets fuffices to explain
all the inequalities obferved in their motions. But if the

EIR

-aétion of the-comets fhonld become fenfible in Jength of
time, it fhould principally affe@ the pofition of the plane
which we fuppofe invariable, and in this point of view, the
-coniideration of this plane will itill be ufeful, if its variations
could be recognized, which would be attended with great
difficulties.

The fituation of this fixed ecliptic is at prefent nearly
half way between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, and it
is inclined in a {mall angle to the plane of the earth’s orbit

. or true ecliptic.

The property by which it is determined is that the fum
of theareas deferibed by the radii vedtores of the bodies of
the fyitem multiplied refpeGively by the maffes of thele
bodies, is a maximum.

Fixep Line of defence, aline drawn along the face of
the baltion, and terminating in the curtain. See De-
FENCE.

Fixep Nitre, a preparation of faltpetre, made by fufing
it ina crucible, and then inflaming it, with throwing ina
few coals ; and thus again and again, till no more flanie or
detonation arife ; then letting it cool, they pulverize and
diffolve it in water, and afterwards evaporate it into a fine
white falt, which ferves to draw the tinétures out of vege-
tables. This falt, per deliguium, yields what they call the
liquor of fixed nitre. :

Tixep Salis, are thofeextra@ed or gained from bodies by
calcination and lotion. See Sats.

They are called fixed, becaufe the fire was not able
to fublime or raife them; as thofe carried off in the
courfe of calcination by the vebemence of fire are called
volatile.

The afhes of all plants yield fixed falts. See Lixivium.

Fixep Signs of the Zodiac, according to fome, are the
figns Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, and Aquarius.

They are fo called becaufe the fun paffes them refpective-
ly in the middle of each quarter, when that feafon. is more
fettled and fixed than under the fign which begins and endsit,

Fixep Stars are fuch as conftantly retain the fame pofi-
tion and diftance with refpeé& to each other.

By which they are contra-diftinguifhed from erratic or
wandering ftars, which are continually fhifting their fitua-
tion and diftance.

The fixed ftars are what we properly and abfolutely call
ftars; the reft have their peculiar denomination of planet
and comet.

FIXEN, among Sport/men. See Vixen.

FIXES is a name given by the workmen in gold and
filver to a folution in filver, from its ufe in garrying down
te fixing the heterogeneous acids mingled with aqua-
ortis.

FIXITY, or Fixepness, in Philofophy, the quality
of a body which denominates and renders it fixed ; ora pro-
perty which enables it to endure the fire and other violent
agents. :

According to Chauvin, fixity confiftsin this; that the
component principles of the body are fo clofely united or
cohere fo ftrongly, and are mixed in fuch proportion, that
they cannot eafily be divided either by fire or any other cor-
rofive menftruum, or their integral parts feparated and car-
ried off in vapour: for a body may be faid to be fixed in two
re{pects.

Firft, when, on being expofed to the fire, or a corrofive
menttruum, its particles are indeed feparated, and the bod
rendered fluid, but without being refolved into its fir
elements. The fecond, when the body fuitains the active
force of the fire or menftruams,whilf its integral parts are
not carried off in fumes. Each kind of fixity is the re-

6 fult

FIX

Tult of a flvong or intimate cohefion between the particles
mixed.

‘Frxirr, or Fixednefs, in Chemifry, is, in a peculiar
manner, ufed for the affection oppolite to volatility ; 7. ¢.
the property whereby bodies bear the action of the fire,
without being diffipated in fumes, ee
~ The principal caufes of fixity, or the qualifications that
‘contribute moft to the rendering a body fixed, according to
Mr. Boyle, are, 1. That its corpufcles be fingly of a cer-
‘tain proportionable bulk, too big and uiwieldy to be car-
ried by heat, or buoyed up in the air, 2. That they have
alfa a proper degree of weight or folidity. 3. That their
figure be fuchas unfits them for evaporation or flying off ;
fome being branched, others hooked, &c. fo that being en-
tangled with one another, they cannot eafily be extricated,
loofened and feparated. To thefe may be addeda fourth
‘eircumftance, viz. the nearnefs of the particles, and_ their
being contiguous in a great many points, or large extent of
furface, which produces a ftronger force of attraction and
‘echefion. i :

FIXLMILLNER, Pracipvs, in Biography, was born
at a village near Lintz, in Auftria, in May, 1720. He
was educated by his uncle, Alexander, who was abbot of
Kremf{muntter, to whom that. inftitution was indebted
for the eftablifhmeut of a fchool and obfervatory. At
a very early pericd he ufed to take much deligh* in de-
lineating mathematical figures. At a proper time he went
to Salzburgh, where he went through a courfe of philo-
fophy, and attended the mathematical lectures of profeflor
Stuart, who had this peculiarity in his mode of teaching,
that he never made ufe of figures, and yet gave fo clear an
idea of the different propofitions as rendered the comprehen-
fion of them eafy. In the year 1737, he took the vows of
a monattic life, and applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy
of philofophy and mathematics. Nor was he lefs afliduous
in laying a folid foundation in the modern and oriental lan-
guages, hiltory, and antiquities. He obtained the degree
of dogtor in theology, and in 1745 took prielt’s orders at
his monaftery. He alfo undertook the profefforfhip of ec-
clefiaftical law at the fchool belonging to the monattery,
which was frequented by the young nobility from Auttria ;
an office which he difcharged for forty years. He was
about the fame time made dean of the higher fchools, and
regent of the young nobility. His general knowledge of
the law rendered him a fit perfon to be confulted in regard
to law-{uits; and, ona fimilar account, he was appointed
“¢ Notarius Apoftolicus in Curia Romana.” As his high
reputation brought mauy fludents to Kremfmuntter, he did
not confine himielf to the public hours of teaching, but re-
peated his leétures privately, and was always ready to affift
his hearers, and to give them every explanation in his power.
Notwithitanding his diligence and zeal in the way of educa-
tion, it was not on thisthat his fame was built ; but his at-
tachment to aftronomy rendered him moit confpicuous, and
known in foreign countries. His uncle, Alexander, re-
folved, in the year 1747, to found an eftablifhment in his

_ monattery, for the purpofe of difleminating mathematical
knowledge. With this view, he fitted up an apartment to
contain the neceffary inftruments, and for making experi-
ments‘of every kind. He alfo caufed an obfervatory to be
built in his garden, and in the courfe of time Fixlmillner
was appointed aftronomer, retaining at the fame time his
office as profeflor of the ecclefiaftical law. His application
to the ftudy of this fcience was fo intenfe, that he made the
moft rapid progrefs in it, and publifhed feveral works, in a
few years, of great merit. His fervice, however, to prac-
tical aftronomy confiits chiefly in his having made and col-
© Vous XIV. ,

FIZ

le€ted, at the defire of Lalande, a great many obfervations
on Mercury, and thereby enabled the French aftronomer te
conftruéct his tables of that planet. This fervice Lalande
publickly acknowledged, and likewife inferted his obferva-
tious in the fupplemental volume to his aftronomy. Fixl-
millner was alfo one of the frft aftronomers who calculated
the orbit of the Herfchel planet, and conftruGted the tables
which were adapted to it. He was the perfon who proved
the truth of profeffor Bode’s conjecture, that the ‘thirty-
fourth ftar of Taurus, obferved by Flamftead in the
1690, was the new planet; and by applying Fla
obfervations to calculation, he produced a theory which
fully agreed with the phenemena of it. It would take us
much beyond the limits allowed for the article, were we ta
attempt recording ali that this aétive aftronomer did for his
favourite feience. He had alfo an uncommon genius for
mechanics, and inveated many practical helps to obferva-
tion; fuch as a new micrometer, and a machine for grind-
ing concentric circles on glaffes with great accuracy. His
indefatigable induftry injured his health; and he died in
Auguft, 1791, in the 71# year of his age. He was fimple,
uniform, ard conftant, like the laws of rature which he
ftudied and ilinftrated: his chara¢ter difplayed that mildnefs
and integrity, which rever fail to infpire efteem and love.
He lived in great harmony with his monaftic brethren ; and
It was a day of general joy to the whole eftablifhment, when,
in the year 1788, he celebrated the fiftieth anniverfary of his
refidence in it. Gen. Biog.

FIXTELA, in Geography, a town of Morocco, 4 miles
from Tefza,

PIZES, Anruony, in Biography, an eminent phyfician
of Montpellier, was the fon of Nicholas Fizes, profeffor of
mathematics in that univerfity, and was born in the year
1690. He received his early education entirely from his
father, who deftined him his tucceffor in the mathematical
chair. But in the courfe of his attendance in the clafles of
the college, he acquired a great difpofition te the ftudy of
medicine, which he purfued with fo much ardour and ad-
vantage, that his father was induced to yield to his folicita-
tions; and, notwithtanding the mediocrity of his income,
fent Anthony to complete his medical education at Paris,
under the tuition of Du Verney, Lemery, aud the twa
Meflis. De Juffieu. On his return to Montpellier, he em-
ployed himfelf in obferving difeafes in the hc (pital de la
Charité, and in public teaching. On the death of his fa-
ther, he was appointed joint profeffor of mathematics with
M. De Clapiers, and foon became his fole fucceffor. He
held the mathematical chair until the labours of his medical
courfe, and the extenfion of his practice, compelled him ta
refign it. In 1732, the medical profefforfhip in the uni-
verfity became vacant by the refignation of M. Deidier, and
Fizes was eleéted his fucceffor. He fulfilled the duties of
this chair with great propriety, but with lite eclat. It
was in the practice of his profeffion that his fuperiority was
particularly confpicuous, for he poffeffed an extraordinary
talent for obfervation. Being endowed likewife with a
found judgment, and an uncommon memory, he appreciated
at once the charaGter of the moft complicated difeafe; and
was above all admired for the accuracy of his pragnoftics.
Thefe qualitications placed him at the head ef his profefiion
at Montpellier: his Eine extended to the metropolis, and
he was invited to the office of phyfician to the duke of
Orleans, His age was now, however, advanced ; and the
fear of the jealoufy which this high appointment might
produce among his brethren, led him to make fome efforts
to be permitted to decline this honour. He removed to
Paris, neverthelefs ; but, unnfed to the intrigues, and rail-

4G leries,

FLA

leries, and cabals of a court, he was unhappy m his fitua-
tion: his health began to fail, aud he was induced to re-

ueft permiffion to refign his office, and returned to Mont-
‘pellier, after refiding fourteen months at Paris, honoured
with the proteétion of the prince, and the friendfhip of M.
Senac, Aftruc, Bordeu, &c. He was acetfed of a little
‘mifanthropy on this occafion; but he was an enemy to
adulation and felfifhnefs, and feemed to revolt from every
{pecies of artificial politenefs. He refumed the functions
ef his profefforfhip at Montpellier, but for a fhort period ;
for he was carried off by a malignant fever in the courfe of
three days, and died on the 14th of Auguft, 1765, aged
about 75 years. His works were principally eflays on dif-
ferent points of theory and prattice: 1. “ De Hominis
Liene fano,”’ Montpellier, 17163 2. “ De naturali Secre-
tione Bilis in Jecore,” ibid. 1719 ; 3. Specimen de Sup-
paratione in Partibus mollibus,” ibid. 17225 4. “ Partium
Corporis humani Solidarum Confpectus Anatomico-Me-
chanicus,” ibid. 1729; ° 5. “ De Cataraéta;” 6. “ Uni-
verfe Phyfiolegie Contpeétus,” ibid. 3 7G ie ee
Tumoribus in Genere,”’ ibid. 1738; 8. “ Traétatus de
¥ebribus,” ibid. 1749. The greater part of the writings
of Fizes were colleéted in one quarto volume, and were pub-
Yfhed at Montpellier in 1742. Eloy.

FLABELLUM, in Leckfiaftical Hifory, the flapper
or fan which was heretofore ufed in the Latin, es it is {till
in the Greek church, to keep off flies from the prieft and
the altar, during divine fervice. At prefent it is only ufed
in the Latin church, in the folemn proceflions of the pope,
when two attendants carry enormous large flabella or fans,
made of peacock’s feathers, and fixed on poles, one on each
fide of the chair in which the pope is carried, to drive away
flies, and to keep off the rays of the fun.—This was alfo
one of the names of the vane or weather-ceck, on the top
of a church, as we learn from the following paflage in the
Annales Wintonienfes: ‘* Anno 1248, cecidit flabellum de
turri S. Swithuni, quando clafficum vefpertinum pulfabatur,
et fere contrivit Joannem Monachum.”

FLACCIDITY, in Medicine, &c. a diforder of the
fibres or folid parts of the body, oppefite to rigidity.

FLACCOURT, F. Dz, in Biography, direttor-general
of the French Eaft India company, ¢ anded, in 1648,
an expedition to the ifland of Madagafcar, where he con-
tinned feveral years; and, during his refidence there, he
drew up a particular hiftory of the country, which he printed
in one volume quarto, with plates defigned by himfcif, and
dedicated to the fuperintendant Fouquet.. Nouv. Dict.
Hilt. See FLacourTia.

FLACCUS, C. Vaverivs, a Roman poet, who
flourifhed in the reign of Velpafian, and died at an early age,
in the time of Domitian. From an epigram in Martial, it
fhould feem that he was in no affuent condition; for he ad-
vifed him as a friend to quit the mufes for the more gainful
purfuits of the forum. The work on which his fame refts
as a poet is entitled “¢ Argonauticon,”” ia eight books. It
is in imitation of the Greek poem cf Apollonius Rhodius
on the fame fubje&t, and may rank among the nioft refpec&-
able of the Latin epics after the A®neid, the manner and ftyle
of which he aims at copying. ‘The bet edition of it is that
of Burmann, 1724, in 4to. It contains fublime and fplen-
did paflages, and is free from the bombait and extravagauce
of moft of the fecond race of Latin poets; but it is in
general deficient in poetical {pirit, and is kewife wanting in
plan and contrivance. Rom. Hilt.

Friaccus, a Roman mufician, who fet the comedies of
Terence to mufic.

FLACHSTADT, in Geography, a {mall iNand in the

1727:

rir sz

North fea, about 40 miles from the coaft of Norway N-
lat. 68°.

FLACIUS, or Fraxcowirz, Marruias, in Bios
graphy, was born at Albona in Ltna, in the year 1520.
His father, who was a literary man, undertook the educa-
tion of his fon ; but dying while the youth was quite young,
he fell into hands who were either incapable of affording
him affillanee, or negligent of the charge committed to
their care. But by his own application, and fome occa-
fional affiance which he received from a learned Italian, he
made confiderable progrefs in claffical literature and the
belles lettres. He went to Venice, and ftudied under Bap-
tifta Egnatius; and when he was but 17 years of age, he
felt a {trong inclination for theological purfuits, and, from
his {traightened cireumftances, was defirous of entering a
monaftery; but he was diffuaded from the plan, and went
to Bafil, where he {tudied fome months, and embraced the
opinions of the reformers. From Bafil he proceeded ta
Tubingen, where he received the initructions of the cele-
brated Camerarius ; and in 1541, he became the difciple of
Luther and MelanCthon, the latter of whom gave him ver
fub{tantial proofs of his regard and liberality. After he had
taken his degree, he married, and was appointed publie
profeffor of Wittemberg. During the war between the
confederate proteftants and the emperor Charles V., the
{cholars were difperfed from the Saxon feminaries,- and
Flacius went to Brunfwick, where he obtained a high re-
putation by his lectures; and upon the termination of hof-
tilities in 1547, he returned to Wittemberg, to refume his
former fituation in that yniverfity. In the year 1548, a
controverly took place among the followers of Luther, ia
which Flacius futtained a leadiag payt, and difplayed much
bigotry and intolerance. It originated in the debates among
the Saxon divines concerning the expediency of fubmitting
to the famous edict of Charles V., called the interim. Me=
lan&thon aad others concurred-in the opinion, that in mat-
ters of an indifferent nature compliance was due to the im-
perial edigts; and in this clafs they placed many things
which had appeared of the highelt importance to Luther,
among whita were the doétrine of juftification by faith
alone, the neceflity of good works to falvation, the number
of the facraments, extreme undtion, and certain rites and
ceremonies relative to church difcipline. On the other
hand, the defenders of the primitive doétrines of Luther-
anifm, with Flacius at their head, attacked with much bit:
ternefs and fury thele accommodating divines, and aecufed
them of apoitacy from the true religion. Among other
abfurd notions which Flacius, in the heat of argument,
avowed, was this, that original fin was not an accident, but
the very /ui/lance of human nature. The’odium which he
excited by embracing this ftrange notion, rendered it necef-
fary that he fhould relinquifha profefforthip at Jena, which
he had held five years: he accordingly withdrew to Ratif=
bon, where he continued to publith many books. In the
year 1567, he was invited, with fome other Lutheran
miniiters, to Brabant, to model fome churches in that
country on the principles of the Aug{burg confeffion ; but
they were foon difperfed by the bloody perfecution under
the duke of Alva, shen he removed to Strafbourg, and
afterwards to Frankfort on the Maine.. The number of his
adherents had greatly declined in Germany; and he died in
1575» when he had completed the 55th year of his age.
He was a man of excellent talents, great learning, and
overbearing zeal againit popery ; but his turbulent, factious,
and quarrelfome temper rendered his good qualities of little
avail. He was author of many works, which are enume-
rated at large by Moreri: the principal are, ‘¢Clavis Sacre

1 Scripture,??

His

Scripture,”’ in 2 vols.; and “ Centuriz Ecclefiaftiow Hif-
torie Magdeburgenfes,”? in 3 vols. folio. Moreri. Bayle.

FLACOURTIA, in Botany, fo named by L’Heritier,
im memory of Stephen de Flacourt, a native of Orleans, fu-
perintendant of a colony for fome time eflablifhed by the
French in Madagafcar, and author of an account of that
ifland, publithed in quarto at Paris in 1658, and at Troyes
in 1661. He was the firft who gave a hiftory of the mch
natural produtions of that country, and though, as Haller
obferves, not a deep naturalift, he was certainly not defli-
tute of obfervation. He defcribes many new and rare
plants, efpecially {wch as are ufeful for food, giving figures
of the Ieavesonly. L’Herit. Stirp. Nov. 59. Schreb. 702.
Mart. Mill. Did. v.2. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 413. Juff.2gt.
Clafs and order, Dioecia Polyandria, Dryander. D. Ico-
JSandria, L?Herit. Nat. Ord. Tihacee, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, in five or
more deep; roundifh, obtufe, nearly equal, afcending feg-
ments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments ::umerous, from 50
to 1co, rather longer than the calyx, capillary, fpreading,
equal, inferted into a central hemifpherical receptacle ;
authers roundifh, of two cells. Pi/?. wanting, though
fometimes the abortive rudiments of one are difcernible.

Female, Ca/. Perianth inferior, of five or more roundifh,
ere@t, clofed leaves, downy on their infide. Cor. none.
Stam. none. iff. Germen fuperior, ovate, feffile, rather
longer than the calyx ; ftyle none; ftigma ftellated, of from
five to nine fpreading, oblong, obtufe, furrowed rays.
Peric. Berry globular, becoming angular by drying, um-
bilicated, of many cells. Seeds two in each cell, one over
the other, obovate, compreffed, with a furrow on the up-

r edge.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla
none. Stamens very numerous.

Female, Calyx of feveral leaves. Corollanone. Stigma
radiated. Berry fuperior, of many cells. Seeds in pairs.

F. Ramonicht is the only known fpecies. L’Herit.
Stirp. Nov. 59. t. 30. Lamarck t. 826. Native of Ma-
dagafcar, where, according to Flacourt, it is called d/a-
moton, and according to Poivre Ramontchi. This isa /brub
eight or ten feet high Branches {preading, alternate,
round, fmooth, leafy, dotted, armed with ftraight lateral
{pines. Leaves alternate, on fhort downy ftalks, {preading,
ovate, acute, {mooth, veiny, with many fhallow ferratures,
often purplifh at the edges. Stipulas none. J/owers {mall,
few, in terminal clufters ; the male ones chiefly confpicuous
by their yellow anthers; the female appearing before the
frefh leaves come out. J°rvit like a fmall plum, at firft
green, then of a fine red, and finally of a deep violet, {weet
and eatable, but teaving a flight acrimony in the mouth.
Seeds bitterifh, like the kernel of acherry. An ifland on
the coaft of Madagafcar, 10 leagues to the fouth of Foul
point, was named by the French i/fe aux prunes, plum
land, becaufe they found it covered with bufhes of Ra-
montchi. ;

Propagation and Culture—This thrub flowers in our
ftoves in June ard July, but has not yet produced any fruit.
L?Heritier fays both fexes bloffomed at Paris, where the
plant was kept in the green-houfe, but he had never hap-
pened to fee them both in one fummer. It is propagated
by cuttings or layers, but has little beauty or utility to re-
commend it to our care in this country.

FLADABUNA, in Gengraphy, a fmall ifland near the
N.W. coatt of Scotland ; 7 miles N. from the ifle of Skye.
N. lat. 57° 42’. W. long. 6° 19’.

FLADDA, a {mall iland of Spotland, near the N.E.

FLA

coalt of the ifland of Skye. N. lat. 57° 37’. W. long. 6° 8!
—Alfo, a fmall ifand of Scotland, one of the Trefhannifh
iflands, weft of that of Mull. N. lat. 56° 32'. W. long.
6° 24.

Fiavpa Jffes, three fmalfifiands among the weftern
iflands of Scotland, about 1 mile W. from the ifland of
Sandera. N. lat. 56° 52'. W.long. 7° 32!

FLADHUNA, au inconfiderable ifland of Scotland, ta
the north of Hunifh, not far from Skye, and at fome dif-
tance from the coa{t, which was formerly inhabited. In its
vicinity are fix or feven rocks, one of which iz about 300
paces in circuit, and flat on the fummit, with a deep well
in it.

FLADSTRAND, a fea-port town of Denmark, ia
North Jutland, and diocefe of Aalborg, on the ealt coaft,
with a harbour defended by three forts. The chief employ-
ment .of the inhabitants is fifhing; 30 miles N.N.E, of
Aalborg. N. lat..57° 27'. E. long. 10° 32’.

FLADUNGEN, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric
of Wurzburg; 40 miles N.of Wurzburg. N. lat. 50° 35.
E. long. 10° 20!.

FLAG, a general name, including colours, ftandards,
ancients, banners, enfigns, &c. which authors frequently
confound with each other.

The fafhion of bearing the flags pointed or triangular,
which now obtains, Roderic. Toletanus affures us, came .
from the Mahometan Arabs or Saracens, upon their feizing
of Spain, before which time all the enfigns of war were
{quate, ftretched, ov extended, on crofs pieces of wood,
like church-banners; on which account they were called in
Latin vexilla, q.¢. velille, a veli diminutione, as ts remarked.
by Ifidore.

The pirates of Algiers, and thofe throughout the coalt
of Barbary, are the only people who bear an hexagonal flag.
It is gules, charged with a Morefk head, coifed ‘with its
turban, &c. though this be exprefsly contrary to their law,
which prehibits the making any image or reprefentation of
a man, founded on an opinion, that they who make them
fhall be obliged at the day of judgment to find fouls for
them, and that in defect hereof they fhallbe damned. But
this portrait which they carry is that of Hali, Mahomet’s
fon-in-law, to whofe party the Africans all retain, who or-
dered that his efigy fhould be expreffed on their flags and
ftandards, believing himfelf fo formidable to the Chriftians, °
that the bare fight of his image would carry undoubted vie
tory over them. Leunclavius.

Fiacs, in the Ailitary Art, are {mall banners of df.
tinGion ftuck in the baggage-waggons of the army, to dif-
tinguifh the baggage of one brigade from another, and of
one battalion from another, that they may be marfhalled by
the waggon-matter-general, according to the rank of their
bngades, to avoid the confufion that otherwife might arif@.
See Corours and SranpDarps.

Fac is more particularly ufed in Sea-Language, for the
colours, ancients, flandards, &c. born on the top of the
mafts of veflels,-to notify the quality ef the perfon whe
cominands the fhip, of what nation it is, and whether it be
equipped for war or trade.

In the Britife navy flags are either red, white, or blue,
and are difplayed from the top of the maintmaft, fore-matt,
or mizen-matt, according to the rank of the admiral. The
firft flag in Great Britain is the royal ftandatd, which is
only to be hoifted when the king or queen are aboard the
veflel. The fecond is that of the anchor of hope,’ which
chara@erifes the lord high admiral, or lords commiffioners
of the admwalty ; avd the third is: the yaion flag, ia whieh

4G2 lee

FLA

mioic Loricatus), that in fix days Ke could difcharge an en-
tire century, by a whipping of three hundred thoufand
itripes. His example was followed by many penitents of
both fexes ; and as a vicarious facritice was accepted, a flur-
dy difciplinarian might expiate on his own back the fins of
his benefactors, ‘Chefe compenfations of the purfe and the
perfon, introduced, in the rrth century, amore honourable
mode of fatisfaction, the merit of military fervice, which
was followed by-the croifades. See Croisapes, Disci-
PLINE, INDULGENCE, and PENANCE.

The parliament of Paris prohibited all public flagellations
by an arretof 1691. See Fracevianrss.

FLaGeLiarion isa term more peculiarly appropriated
to the fufferings of Jefus Chrilt, when whipped and f{eourged
by the Jews; -from the Latin, flagellem, a@ fcourge, or
whip.

We fay, a painting of the flagellation ; or fimply, a fla-
gellation, to denote a picture or print reprefenting this tor-
ment inflicted on the faviour of the world.

In this fenfe we fay the flagellation of fuch a painter,
&e.

Fraceirarion, [eaft of. See Diamasricosis.

FLAGELLIFORMIS Cauuis, in Botany, a long
and pliant ftem as in Periploca greca, and many other plants.
See Cautts, where this term is accidentally omitted. The
common jafmine is a good example of it.

FLAGEOLET,a Frajover, a kind of little flute; or
a mufical inftrument of the flute kind, ufed chiefly by fhep-
herds and country people.

It is ufually made of box, or fome other hard wood,
fometimes of ivory. It has fix holes or ftops, befides
that at bottom, the mouth-piece, and that behind the
neck.

The ambit of the flageolet, according to the fcale exhi-
bited by Merfennus, is two o@taves from g /ol re ut up-
wards.

FLAHERTI, Roperic, in Biography, an Irifh anti-
quarian and hiftorian, who publifhed at London, A. D.
1685, a book under the fingular ard mytftic title of ** Ogy-
gia, or Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia,”’ containing chro-
nological memoirs upon the antiquities of the kingdom of
Treland ; compiled, as he obferves, ‘ex pervetuftis monu-
mentis fideliter inter fe collatis eruta, atque e facris et pro-
fanis litteris primarum orbis gentium, tam genealogicis,
quam chronologicis fuffulta prefidiis.”? ‘This work, a quar-
to volume containing about 600 page, he dedicated to the
then duke of York, afterwards king James II. of England.
Theauthor commences his hiftory from the deluge, conti-
nues it to the year of Chrift 428, and has divided it into
three parts. he firft defcribes the iffand, its various names,
inhabitants, extent, kings, the-manner of their annual elec-
tion, &c. The fecondis akind of chrovological parallel of
the Irifh affairs with the events that happened during the
fame period in other countries. The third isa more ample
detail of particular tranfactions,in the fame. k:ngdom. ‘To
this is added a profeffedly exa&t chronological table of all
the Chriftian kings who have ruled over Ireland, from A.D.
482 till A. D. 1022 ; anda brief relation of the moft pro-
minent hifleric features of the ifland, till the time of Charles
Ul. in 1685. Tothis fucceeds a chronological poem, which
forms a fummary of Irifh hiftory to tne fame period. At
the end is avery curious catalogue of the Scottifh kings,
Iuifh, who have reigned in the Britifh ifles.
logical remarks on the regal houfe of the Stewarts, the
author attempts to prove they were originally an Inifh family.
Tt is furprifing, that neither the author nor his work has.

been noticed by Macpherfon or Whitaker in their-contro-:

In his genea-

FLA

verfy refpe@ting the peopling of Hibernia, and the origin’
of the Caledonians ; although he is particularly noticed by
O’Hallaran in his Hiftory of Ireland. See Moreri, Grand
Dis. Hit.

FLAIL, in Rural Economy, a well known implement
or tool made ufe of in threfhing different forts of corn. It
confifts of a hand-ftaff, anda {hort beating part, whieh are
attached to each other by a ftrong thong of leather, pafling
through loops or ftaples fixed on the ends of the different
pieces. Since the introdu€tion of machines for threfhing,
the flail method has been much lefa had_recourfe to, except
upou farms of fmall extent, as being more laborious and
troublefome, and lefs expeditious in the execution ef the
work. See TuresuinG Machine.

FLAIR, in Sea Language. The feamen fay that the~
work doth flair-over, when a fhip being houfed in near the
water, fo that the works hang over a little too much, and
thus is Iet out broader aloft than the due proportion will
allow.

Frarrs, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to the
fkate, a{pecies of raja.

The ancient Greeks called this datos, when they {poke
of the male, and of the female, datis.

FLAKE, in the Cod-fifhery, a fort of feaffold or plat-
form, made of hurdles, and fupported by. ftanchions, and ufed
for drying cod-fifh in Newfoundland. Thefe flakes are
ufually placed near the fhores of fifhing-harbours. See
FisHery.

Friaxe, in Gardening, a name gived by florifts to thofe
flowers of the carnation kind which have only two colours,
es very large {tripes, all of which go quite through the
eaves.

Fraxe, White, in Painting, is lead corroded by means of
the prefling of grapes, or a cerufe prepared by the acid of
grapes. It is brought here from Italy, and far furpaffes,
both with regard to the purity of its whitnefs and the cer-
tainty of its {tanding, all the cerufe or white lead made with
usincommon. It is ufed in oil and varnifh painting, for
all purpofes where a very clean white is required. The
white flake fhould be procured in lumps as it is brought
over, and levigated by thofe who ule it, becaufe that which
the colourmen fell in a prepared ftate is levigated and mixed’
up with itarch, and often with white lead, and worfe fophif-
tications. t

FLAMANT, or Framineéo, in Ornithology.
Puoenrcorprerus ruber.

FLAMANVILLE, in Geography, a fea-port town of
France, in the department of the Channel, with a good
harbour, ro miles S.W. of Cherburg, ;

FLAMBEAU, or Framsoy, a luminary made of fe-
veral thick wicks, covered over with wax, ferving to burn
at night in the ftreets ; as alfoat funeral proceffions, illu-
minations, &c.

Flambeaux differ from links, torehes, and tapers. See
Torcu.

They are made fquare, fometimes of white wax, and
fometimes of yellow; they ufually confift of four wicks
or branches near an inch thick, and about three feet long,
made of a fort of coarfe hempen yarn, half twifted. They
are made with the ladle, much as torches or tapers are,
viz. by firlt pouring the melted wax on the top of the feve-'
ral fufpended wicks, and letting it run down to the bottom ;
this they repeat twice. Atter each wick has thus got its
preper cover of wax, they lay them to dry; then roll them
on the table, and fo join four of them together by means of
ared-hotiron, ~ ;

“When joined, they pour on more wax til the flambeais)
18

See

‘ FLA

is brought to the fize required, which is ufually from a
pound anda half to three pounds.

The laft thing is to finith their form or outfide, which
they do with a kind of polithing inftrument of wood, by
running it along all the angles formed by the union of the
branches. ;

The flambeaux of the ancients were different from ours.
They were made of woods, dried in furnaces, or othere
wife. They ufed divers kinds of woods for this purpofe ;
the wood moft ufual was pine. Pliny feys, that in his time
they frequently alfo burnt oak, elm, and hazle. In the fe-
venth book of the AEneid, mention is made of a flambeau of
pine; and Servius, on that paflaze, remarks, that they alfo
made them of the cornel tree.

FLAMBO, in Natural Hifory, a name given by fome
to a long anguilliform fifth, called cavagiro. See CEPoLa
tenia.

FLAMBOROUGH, in Geography, a townfhip of
England, in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, on the coatt of
the German fea, containing about 730 inhabitants ; 3
miles N. of Burlington. :

FramsBoroucu Head, a lofty cape or promontory of
England, on the E. coaft of the county of York. N. lat.
54° 8’. W. long. 0° 2!.

This promontory is formed of lime-ftone of a fnowy
whitenels, and ftupendous height, vifible far offat fea. A
light-houfe has been lately erected on this head, in which is
exhibited a triangular revolving light, diftinguifhed from
the revolving lights of Tinmouth and Cromer by fhewing a
face every two minutes, one of them being coloured
red.

FLamsBorouGH, a factory of the Hudfon bay company,
on the fouth-wettern fide of Hndfon bay.

FiamporouGn, a townfhip in Upper Canada, diftin-
guifhed by E.and W. Flamborough, in the Weft Riding of

_the county of York, and lying W. of the Miffafaga lands,
and fronting Dundas ftreet.

FLAME, (famma, Latin,) is the aGiual burning, attended
with heat and light, of a volatile combuttible fubftance ; and
this fubftance may be either a comminuted folid, (viz. a
powder,) or a vapour, or a gas.

The powder of rofin, and of other brittle refinous bodies,
the farina of feveral plants, and fome other powdered
combuttibles, when projected through the flame of a can-
dle, or of a piece of burning paper, inftantly take fire, and
the flame fpreads through the whole powdery cloud.
Powders of this fort are uled at the: play-houfes for repre-
fenting a flafh of lightning or other fudden light. Pow-
dered rofin, and the powder of lycopodium, have been
found to produce this effe& equally well; yet the latter,
when it may be procured, is by far preferable to the former,
and that on account ofits being an unadhefive light powder,
eafily brufhed off from any thing, whereas the powdered
rofin flicks to, and foils every thing that it happens to fall
upon. ;

The vapcur of certain inflammable fluids, fuch as fpirit
of wine, ether, f{pirit of turpentine, &c, are inftantly in-
flamed by the contaét of a candle, or other flaming body, or
by a {park of eleGtricity, and continue to burn as long as
there. is a fufficient fupply of it. ss

_ The inflammable gafes, when they are extricated either
by the action of heat, or otherwife, from fubftances that
contain them, may alfo be inflamed, and will burn in a fimi-
ar manner. ‘Thus, if iron filings and diluted fulphuric acid
be placed in a bottle, an effervefcence takes place, together
with a copious prodution of hydrogen gas, which comes
outina ftream from the aperture of the bottle, and it may

FLA

be inflamed either by alighted candle, paper, weod, &c. or
by paffing an eleGtric fpark through it. Thus alfo, when
coals are lishted ina common fire, the heat foftens their bi-
tuminous parts, and expels the inflammable gafes, which
burn and conftitute the flame, as every body muft daily ex-
perience. But befides the inflammable gafes, heat expels
from coals an aqueous vapour, a thick fluid like tar, and
fome gafes that are not of a combuftible nature, and thofe
products are neither equal nor conflant, that is, fometimes
fome of them predominate, and fometimes the other. The
confequence of which is, that the flame of coals is conti-
nually wavering both in fhape and intenfity of colour. It
frequently fhifts from one place to another, and what gave
a beautiful white light a few feconds before, has become a
ftream of denfe and dark fmoke. It may be hardly worth
obferving that the changeable inclination of the flame is
owing to the motion of the air, which runs towards the fire
in various dire€tions.

The like thing takes place in the combuftion of wood,
and vegetable matter gn general. The heat extricates the
volatile and inflammable materials which take fire, and pro-
duce the flame.

In the combuftion of charcoal, and of coak, (viz. charred
mineral coal,) the flame and the {moke are very trifling, be-
caufe the operation of charring has previoufly expelled from
thofe materials a great portion of their volatile ingre-
dients.

With refpe& to the procefs of the combuftion, the fame
requifites are neceflary with the combufticn of volatile fub-
ftances, which produce the flame, as with the combuitioa
of folids ; viz. the combuitible muft be heated to a certain
degree, a fire muft be communicated, and the combuition
can only take place in contaét with oxygen gas, or with
fubftances which contain oxygen. See Combustion.

Thus, we have given a general fetch of the nature of
flame ; but there are feveral remarkable particulars belonging
to every part of the above-mentioned procefs, which are
highly deferving of notice, and which, of courfe, we fhzll
now endeavour to point out fucceflively.

The purpofes for which mankind employs fires, or com-
buition in general, are either for the ufe of the heat, or for
the ufe of the light. The heat 1s fubfervient to the nume-

ings

ore =
The licht is fub-

of night. Were it not for artificial light, how great a por-
tion of the advantages of indultry, and of real comfort,
would the human fpecies be deprived of.

When heat is wanted, then rough folid combuftibles are
ufed, which give it in abundance, and at a cheap rate; but
when light is wanted, then the pureft'and the molt uni-
form combuttibles mult be ufed, otherwife an inadequ
effet is produced, and a confiderable quantity of n
is expended. In fome uncivilized countries, flender f
of fome kind of reftnous wood are ufed by way of candle
When lighted at one end they burm gradually, and afford a
good deal of light, butit is unfteady, and encumbered with a
good deal of fmoke: Befties, thefe faggots are readily
burnt out, and rault be quickly replaced by new ones.

At prefent, in all civilized countries, the principal com-

buftibles

FLAME,

buftibles that are wfed for the production of a bright and
luminous flame, are wax, the fat of animals, under the
general name of tallow, oil, either of fifh or of vegetables,
and the inflammable gas of coals, which has but lately been
introduced, at leaft in this country. The extenfive con-
fumption of thefe materials, and the fucceffive increafe of
their price, has obliged the induftrious to devife the belt
means of producing the greateit effect with the leait poflible
quantity of materials. :

Wax, tallow, and oils muft be rendered volatile before
they will produce a flame, but for this purpofe it is fufli-
cient to volatilize a {mall quantity of any of them, fuc-
ceflively ; for this {mall quantity will fuffice to give a uleful
flame, and hence we muit admire the fimple, yet wonderful
contrivance of a common candle or lamp. This con-
trivance contains a confiderable quantity of the combuttible
fuibftance, fufficient to laft feveral hours; it has lkewife,
in a particular place, a flender piece of fpongy vegetable fub-
ftarice, called the qwict, which in fact is the fire place, or
laboratory where the whole operation 1s condu@ed. The
wick which, in the formation of the candle, or preparation
of the lamp, has been partly or entirely foaked in the wax,
or-tallow, .or oil, is fet fire to by the approach of fome
other fubftance actually burning ; this heat renders volatile
and inflames that part of the wax, oil, &c. which is in the
wick, and at the {ame time foftens that which is next to it ;
the firft portion of the wax, &c. being thus confumed, the
wick is, in confequence of its capillary attraction, enabled
to imbibe more materials for the maintenance of the flame,
and fo on in fucceffion-antil the whole is exhautted.

Tkere is a circumitance frequently attending the firft
lighting of a candle, which demands a fhort explanation in
this place. It is, that at firft the candle fometimes burns

dimly, and looks as if it would go out. The method of
reviving the flame in fuch cafes is to lift up the candle per
pendicularly with a quick motion, three or four.times fue-
-ceffively, which immediately revives the light. The reafon
of the tirft dimnefs is that the wax or tallow, by being too
cold or too hard, is not melted by the combuttion of that
{mall portion which is in the wick, and of courfe cannot
fupply the waite of the wick ; but by the lifting up of the
candle, the air beats down the flame upon the wax or tallow
adjoining to the wick, which melts it, and enables it to run
up.into the pores of the wick, where it is rendered volatile,
and is inflamed, &c. ;

That part of the combuftible which is fuccefflively ren-
dered volatile by the heat of the flame is not all burnt, but
part of it efcapes in the form of fmoke through the middle
of the flame, becaufe that part cannot come in contact with
the oxygen of the furrounding atmofphere; hence it
follows, that with a large wick and a large flame, this wafte
of combuttible matter is proportionately much greater than
with a fmall wick anda {mall fame. In faét, when the wick
is not greater than a fingle thread of cotton, the flame,
though very {mall, is, however, peculiarly bright, and free
from ftnoke ; whereas in lamps with a very large wick, fuch
as are often fufpended before butcher’s fhops, or with thofe
of the lamp lighters, the {moke is very offenfive, and in
great meafure eclipfes the light of the flame,

In order to avoid this inconvenience, the ingenious Mr.
Argand made that famous contrivance of a lamp, which
now juftly goes by hisname. He made the burner or wick
thin and circular, with a free paflage for the air through
the middle. In this conftru€tion a very thin and circular
flame comes in conta&t with a vaft quantity of air both
within and without the circle, in confequence of which none
@f the volatilized oil efcapes without burning, and the flame

is very brilliant and a&tive. “This fhews the reafon of what
is commonly faid of this lamp, namely, that it confumes its
ownfmoke. With refpeé& to the original conftru@ion, and
the fuccefiive improvements of this admirable lamp, we
mutt refer the reader to the article Lamp.

Initead of a circular form, the wick has alfo been made .
thin and oblong butthough this conftru€tion has fome ad-
vantage over the common lamp, yet it is far inferior to Ar-
gand’s. A circular eran oblong wick has likewife been
tried in wax or tallow candles, but the attempts have not
been attended with any remarkable advantage.

Another confequence of the want ofoxygen inthe middle of
the large flame of a lamp or candle, is the formation of a coaly
concretion at the extremity of the wick. Thisarifes fromthe
coaly or groffer particles of the combultible which are too
heavy to become volatile, and at the fame time do not come
in conta&t with the oxygen which is neceflary for their
combultion ; hence they accumulate and fpread out fome-
what like afungus, If the wick be inclined a little, fo that
the end of it may jult proje& out of the flame, which
always goes ftraizht upwards ; then no coaly concretion is
formed. In the lamps which illuminate the ftreets of Lon-
don, the wick lies: nearly horizontal, in confequence of
which they feldom contra& any coaly concretion.

OF the three principal materials for producing a ufeful
bright flame, viz. wax, tallow andoil, the firft and fecond
are moftly ufed within doors ia.this country; but the fifh
oil, the combuttion. of which is attended with an unpleafant
f{mell, is moftly ufed for ftrect lamps and other out of doors
purpofes ; excepting indeed when Argand’s lamps are ufed,
for in thefe the oil gives no bad {mell. Oil of olives burns
without any offenfive {mell; therefore much ufe is made of
it for lamps in private houfes in thofe countries where it may
be had at a cheap rate, as in Italy, the fouth of France, &c.

Befides the above, a new material has of late been at-
tempted to be introduced in this country, for the purpofe of
lighting houfes, ftreets, manufaétories, &c. the material is
the inflammable gas of coals. Every body mutt know, that
when coals are burning ina common fire place, a flame more
or lefs luminuus (according as it is more or lefs encumbered
with incombuttible {moke and vapour) iffues from them 5
and they frequently emit fome very beautiful itreams of a
flame remarkably bright. All this, as we have already
mentioned, arifes from the gafes which are extricated from
the coals. by the heat. It was natural to imagine that
fuch gas might be received in proper refervoirs, and might
afterwards be forced out of {mall apertures, which being
lighted might ferve, as the flames of candles, to illuminate
a room or other place. The trial was eafily made, and it
was attended with the defired effe€&. The principle of the
apparatus and of the operation is as follows: The coal is
placed in large iron veffels, called retorts, to the apertures of
which iron pipes are adapted, which terminate in a veffel, or
veffels, called gafometers, or refervoirs, which are inverted in
water. The retorts thus charged are placed upon the fire,
the action of which extricates the gas from the coals that are
within the retorts, together with an aqueous vapour, a
thickifh fluid, or tar, &c. Thefe produéts are conveyed
through the above-mentioned pipes under the nee
where the gas is wafhed, and remains ready for ufe. There
are then other fmaller pipes from the gafometer, which
branch out into {maller ramifications, until they terminate
into the places where the lights are wanted. The extre-
mities of the pipes have {mall apertures, out of which the
gas iffues, and the ftrenms being lighted at thofe apertures,
will burn with a clear and conftant flame as long as the fup-
ply of gas continues. All the pipes which come from the

gafometer

FLAME.

fometer are furnifhed with ftop-cocks, in order both to

prevent the ulelefs walte of gas, and to regulate the fizes of.

the flames.

’ ‘The method of producing the gas being thus contrived,
the next ftep was to determine how far fuch lights might be
employed, confiltently with expence, fafety, &c. A few
fhops in London were lighted with it, but the ufe was foon
difcontinued, as it was faid, principally on account of the
unpleafant {mell. A propofal, and fome attempts were
made for lighting fome of the ftreets of London by means
of this coal gas; but cither the mytterious nature of the pro-
pofals, or the expence attending the operation, or fome other
caufe of obftrution, has not as yet allowéd the adoption of
the plan. Other attempts of the like nature have been made
élfewhere, but of their fuccefles we have no authentic
account ; excepting however of one, which was laid before
the Royal Society by the operator, Mr. Murdock, and is
publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for the’ year
1808. The precifion with which the particulars are ftated
in Mr, Murdock’s account, and the effential ufe of which
fuch ftatements may be to a vaft number of perfons, who
are now engaged in fimilar examinations in this new branch of
civil economy, induce us to tranferibe the moft effential part
of the account in the prefent article ; referving to add what
future improvements may come to our notice to the articl
Gas Lights. :

% Thefe facts and refults, Mr. Murdock fays, were made,
during the prefent winter, at the cotton, manufaétory - of
Meffrs. Philips and Lee, at Manchefter, where the light
obtained by the combultion of the gas from coal is uted
upon a very large feale; the apparatus for its production
and application having been prepared by me at the works of
Meflrs. Boulton, Watt, and Co. at Soho.

* «The whole of the rooms of this cotton mill, which is, I
believe, the mofl extenfive in the united kingdom, as well as
its counting-houfes and {tore-rooms, and the adjacent
dwelling houfe of Mr. Lee, are lighted with the gas from
coal. The total quantity of light ufed during the hours of
burning has been afcertained, by a comparifon of fhadows,
to be about equal to the light which 2500 mould candles, of
fix in the pound, would give; each of the candles with
which the comparifon was made con{uming at the rate of
4-10ths of an ounce (175 grains) of tallow per hour. —

«¢ The burners are of two kinds : the one is upon the prin-
ciple of the Argand lamp, and refembles it in appearance ;
the other is a {mall curved tube with a conical end, having
three circular apertures or perforations, of about a thirtieth
of an inch in diameter, one at the point of the cone, and
two lateral ones, through which the gas iffues, forming
three divergent jets of flame, fomewhat like a fleur-de-lis.
The fhape and general appearance of this tube has procured
it, among the workmen, the name of the cockfpur
burner. : ie

«The number of burners employed in all the buildings
amounts to 271 Argands, and 633 cock{purs; each of the
former’ giving a light equal to that of four candles of the
defcription above-mentioned ; and each of the latter a light
equal to two and a quarter of the fame candles; makin
therefore the total of the gas light a little more than aad
to that of 2500 candles. When thus régulated, the whole
of the above burners require an hourly fupply of 1250 cubic
feet of the gas produced from cannel coal ; the fuperior qua-
lity and quantity of the gas produced from that material
having given it a decided preference in this fituation over
every other coal, notwith{tanding its higher price.

«The time during which the gas light is ufed may, upon
an average of the whole year, be {lated at leaft at two hours

Vor. XIV. :

per day of 24 hours. In fome mills, where there is over
work, it will be three hours; and in the few where night
work is ftill continued nearly twelve hours. But taking
two hours per day as the common average throughout the
year, the confumption in Meffrs, Philips’ and Lee’s mill will
be 1250 x 2 = 2500 cubic feet of gas per day; to pro-
duce which 700 weight of cannel coal is required in the re-
tort. The price of the beft Wigan cannel. (the fort ufed)
is 134d. percwt. (22s. 6d. per ton) delivered at the mill, or
fay about cight shillings for the feven hundred weight.
Multiplying by the number of working days in the year
(313), the annual confumption of cannel will be 1:0 tons,
and its coft 1257.

« About one-third of the above quantity, or fay forty
tons of good common coal, value ten flullinge per ton, is
required for fuel to heat the retorts, the annual amount of
which is 20/.

«The 119 tons of cannel coal, when diftilled, produce
about 70 tons of good coak, which is fold upon.the [pot at
1s. 4d. per cwt. and will therefore amount annually to the
fum of 93/.

“The quantity of tar produced from each ton of cannel
coalis from 11 to 12 ale gallons, making a total annual pro-
duce of about i250 ale gallons, which not having been yet
fold, 1 cannot determine its value. :

“The intereft of the capital expended in the neceffary
apparatus and buildings, together with what is confidered
as anample allowance fer wear and tear, is flated by Mr.
Lee at about 550/. per annum, in which fome allowance is
made for this apparatus being made upon a {cale adequate to
the fupply ofa ftill greater quantity of light, than he has
occafion to make ufe of,

“¢ He is of opinion that the coft of attendance upon can-
dles would be as much, if not more, than upon the gas appa-
ratus ; fo that, in forming the comparifon, nothing need be
ftated upon that fcore, on either fide.

“The economical ftatement for one year, then, ftands
thus :

Coft of rro tons of cannel coal - - fis & Toi
Ditto of 40 tons of common ditto - - 20

145
Dedué the value of 70 tons'of coak - 3

The annual expenditure in coal, after deducting the
value of the coak, and without allowing any thing
forthe tar, is therefore 3 -

And the intereft of capital, and wear and tear of
apparatus ~ = 3 e

Making the total expence of the gas apparatus per*
annum, about - = . Z

52
559

6098

“¢ That of candles, to give the fame light, would be about
2000/. For each candle, confuming at the rate of 4-roths
of an ounce of tallow per hour, the 2500 candles burnings
upon anaverage of the year, two hours per day, would, at
one fhilling per pound, the prefent price, amount to nearly
the fum of money above-mentioned.

¢¢Tf the comparifon were made upon an average of three
hours per day, the advantage would be ftill more in favour
of the gas light.

‘At firft, fome inconvenience was experienced from the
{mell of the unconfumed, or imperfeétly purified gas, which,
may ina great meafure be attributed to the introduction of
fucceffive improvements in the conitruG@ion of the appa-
ratus, as the work proceeded. But fince its completion,
and fince the perfons to whofe care it is confided have be-

4H some

FLAME.

eeme familiar with its management, this inconvenience has
been obviated, not only in the mill, but alfo in Mr. Lee’s
houfe, which is moft brilliantly illuminated with it, to the
exclufion of every other fpecies of artificial light.

“The peculiar foftnefs and clearnefs of this light, with its
almoft unvarying intenfity, have brought it into great fa-
vour with the work-people. And its being free from the
inconvenience and danger refulting from the {parks and fre-
quent fnuffing of candles, is a cireumftance of material im-
portance, as tending to diminifh the hazard of fire, to which
cotton mills are known to be much expofed.””

In the buraing of candles or oil lamps, the heat of the
flame foftens and attenuates the materials, and converts
them partly into an elaftic fluid which takes fire fucceffively
and maintains the flame. In the burning of coals, wood,
turf, &c. various gafes, as well as vapours, are extricated
from them, but thefe produéts are not all combuttible ;
therefore thofe which are not combuftible tend to check the
activity of the flame which arifes from the combuttion of the
others. The gafes which are principally extricated from
the above-mentioned materials are hydrogen gas, azotic
gas, and carbonic acid gas ; the firft of which only is highly
inflammable in all its combinations ; and it is hardly ever
yielded pure by any of the above-mentioned materials. Its
ufual combinations are either with fulphur, or with carbon,
er with phofphorus ; hence it derives the denominations of
fulphurated, carburated, or phofphorated, hydrogen gas.

The flames of different combuttibles are not all attended
with an equal production of heat and light. Sulphur burns
with a weak flame; phofphorus with a very denfe one.
Spirit of wine burns with a very flight flame in point of
light, but a very powerful one with refpe& to heat; fo
that if an Argand lamp be charged with oil, and another
fimilar lamp be charged with fpirit of wine, the flame of the
latter will not have a quarter of the light of the other, but
it gives more than twice as much heat as the other. The
flame of {pirit of wine is not accompanied with any fmoke.
The flame of ether is denfer, but produces {moke. The
flame of {pirit of turpentine is attended with a very denfe
{moke. ‘The flame of pure hydrogen is very faint. This
flame of hydrogen produces a remarkable phenomenon,
which deferves to be mentioned in this place.

Ifa phial, containing the materials proper for the produc-
tion of hydrogen gas, (wiz. iron filiags and diluted fulphu-
ric acid,) be turmifhed with a tube having a finall aperture
for the exit of a flream of the gas, andit this ttream be
lighted, a flame will continue to burn at that aperture as
Jong as the materials continue to give out the gas. Now, ifa
glafs tube of about an inch in diameter, and about a foot long,
be held itraight up, with its aperture juft over the above-men-
tioned flame, a found willbe heard, fomewhat like a delicate
found of an organ pipe. This found varies according to
the fize of the tube. No very fatisfaGtory explanation has,
as'yet, been given of this fingular phenomenon.

The flames of volatile combnftibles that are more com-
pound in their nature, vary confiderably with refpe& to the
intenfities of their heat and light. A curious phenomenon
takes place in uniting the flames of two candles, viz. the
light is confiderably increafed. Let a perfon hold two can-
dles before his face, at firft feparate, and then with their
flames joined. Upon the junction of the two flames, his
face will appear much more illuminated than it was before.
«It is conjectured,” Dr. Prieftley fays, **that the union
of the two flames produces a greater degree of heat, and
that this caufes a farther attenuation of the vapour, anda
rR ga emiflion of the particles ff which light con-

Se

The effects which we have juft been ennmerating aré
fuch as take place in common atmofpheric air.

The various colours of the flames of fimple and compound.
bodies are likewife highly deferving the attention of philofo-
phers. Certain combuttibles, even of the pureft kind, burn
with flames having peculiar tints ; but much ftronger colours
may be communicated to their flames by the admixture of
various fub{tances, efpecially of falts that are of an earthy

-or metallic nature.

The flame of a common candle is far from being of an uni-
form colour. The lowelt part of the flame is always blue ;
and when the flame is fufficiently elongated, fo as to be
juft ready to fmoke, the tip is always red.

As for the colours of flames that arife from coals, wood,
and other ufual combuftibles, their variety, which hardly
amounts to a few fhades of red, or purple, intermixed with
the bright white light, feems principally to arife from the
greater or lefs admixture of aqueous vapour, denfe fmoke,
or, in fhert, of other incombuttible produ&ts.,

Spirit of wine burns with a blucifh flame. ‘The flame of
fulphur has nearly the fame tinge. The flame of zinc is of
a bright white. The flame of moft of the preparations of
copper, or of the fub{ftances with which they are mixed, is
greenifh-blue. Spirit of wine, mixed with common falt,
burns with a very unpleafant effect, as may be experienced
by looking at the {fpeGators who are illuminated by fuch
light. If a f{poonful of fpirit of wine and a little boracic
acid be {tirred together ina cup, and then be inflamed, the
flame will be beautifully green. If the f{pirit of wine be
mixed with a little ftrontian earth in powder, or with any of
its faline preparations, it will afterwards, on being inflamed,
burn with a red, or rather purple flame. If the fpirit of
wine be mixed with barytes, its flame will have a beautiful
yellowsappearance. Such are the principal means of colouring
flames, the admixture of various other fubftances will alfo-
impart fome fhades of colour to flaming bodies, but not
nearly fo {trong as the above.

Some years ago an elegant and curious exhibition, under
the title of “ Philofophical Fire-works,” was fhewn in:
Loudon by an induftrious foreigner, named Diller. The
exhibition confilted of the flames of certain gafes or vapours-
which iffued Gut of a variety of {mall apertures at the ends of
fhort tubes, which were difpofed in the forms of wheels,
pyramids, fpirals, tridents, &c. Out of thefe apertures the
flames were gradually made to increafe and decreafe alter-
nately ; fo that fometimes the room looked as bright as if it
were illuminated by the fun, and at other times the flames
would be barely difcerned. But the moit pleafing effe&
arofe from the colours of thefe flames, as there were beaua
tiful greens, yellows, reds, purples, &c. Mr. Diller diedy
and it feems that he did not leave the fecret of the prepara-
tions behind him ; forno one has fince been able to exhibit
any thing equal to thofe philofophical fire-works. The
f{mell of ether, which predominated in the exhibition room,
feemed to fhew that Mr. Diller made great ufe of that li-

uid.
2 The combuttible vapours and gafes are not all inflamed
with equal readinefs. Hydregen gas may be inflamed not
only by the conta& of another flaming body, but even by a
very {mall ele€tric fpark. An eleétric {park a little more .
powerful will fire fpirit of wine and ether, efpecially when
thofe fluids area little warm. Spirit of turpentine, and
fome effential oils may be inflamed, not only by the above-
mentioned means, but even by the a@tion of cold acids.
Put about a {poor ful of oil of turpentine in a cup, and pour
over it about half that quantity of {trong nitrous acid pre-
wioufly mixed with a few drops of fulphwric acid. The pr
©

FLA

of turpentine will immediately burft out into a flame merely
‘Jn confequence of the aétion of the acid.

The thick fat oils mutt be heated toa confiderable degree,
and in that ftate a flaming body mutt be brought in contaé
with their vapour, before they willbe inflamed. Even when
raifed to a very high temperature, they feldom will of them-
Selves burit out ina flame. If a veffel containing oil be fet
upon a fire, a fmoke or vapour begins to rife from it, which
grows by degrees denfer and denfer ; and at lait it begins to
fhine in fome places near the furface of the oil, fomewhat
like an eleGtric light ; yet it does not flame; but if in this
fate a flaming body, like a candle, amatch, &c. be brought
within the vapour, the latter will be inftantly inflamed,
breaking out with a fort of explefion, and will continue to
burn until the oilis in great mea{ure confumed.

Betides the ufe of their light, the Aames of candles, and
efpecially of lamps, are often ufed for the fake of the uni-
form heat which they give ; and when no very great degree
of heat is wanted, the ufe of fuch flames muft be allowed
to be incomparably more commodious, and more economical
thana common fire. The enameller, the mineralogift, and
the philofophical inftrument makers, make great ufe of the
heat of candles and lamps, the flames of which they fre-
quently urge by means of the blow-pipe. An Argand lamp,
efpecially when charged with f{pirit of wine, (for which
purpofe, however, the lamp muft be made in a particular
manner,) inftead of oil, forms a pretty powerful furnace
for {mall diltillations, decoétions, &c. but even the flame of
a fingle common lamp is fufficient for a great variety of
delicate purpofes.

The word flame, befides its true meaning, which we have
already explained, and which denotes the combuflion of a
volatile combultible body attended with the emiffion of heat
and light, has often been indifcriminately applied to every
kind of luminous appearance, provided its light had a pretty
evident degree of intenfity. Thue all phofphorefcent bodies,
eleGtrical light, northern lights, &c. have been called
flames by a variety of writers. Certain phenomena really
have much the appearance of true flames; yet their real
mature has not been fufficiently invettigated. Thus the
égnis fatuus, or Jack-a-lanthorn, is fuppofed to be nothing
more than phofphorated hydroges, which being extricated
from certain materials in particular places, comes out of the
ground, and burns on the furface of it ; forit isa property
of that gasto take fire of itfelf the moment it comes in con-
ta€t with refpirable air. The nature of thofe appearances
in the fky, which have been called flames, is moftly un-
knownto us. See Meteors, andIonis fatuus.

By fome authors, flame is detined to be /ight emitted from

Jire ; by others, who have followed Newton, flame is faid to
be a vapour heated red-hot ; for Newtonin his Opties fays,
«¢Is not flame avapour, fume, or exhalation heated red-hot,
that is, fo hot as to fhine? For bodies do not flame with-
out emitting a copious fume, and this tume burns in the
flame.””

With refpeé to the firft definition, we imagine that the
preceding part of the prefent article has clearly fhewn that
not ail the light which is emitted from a fire is flame ; and
fuch for inftance is the light emitted from a red-hot cinder,
or of a coal nearly exhauited of its gas. As for fir I. New-
ton’s query, it may be juftly faid, that the ftate of chemical
knowledge at his time could not furnifh him with better
ideas re{peéting the nature of flame.

Frame, Vital, Flamma, or Flammula vitalis, a fine,
warm, igneous fub{tance, fuppofed by many, both of the
ancients and moderns, to refide in the hearts of animals, as

FLA

neceffary to life, or rather as that which conftitutes life it~
felf.

To the prefervation of this flame they fuppofe air as te-
ceffary as it is to the prefervation of common flame ; and
hence they afcribe the neceflity of refpiration to animat
life.

Mr. Boyle, by experiments in an exhaufted receiver, found
that the vital flame of animals, if life may be fo called, far-
vives or outlafts the flame ef f{pirit of wine, or of a wax of
tallow candle, &c. Some animals would remain alive and
well in vacuo for three or four minutes, whereas no common
flame would laft there one minute. The light of the glow-
worms, he found, would prefently be deftroyed by exhawit-
ing the air, and retrieved again upon its re-admiffion. Dr.
Quincy could find nothing more in the notion of vital flame
than the natural warmth, which is the effect of a circulat-
ing blood, and which is always as its velocity. See daimal
Heat.

FLAMEEL, or Framatt, Bertuotrr, in Biography,
apainter of hiftorical fubjeéts, born at Liege in 1614.
He began his ftudies in Flanders, but at the age of 24 he
went into Italy to cultivate his talents by a view of the
works of the renowned painters of that country. He teck
up his refidence in Rome, there copying the beit werks of
the great matters. He foon acquired a reputation which
recommended him to the court of Florence, to which the
grand duke invited him, and there employed him in feveral
works, the execution of which acquired for him the efteens
of that prince, and the applaufe of the public.

In returning from hence homewards, afteran abfence of
nine years, he went to Paris, and there painted, im the cu-
pola of the church of the bare-footed Carmelites, Elijah
afcending to heaven, and Elitha below endeavouring to
catch the falling mautle of the prophet, thus miraculoufs
ly borne from the earth.

At Liege he was received with great warmth, and to
confirm the high opinion which his countrymen had corm
ceived of his merit, he painted a cruciiixion for the colle-
giate church of St. John, in which he introduced a great
number of figures with great propriety and perfpicwity.
He alfo painted, in St. Paui’s church, the converfion of that
faint. Andin the cathedral of the city another picture,
reprefenting the refurre@tion of Lazarus.

The clofe of his life is a melancholy inftance of the frail
tenure on which man holds either his mental or bodily ca-
pacities. Notwithftanding that wealth, reputation, and
efteem attended him, he fell, wnaccountably, into melan-
choly, and dejection of fpirits, which incefiastly oppreffed-
him, till ultimately he funk under it. It was by many
fuppofedto be owing to poifon given him by an intimate
friend named Brinvilliers, but there is no proof of that fup-
pofition being true. He died in 1675, aged 61.

By his refidence in Rome, he adopted the tafte of de-
fign of that fchool, being careful in his fele&tion of ob-
jects, and correét in the reprefentation of them. He intros
duced into his pictures a great deal of architecture, in which
he was a proficient ; he had great knowledge alfo of anti-
quities, and was careful in obferving the coftume ; thefe,
united with a lively imagination, render his works very ins
teretting.

FLAMEN, among the ancient Romans, was a prieft or
minifter of facrifice.

There were as many kinds of flamens at Rome as there
were gods who had priefts and {acritices offered them.

Romulus and Numa, at firft, only inftituted three ; one
for Jupiter, called famen Dialis; another for Mars, called

4H 2

?
PW pew ee
frames

Fae:

fiamen Martialis; and a third for Romulus or Quirinus,
ealled flamen Quirinalis. Plutarch and Dionyfius Halicar-
nafleus maigtain, that Numa created only the jaf in honour
of Romulus; but Livy affuresus, that Romulus had inih--
tuted only the-firft, and that the two others were added by
Numa; and Varro {peaks in the plural number of the fla-
mines inftituted by Numa. . In after-times twelve more
were added, which made the number of flamens fifteen.

» The three firft were taken from among the’ patricians, and
were held: of arank and diftin@ion fuperior te the reft.

They were called greater flamens, famines majores, in con--

tradiltinétion: to the other twelve, who were chofen from

among the plebeians, and were therefore called leffer flamens,

flamines minores. The flamen Dialis, or of Jupiter, was

the firft inftituted, and held in the greateft repute. He bore.

a peculiar.ornament on his head, called: albugalerus, which:
was made of the {kin of a white victim facrificed to Ju-
iter.
: One of.thefe priefts revived an ancient pretenfion to a
feat in the fenate in right of hisoffice, which, by the indo-
lence of his predeceflors, had not been claimed or enjoyed
for many generations. ‘The pretor rejected his claim, nor
would fuffer him to fit in that aflembly ; but upon his ap-
peal to the tribunes of the people, that is, to the people,
his right was confirmed, and he was allowed to take his
place asa fenator. Liy. xxvii. 8. Middlet. of Rom. Sen,

- 49.

‘The cap worn by the reft was called fammd or apex. It
was made of a fheep-fkin, with the wool on; to which was
faftened a little branch of an olive-tree. That of the flamen
of Jupiter ended in a point called futu/us.- It was tied under
the chin with ftrings ; but in the {ummer-time it was only
a woollen thread tied round the head, it being prohibited
them ever to appear quite bare-headed. And hence, accord-
ing to Feftus, came their denomination of flamen, viz. from

lamen or jfilum, thread. .

Though the flamens bore one common appellation, yet
did not they conftitute any company or college. Each god
had his feveral facrifices, feafts, and ceremonies a-part ; nor
had.one flamen any relation to another, only they were all
fubordinate to the pontifex maximus. Aulus Geflius affures
us, that they were created by the people in the comitia cu;
riata; but the pontifex maximus afterwards confecrated
them. Their priefthood, called flaminatus, was perpetual
though on fome occafions they might be depofed,

, The names of the feveral flamens are as follow: the three
great flamens, as already obferved, were the flamen Dialis,
flamen Martialis, and. flamen Quirinalis : the twelve leffer
were the famen Carmentalis, or prieft of the goddefs Car-
menta, mentioned by Cicero in his Brutus ; jlamen Falacer,
or prieft of the god Falacer, a name whofe origin, Varro
obferves, isnot known; flamen Floralis, or of the goddefs
Flora ; flamen Furinalis, whole etymology is not known ;
flamen Levinalis 5 framen Lucinaris 5 flamen Palatualis,
“whom fome moderns will have to be the prieft of the god-
-defs that prefided over. the palatium, though Varro owns
himfelf at alofs for its original ; famen Pomonalis, or of Po-
-mona, goddefs of fruits ; flamen Virbialis, or of the god
Virbius,, whom fome take for the fame with Hippolytus ;
framen Vulcanalis, or of Vulcan; and flamen Volturnalis,
or of the god Volturnus. Some authors alfo {peak of the
flamen Hadrianalis, priet of Hadrian : famen Julit Cafaris,
of Julius Cefar 5 and flamen Augu/lalis ; and Commodus
likewife had a flamen created under the title of flamen Her-
gulaneus Commodianus.
They had alfo their flaming or faminice, who were wives

?

Feit £

of the flamens, or the priefteffes of the deities. In an ane
cient marble, quoted by Gruter, p.cccclix. n. 9, the word
Jflaminais ufed for prieftefs ; and in the fame author, p. cccviii.
n. 3, the prieftefs of the goddefs Feronia is called ruam.
FERON. that is, flamina, or flaminica Feronie. The flami~
na bore the fame ornament on her head with the flamen«
She had alfo the fame furname of office with her hufband,
as flamina Dialis, Martialis, &c. :
‘ FLAMETTE, in Conchology, a name given by the
French writers to a {pecies of chama or fhell-fifh of the bi-
valve kind, with its fhells always more or lefs open; this
{pegies is as hot as pepper to the tafte.

FLAMINGO, in Ornithology, See PHoentcorTerus
ruber.

FLAMINIAN Way, one of the Roman ways, which,
as itis corrected from the Itineraries and beft modern maps
by @’Anville, may. be thus ftated: Rome to Narni, 51,
Roman miles ; Terni, 57 ; Spoleto, 75 ; Foligno, 88 ; No-
cera, 103; Cagli, 142; Intercifa, 1575; Foflombrone,
160; Fano, 1763; Pelaro, 184; Rimini, 208; about
189 English miles. '

FLAMINIO, Marcantonio, in Biography, was the
fon of a man of letters, and born at Serravalle in 1498.
He was educated with great care by his father, and when
he was about fixteen years of age he was introduced to pope
Leo X. who received him very gracioufly, and in order to
put his talents to the trialy caufed the youth to difpute on
certain queftions in the pocieae of many cardinals, when he
acquitted himfelf fo well as to excite the furprize and ad-
miration of all who heard him. His fuccefs induced his
father to leave him to pufh his own fortune. The young
man went to Naples, and from thence to Urbino, and in
both places he had favourable opportunities of exhibiting
the great power with which he was gifted. His father,
dreading the influence of flattery, removed him to Bologna,
to the purfuit of feverer ftudies. In 1523, he re-vilited
Rome, and from thence he went to Genoa, and waselected
one of the academy. After this he paffed into the fervice
of Giberti, with whom he refided at Padua, and then,
for fome years, at Verona. His patron prefented him with
a farm fituated on the bank of Lago di Garda, where he
{pent much of: his leifure time, and wrote a Latin para-
phrafe of Ariflotle’s Metaphyfics, which was printed at
Bafil in the year 1537. In the following year, being in an
ill {tate of health, he went to Naples, in which city he re-
mained till 1541. - Here his health was perfeGly reftored,
and here,. by the converfation which he had with fome fa-
vourers of the Reformation, he was himfelf almoft a con«
vert. On his return from Naples he fpent fome time at
Viterbo with cardinal Pole, who took great pains to ré-
ftore him to the orthodox faith. In 1543, he was at Trent
with the cardinal, and was after this effered the high poft
of fecretary to the council of legates, which he declined.
He was, however, the conftant attendant and friend of
cardinal Pole, and greatly beloved by many other cardinals
and great men of his time. After a tedious illnefs he died
at the houfe of his patron in 1550. His death was univer-
fally lamented,- and his contemporaries are lavifh in his
praifes, as well for the goodneis of his difpofition and his
Chriftian virtues, as the depth of his erudition and the-ele-
gance of his genius. ‘* His works,’ fays his biographer,
“ appear to be dictated not by the underitanding but by
the heart.”” His poems rank him with the belt poets of
the Latin fchool. Qf thefe, fome in his early youth par-
take of the licence of the times, but the admonitions ef
his father and the fobriety of his own difpofition called him

to

FLA

to more ferious ftrains. The greater part of the “ Carmina
quinque illuftrium poetarum’? confiits of the works of
Flaminio. His elegant poetical. paraphrafes of thirty
pialms, publifhed a few years before his death, and his
Italian letters, are very highly efteemed. Some years after
his deceafe his orthodoxy was fufpeéted, his works prohi-
bited, and it was intended to dig up his body for the
purpofe of committing itto the flames; but wifer and more
deliberate councils determined otherwife. Moreri.

FLAMINIUS, er Framininus, Titus Quinctius,
an eminent Roman, was. born about the year 228 before
Chrift: He was brought up to the praétice of arms,
and acquitted himfelf fo well in feveral things which he
undertook, that he was inearly life appointed to the con-
du& of important expeditions. At the age of 30 he was
candidate for the confulfhip, and was chofen though he
had not ferved any of the inferior and preparatory offices
in the ftate. He obtained, by lot, the conduét of the war
in Macedon ; and performed, in various parts of Greece,
many exploits recorded in hiftory, till at length he treated
with Philip, and made a peace on condition that the king
fhould withdraw all his troops from the Grecian towns.
Commiffioners were fent from Rome to affift Flaminius in
difpofing of his conquefts: thefe wifhed Roman garrifons
to be kept at Corinth and other places, regarded then as
the keys of the country, but the conqueror perfuaded them
to confent to the full and complete liberation of Greece
from foreign dominion, ‘The decree was proclaimed durirg
the Ifthmian games, A vaft multitude affembled from
all parts, uncertain of their future fate, and filled with the
utmott anxiety for themfelyes and their country. Silence
was proclaimed by the found of a trumpet, and aherald ad-
vanced into the middle of the arena, where, in the name of
the Roman people and of the procon{ful Flaminius, he de-
clared by name all thofe cities and ftates of Greece free
which had been poffefled by Philip. The proclamation was
repeated, and the people, as with one voice, rent the fkies
with their fhouts: fo tremendous was the noife, that the
birds were faid to have been ftruck to the ground by the
concuffion of the air, and Flaminius himfelf was in danger
of fuffocation from the people who rufhed upon him to kifs
his hand in gratitude for his kindnefs. To him it wasa
glorious day ; but the Romans refufed to ratify the decree,
and ina fhort time they di€tated what terms they chofe to
the Grecian republics, which now were declared free by
Flaminius. The-conful left Greece with many tokens of
gratitude of the people, but with none which he fo highly
prized as a prefent of 1200 Romans made captive in the
war with Hannibal, who had been fold for flaves in the
Grecian ftates, and whom the Acheans had carefully col-
leéted and redeemed, in order to fend back with him. In
the habits cf manumitted flaves thofe men followed the
chariot of their benefactor at the {plendid triumph granted
him on his return. Flaminius was afterwards long kept as
a refident in Greece ; the attachment of the nation to him,
and his accurate knowledge of the views and interefts of
the feveral flates, rendering him very ufeful asa negociator.
About the year 190 B. C. he was created cenfor at Rome,
after which he was employed as an ambaflador to Pruffias,
king of Bithynia, whom he perfuaded to violate the laws of
hofpitality in delivering up Hannibal, who had taken re-
fuge in his court, but the veteran foldier prevented the
treachery by taking poifon. This is the lalt recorded tranf-
aGtion in which Flaminius engaged. Univerfal Hittory.
Plutarch.

FLAMMA Joyrs, aname given by many writers to a

FLA

plant of the clematis or virgin’s bower kind, called by the
Greek writers ph/ogus.

FLAMMULA, or Framuta, under the Laffern Em-
pire, was a kind of flag terminating in a point fomewhat
like a flame, ferving as a mark or badge to diftinguifh the
foldiers of the feyeral companies, - battalions, regiments,
&c. In Greek it was called Qaaus#ro: it was fometimes
placed on the cafque, fometimes on the cuirafs, and fome-
times at the end or tip of the pike, &c.

The emperor Maurice ordered. that the fammule of
each divifion fhould be of a particular colour, to diftinguifh
them from the other battalions or brigades.

They ufed to lay afide the flammula before an engages
ment, left it fhould prove an incumbrance. The cavalry had
alfo flammulz on their horfes, to diftinguifh the troops they
belonged to- ;

FLamMuta, in Botany, aname given by fome authors
to a particular {pecies of the crow-foot, commonly called
the ranunculus flammeus.

Frammut# duri, in Natural Hiffory, aname given by
Dr. Woodward, and others, to thofe {mall pieces of gold
found among the fands of riversin fome places. They are
fometimes found in roundifh pieces, but more utually in
their fhining fakes, whence the name flammula feems to
have been given them, as being very bright and glofly.
This fort of gold is pure and malleable, and lofes fcarcely
any part of its weight in fufion.

The gold duit, as itis called, which is brought from
Guinea, is much of this kind; its particles are ufually very
{mall, though fometimes lumps of the fize of a pea or horfe-
bean are found, and fometimes maffes of an irregular figure
of three or four ounces weight: but thefe lofe the name
of flammule when they become fo thick and folid, and
fo large, and are called by the merchants rock-gold.
Woodw. Cat. Foff. vol. ii. p. 30. See Gotp.

FLAMSTEED, Joun, in Biography, an eminent
Englifh aftronomer, was born at Denby, in Derbyhhire, in
the year 1646. He received his claffical education at the
free fchool at Derby, and it was intended that he fhould
parfue his ftudies at the univerfity, but avery fevere illnefs
at the age of 14, when he had attained the higheft place in
the fchool, rendered it neceflary for his friends to change
their original plan with regard to his future purfuits. Soon
after he had quitted the grammar fchool he met with Sa-
crobofco’s work, intitled **.De Sphzra,’? which he read
with delight, and fome parts cf which he immediately
tranflated. He now fought for other treatifes conne@ed
with the fame fubje&, among which was Street’s Aftro-
nomia Carolina;”? from this he learned the method of cal-
culating eclipfe and the places of the planets. In 1669,
having calculate an eclipfe of the fun, that was omitted in
the ephemeris for the following year, he fent this, with
other aftronomical fpeculatiors, to lord Brouncker, prefi«
dent of the Royal Society, who laid them before that
learned body, cr whom they were greatly approved. From
this period he Rept up a correfpondenc on literary and
{cientific fubje&ts with many of the moit learned men of
his time. In 1670, his father made him an offer of taking
a journey to J.ondon, that he might become perionally
known to his ingenious and learned correfpondents, which
he gladly accepted. He was now introduced to Mr. Cole
lins, Mr. Oldenburg, and fir Jonas Moore, the latter of
whom became a moft valuable friend and patron to Mr. Flam.
fteed. On his return he paffed through Cambridge, vilited
Dr. Barrow, Mr. Ifaac Newton, and other learned men ;
and entered himfelf'a udent of Jefus college.. Mr, Flam-

’ Reed,

FLA

‘fieed, applying himfelf moft vigoroufly to the ftudy of
aftronomy, wrote in the year 1673 a treatife on the true
and apparent diameters of all the planets, which fir Ifaac
Newton made ufe of in the 4th book of his Principia. He
wrote alfo on other fubjeéts, as the tides, which were
more popular and adapted to practical ufes, and of which
one was prefented to the king. To whom, likewife, by
means of his friend fir Jonas Moore, he prefented a pair of
barometers, with directions for their ufe.
inftruments at that period, and excited the attention of
the monarch and of the nobility, te whofe patronage he had
been earneitly recommended. Mr. Flamfteed now deter-
mined to take orders, and was ordained in 1675 by bifhop
‘Gunning; but he did not obtain any prefermeut in the
church for feveral years. Sir Jonas, however, prevailed
on the king to erect a new office for him, viz. that of
a{ftrenomer-royal, and the foundation of the Royal Obferva-
tory at Greenwich was built and named after him, Flam-
fleed Houfe. In 1681, his work intitled « The Doétrine
of the Sphere,” was publifhed by fir Jonas Moore in his
‘¢ Syftem of Mathematics ;” and,in 1684, he was prefented
with the living of Durftow in Surrey, the only inftance of
preferment to which he attained, notwithftanding the high
eftimation in which he was held by perfons of the firft rank
among his contemporaries. He now maintained a clofe and
-conftant correfpondence with the immortal Newton, with
Halley, and all the great men of that illuftrious age, and
among his. foreign -correfpondents was the celebrated
Caflint, who was held in the higheft refpect by him. To
any and all his friends he was ever ready to give aflittance
in facilitating their ftudies, and he took pleafure in contri-
buting, by his fuggeftions and hints, to the extenfion of
their reputation. He {pent the remainder of his life in pro-
fecuting his labours in the improvement of aftronomy with
unwearied exertion and aétivity, and died at the end of the
year 1719, at the age of 73. He publifhed many fmall
tracts, avait number of papers in the Philofophical Tranf-
actions, in almolt every volume from the fourth .to the
twenty-ninth. But his great work, and that on which his
celebrity depends, is intitled «* Hiftoria Coeleftis Britannica,”
in three volumes folio. The firft of which contains tlie
obferyations ef Mr. Gafcoigne, taken at Middleton in
Yorkshire ; and likewife thofe made by Mr. Flamiteed at
Derby, between the years 1638 and 1643, with tables, &c.
made at the Royal Obfervatory between the years 1675 and
1689.

The fecond volume contains his obfervations, made with
a capit.l telefcope, on the zenith diftances of the fixed
tars, fun, moon, and planets, with their tranfits over the
meridian ; alfo notes and obfervations on the diameters of
the fun and moon, with their eclipfes, and thofe of Jupi-
ter’s fatellites, between the years 1689 and 1719. The
third volume comprifes a catalogue of the right afcenfions,

olar diftances, longitudes, and magnitudes of nearly 3000
dixed ftars. The preface to this volume contains an account
sof all the aftronomical obfervations made before his time,
with a defcription of the inftruments employed, and much
other curious and highly important matter. The printing
of this noble work was rot finifhed at the time of our
author’s death, and the care neceffary to its completion de-
yolved on Mr. James Hodgfon, by whom it was publifhed
vin the year 1725. Few men poffeifed more zeal and appli-
-cation in the purfuit of {cientific knowledge than the firft
aftronomer-royal ; and fcarcely any man ever attained to
higher refpe& among his contemporaries. In common life
che was free, eafy of accefs, and pleafed with the company

Thefe were new .

fan:

1 a

of thofe who with fcientific refearch could unite their fhare
in the convivial intercourfe of life. Biog. Brit.

FLANCH, Feangue, or Fla/que, in Heraldry, an
ordinary formed by an arched line, which begins at the
corners of the chief, and ends in the bafe of the efcut-
cheon.

He beareth ermin two flanches vert.
ways borne by pairs.

Leigh makes flangue and fla/e two diftin& bearings,
whereof the former is more bent than the latter; but
Gibbon judicioufly makes them but one, which he calls
ue.

!LANCONNADE, in Fencing, is the a@ion of drop-
ping the point of your fword under your adverfary’s hilt;
in feizing with force the feeble or foible of his blade ; whichy
binding without quitting it, form the parade in oftave, and
then throw in your thruft. This thrutt is feldom practifed,
except on favourable occafions, when the adverlary holds.
his wrift low on guard.

FLANDERS, in Geography, a maritime province of -
the Netherlands, was formerly very confiderable, and bound-
ed on the north by the mouth of the Scheldt and the Germar
ocean, on the eaft by Brabant and Hainaut, on the fouth by
Hainaut and a part of France, formerly called Artois and
Picardy, and on the weft by the Englifh channel and Artois..
Its greateft length is eftimated at about 60 miles, and its
breadth about 50. It contained 3o cities er walled towns, a
great number of market towns, 1154 villages, and feverat
religious houfes. Flanders was generally divided into
Auftrian, French, and Dutch Flanders. The firft extended
from the fea tothe Dender, being bounded on the north by
Dutch Flanders, on the eaft by Brabant, on the fouth by
French Flanders, and on the weit by the channel, and con-
tained feveral confiderable cities, as Ghent, Bruges, Oftend,
Oudenard, Dendermond, Nieuport, Furnes, Dixmude,
Courtray, Ypres, Tournay, &c. &c. French Flanders con-
tained Lifle, Dunkirk, Gravelines, Caffel, &c. &e. The
third, or Dutch Flanders, bordermg on the Scheldt, towards
its mouth, contains the towns of Fruit, Axel, Bouchoult,
Affenede, Ardenburg, &c.; and this feems to be the only
part which retains the name of Flanders. By the treaty of
Formio, A.D. 1797, the whole of Auftrian Flanders was
annexed to the dominions of France, and converted inte
the deparments of the Lys and the Scheldt. The climate
of this country is temperate and falubrious ; the foil in ge-
neral is fertile and fit for tillage; and in fome places it is
uneommonly fertile. The Iand produces all kinds of grain
and vegetables. Flax is a very confiderable commodity, and
has greatly contributed to the wealth of the country. The
palture grounds are excellent, and nourifh a valuable breed
of cattle, which yield rich cheefe and butter. The breed of
horfes and fheep is alfo confiderable. The Fleming's were at
one time the principal maaufacturers of Europe; and by
them the Englifh were taught the art of weaving, and pro-
bably that of agriculture. Their trade was alfo very ex-
tenfive. The moft beautiful table linen is ftill the manufac-
ture of this country, and its lace is fuperior to every other.
The principal rivers are the Scheldt and the Lys.

FLANpeERs, a town of New Jerfey; 23 miles N.N.W.
of New Brunfwick.

FLANEL, or Fiannet, a kind of flight, loofe, woollen
ftuff, not quilted, but very warm, compofed of a woof and
warp, and wove ona loom with two treddles, after the man-
ner.of bays. As flannel is a bad conduétor of heat, it muft
evidently form an ufeful garment in cold weather ; its un-
fituels for conduting heat is obvieus from its Jax leas i

or

Flanches are al-

FLA

for the fibres of wool touch each other flightly, and there-
fore the heat moves flewly through the interftices, which,
being filled with air, afford little affiftance in carrying it off.
Count Rumford made many experiments on this fubjeét ;
whence it fhould feem, that though linen, which readily re-
ceives humidity from the atmofphere, appears to poffefs a
greater degree of attraction with refpect to water than
other fubftances ; yet thofe fubftances which receive water
in its unelaftic form with the greateft eafe, or are mott eafily
moiftened, do not, in all cafes, attraé&t the moifture of the
atmofphere with the greateft avidity. ‘* Perhaps,”’ fays he,
** the apparent dampnefs of linen to the touch arifes more
from the eafe with which that fubftance parts with the water
it contains, than from the quantity of water it actually holds;
in the fame manner as a body appears hot to the touch in

’ confequence of its parting freely with its heat, while another
body, which is really at the fame temperature, but which
withholds its heat with great obftinacy, affeéts the fenfe of
feeling much lefs violently. It is well known that woollen
clothes, fuch as flannels, &c. worn next the fkin, greatly
promote infenfible perfpiration, May not this arife princi-
pally from the ftrong attra¢tion which fubfifts between wool
and the watery vapour which is continally iffuing from the
human body? That it does not depend entirely on the
warmth of that covering is clear; for the fame degree of
warmth produced by wearing more clothing of a different
kind does not produce the fame effect. The perfpiration of
the human body being abforbed by a covering of flannel, it
is immediately diftributed through the whole thicknefs of
that fubftance, and by that means expofed by a very large
furface to be carried off by the atmofphere ; and the lofs of
this watery vapour which the flannel fuftains on the one fide,
by evaporation, being immediately reftored from the other,
in confequence of the ftrong attraGion between the flannel
and this vapour, the pores of the {kin are difencumbered,
and they are continually furrounded by a dry and falubrious
atmofphere.”’ He expreffes his furprife that the cultom of
wearing flannel next the fkin fhould not have prevailed more
univerfally. He is confident it would prevent a number ef
difeafes ; aud he thinks there is no greater luxury than the
comfortable fenfation which arifes from wearing it, efpecially
after one isa little accuftomed to it. It isa miftaken
notion,” fays he, **that it is too warm a clothing for fum-
mer. I have wornit in the hotteft climates, and at all fea-
fons of the year ; and never fourid the leaft inconvenience
from it. It is the warm bath of perfpiration contined by a
linen fhirt, wet with {weat, which renders the fummer heats
of fouthern climates fo infupportable; but flannel promotes
perfpiration, and favours its evaporation; and evaporation,
as is well known, produces pofitive cold.”

it has been obferved that new flannel, after fome time
wearing, acquires the property of fhining in the dark, but
lofes it on being wafhed. Phil. Tranf. Ne 483. § 7. See
Exvectricity,

FLANK, or Franc, in the Banege, is applied to the
fides of a horfe’s buttocks, &c:

In a-ftriG fenfe, the flanks of a-horle are the extremes
af the belty, where the ribs are wanting, and are below the

ins.

The flanks of a horfe fhould be full, and at the top of
eacha feather. ‘The diftance between the laft rib and haunch
bone, which is properly the flank, fhould be fhort, which
they term well coupled, fuch horfes being moft hardy, and
fit to endure labour.

A horfe is faid to have no flank if the laft of the fhort
ribs be at'a confiderable diftance frem the haunch: bone 5,

FLA

as alfo when his ribs are teo much ftraightened in their
compafs.

Fuank of an Army, in Military Language, is the exterior
point, or part, towards either end of every line, the fame as
the terminations of the files of a battalion or company are
their flanks refpeétively. It has ever been held among mili-
tary men of the firft importance to preferve the integrity
of the flanks, by fupporting them in the moft effectual mau-
ner againft every aflault. This, however, is not always
practicable when oppofed to a fuperior force, unlefs by the
aid of fuch a formation of the line as may render any fuch
fuperiority, not extending to more than a fifth or fixth, of
lefs avail than it would obvioufly be, were the two armies to
be drawn up parallel to each other: in fuch cafe the greater
force muft cover a greater extent of ground, and thus be
enabled to “ out-flank”’ its opponent. When fuch an op-
portunity may offer, it will generally be feen, that while
the refidue are left upon equal terms, man to man, and gun
to gun, the excefs of numbers is devoted to fuch a pewerful
charge on one flank as fhould feem to be irrefiftible. Thus,
the attack is either made in column, ufvally concealed by
a body of cavalry until the moment of affault, or an angle is
formed in advance, which is called ‘offering a flank,” for
the purpofe of beating in the flank by an oblique or a cir-
cuitous approach to, not only its extremity, but ever towards
its rear. In fuch cafe the lefler body: neceflarily avails itfelf
of that fimple evolution termed “ refufing a flank,” by:
throwing back a portion of its extremity in an angular di-
rection, {o as to become parallel with the flank ‘“offered”? by
the ftronger party. The firft figure, Tadics, Plate II. thews
the attack made in column C, by anarmy A, fuperior on one
flank, together with the deploy of the cavalry B, that
covered or mafked the manceuvre towards the flank of the
line D, with the view to “turn” it; that is, to beat it in
towards the centre, and thereby to threw the whole into con-
fufion. The dotted lines at E thew the change made from D,
for the purpofe of refufing a flank,”? and of thus bringing
a column to oppofe the charge intended to be made. The
viliage G ferves to ‘ cover the flank’? from the cavalry that
deployed for its attack. ,

In fig. 2. the line HI K is fuperior to the line LMN:
the former “ offers the flank’? IO, which the latter renders
unavailing (at leaft fo far as leffer can refit: greater forces,)+
by “ refujing a flank’? in the diretion M P, parallelto 10.
This, confidered mathematically, will be found fuSicient ;
becaufe, under the fuppofition that the lines LM and M BP”
are chords of arcs having their common centre fomewhere in
their rear, it is evident that the parallels HI and IO,
being, of courfe, concentric therewith,. but exteriorly
fituated, mutt occupy a greater extent, and yet, in effet,
not outflank their inner parallels, We do not mean to in.
culcate that the fuperior force is not fill the fuperior force,
butonlyto fhew how the lefler body can, by a judicious ar-
rangement, either render that fuperiority lefs availing, or,
perhaps, induce to a break near the centre, whereby an open-
ing may. offer for the cavalry of the weaker army to dafh in
fo as to divide the énemy’s line, and’to facilitate the defeat
of at leaft' one wing.

Frank of a Ba/tion, in' Fortification, is that part’ which
forms an angle, gencrally of-about 110°, or in flat baftions
of 130°, with the contiguous face. The flank of a baftion
is generally intended to defend the face of the other baftion
ftanding at the further’ extremity of the fame curtain :
therefore ufually ftands at right angles, or nearly fo, there-
with :: hence it is neceflary to filence the flanks of the con-
tiguous baitions, both right and. left,.before the arn

angle

FLA

angle of that baflion flanding between them, though per-
fectly breached, can with propriety be ftormed.

Frank, Low, covered, or retired, is the platform of the
cafement which lies hid im the baftion; otherwife called the
orillon.

Franx Fiichent, is that from whence a cannon playing,
fireth bullets directly in the face of the oppofite baflion. .

Frank Razant, or rafant, is the point from whence the
line of defence begins, from the conjunétion of which

ith the curtain, the fhot only rafeth tne face of the next ~

baftion, which happens when the face cannot be diicovered
but from the flank alone.

Franxs, Simple, are lines going from the angle of the
fhoulder to the curtain, whole chief office is for the de-
fence of the moat and place.

Fuanx-walls, in Eugineery, are the fame with wing or
return-walls of a lock or bridge. See Cawac.

FLANKED, Franové, is ufed by the French heralds
to exprefs our party per faltier ; that 1s, when the iield is
divided into four parts, after the manner of an xX.

Though Colombiere ufes the term in another fenfe,

- which appears more natural, viz. for the taking of flanches
er rounding {fe€ions out of the fides of the efcutcheons ;
the firft from the angles of it, the latter in ftraight hues,
forming an angle at the fefs, without making any faltier.

\ Franken Angle, in Fortification, is the angle formed by
the ‘two faces of the baftion, and which of courfe forms
the point of the batlion.

Franken Line of Defence.
DEFENCE.

Fianxep Tenaille, is called alfo tenaille.

FLANKING, in the general, is the act of difcovering
and firing upon the fide of a place, body, battalion, &c.

To flank a place, is to difpofe a place or other work in
fuch a mauner as that there {hall be no part of the place
but what muy be played on, both in front and rear.

Any fortification that has no defence but juit right for-
wards is faulty ; and to render it complete, one part ought
to be made to flank the other. Hence the curtain is always
the ftrongeft part of any place, becaufe it is flanked at each
end.

Battalions alfo are faid to be flanked by the wings of the
cavalry. A houfe is fometimes faid to be flanked with two
pavilions, or two galleries, meaning it hasa gallery, &c. on
each fide. ;

FrankinG Angle. Sée Ancuie.

FianxinG Batteries, are fuch as defend each other mu-
tually, fuch as the face of a raveline, and the contiguous
face of its lunette; which fland nearly at right angles, and
form a re-entering angle. In general, the term is applied
only to that battery whofe fire, when direét, grazes the front
of the work it is to defend, as fhewn above in defcribing the
flank of a baftion; but in that inftance the defences do not
afford reciprocal fupport. Works that are not flanked by
ethers can be {trong only in confequence of natural advan-
tages. See Fietp Fortification, and CoNsTRUCTION,
Military. 5

Franxine Line of Deferice. See Line of DEFENCE.

FLANNAN Iszanps, in Geography, or Seven Hunters,
a group of fmall uninhabited iflands in the North fea, about
17 miles N.W. from the ifland of Lewis. They yield good
pafture for fheep. On the largeft are the ruins of a chapel

dedicated to St. Flannan. N,. lat. 58° 26. W.. long,

See Ancre and Line of

ie)

2is'. an
a “LANSKER, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf
ef Bothnia. N. lat. 63°24'. E. long. 21° 26’,

FLA

i LASHES, in Enginzery, ave a kind of fluices ereéted
upon navigable rivers to raife the water upon any fhoals
therein, while the véffels or craft are pafling. See Cana.
FLASK, in the Ariillery. See Powner-flafk. :
Pay Llafque, a bearing mere properly called Algnque.

inci. -
ik FLASKET, in Geograzhy, an ifiand near the coat of
Norway ; 88 miles 5,.W. of Drontheim. eel

PLAT, is a character in Mufic, exprefled by a {mall b,
of which the effe€t is lowering the note to which it is:
affixed a femitone minor, Guido d’Arezzo having given,
names to fix founds of the o¢tave of which he conitituted:
his celebrated hexachord, left the feventh of the natural
{cale unprovided with any other appellation than the letter
b, which is wanted in the molle hexachord, when the
fame found becomes the fourth of the key of F. (See
Hexacuorps and Mufical Craracrers.) Flats on,
keyed initruments are the nominal half notes below, that is,
on the left hand of the. natural notes, as fharps are on the
right hand. There are two ways of ufing: flats, the one
accidental, which has no effeéi beyond the fingle bar in
which it occurs; the other is the flat or flats placed at the
clef, in the beginning of a movement which affeé all the
notes on the fame line or {pace throughout a movement,
unlefs accidentally difcharged by a natural, 4. The placing
the flats at the clef is not arbitrary, as the firlt neceflarily
is on B, the fecond on E, the fourth above or 5th below,
&c. in the following order ; 2

I z k? 4
Bh Eb Ab Db Gb

For thefe five flats upon keyed inftruments, there are
five fhort keys; flats, however, fometimes occur in C and I’,
but for thefe the two long keys are obliged to be ufed of
B and E natural, the two half notes below C and F natural.
If it is neceffary in practice to lower any found already flat at
the clef a femitone, it is done by double flats: as B bb is
A 4, E double flat D natural, &c. See Scares, Cra-
RACTERS, and TRANSPOSITIONS. }

Frat Third. See Minor Third.

Frat Key. See Minor Third.

Frat, Double, is a term ufed where a note already flat
is required to be again depreffed by a half-note, and is
marked thusbb or 6; the quantity or exact deprefling

effeét of which willonly be conftant in the equal temperament,
and in all other fyftems of temperament will partake of all
the uncertainty which we have f\ewn to prevail with
regard to b. See Fiat.

Flats are a kind of additional or half-notes contrived,
&c. together with fharps, to remedy the defects of mutfical
initruments. ; ;

The natural feale of mufic being limited to fixed founds,
and adjufted to an inftrument, the inftrument will be found
defeétive’ in feveral points; as particularly, in that we
can only proceed from any note by one particular order
of degrees; that for this reafon we cannot find any
sngetyall required from any note or letter upwards of
downwards; and that a fong may be fo contrived, as
that if it be begun by any’particular note or letter, all the
intervals or other notes fhall be juftly found on the inftru-
ment, or in the fixed feries; yet where the fong begun
with any other-note, we could not proceed. ©

To remove or fupply this defeét, muficians have re-
courfe to a {cale proceeding by twelve degrees ; that» is,
thirteen notes, including the ‘extremes, to an ‘oave;
which makes the inflrument fo perfect that there is at

little

or

F.L A

Jittle to complain of. This, therefore, is, the prefent
Syitem of the fcale for inftruments, viz. between the ex-
tremes of every tone of the natural fcale is put a note,
which divides it into two unequal parts, called /émitones ;
and the whole may be called th femitonic feale, contain-
jog twelve femitones betwixt thirteen notes in the compals
of the o€tave.

Now, to preferve the diatonic feries diftin@, thefe in-

Jerted notes either take the name of the natural note next
below with a chara&ter called a Jbarp; or they take the
name of the natural note next above with a mark called
fiat. Thus D flat fignifics a femitone below the D na-
tural : and it is indifferent, ia the main, whether the inferted
note be accounted as a flat or a fharp,
_ The femitonic feries or f{cale is very exactly reprefented
by the keys of a f{pinnet ; the foremoft range of keys be-
ing the natural netes, and keys behind, the artificial notes,
r the flats and fharps. ‘T'he flat is denoted by the letter b
in the writing and printing of mulic, and denotes that the
note to which itis prefixed is to be lowered ahalf-note or femi-
tone, and of courle made to coincide with the note imme-
diately below, in allfuch nftruments as have but 12 intervals
in the o€tave; it muft however be obferved, that except inthe
Lqual Temperament of thefeale (which fee), the flattening
effe& of a b is not always the fame, but varies according
to the magnitude of the half-uotes in each different fyftem
of temperament or part of the fame fyftem, as obferved
under Fincer-hey intervals. ¢

Writers on the theory of mufic are by no means agreed
on the magnitude of the interval which they affizn toa
Hat. Dr. Robert Smith (Harmonies, p. 160.) detinesit to
mean the minor Lima of his different tempered fyitems

which fee). Mr. Maxwell, (Effay on Tune, p. 51.) fixes
it to his major limma, which has a ratio of t= 47> +f
+ 4m, and isthe medivs Semirone (which fee). Dr. Cal-
cott (Mufical!Grammar, p. 112.) detines it to mean his chro-
2,248
2,187
= 58 + f+ 5m; in numerous other inftances, we find
} 243

matic femitone, or the apotome which has a ratio of

the flat. defined to mean the limma whofe ratio is

2
462+ f+ 4m. Ifwe examine the MSS. of Mr. Oven’,
we find the flat fourth of Tartini and himfelf, and alfo
what he calls the greater of the flat fevenths and flat eighths,
ure each of them depreffed below their natural intervals by

Zt 3654 f+3m

the minor femitone, whofe ratio is—! =
25

See Suarp.
_ Frat, in Sea Language, denotes a level ground lying at
a {mall depth under the furface of the fea, and is alfo called
a fhoal or fhallow. — 1
Friar Baffion, in Fortification. See Bastion.
Frart-dottomed Boats are fuch as are made to fwim in
fhallow water, and to carry a great number of troops, artil-
ery, ammunition, &c. T hey are conftru@ted with a
twelve-pounder, bow-chafe, and an eighteen-pounder, ftern-

~ chafe; their keel is from ninety to one hundred feet, and

from twelve to twenty-four feet beam: they have one mait,
a large fquare main-fail, and a jib-fail, are rowed by eighteen
or twenty oars, and can carry four. hundred men each.

~The gun takes up ove bow, aid a bridge the other, over

which the troops are to march. Thofe that carry horfes
have the fore-part of the’boat made to open when the men
are to mount and ride overa bridge. See Bear,

_ Fuar-botiomed Moat. See Moar,

See OLe XL.

FLA

Friar Crown, in Archite@ure. See Corona. : ;

Frar-aft, in Sea Language, denotes the firuation of the
fails, when their furfaces are preffed aft agaiuft the maft by
the force of the wind.

Zo Fuar-in, is to draw in the aftmoft lower corner or
clue of a fail towards the middle of the fhip, to give the
fail a greater power of turning the veffel. Thus, if the
mizen or after-fails are flatted-in, this aétion is istended
to carry the ftern to leeward, and turn the fead nearer to
the direGion of the wind; and if the head-fails are
flatted-in, the intention is to make the fhip fall off, when
by accident or defign fhe has come fo near the wind as te
make the fails fhiver.

To Fiar-ix forward, is to draw im the fore-fheet, jib«
fheet, and fore-ttay-fail fheet towards the middle of the fhip.
This operation is feldom performed, except in light breezes
of wind, when the helm has not fufficient government of
the fhip.

Frar-bufh, in Geography, the chief town of King’s
county, in Long ifland, New York. This town is healthy
and pleafant, and diftant five miles S. by E. from New York.
The inhabitants are chiefly of Dutch extraétion; their
number is 956, of whom 341 are flaves. The whole town-
fhip in f{ummer appears like a garden; and its produdtions,
which are various kinds of fruit, vegetables, grain, &c,
find a ready market in the capital. The public buildings
are a Dutch church, and a flourifhing academy, called
Erafmus Hall. The Americans were defeated in this place,
aftera fanguinary conteft with the Britifh, and {udered
a great lofs, Auguft 27, 1776. ;

Frat Head, a cape on the S. coaft of Ireland, in the
county of Cork, feven miles E. of Kinfale.

Frat Holm, a {mall ifland in the Briftol channel, about
ti mile in circumference. On the higheit point of land
is a light-houfe to guide veffels up the channel. N. lat.
51°30!. W. long. 3° 5’. ‘

Friar find, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the N. coaft of the ifland of Flores. S. lat. 7° 59’. E. long.
120° 59'.—A\lfo, a {mall ifland inthe S. Pacific ocean, near
the E. coaft of New Zealand. S, lat. 37° 40’. W. long.
183° 15'. :

Frat Jflands, iflands of Upper Canada, lying to the
weit of the Manitou iflands, and open to the ftraits of
Michilimackinac, upon lake Huron.

Friar Kill, a river of New Jerfey, which runs into the
Delaware. N. lat. 41° 4/. W. long. 75° 4'.

Prat Lands, a {mall townfhip in King’s county, Long
ifland, diftant from New York fix or feven miles ; containing
493 inhabitants, of whom 128 are flaves. .

Frat Point, a cape on the N. coaft of the ifland of
Jamaica. _N. lat. 18° 30’. W. long. 77° 8'.—Alfo, a cape
at the fouthern extremity of the ifland of Sumatra. S. lat.
o° 50!. E. long. 102° 38’.—Alfo, a cape on the S. coat of
the ifland of Borneo. S. lat. 2° 45'. E. long. 112°.

FLATA Isranps, a cluiter of fmall iflands near the
S.E. coait of North Uilt, and about one mile N.E. of
Rona ifland.

FLATOR Tintarum,
player, a Tibieen.

FLATTA, in Geography, one of the fmaller weftera
ifands of Scotland, two miles E. trom the ifland of Barra,
N. lat. 56° 58’. W. long. 7° 201.

FLATTE!, Fria grace equal to a beat in Encglith
mufic.

FLATTENED, in Mufe, is applied to fuch intervals as
are leffened, or notes which are deprefled in their tone, by
the intervals which aufwer to a flat (marked §), which

4l * (except

in Ancient Mufic, a flute

FLA

(except in the equal temperament) are very numerous, See
Frat,

Fratrenen Foffls, in Natural Hiftory, are fuch
mineral fubftances, organic remains in particular, as feem
to have fuffered a compreffion o: flattening, fince their
firft depofit inthe ftrata; Mr. W. Martin obferves (Out-
lines, p. 72.) that {uch compreffed, or flattened form of
reliquia, ‘tis often the confequence of the mode in which
the mineral change has been brought about, and not the
efe& of a fimilar ftructure in the original. Some reliquia
retain the form only of one fide, or of one half, of the or-
ganized body reprefented; while others prefent the whole
of the external or internal organic fabric, according to the
manner in which the mineral matter has been united to
the animal or vegetable figure.” See Compressep Jo/-

Lise
f FLATTER, or Fratrenrr. See Corninea.

FLATTERY, Care, in Geography, a cape on the
N.W. coaft of North America, fo called by captain Cook
in his Third Voyage (March 1778), becaufe it prefented an
opening, which flattered the navigators with the hopes cf a
harbour, but difappointed them ; the opening being clofed
by low Jand. It hes in N. lat. 48° 15’. E. long. 2357 3!.
Over it is around hill of moderate height ; and the adjacent
land is well covered with wood, and exhibited a very plea-
fant and fertile appearance. In this latitude geographers
have placed the pretended ftrait of Juande Fuca. But our
navigators faw nothing lke it; nor, fay they, is there the
leaft probability that ever any fuch thing exifted—Alfo,
a cape on the N.E, coaft of New Holland. It lies in
S. lat. 14° 56'. W. long. 214° 43', and is a lofty promon-
tory, making next the fea two hills, which have a third
behind them, with low fandy ground on each fide; but it
may be better known by three iflands out at fea; the largett,
and northerrmoft, lying about five leagues from the cape,
in the direGtion of N.N.E. This is fuppofed to be the.
fame with that which eapt. Dixon called Caye Cox.

FLATTING, or Fuatreninc. See Coinine.

Friattinc-courfe, among Brick-makers. See Brick.

Frarrinc-mill. See Mitzi and Gouxp-wire.

FLATTS, fignify the fame with dirt-boats. or floats,
which are reGtangular flat-bottomed and very fhallow veffels,
ufed on the Merfey and other navigable rivers, for moving
ftuff to repair the banks of a canal, and other purpofes ; in
fome places the ordinary trading boats are fo called.

FLATULENCE, in Medicine, from the Latin, flatus,
a puff, or b/a/? of wind, fignifies the generation and dif-
charge of ar, or gas, in and from the human body,
efpecially in the ftomach and intettines.

There are only two fources from which air can be
generated in the paflages juft mentioned ; namely, their
contents, and the blood-veffels which fecrete other fluids
into them. The firft of thefe, the fubftances contained
in and paffing through the alimentary canal, are the ordi-
nary fources of flatus: for although we know that in fome
animal ftru@tures, as in the air-bladder of fifhes, the veffels
appear to be adapted for the fecretion of air; and although
it is not improbable that, in fome morbid conditions of the
organs of the human body, the blood-veffels occafionally
fecrete air, as was {uggetted by Mr. John Hunter; yet,
jn general, we have a much more natural folution of the
problem, in the difengagement of air from the fubttances
taken for the purpofe of nutriment. All ‘animal and
vegetable fubftances difengage a confiderable quantity of
air in the courfe of their decompofition, whether by fer-
mentation or putrefaction, It appears from the experi-
mentsof Dr. Hales, that an apple, and many other kinds

FLA

of aliment, give out fix hundred times their own bulk of
an elaftic gas during fermentation. But the procefs of
digeftion, when well performed, prevents this fermentation
from taking place ; and the folvent power of the gaftric
juice converts the food into chyle without any difengagee
ment of air. When, however, the digeftive procefs is
imperfe€ily carried on, the aliment, and efpecially the
vegetable part af it, is fuffered to go into a partial fere
mentation, of which the difengagement of air is a neceflary
confequence. Flatulence, therefore, is not fo much a

difeafe in itfelf although generally confidered fo by thofe.

who are troubled with it, as a /ymptom of indigeftion, or
of a-weakened condition of ftomach ; and hence, althongh
a flatulent diftenfion of this organ may be relieved by the
means which we fhall enumerate, it can only be entirely
cured by reftoring the flrength of the flomach. See
Dyspepsia, and InpIGESTION. :

Flatulence occafions various feelings of diftrefs, according:
to the part of the alimentary canal in which the wind is & -
nerated or pent up. Whenit is copioufly generated in the
ftomach, and does not pafs readily through the upper orifice,
to be difpelled by erudation, it produces all the diftrefling
confequences which are attendant on great diftenfion of that
organ: in fome inftances great pain of the ftomach is
excited, either by the fimple extenfion of the fibres, or by
partial fpa/modic contraétions; in others, efpecially in
hytfterical habits, the adjoining organs are confiderably
affected by the preflure of the diftended ftomach; whence
great anxiety and oppreffion are felt in the cheft, from
the impediment to the free motion of the lungs and of the
heart ; the refpiration becomes laborious and difficult, with
a fenfe of fuffocation, and the heart intermits in its action,
giving rife to intermiffion of the pulfe, or is excited to
violent palpitations. Thefe fymptoms are generally alleviated
by the difcharge of wind by eruétation: this alleviation
however, is only temporary; for the flatus again accumulates
and re-produces the fame effe&ts. The generation of air
in the ftomach, in lefs degrees, is an ordinary concomitant
of indigeftion; but it generally pafles off readily. Some
people, indeed, acquire a habit of voluntary erutation,
which, however, augments the malady. For, as Dr. Darwin
juftly obferves, “ when people voluntarily ejeét the fixed
air from their ftomachs, the fermentation of the aliment
goes on the fafter; for {topping the veflels which contain
new wines, retards their fermentation, and opening them
again accelerates it; hence where the digeftion is impaired,
and the ftomach fomewhat diftended with air, it is better to
reftrain than to encourage eru@tations, except the quantity
makes it neceflary.’? (Zoonomia, Clafsi. 3.1.) It has been
fuggetted, and we think not incorreétly, that in the repeated
voluntary attempts to difpel wind from the ftomach, which
are often continued or fome length of t‘'m-, the atmofpheric
air is often attually /wallowed, aid the difagreeable
fenfation of diftenfion thus augmented.

When air paffes from tie lower orifice of the ftomach
into the inteftines, or when, as is perhaps more common,
it is generated from the fermentation or putrefaétive
changes of the alimentary matters in their courfe through
the canal, other diftrefling fymptoms are produced. ‘The
flighteft affetion of the bowels from flatulence is a fenfe
of uneafinefs, with a rumbling or-gurgling noife in the
belly, termed bordorigmus. This, however, is fometimes
fuffic ently diftrefling, efpecially from drawing the attention
of by-ftanders, and is net very uncommon in young women,
about the age of puberty. <‘* I attended a young lady
about fixteen,” fays Dr. Darwin, “ who was in other

refpects feeble, whofe bowels almoft inceffantly made a
gurgling

FLA

gurgling noife, fo loud as to be heard at a confiderable
diftance, and to attra¢t the notice of all who were near her.
As this noife never ceafed a minute together for many
hours in a day, it could not be produced by the uniform
defceat of water, and afcent of air through it, but there
muft have been alternately a retrograde movement of a
part of the bowel, which muit again have pufhed up the
water above the air; or which might raife a part of the
bowel, in which the fluid was lodged, alternately above
and below another portion of it, asmight happen in fome
of the curvatures of the fmaller inteftines, the air in which
might be moved backward and forward like the air-bubble
in a glafs level.” (Loe. cit.)

The colic, which is occafioned by flatulence, (the cindy
colic, or colica flatulenta,) avifes from partial collections of
air, probably pent up by partial {pafmodic {trictures,
efpecially in the colon, or great gut. The diitenfions, in
fuch eas as Hoffmann has remarked, are moft frequently
obvious in the right or left hypochondrium (under the
fhort ribs), on account of the curvature of the bowel in
thofe parts, by which the more ready paflage of its contents
is impeded: and fuch diftenfions, he adds, have been mif-
taken by perfons ignorant of anatomy, for tymours of the
Spleen. Large and painful tumours are alfo fometimes
obferved, above the {pine of the right ilinm, which are
angmented by flatuient food. Hoffmann affigns their feat
to the head of the colon, which is capacious and mufcular
forthe purpofe of propelling the faces upwards, and which
has been oceafionally feen fo much diflended, as to pufh
forward the integuments, with confiderable pain, and to
be in danger of being ruptured. The nature of fuch
tumours may be learnt from the relief to the pain and
diminution of the {welling, which follow the emiffion of
Alatus, or the copious difcharge of a tenacious matter, by
vomiting or by itool. A great diftenfion of the colon
ecéafions very fimilar diftreffing fymptoms, to thofe which
arife from diftenfion of the itomach, from the preffure
produced on the furrounding organs. Hoffmann obferves,
that pains in the loins, intermiffion of the pulfe, edematous
{wellings of the feet, &c. originate often in flatulent dif-

.tenfions of the bowels, compreffling the great veffels and

nerves. (Hoffmann, Med. Rational. feét. i. cap. v. § 57.)
See Corica.

Sometimes the whole abdomen is enlarged by the
general diftenfion of the bowels with air, accompanied by
conftipation. When this diftenfion has been of fome
duration, a degree of paralyfis of the mufcular fibres of

‘the inteftines is produced, their power in expelling the

wind is loft, and the integuments of the abdomen become
fenfe, like a drum; the patient becomes emaciated and
Aabid. This difeale is called Tympanites; which fee.

For the relief of flatulence, (the radical cure, as we
haye slready obferved, can only be effefied by curing the
debility of the ftomach and bowele,) a number of medicines
have been devifed, from a very early period of time, efpe-
cially fuch as are comprehended under the appellation of
_Garminatives, (which fee), ‘Thefe ure generally fubftances

ofieffing itvong fenfible qualities, which render them in-
“Hensescoully flimulant to the nervous fyftem; and by
fuddenly exciting the mufcular coat of the ftomach to
action, enable it to overcome the diftenfion, and difpel the
diftending gas. ‘The aromatic vegetables, containing much
_effential oil, fuch as juniper berries, the feeds of aniley
-earraway, and coriander, the roots of gingerand zedoary,
and the waters diftilled from thefe, are among the moit
efteemed carminatives, ‘To thefe may be added other
ftimulant and antifpafmodic medicines; fuch as aflafe-

FLA

tida, and other ftrong fmelling gums; volatve alkali;
opium, xther, &c. Warm fomentation externally to the
region of the {tomach has been recommended by Dr. Darwin,
and other external remedies were employed by Dr. Whytt;
efpecially frictions on the region of the itomach, with lini-
ments compofed of the warm oils; fuch as the exprefled
oil of mace, oil of mint, &c.; and alfo the application of
large platters to the belly, made with the ftimulating gums
and gum-refins. He confidered xther and opium, however,
as the molt effe&tual remedies for fatulence. Dr. Derwia
recommends ten corns of black pepper fwallowed whole
after dinner, that its efle@s may be flower and more per-
manent,” inthe borborygmi of young women. We have
feen them fufpended by any fubftance, taken isto the
ftomach, “as a piece of dry bifcuit, which, by the way,
the late Dr. Buchan contidered ** as one of the beft car-
minative medicines,” and recommends it in all complaints of
the dtomach, arifing from flatulence indigeftion. "Thefe
diforders are often particularlytroublefome when the fiomach
is neerly empty, and perhaps the cperation of a bifcuit
taken at fuch times is merely that of relieving this tem-
porary vacuity, which any other light aliment weuld
effe&.

As the proper digeftion of the food is much aided by a
regular motion and difcharge of the excrementitious portion
ef it downwards, wherever the bowels are conftipated,
particular care fhould be taken to obviate this tardinefs of
their aétion, by conjoining ftimulant laxatives with the dif-
pellers of wind. Hence pills, confifting of aloes, calomel, or
rhubarb, combined with affafeetida, ginger, &c. may be ad-
vantageoufly adminiftered. To thefemeans the genera! reme-
dies for indigeftion fhould be added, as weil thofe which
{trengthen theconftitution at large,as thofe which give vigour
to the ftomach in particular ; fuch are efpecially the aromatic
bitters, preparations of fleel, and exercife. And the diet
fhould be fele¢ted from thofe materials which do not readily
pafs into the vinous or acetous fermentation, and which
are eafy of digeftion: hence greens, peas, beans, and other
fimilar vegetable matters fheuld be avoided, as well as
liquors which are in a ftate of aGtive fermentation, and
confequently difengaging elaftic air; and particular attention
fhould be paid to moderation. in eating and drinking, fo
that the digeitive powers may not be oppreffed and over-
come. For, as we have already obferved, when fpeaking of
Diet, excefsin quantity is, in general, much more pro-
du&tive of injury, than any unwholefome quality in the
articles of food which we ule.

FLATULENT, fomething that has a relation to fia-
tufes, or blaits of wind.

Peas, and moft kindé of pulfe, onions, &c. are flatuleat
foods.

FLAT-Works, in Mining, fignify {mall pipe-works 0:
bodies of ore, which, initead of being depofited in a rake or
{traight vertical fiffure of the rock, is found in an herizontal
potition, or nearly fo, between the beds of ftone, or fome-
timesin the fubitance of the itone itfelf, according to Mr.
W. Martin; this kind of mine is very rare in Deraythire.

FLAVEL, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated Englith
divine, was born in Werecelterfhire about the year 1627
He waseducated at the Univerfity-ccllege, Oxford, where
he took his degree of B. A. In 1650, he fettled as affiitant
minilter to Mr. Walplate, reSor of Diptford in Devorthire,
and {hortly after fucceéeded to the reGtory, which, however,
in 1656, he refigned in order that he might enlarge the
{phere of his ufefulnefs, by becoming miniiter of a very po-
pulousparifh at Dartmouth; though the ftipend in this fituas
tan wag much lefé advantageous than that which he had

a 2 heli.

FLA

Yeft.. In’ 1762, the} was among the number of ejected
minifters, for refufing the terms propofed by the act of
uniformity. He did not, however, entirely feparate himfelf
from his people, but preached and admimiftered the facra-
ment privately, till the paffing of the Oxford aé& in 1665,
which prohibited non-conforming minifters from refiding
within five miles of any city, corporate town, &c. or any
place where they had preached. Mr. Flavel was now
obliged to retire to Slapton, avvillage five miles from Dart-
mouth, where he preached to thofe who durit. venture to
become his auditors, and fometimes he vifited his former
people, but this required the greateft care on his part to
avoid that perfecution which would unqueftionably follow
the violation of the Jaw. His zeal in fome inftances led
him to the exercife of his talents at a hazard of his fafety ;
once in a wood about three miles from Exeter, a congrega-
tion aflembled to hear him, but he had fearcely begun when
aparty, fent for the purpofe, furrounded the place of meet-
ing, and it was with the utmoft difficulty he efeaped ;
others who were fuppofed the leaders were apprehended and
' heavily fined. Thote who were more fortunately circum-
ftanced, remembering the admonition, “ that if perfecuted
in one place they fhould flee to another,’’ accompanied
their preacher to an adjoining wood, where he preached
without moleftation. In 1685, the mob was excited
againft him, and would probably have deftroyed him, had
he fallen into their hands ; to avoid therefore the threatened
evil he came to London. Here, however, he was not long
fafe ; in one inftance while a number of perfons were aflem-
bled, a party of foldiers broke in upon them, and though
Mr. Flavel again efcaped, yet an aged minifter, Mr. Jenkins,
fell into their hands, and was thrown into Newgate, where he
fuffered fo mueh hardfhip, as fpeedily to terminate his life.
After fome ftay in the metropolis, he returned to Dart-
mouth, where, a prifoner in his own houfe, he was ufeful
in affording private inftructions to thofe who reforted to him
for the purpofe. In 1657, when king James affumed the
right of difpenfing with the laws, and granting more liberty
to non-conformills, Mr. Flavel’s congregation immediately
obtained for him a large place, in which he was enabled to
exercife his minifterial functions ; and by the revolution in
1688, he was permitted to do that by law which he had
performed before by connivance. He died at Exeter in
1691, in his 64th year, having long poffeffed, in an eminent
degree, the refpeé& and efteem of all good men. He was a
man of exemplary piety, and his various works were once
much read, and are ftill regarded by thofe. who hold cal-
winiftic fentiments. They were colleéted after his death in
two volumes folio. Calamy’s Ejected Minitters.

FLAVERIA, in Botany, from flavus, yellow, becaufe
it is ufed in dyeing that colour by the inhabitants of Chili,
Juff. 186. (Gupatorio-phalacron, n. 5; Vaill. Act. Ed.
Germ. 598.)—-Clafs and order, Syngencfia Polygamia-equalis.
Nat.. Ord. Compofite difcoidea, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Conimon calyx oblong, of three or four equal,
cohering, obtufe, ribbed, unarmed {cales. Cor. compound,
uniform, difcoid; florets few, all uniform, perie&, fertile,
monopetalous, funnel-fhaped, with a regular, tive cleft,
{preading border. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, fhort ;
anthers united into a cylindrical tube, prominent. Pi.
Germen flender; ftyle thread-fhaped; ftigmas . flender,
bluntifh, fpreading, projecting beyond the anthers. Peric.
none, except the folded leaves of the permanent calyx.
Seeds folttary, oblong, ftriated, naked. Recep?. very {mall,
naked.

-Eff. Ch. Receptacle minute, naked. Down none. Calyx

ef five equal, ribbed, pointlefs, at length folded, leaves, .

FLA

Florets few, tubular. Seeds ftriated,. enfolded in tlie
calyx. vu

1. F. capitata. Jufl, MSS. Flowers in aggregate coryme
bofe heads.—(Ethuilia bidentis; Linn. Mant. rro. Willd;
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1741. See Erxuria.—Eupatorioides falicis
folio trinervi, ‘flore luteo, vu'go Contrahierba; Feuill. Pl.
de Perou & Chili, 18. t. 14.)—Native of Chili, where it.
was gathered by Feuillée, who mentions its affording a fine
yellow dye, if boiled in common water; and fubfequently
by Mr. Menzies, to whom we are obliged for a fpecimen in
ripe fruit. It has been cultivated in the royal garden at
Paris, whence we received a fpecimen in flower by favour
of M. de Juffieu, marked with his cwn fpecific name as
above. This is precifely the fame as the Lthulia bidentis of
the Linnzan herbarium, whofe native country was never
before afcertained.—The rvot is fibrous, and appears to be
annual. Stem from one to two feet high, ereét, ftraight,
angular, ftriated, {mooth, often purplifh, folid, leafy, with
feveral oppofite, itraight, f{preading, forked branches.
Leaves oppofite, ftalked, fpreading, lanceolate, acute,
three-ribbed, {mooth, with numerous incurved ferratures.
Footftalks dilated at the bafe, and clafping the ftem.
Flowers terminal, yellow, numerous, ina fort of compound
corymbus, very ill-drawn by Feuillée. The ultimate ftalks
are each a fort of compreffed rachis, on which the flowers
are ranged alternately, in afpiked manner, with a braétea
under each, and feveral fuch ftalks combine to form a denfe
level-topped head. All the parts of the inflorefcence and
flower are {mooth, except a few hairs now and then at the
edges of the principal ftalks. When in fruit, the whole
affumesa pale hue, the calyx becomes gibbous, containing
rarely more than one grey, flender, obovate, neatly ribbed
feed. The inflorefcence of this plant greatly refembles that
of Valeriana Cornucopie, and fome others of the fame

enus.

: 2. F. fpicata. Jufl. MSS. Flowers in compound fpikes.
Gathered by the unfortunate Dombey in Peru; fee Dom- |
BEY. One of his {pecimens was given us by M. de Juflieu,
with the name we have adopted, and a very fine one was.
found, without any mark, in the herbarium of the younger
Linneus. This fpecies has altogether the afpe&t of a So/i-
dags; but the fem is fhrubby, with many round, or flightly
angular, roughifh, leafy and flowery branches. Leaves
oppofite, flalked, lanceolate, narrow, {mooth above; with
three ribs, which are rough beneath; anda few fhallow
diftant ferratures. Spikes very numerous, oppofite, lateral
and terminal, with innumerable little, yellow, crowded,
{eflile, bra@teated flowers, whofe calyx-leaves are fringed,
roughifh and very obtufe. #Vorets about three. Seed fhaped
like the ‘aft, but fmaller, blackifh, and with fearcely more
than four angles or ribs. The flavour of the plant is
flightly bitter and aromatic. S.

FLAVIA Cazsartensts, in Ancient Geography, a pro-
vince of Britain, which extended over the whole breadth of
the ifland where it is broadeft, from the Land’s End ia
Coruwall, tothe South Foreland in Kent ; and was bounded
on the S. by the Englifh channel, on the N. by the
Briftol channel, the Severn, and the Thames. It compre-
hended the countries of the Danmonii, Durotrigées, Belge,

.Attrebatii, Regni, and Cantii; which are now Cornwall,
‘Devonfhire, Dorfetfhire, Somerfetfhire, Hampthire, Wilt-

fhire, Berkfhire, Surrey, Suffex, and Kent. This pro.
vince was not firft eftablifhed, but the countries compre.
hended in. it made a part of the one province in Britain,
fromthe time when they were fubdued, to the reign of the
emperor Severus. When that emperor divided the Roman ~
territories in Britain inte. two provinces, thefe countries .

FLA

fnade a part of the fouthern one, and fo continued until
Conftantine the Great formed them into a diilinét pro-
vince, which was called Flavia Cefarienfis, from Flavius,
one of the names of that emperor. The other four :pro-
vinces were Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, Maxima
Cefarienfis, and Valentia. Britannia Prima was probably
fo named becaufe it contained fome of the countries which
firft f{ubmitted to the Romans, in this ifland. This pro-
vince was bounded on the fouth by the Thames, oa the eaft
by the Britifh ocean, on the north by the Humber, and on
the weft by the Severn; and comprehended the countries of
the Dobuni, Cattivellauni, Trinobantes, Iceni, and Cori-
tani; which are now Gloucefterfhire, Oxfordthire, Buck-
inghamfhire, Bedfordthive, Hertfordfhire, Middlefex, Effex,
Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgefhire, Huntingdonfhire, North-
amptonfhire, Leicefterfhire, Rutlandfhire, Lincolushire,
Nottinghamfhire, and Derbyhhire.

Britannia Secunda perhaps received that name, when
Severus divided the Roman dominions in Britain into two
provinces, of which this was the fecond. It was bounded
on the fouth by the Briftol channel and the Severn, on the
weit by St. George’s channel, on the north by the Irifh fea,
and on the eaft by Britannia Prima. This province con-
tained the countries of the Cornavii, Silures, Demete, and
Ordovices, which are now Warwickhhire, Worcefterhhire,
Staffordfhire, Shropfhire, Chefhire, Herefordthire, Rad-
norfhire, Brecknockthire, Monmouthfhire, Glamorganfhire,
‘Caermarthenfhire, Pembrokethire, Cardiganfhire, Mont-
gomeryfhire, Merionethfhire, Caernarvonfhire, Denbighthire,
and Flintfhire. For an account of the other two provinces,
fee Maxima Casariensis and VaLENTIA.

‘' FLAVIANO, Sr. a town of Naples, in Abnizzo
Ultra, near the Adriatic; 12 miles N. E. of Teramo.

FLAVIANUS, in Biography, patriarch of Antioch in
the fourth century, is diftinguifhed for his zeal in oppofing
Arianifm. . Upon the death of Meletius, he was. elected
his:fucceffor, in the year 381, by the fuffrages of the coun-
cil of Conftantinople, notwithttanding Paulinus, the col-
league of Meletius, was ftill living, and that Flaviaaus him-
felf had formerly {worn not to confent to the eleGtion of any
fucceffor to Meletius during the life of Paulinus. His
election caufed a confiderable {chiim in the Chriftian world.
The weltern bifhops declared themfelves on the fide of
Paulinus, and the greater part of the eaftern bifhops de-
fended the rights of Flavianus. ‘The death of Paulinus, and
the prudent condu& of Flavianus, put the latter in quiet
pofleifion of his fituation. After this he fignalized himfelf
in defence of orthodoxy, and in perfecuting the heretics ;
he entitled himfelf to the gratitude of the citizens of An-
tioch by his fuccefsful inti rpofition on their behalf at the
court of Conftantinople, when they had incurred the
emperor’s difpleafure, and dreaded his refentment. For
during the courfe of a popular tumult, occafioned by the
impofition of a new tax, various outrages had been com-
mitted, and the ftatues of the emperor ‘heodofius and his
emprefs were overthrown. The moit exemplary vengeance

was threatened, but, by the eloquent interceflions of the
patriarch, pardon was obtained for the offenders. “he ad-
drefs which he delivered on this occafion was {aid to have
been cpmpofed by St.Chryfoftom, who thought very
highly of Flavianus, as one of the greateit orsaments of

_the church. Flavianus died in the year 4o4.. He publifhed
fome epiftles and fome homilies... Moreri.

Fiavianus, patriarch of Conitaatinople in the fifth
century, was elected to that dignity in the year 447. An
unfortunate mifunderftanding took place between Flavianus

and Chryfaphius, the fir chamberlain and favourite of the.

FLA

emperor, which terminated in the ruin. of the patriarch.
He was depofed and banifhed; and, unable to fuftain the
feverities inflicted on him, died in 450, at Hypzpa in Lydia,
the place of his exile. Flavianua was the author of « Two
Letters”? to pope Leo, which are extant in the fourth
volume of the ‘ Colleétio Conciliorum ;”’ and alfo of « A De-
claration of Faith delivered to the Emperor Theodofius.”
Moreri.

FLAVIGNAG, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Vienne; i2 milesS.W. of Limoges.

FLAVIGNY, VAcerian DE, in Biography, a French
ecclefiaftic, was born at Laon early in the feventeenth cen-
tury. He was admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity
by the faculty of the Sorbonne in the year 1628, and
fhortly was made canon of Rheims. In the year 1630 he
was nominated profeffor of the Hebrew. language in the
college-royal of France, and difcharged the duties of that
office with high reputation. In 1656 he became dean of
the college-royal, and died at Paris in 1674, atan advanced
age. He was eiteemed very learned in theology and the
oriental languages, but was diftinguifhed by much violence
of temper and a very bitter fpivit, which he difplayed on
many occafions. In 1663 he lodged a formal complaint
before the faculty of the Sorbonne, againft a thefis that had

een maintained by the jefuits of the college of Clermont,
the obje& of which was to prove, that as the doétrine of
Copernicus was contrary to feripture, condemned by the
Vatican, and anathematized by the inquifition of Rome; it
was decidedly inconfiftent with the faith of the church, and
ought not to be defended in France. M. Flavigay, in
anfwer to this, attempted to prove that the thefis weat
to vielate the rights of the king and kingdom, and to fet
at» nought the authority of parliament. He engaged in
many other difputes, but his controverfies relative to the
Polyglott publithed by M. le Jay, and the purity of the
Hebrew text, is his moft important work. It is known
by the title « Epiftole de Heptaplis Parifienfibus.”

-Moreri.

Fiavicny, in Geography, a@ town of France, in the
department of the Coté d’Or, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri&@ of Semur, feated on the Ozerain; 27 miles
W.N.W. of Dijon. The placecontains 1305 and the canton
12,392 inhabitants, on a territory of 300 kiliometres, ia 23
communes.

FLAVIOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, VERMEO or

Berme£o, a.town and colony of Spain, in the Tarragonentisy

fituated on the coaft, at the bottom of a {mall gulf, in the

country of the Autrigones; called alfo, according to Pliny,
Amanum Porrus,

FLAVIONAVA, .or Frayium, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragonenfis, in the territory of the Perficl, accord-
ing to Ptolemy; fituated on the fea-coalt in the country of
the Cantabri ; fuppofed to be the modera SANTANDER.

FLAVIOPOLIS, atown and colony of Thrace, which,
according to Pliny fucceeded the ancient Zela, and not far
from Bizyar. It derived.its new name from Veipafian and
Titus, who were of the Flavian family. —Alfo, a town of
Afia, in Bithynia ; called alfo Cratea and Cratia—Alfo, a
town of Afia, in Cilicia, fituated at the foot of mount”
Taurus, and near the fources of the Calycadnus, -probably
the Flaviada of the Itinerary: of Antonine, who marks it
on the route from Cafarea.of Cappadocia to Anazarbe

FLAVITAS, in Biography, patriarch of Conitanti-
nople, the immediate fucceffor of Acacius, was raifed to
that high dignity, from the fituation of prefbyter of the
church of St. Thecla, by means of a ftratagem, which the -
{uperftition of Zeno furnithed him with aa opportunity of

practifing.

FLA

practifing. The prince, on the death of Acacius, depaficed
on the altar of the great church a blank letter, fealed with
his own feal, and accompanied witha writing, in which he
and the whole church bound themfelves to choofe fuch a

erfon whofe name fhould be found written within the
blank letter. The church was fhut up, and all the avenues
carefully guarded by night and by day. Forty days fafting
was enjoined, during which prayers were offered up to the
Almighty, that he would be pleafed te direét an angel to
infcribe in the letter the name of the perfon moft adapted
to the office. Flavitas bribed the foldiers or their com-
mander, broke the feal, and infcribed his own name.
Such, however, was his renown for piety, that no fufpicion
of fraud fell upon hin, and when it was, found that his
name had been written by an heavenly hand, he was with
loud acclamations proclaimed bifhop of Conttantinople.
His hypocrify was of little avail, though it cheated the
foolifh emperor and his fuperftitious court, for he had no
arts to ward off the hand of death, to whofe fummons he
yielded in a few weeks after his advancement. The fraud
was now difcovered ; the eftate of Flavitas was confifeated,
and the perfon participating in the villainy was condemned
to die, Moreri.

FLAUTINO, Jal. a f{mall, or o€tave flute.

FLAUTO, Jtal. a flute.

FLAW, at Sea, figuities a fudden guft of wind, other-
wife called /guall.

FLAX, in Botany. See Linum.

Frax, Carolina. See Porypremum.

Friax, Purging. See Linum Catharticum.

Frax, Toad. See Linaria and ANTIRRHINUM.

Friax, Bafard-toad. See Tuestum.

Fax, in Agriculture, is the name of a plant cultivated
equally for the bark, or covering of its ftalk, and its feed ;
the former being ufed in making linen cloth, and the latter
for oil which is drawn from it by preffure, and for the refufe
or cake. The ftem of the plant, which is round and hollow,
grows to the heiht of about two feet, and then divides
into feveral branches ; UL. are terminated by blue flowers,
confiting of five petals, and are fueceeded by capfules
divided within, into ten cells, in each of which is enclofed
a bright, flippery, elongated feed. The leaves are long,
narrow, fharp-poiuted, and placed alternately along the ttem
and branches of the plant.

Scil, The moft proper fort of foil for flax isa deep, free
loam, fuch as is not liable to become too much charged with
moifture, or too dry ; but which has been rendered fine by
tilth, fueh as thofe fituated in a valley bordering upon
water, or as is thrown up by rivers. If there be water at a
fmall depth below the furface of the ground, it is thought,
by fome itil! better, as is the cafe in Zealand, which is re-
markable for the finenefs of its flax; and where the foil is
deep and rather iiff, with water almott every where, at the
depth ofa foot and a half, or two fect, underneath it. It is
faid to be owing to the want of this advantage, that the
other provinees of Holland do not fucceed equally well in
the culture of this ufeful plant; not but that fine flax is alfo
raifed on high lands, if they have been well tilled and ma-
nured, provided the feafons aie not very dry and unfriendly
to its growth in that way.

Tt has been remarked, inthe papers of the Dublin Agri-
cultural Socicty, that moift ftiff foils yield much greater
quantities of flax, and far better feed, than can be obtained
from light lands; and that the feed fecured from the former
may, with proper care, be rendered full as good as any that
is imported from Riga or Zealand. M. du Hamel, howe
ever, thinks that Srong land can hardly yield fuch tine flax

ELSA

as that which praws on lighter grounds. With due pul-
verization and preparation, there can be no doubt but that
ftrong iands will afford excellent crops of good flax. . It is
feldom that either light fandy or gravelly foils anfwer well
for crops of this kind. Land for flax fhould neither be in
too great a flate of fertility, or be too much exhaulted, as
in the former cafe the flax ts Hable to become too luxuriant,
and the produce in confequence of it, of a coarfe quality ;

-while under the latter circumftance the quantity of produce

is very {mall.

It has been ftated by Mr. Donaldfon, that flax is fowa
after all forts of crops, but is found to fucceed beft on lands
lately broken up from grafs. And that io Scotland, the
mott fkilful cultivators of flax generally prefer lands from
which only one crop of grain has been taken, after having
been feveral years in paflure. When fuch lands have been
limed or marled, immediately before being laid down to
grafs, the crop of flax feldom or never mifgives, unlefs the
feafon prove remarkably adverfe to it. It fucceeds in ge-
neral better after green crops, than thofe of the grain kind,

Preparation. The Jand, in order to render it &t for the
growth of this fort of crop, requires to be rendered per-
fectly fine and mellow, by being repeatedly ploughed over,
and broken down by fevere harrowings. Where grafs land
is to be broken up for this crop, it fhould be done in the
autumn, and left expofed to the influence of the atmo-
fphere, until the early part of the following year, when it
fhould be well pulverized and broken down by heavy har-
rowing, then in the courfe of a week or two ploughed
again, in which {late it may remain till the period of putting
in tke feed, when another light harrowing should be given,
and the ploughing performed afterwards by a very light
furrow, But in cafes where the crop is fown after grain,
or other crops that have the property of keeping the land
clean from weeds, the firft ploughing need not be given till
January, when it may remain in that fituation until it bo~
comes pretty dry in the early fpring, being then. well
reduced by good harrowing and rolling ; and after continu.
ing in that ftate about a fortnight, the feed may either be
immediately put in, or another hight ploughing and harrows
ing be firft given.

Sced.~ With regard to the choice of feed, the fame
writer ftates that, that which is ef a bright brownith
colour, oily to the feel, and at the fame time weighty, is
confidered the beft. Linfeed, imported from various
countries, is employed. That brought from Holland is
however in the higheft eftimation, as it not only ripens
fooner than any other that is imported, but alfo produces
greater crops, and flax of that quality which beft fuits the
chief manufactures of this country. American feed pro
duces in common fine flax; but neither the quantity of flax,
nor of the pods, provincially the ‘ boils”? which contain the
feeds, is fo large as the produce from Dutch linfeed. The
Riga feed. yields a very coarfe fort of flax, but 4 greater
quantity of feeds than any other. It is common im fome
parts of Scotland to fow feeds faved from the crop the
preceding year, efpecially when the crop wae raifed from
feed imported from Holland. ‘The fuccefs of this praétice
is found to depend greatly on changing the feed from one
fort of foil to another of an oppofite nature ; but the faving
ia the expence of purchaling that fore of feed, in place of
what is newly imported from Holland, is fo inconfiderable,
and the nik of the crop mifgiving, fo much greater in the
one cafe than in the other, thet ir as fuppofed thofe onl
who are ignorant of the conieguences, er who are compell
from neccflity, are chargeable with this act of ill-judged
parfimony in the bufinefs.

The

FLAX.

The cultivators of flax in Ireland prefer the American
feed for the lighter and more elevated expofed lands; but
the Baltic or Dutch for thofe which are of a heavier quality.
The feed of home produce is often fown for white flax in
Yorkfhire ; but the Baltic fort is moftly preferred where
feed is the object ; which for the enfuing year, and one ox
two afterwards, is found to anfwer as well as white-flax
Butvit is highly probable that if that which has been col-
le&ted from the perfectly ripened feed of our own growth.
be made ufe of, it will be equally produGtive in both the
flaxy fubftance and the quantity of feed, and the former be
equally valuable for all the purpofes of the maiufa@turer.

Proporticn of Sced.—In refpe&t to the quantity of feed
ufed, it varies in different places accoiding to the circum-
ftances of the foil, the methods of fowing, and the ufes to
which the crop is to be applied ; but from two bufhels, to
two bufhels and a half, the Englifh ftatute acre, is the or-
dinary ailowance. In determining the proper quantity
neceilary for the acre, it is requifite to pay great attention
to the condition of the Jand. When the land is rich and
fertile, and the feafon- fo favourable that it can be got
thoroughly pulverized, if too much feed is fown the crop
is in great danger of lodging; and when that happens, par-
ticularly before the pods are formed. the flax proves incon-
fiderable in quantity, and very inferior in quality. When
cultivated in the drill mode at narrow diitances, a much
lefs quantity will be fufficient than in other cafes ; and
where the intervals are large, fearcely one half the quan-
tity is required. When the crops are intended for feed, in
whatever manner the fowing is performed, much lefs will
be neceffary, than where flax is the main objeét of the
grower.

Time of Sowing.—It may be cbferved, that this muft
depend much upon the foil and fituation, but that the
ordinary feafon of fowing flax-feed is from the middle of
March to the middle or end of April; but the laft week of
March, and the firft ten days of April, are efteemed the
beit times; and, accordingly within thefe periods the
greateit quantity of flax-feed is fown in this country. In
the county of York, where this fort of crop is grown on
Jand broken up from grafs, the feed is commonly fown
before the fecond week in April, where it can poffibly be
done; while on fuch lands as have been in a previous flate
of tillage, the fowing is frequently deferred a week or ten
days longer. Wherever it can be fafely practifed, early
fowing has the advantage of getting the flax plants to cover
the furface of the land well, before they can ren much rifk
of injury from the rifing of weeds, or the parching effeéts
of heat.

In fome of the fouthern counties of Europe, however,
the hufbandmen who raife flax fow part of their feed in
September and OGcber ; fo that the plants which fpring
from thence remain of courfe in the ground all the wiater ;
and this may be a judicious practice in thofe places, be-
eaufe plants which deve not covered the earth well befere
the fummer heats come on, are apt to be parched by the
heat and drought which ufually prevail in that feafon.

They fow linfeed again alfo in the fpring; but the latter
does not yield fo large a crop; the flax, however, which it

roduces is more efteemed, becaufe it is finer than that
Sev im autumn. M. du Hamel feems indeed to think,
that the autumnal fowing yields the beit feed; but, how-
ever that may be, in places where the winteris apt to be
fevere, and where the flax, which is but a tender plavt,
would in courfe-be in danger of being deftroyed during that
feafon, almoit all the flax is fown about the end of March,
er in the beginning of April, as already flated,

It may be laid down as a general rule, that the land
which is intended for flax crops fhould be brought to an
exceeding fine tilth, in the way dire&ted above, before the
feed is put in; and that it fhould be enriched by fome fort
of manure fuited to the quality of the foil. Thus, when
pafture lands are broken up, in order to their being fown
with flax, they mutt be weil wrought during feveral morths,
before they will.be fit for producing fuch creps, in the
manner juit defcribed.. To defray the expence of this cul-
ture, fome other crops may be got ff the land in the mean
time, efpecially of fuch plants as do not occupy it long, and
particularly of thofe which are remarkably benefited by
frequent fticring of the earth whili they grow; fuch as
beans, peafe, turnips, &c. becaufe thefe repeated ftirrings
render the mould fine and loofe, and help to kit! the weeds,
which would otherwife do great damage to the flax. It is
afferted that the Livonians, when they clear wood-lands,
burn the wood upon them, then plough them, and in this
ftate préfer them to any other kind of foil for fax crops.
If the land which is intended for flax be fhiff, greet care
fheuld be taken not to work it when it is wet, for fear of
kneading it; but it is often an excellent plan to work it
deeply before winter, when dry, laying it up in very high
ridges, in order that the winter frois may the more effec-
tually moulder and lcofen its parts. In the month cf
February, where the Jand is not too wet, fome very rotten
dung fhould be laid on, and immediately covered over with
the mould. The feed fhould afterwards, at the proper
feafon, be fown, and harrowed in with a light or buth-
harrow, fo as not to’ bury it too deep. “As this; when
young, is a very tender plant, and 1s more eafily injured and
checked in its progrefs by weeds than any other that is
ufaally cultivated in the field, it is indifpenfably neceflary
that the danger of injury in this way fhould be well guarded
againit, in order to foe future trouble and expence.

Methods of Sowing —Where the principal object of the
grower is flax, the moft general method of putting in the
crops is that of fowing them broadcait over. the jurface of
the laid. In performing the bufinefs, much care is necef-
fary that the feed be difperfed as evenly as poffible over the
ground, to prevent the plants rifing in am unequal or tufty
manner. It fhould be afterwards covered in by regular
harrowing, once or twice in a place, with a light common
or bufh-harrow, as juft.neticed, not covering it in teo
deep.

But where the feed conftitutes the chief intention of the
cultivator, it is contended by fome that the drill mode is
preferable, as requiring much lefs feed in fawing, anda&
fording a much better and more abundant produce. Be-
fides, the fmoothnefs and weight of the feed render it ex-
tremely proper for being drilled; and the creps can be kept
clean with greater facility.

In this method, the diilances of the rows or duills fhould
vary accordiig to the circumfances of the foil, and the
manner in which the crops are to be kept clean. Where
the hand-hoe is to be chiefly depended upon, narrow dif-
tances: may be proper, as ten or twelve inches; but where
the work is to be principally executed by the horfe-hee or
cultivatar, larger intervals may be mere fuitable, as thofe
of eighteen ov twenty inches. Slight harrowing and rolling
are fometimes afterwards neceflary, efpecially the latter ia
dry feafous.

It has been obferved that thick fown flax rurs up in
height, and produces fine foft flax; but that when fowa
thin it does not nfe to fuch a height, but fpreads out more,
fending off a preater number of fide branches, which pro-
duce a gveat abundance of feed, which is much better filled,

more

FLAX, : b

snore plump and heavy than that which is produced from
thick fown flax crops. Flax crops cultivated in this way
are not fo liable to be beaten down in bad weather, the ftems
being ftronger and better fortified by the more free admif-
fion of fun and air among them; and they are not fo much
expoled to danger in weeding or cleaning the rows.
Ajter-Culture of ihe Crop.— Where flax crops are fown
in the broad-caft method, they are feldom much attended

to afterwards: it is, however, highly ufeful and nece Tary
that they fhould have one good hand-hocing, or weeding,

as foonas ever the crop is fufliciently up; care being taken
not to injure the plants by too much treading amonglt
»them.

Ta the drill manner of fowing, the after-culture of the
crops muft be regulated by the diftance of the rows; but
they may in general be cleaned from weeds, and kept in
xigorous growth, by proper implements and horfe labour.
The ground between the rows is moltly wrought by a pro-
»per horfe-hoe, cultivator, or {mall hoe-plough, taking care
that none of the mould is thrown againit the rows; to pre-
vent which, the intervals may be hoed with a triangular
harrow,’ haviug a proper number of iron tines in it, and
guided by two handles fixed behind. . By thefe handles the
tines are made to go deeper or fhallower at pleafure ; and if
the intervals are cultivated with this inftrument, beginning
before the earth is become ftale, and while the weeds are
{mall, the land may be kept very clean, and in fine tilth, at
‘much lefs expence than by hand-hoeing: for one horfe is
fufficient for this work. A great deal may be done ina
day ; and by a frequent repetition of the hoeings, efpecially
when the earth is dry, the weeds may be fo-effectually kept
down, as never to rife to any hefght. But the rows mutt
be weeded by hand. : :

With fome it has been a cuftom to fow, with their lin-
feed, either annual or perennial grafs-feeds, when they in-
tend to lay the land down for palture after the crop is
taken off. But as grafs plants grow but weakly under the
flax, it isa practice by no means to be recommended. No
-other fort of crop fhould, however, be ever grown with this,
as much injury may be done by it.

Flax is fometimes damaged by infe&ts, when it is about
three or four inches high. ‘Thefe, it is faid, may be de-
ftroyed. by a flight ftrewing of foot, afhes, &c. over the
crop. At all events, this drefling will give vigour to the
flax, though it may not kill the isfeéts.

If any weeds appear atterwards among the flax, as is al-
mott always the cafe, they muft be thoroughly rooted out :
and that the flax mray be as little damaged as poffible in the
doing of this, the weeders fhould work as carefully as pof-
ible.

The fineft flax is moft liable to be laid, particularly in
countries fubleG&t to ftorms. To guard againft this accident,
fome people run acrofs their flax-felds flender poles fixed to
fakes ; but a better method is to run fmall ropes acrofs
‘the ticld, both lengthwife and breadthwife, where necef-
fary ; for thefe being faftened where they interfe@ one an-
other, and {upported by fakes at due diftances, form a
kind of net-work, which is proof againft almoft every acci-
‘dent that can happen from tempeftuous weather. Thefe
practices are, however, both.troublefome and expenfive,
and are feldom or ever neceflary where the crops have not
been fown too thick on the ground.

Pulling the Flax.—-Opimons are divided in regard to the
degree of ripenels at which it is beft to pull flax crops.
Some think it fhould be pulled whilft it is green, in order
that its fibres may be the fofter and finer. Others, with
the fame view, pull it up before its feeds are quite formed,

And others, again, think that it fhould not be pulled titl
fone of the capfules which contain the feeds have begun to
open; being of opinion that the fibres of green flax are too
tender, and that they fallinto tow. On the other hand,
it is certain that the fibres of flax which has ftood till it is
very ripe are always ftiff and harfh, that they are not eafily
{eparated from the reed, ard that they do not bleach well.
Here, therefore, as in moft other cafes, both extremes
fhould be avoided ; and it confequently feems moft reafon-

-able to think, that the propereit time for pulling flax is

when its {talks bepin to turn froma green to a yellow, whea
its leaves begin to fall, and when its feeds begin to be of a
brownifh colour.

Mr. Donalcfon obferves, that a crop of flax frequently
grows fhort, and runs out a great number of feed-bearing
branches. When that is the cafe, the feeds, not the flax,
ought to be the farmer’s chief obje@ ; and the crop fhould
be allowed to ftand till the feeds are in a great meafure per-
fected. But that when the crop thrives, and is likely to be-
come more valuable for the flax than the feeds, it fhould be

pulled feon after the bloom drops off, and before the pods —

turn hard ard (harp in the points. Whenever the feed is
the main object, the crops fhould be perfectly ripened,
which is clearly fhewn by the points of the feed-pods turn-
ing hard and fharp, and the capfules beginning to crack.
It ufually takes place towards the end of July, or beginning
of the following month.

Where the object is the flax, the erop is pulled up by the
roots, and placed in fmall parcels, ufually termed dears,
upon the furface of the land, fo as that it may beas fully as
poflible expofed to the benefit of the fun. It is afterwards
tied up, in order to be conveyed to the place where it is to
undergo the procefs of watering.

In the work of pulling the flax, it is ufual, when it is
intended to fave the feeds, to lay it in handfuls, partly
acrofs each other: the reafon for which is, that the bufinefs
of rippling is thereby facilitated; as the ripplers, in place
of having to feparate each handful from the bundle, find it,
by this fimple precaution, already done to their hand.

It may be further obferved, that although it is of much
importance, yet it very feldom bee that much atten-
tion is bellowed to feparate the different forts of flax from
each other, in pulling the crops. In molt fields there are
varieties of foils; of courfe, fome parts of a field will pro-
duce fine flax, others coarfe; fome long, and fome fhores
in a word, crops of different lengths and qualities. It
cannot be fuppofed that ali thefe forts of flax will undergo
an equal degree of watering, grafling, breaking, and heck-
ling, without fuftaining great injury. Therefore, when
flax of various qualities is promifcuoufly mixed together in
pulling, it is impoffible to prevent fome part of it from
being loft in the after-management ; a lofs which might be
avoided with a {mall fhare of attention, and fome additional
trouble when the crop is pulled, ‘Thofe who rent flax-mills
are often blamed for embezzlement ; but, there is reafon to
believe, very unjuttly. Becaufe the crop of a particular
part of a field yields fuch a quantity of flax from one mill,
it does not follow that the manager of another mill fhould
return an equal quantity from the fame fpace, probably, of
very inferior land. It is certain, in very many cafes, that
the inattention of flax-farmers to the above very neceflary
precaution is the caufe why crops of flax often turn out of
fo little value, and is the principal reafon why the propor-
tion of tow or inferior flax fo often exceeds, in ordina
feafons, that of fuperior quality ; the millers and hecklers
being obliged, in the courfe of their operations, owing to
the mixed flate in which they receive the crop from th

Z grower,

.

—

FL

tower, to reduce the quality of the whole to a lower

andard than there would be any occafion for, were the
different qualities forted, and put into their hands in that
flate.

As the flax is pulled, when for feed, it is, as has .been
abferved above, laid together by handfuls, with the feed-
ends turned to the fouth. Thefe handfuls fhould neither
be quite ina line with each other, nor dire€tly acrofs, but a
little flanting upwards, fo that the air may eafily pafs
through them. Some, inftead of this method, tie the
handfuls of flax loofely at the top, then fpread out their
roots, and thus fet feveral of them together upright upon
their roots. In either of thefe ways the flax is generally
left twelve or fourteen days in the field to dry it. This
drying is certainly not neceflary for the rippling, becaufe
the ripple will feparate the capfules from the flax as
effeGtually before it has been dried as it will afterwards ;
and if it be done with a view to ripen the feed, it fhould be
confidered, that the flax will be more hurt by the longer
time of fteeping, which will become neceflary in confequence
of this drying, than the feed cin be benefited ; becaufe the
more the fub{tance or membrane which conneéts the fibres
to the reed is dried, the greater muft be the degree of
putrefaétion neceflary to looien and deftroy the cohefion of
this conne€ting medium or membrane: the finer parts of
the flax itfelf muft neceffarily be deftroyed by this degree
of putrefaGtion ; and if the putrefaction does not arife to
fuch a degree as to deftroy the cohefion of this fubftance or
membrane, the fibres of the flax will adhere fo ftrongly to the
reed. that the force neceflary in feutching will prove equally
detrimental to the flax, The practice adopted in fome parts
of Brittany feems therefore much more rational, which is,
to ripple the flax after it has lain in the air two or three days;
but even one day will be fufficient if the weather is dry.
In faG, it is the beft method to do it as foon as poffible
after the flax has been pulled.

Rippling the Seed—in order to ripple, or force off the
feed-capfules of the flax, which is the next operation, a
large cloth fhould be fpread on a convenient {pot of ground,
with the ripple placed inthe middle of it. This isa fort of
comb, confifting of fix, eight, or ten long triangular teeth,
fet upright, fo as to have the angles approaching pretty
near each other, by which the parts containing the feed
arg removed fromthe flax. In performing the bufinefs, the
pods containing the feeds are forced from the ftalks by
means of this iron-eomb, which is called a ripple, and which
is firmly fixed on a beam of wood, on the ends of which
two perfons fit, who, by pulling the feed-ends of the flax
repeatedly through between the teeth of this comb, execute
the operation in a very complete manner, and with great
difpatch. int

After the flax has been rippled, the feeds and pods thereby
obtained fhould be fpread out thinly upon a cloth in the
fun to dry and harden. Thofe feeds which feparate from
the pods of their own accord are the fulleft and ripett, and
fhould therefore be fet apart for fowing, in cafe the pre-
caution of raifing fome flax purpofely for feed has not been
attended to. ‘The pods or capfules are then broken, either
by lightly treading, or by threfhing, in order to get out
the remaining feeds, the whole of which, as well’as the
former, fhould be carefully fifted, winnowed, and cleaned
from dirt and chaffy matter. When the feed is laid up,
which fhould be immediately done, it muft be frequently
flirred and ventilated, to prevent its heating.

This fecond fort of feed affordsa confiderable profit by
the oil which it yields, ané aWo Fl es ufed when broken
for fattening of cattle. The cakes of linfeed, after the

Vor. XIV.

PAS OX.

oil has been preffed out of them, are likcwife found to be
ufeful for this laft purpofe, though they are thought by
fome to render the fat of cattle yellow ; for which reafon
it is advifed not to give it them till within a few weeks
before the b-afts are to be killed. They are likewife of
great utility asa manure, but from the expence can feldom
be employed in that way with advantage. See Oru-
Cake.

It has been remarked by the author of the « Prefent State
of Hufbandry in Great Britain,’? that thofe who beftow
moft attention on the cultivaticn of flax in Scotland, gene-
rally ripple off the feed, even when there is no intention of
faving it ; as it is found, when flax is put into water without
taking off the pods, the water foon becomes putrid, in con-
fequence of which the flax is greatly injured.- This im-
perfectly ripened feed is improper for being fown, but may
be expreffed for the oil. But when it is propofed to fave
the feeds of flax, the pods are carried home from the field
as foon as they are feparated from the flax; and cither
laid on cloths, and expofed to be dried by the influence of
the fun; or they are {pread on barn-floors. and turned two
or three timesa day, till they are fo dry that the feeds can
be eafily threfhed out in the ordinary way. This is the
general mode adopted in Scotland. But in Dorfetthire
they allow the flax to be on the field after it has been pulled,
till the pods become fo dry, that the feeds can be threfhed
out with a ftick ; which isdone ona board, or log of wood,
placed in the field for the purpofe. It is likewife the
practice with fome expert flax growers, where the chief
obje& is the feed, to fet it up, after being tied up into
fheaves, in the manner of corn, and, when thus rendered
perfectly dry, to ftack it until the {pring following ; at which
time, by placing the tops of the fheaves fo as to incline
towards each other, and making ufe of a roller, the feed is
readily forced out. It is f{uppofed that in this mode more
time is allowed in the after-management of the produce.

It may be ftated, that the quantity of feed produced on
the flatute acre is generally from fix to eight, but fometimes
as high as ten or twelve bufhels; and that the price depends
in a great meafure on that of foreign feed imported; as,
when fold to oil-makers, it is generally about one-half of
that of Dutch feed, fold for the purpofe of fowing. The
price of home-cultivated linfeed is confiderably advanced
of late in fome ef the fouthern and weftern counties of
the kingdom, in proportion to what it is in thofe of the
northern, owing to the circumftance of its being muck
ufed as food for fattening cattle. The average price of the
linfeed cultivated in the kingdom at large cannot, it is
fuppofed, be rated higher than from three to four fillings
the bufhel. It has, however, lately been confiderab y
higher.

Watering. —This is the next operation that becomes
neceflary with this fort of produce. The intention of this
procefs, is that of inducing the feparation of the flaxy-
material, by exciting a flight degree of fermentation in the
fubftance which attaches it to the flem of the plant. It is
accomplifhed in two ways, namely, by iteeping the flax in
water ; and expofing it to the aGion and influence of the
atmofphere. The former is the moft common and fafe
method; the latter being lefs certain and exaé& in pro-
ducing the neceflary changes. The firft mode is termed
water-retting, and the lait decu-retting.

In water-retting, when the flax has been cleared from
the feed, it is loofely tied up into {mall bundles, and put
into pools or ponds of foft ftagnant water, where it is
fuffered to continue feveral days, according to the natural
warmth of the water. As foft clear ftagnant water has

4K beer

FLAX,

been found by long experience to be fuperior for this pur-
pofe to any other, where that: cannot be obtained without
art, a-pit or canal may be formed» adjoining a river or
ftream, whence’ water can bereadily brought. This pit
or canal is filled with water for fome time (a week or two)
before it be propofed to pull the flax: by this means the
water acquires a greater degree of warmth than river-water
poffeffes, and which contributes greatly to facilitate the
object farmers’ have’ in view in immerling green’ flax in
water, namely, to make the harl or flaky fubftance part
ealily and completely from the boon or reed.

With refpeét to the period that flax ought to remain in
the water, it depends on various circumftances; as the
ftate of ripenefs in which it was pulled, the quality. and
temperature of the water, &c, The molt certain rule by
which to judge when flax is fufficiently watered is, when
the boon becomes brittle, and the harl feparates eafily from
it. The method of depofiting the flax in the water is in
general that, after having it tied in {mall bundles, often at
both ends, of placing it in a fort of fquare bed, the bundles
being laid lengthways and croflways of each other, fo as
to bind firmly together ; the whole is kept dowa by having
a weight laid upon it. Some, however, inftead of this
mode, have the fmall bundles fet in an ereét pofition, the
tops of every layer, except the loweft, being upwards;
and in place of keeping them down by the application of
heavy weights, they ufe fods -or earth, treading the whole
down occafionally, once or twice-at firft in the courfe of
the day, fo as to keep the whole below the furface of the
water, as, where the contrary happens, the flax is greatly
injured by being rendered black. The firft is, moit pro-
bably, the beft mode of management.

When the flax has remained the proper length of time
in thefe pits, it is taken out by means of a tool called a
drag, and depofited in a ftraight manner on the fides or
banks of them, in order to its becoming in fome meafure
dry, and in a ftate for being {pread out on the grafs.

With regard to dew-retting, although it is in general the
practice, where flax is cultivated in this country, to immerfe
it in water for fome time after it is pulled, yet in. Dor-
fetfhire, and the neighbourhood, it is feldom done. There
the flax is allowed to arrive at that ftate in which the harl
parts moft eafily from the boon or reed, by a more gradual
procefs, that of ripening or producing the neceflary pu-
trefaGtion, by the ation and influence of the dew, which
is nothing more than expofing the flax to the influence of
the weather, thinly fpread out upona grafs field for a
Jonger period than is neceflary, when the operation of
watering has been previoufly performed. When the flax
has been fo long expofed as to be judged fufficient ‘for
effe&ting the feparation of the harl, nothing more is requifite
than putting it up in parcels, or bundles, in order to its
being broken and feutched.

Grajfing.—After fteeping the flax, where the watering
method is purfued, the only other operation which properly
falls under the farmer’s attention is graffing it. For this
purpofe it is commonly f{pread very thin on the sags
and in regular rows; the one being made to over-lap the
other a few inches, with a view of preventing, as much
as poffible, its being torn up and {cattered by gales of
wind. Old grafs-ground, where the herbage does not
grow to any great height, is the beft for the pnrpofe ;
as, when the grafs or weeds {pring up fo as to cover the
flax, it is frequently rotted, or at leaft greatly injured
thereby.

Flax is allowed to remain on the ground, being occa-
finally turned, till, by repeated trials, it is found that the

boon has become. very brittle; fo that on being broken,,
and rubbed between the hands, it eafily and freely parts -
fromthe harl, It is then taken up, a dry day being chofen

for the purpofe: and, being bound in fheaves, is either

fent dire@ly to the mill, which is the ufsal praétice in

the northen diftri&s, or broken and. fcutched, in the

manner they do hemp, by amachine or tool contrived for

that ufe. é

- But before thefe operations ere capable of being performs
ed, it is neceflary that the flax fhould be expofed to the

heat of the fun, by placing it againit.a wall or paling, in a

floping dire€tion, or to the gentle heat of a fire, by putting

it over hurdles, or by introducing it into anoven, heated by

the refufe flax. The heat in any way fhould be very mode~

rate, and regulated in an equal mauner. Avnd in either cafe:
the flax fhould only be fuffered to remain juft long enough

to difpel any dampnefs that it may have acquired. The

sus is, however, always to be preferred where it can be

ad.

With refpe& to the produce, there is fcarcely any crop
that is more variable than that of flaxin the quantity and
quality. From twenty to feventy ftones of fourteen pounds
each have been produced from an acre of land; but from
forty to fifty ftones may be confidereda medium crop. The
expence of the cultivation, and management of this crop

afterwards, cannot beeftimatedon the average at lefs than

from nine to twelve or fifteen pounds the acre, where flax is
the object. ‘

It has been calculated in thefe ways in a northern and
fouthern diftriGt of the kingdom, before the late great ad-
vance in the price of labour.

Expence per Acre,

#. 5. d
Working land $3 - - © 16 o
Seed and fowing - - - on aes
Cleaning and weeding - 4 =\, Bo SiGo
Pulling - - - - O10 0
Loading and watering, &c. - - ©10 30
Taking and grafling - - - o1z2 0
Turning and taking up - - NO... hao
Rent of Land, as let - at 6s = 55, O
Dreffing 50 ftone of flax, at 1s. 6d. per ftone 3 45 ©
Profit - ~ - - TAK Op
SS
20 10. oO
Produce.
50 ftones of flax, at 8s. per ftone - 20 1¢ @

The neat prefit ftands higher in the following :.
Expences per Acre. a

Preparation of land for -fowing - 60 ®
Rent, tythes, and taxes, &c. + 2) tizeng,
813 4

Produce. :
Forty ftones of flax. at gs. per ftone ~= 18 O ©
Bounty, at 4d. per ftone “ : 013 4
18 13 4
Profit ia Cllehe = > 10 0 @
———
ts

llleedie nee a

Poul A X.

In Scotland, where the flax is often fold before it is pulled,
the ufual price was formerly from fix to tea pounds the fla-

tute acre,

_. The produce and value of the feed has been fhewn
above.

It feems, on the whole, not improbable but that flax
crops may be grown in many fituations with advantage.

It is ufual for farmers in different parts of Scotland, who
sent lands in the vicinity of large tewns or villages, to let
fields to the inhabitants, for the purpofe of railing flax ;
which is fuppofed by fame the moit advantageous mode of
“any that can be adspted in cultivating the crop. ‘The rents
in'thefe cafes are moftly fixed at from 3/. 10s. to 4/. the
ftatute acre, according to the quality of the land, the
farmer conftantly undertaking to cultivate the land in a pro-

er manner. The fame practice, with a little variation, is

alfo eftablifhed in-fome parts of England; the farmer
rents or lets the land to a perfon who is denominated amiddle-
man, or flax-jobber, and whofe bufinefs it is to perform all
the various operations after the feed is fown; which, as in
the former cafe, is always furnifhed by the renter, the farmer
having nothing more to do than to plough and harrow the
ground. ;
~ When not grown upon newly broken upland, flax may
fucceed turnips and.potatoes with great propriety. The
feed is ufually called /infeed, which fee. See alfo Orn.
_Fr4x-Dreffing, denotes thevarious operations which are ne-
, ceflary for bringing flax into a ftate of preparation proper for
_ being formedinto clothor other articles. hefeare very differ-
ent, and require different forts of implements and machinery,
_in order to their being properly performed. Flax, for the
purpofe of being formed into cambric, fine lawn, thread and
dace, .is drefled in a rather different manner to that which is
commonly employed. It is not feutched fo thoroughly as
_ common flax, which from the fcutch proceeds to the heckle,
and from that to the fpinner: whereas this fine flax, after a
rough-fcutching, is feraped and cleanfed witha blunt knife
upon the workman’s knee, covered with his leather apron ;
- from the knife it: proceeds to the fpinner, who, with a brufh
_ made for the purpofe, ftraightens, and drefles each. parcel,
jutt before fhe begins to {pin it.

And in the Swedifh TranfaGtions for the year 1747, a
-method is given of preparing flax in fuchamanner, as to
_refemble cotton in whitenefs and foftnefs, as well as in co-
herence, For this purpofe, a little fea-water is directed to
_ be put into an iron pot, or an untinned copper kettle, and a
-mixture of equal parts of birch-afhes and quick-lime
ftrewed upon it;,a fmall bundle of flax is to be then

opened and fpread upon the furface, and covered with
more of the mixture, and the ftratification continued till
the veffel is fufficiently filled. The whole is then to be
boiled, with fea-water for ten hours, frefh quantities of
water being occafionally fupplied in ‘proportion to the
sevaporatiou, that the flaxy matter may never become dry.
The boiled flax is to be immediately wathed in the fea,
cby. a little at a time, in a bafket, with a fmooth ftick
at firft, while hot ; and, when grown cold enough to be
‘borne by the hands, it muft be well rubbed, wathed
swith foap; laid to bleach, and turned and watered every
-day «for fee time. Repetitions of the wafhing with
foap, expedite the bleaching ; after which the flax is to
be beat, and again, well wafhed ; when dry, it is to be
oworked and carded in the fame manner as common cot-
ton, and. prefled between two boards. for forty-eight
chours. It is now, fully prepared and. fit for ufe. It
lofes.in this procefs nearly one-half its weight, which,
however, is abundantly compenfated by the improvement

iv i

made in its quality, and its fitnefs for the fineft . pur-
pofes.

Friax-Brake, a hand-inftrument, or machine, which
was originally, and for many ages, chiefly employed in
breaking and feparating the boon or core from the 43,
which is the cuticle or bark of the plant, {n perform-
ing this bufinefs, the flax beine fneld in the left hand,
acrofs the threc tinder teeth, or {words of the brake, fhewn
at A, Plate (Flax) Agriculture, fig. 1, aud a, fig. 2 + the
upper teeth orfwords B, fig. 1,and b, fiz. 2, are then, with
the right-hand, quickly and often forced down upon the
flax, which is artfully fhifted and turned with the left hand,
in order that it may be fully and completely broken in its
whole length,

Fax Foot-Brake, an implement or machine of the brake
kind, invented in Scotland, by which flax is broken and
fcutched with much greater expedition than by the hand-
inftrument juft defcribed ; and in a more gentle and fafe
manner =han by the flax-mill. By this contrivance, the
boon or ftem is well broken, and the floping ftroke given
as with the feutcher, while the machine is moved by the
foot. The treadle is of confiderable length, on whieh ac-

‘count it is putin motion with great facility, and affitted in

it by means of a fly. The {cutchersare fixed upon the rim
of a fly-wheel. But though thefe machines may be highly
ufeful where mills turned by water cannot be eltablifhed,
they are probably much inferior in point of expedition, and
the economy of labour. A brake of this kind is repre-
fented, in different. views, at figs. 3 and 4, in which is
fhewn, by A, the three under-brake teeth, or {words,
feventeen inches long, three inches deep, one and a quarter
inch thick at the back,, and a quarter-of an inch at the
fore-part or edge.

B, the edges, two and three quarters of an inch afunder
at the end next the guide B, and two inches afunder at the
other end.

C difplays.the two upper teeth, about an inch fhorter thar
the under teeth; and

D reprefents the brake-mallet, about thirty-three pounds
Enplih weight.

Eis a compound foot-treadle, which is eight feet four
inches between the fulcra F, raifed at F eight inches above
the ground, (or rather five inches higher than the ftanee of
the workman) ; E. is two feet four inches between the fulcra
G, and is raifed at G eighteen inches above the ground;
that is, fifteen inches higher than the flance of the work.
mar.

H, the {word, or upright timber-rod, which. turns the
wheel by the treadle-crank. :
Pr I, the treadle-crank, of feven and a half inches ra-

ius.

K, the fly-wheel, four and a half feet diameter, above
fixty pounds Englifh weight. As here reprefented, it is
beat or caft-iron, but it may alfo be made of tiniber,

L, brafs cods or bufhes. :

m M, the lifting crank ; Mis fixed firm upon theasle of the
fly,. while the crank m, about eight inches radius, plays
freely round the axle. In pofition firft, M begins to take
round the crank (which by the lever R pulls up the mallet);
when it.comes to pofition fecond, the mallet is again at li-
berty, and by its weight pulls up the crank (faiter than the
fixed pieces move) into polition third.

It may be obferved that the treadle-crank is advanced
about one-eighth part of the circle before the lifting
crank.

n, a {mall pulley which turns eafily round on the end of
the crank, and to which a rope.is fixed. ;

4K a O,a

FLEE

The filamentous, parts of different vegetables have been
employed. in different countries’ for the fame mechanic ufes
as hemp and flax..among us. .Putrefagtion, and, in fome
degree alkaline hixivia, deftroy the pulpy.or, flefhy matter,
and leave the tough filaments entire. By curioufly putre~
fying the leaf of a plant. in water, we obtain ‘the ,fine
flexible, fbres which conftituted the, bafis of the ribs and
minute veins, and which form, as it were, a fkeleton, of
the. leaf.
prepared from the ‘filaments. of the bark of certain trees
boiled in ftrong ley ; and fome of thefe cloths are: very
fine, and approach to the. foftnefs of filk, but inidurability
come fhort of cotton ;-others are coarfer and ftronger, and
_Jaft. thrice as long .as cotton: and of thefe filaments: they
make fails and cordage to their veflels. The ftalks of
nettles are {ometimes uled for like purpofes even in. France ;
and fir Hans Sloane relates, in one of his Ictters to: Mr.
Ray, that he has been informed by feyeral, that muflin and

. calico, and moft of the Indian linens, are made of nettles.
A {trong kind of cloth is faid,to be prepared in fome of the
provinces of Sweden of hop-ftalks ;,andin the Traafactions
of the Swedifh Academy for 1750, we have an;accopnt
of an experiment relating to this {ubjeCt: a quantity of the
ftalks was gathered in autumn, which was equal in bulk to

a quantity of flax, fufficient to yield a pound after prepa- .

ration. The ftalks were put into water, and kept covered
with it during the winter. In March they. were taken out,
dried in a ftove, and dreffed as flax. The prepared -fila-
. ments weighed nearly a pound, and proved fine, foft, and
white; they were fpun and wove into fix ells of fine ttrong
cloth. Unlefs the ftalks are fully rotted, which will take
much longer time than flax, the woody part will not fepa-
rate, and the cloth will prove neither white nor fine. See
Dr. Lewis’s notes to Newmann’s Chemittry, p. 428, 429.

FLAY-Crake, in Agriculture, a provincial term, -which

is frequently applied to the {care-crow employed to keep
_ rooks from new-fown lands,

FLAYL. See, Frain.

FLEA, Purex, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of the
aptera clafs of ,infe&ts; of a roundith compreffed figure, with
two eyes; fix feet, formed for leaping, and filiform antenne ;
the mouth is bent downwards, and concealsa {mall fting
or piercer. The generation of this familiar vermin affords
fomething very curious, firlt difcovered by Sig. Diacinto
Ceftone. See Puvex. ~

Fleas bring forth eggs, or nits, which they depofit on

very round and {mooth, ufwally flip ftraight down; unlefs
detained by the piles, or other inequalities of the cloaths,
hairs, &c.

OF thefe eggs are hatched white worms, of a) fhining
pearl colour, which feed on the fourfy fubltance of the
cuticle, the downy matter gathered in the piles of cloaths,

_ or other the like fubftances.

In a fortnight they come toa tolerable fize, and are very
lively and ative; and, if at any time difturbed, they fud-
denly roll themfelves into a kind of ball,

Soon. after this, they come to creep, after the manner
of filk-worms, with a very {wift motion. Whenarrived at
their fize they hide themfelves as much as poflible, and
{pin a filken thread out of their mouth, wherewith they
form themfelves a fmall round bag, or cafe, white within

as paper, but without always dirty, and fouled with duit.
Here, after a fortnight’s reft, the animalcule burfts out,
transformed into a perfect flea; leaving its exuvie in the
bag.

While it remains in the bag it is milk white, till the

In Madagafear different .kiads. of cloth are.
ywith fhort {pikes inawery beautiful and regular order.

el, £

{ccond day before-its eruption; when it becomes coloured,
grows hard,; and gets) firength; fo; that, upon: its Vfirlt
delivery, ito fprings nimbly, away. . (Phil. Pranf. sN°-249).
The flea,, when examined by; the microfcope, aflords avery
pleafing. objet. »Itvis.cowered all over with» black, hard
and fheily fcales,on plates, which. are curioufly jointed, and
folded one overanother in~fuch a manner, as to comply
with all. the nimbie motiozs of the creature. © Thefe feales
are .allcurioufly polifhed, and sere befet about the edges
Its
neck, is. finely arched, and much xefembles the tail ef 2
lobiter; the head alfo is very extraordinary ; for from’the
fnout. part of sit: there: proceed ther two rfore-legs, and be-
tween thefe is placed the piercer or fucker, with which>it
penetrates the fkin to get its food.

Its.eyes,are-very large.and beautiful, and it has two fhort
horns. or feelers. . It -has: four: other legs joined all-at the
bresft. Thefe, when it leaps, fold; fhort:oneswithin another,
and then; exerting, their: {pring all atothe fame: inttant, they
carry the creature to,a furprifiag ditkance. 9 Phe lees have
{everal jointsy and are very hairy,;and terminate in two long
aod hooked fharp claws.

The piercer or fucker of the fleais-lodged between its fore-
legs, and includes acouple of-darts ordlancets, which, after
the piercer has made an entrance, are thru(t farther into the
flefh, to-make ‘the blood flow from the adjacent: parts, and

-occafion that red round fpat, with avhole in the centre of

it, vulgarly called a flea-bite.

This piercer, its :fheath opening fideways, and the two
lancets;within:it, are very difficult to’ be: feeny-unlefs the
two fore-legs, between which they are hid, be cut off clofe
to the head: for the flea rarely puts out its piercer, except at
the timesof feeding, but keeps it folded inwards ; and the
beft way. of feeing it is by cutting off firft the head, and

then the fore-legs, and thenit is ufvally feen thru out in

convulfions. v.

Byi keeping: fleas in a glafe tube corked up at both ends,
but {0 as, to. admit frefh. air, their feveral a€tions’ may be
obferved, and particularly their way of coupling,-which is
performed tail to tail ; the female, which is much the larger,
{tanding over the male; they may alfo be thus feen to lay
their eggs, not all at once, but ten or twelve in a day for
feveral days, fucceffively, which eggs will be afterwards
found to hatch {ucceflively inthe fame order. The flea may
eafily be diffected in a drop of water, and by this means the

- ftomach. and bowels, with their periltaltic motion, may be
animals that afford them a proper food; thefe eggs: being .

difcovered very plainly,.as alfo their teftes. and penis, with
the veins and arteries, though minute beyond all concep-
tion. Mr. Leewenhoeck affirms alfo, that he has feen
innumerable animalcules, fhaped like ferpents, inthe femen
mafevlinum of a flea. Baker’s Microf. p. 191, and 194.

Pleais aifo an infect »which often does great mifchief to
crops of the hop kind. See Hops. ‘

Fie dane, in Botany. See ConyZA.

_Fiea-bane, the common name. of a plant of the weed
kind, which is perennial, and common in pafture lands.
It has a round, bending, folid, heavy ftem. The leaves
are oblong, fharp-pointed, wrinkled, downy, and embrace
the italk, on which they grow very thickly, without any
regularity. It has yellow flowers, radiated and inclofed in
a flower-cup, compofed of narrow fcales like briftles. And
jt has fometimes the name of flea-qwort. ‘

Frea-bane, Marfh,and Middle. See Invxa.

Frea-bane, Shrubby African, and Flea-bane-tree. ~See
TarcHONANTHUS. -

Frea-wort, P/yllium. See Pantages “oe
7 Firs.

FLY

Yuca-wort, See Prea-bane.

~Fuea-bitten colour of a hore; isowhite, {potted all: over
with dark reddifh {pots.

-FLEAK, aycommon name, fometimes applied to oa
wattled hurdle, or kind of gate, which by negligent farmers
is. occafionally fet up inthe gaps of their hedge-fences.
See Hurpue.

FLEAM, a. {mall inftrument of pure ftecl, compofed of
two or three moveable lancets, for;bleeding a horfe, or the
hike.

A cafe of fleams, as it is. called by:farriers, comprehends
fix forts of infruments: two hooked ones, called drawers,
and ufed. for cleanfing. wounds; a-psnknife, a fharp, pointed
lancet for making. incifions; and, two fleams, one fharp, and
the other broad-pointed; thefe laft are: fomewhat like the
point of a lancet, fixed ina flat/handle, only no longer than
is juft necéflary to open the ‘vein.

There are many furgeons in Germany;who bleed, or per-
form the operation of phicbotomy with. this) inftrument,
which they-ufe inthis manner: they hotd one finger, upon
thejend,of ir, which ferves as a handle, and applying the
point tothe vein they are to open, ftrike upon the back
over the point with one of the fingers of the other hand,
opening the vein much as farriers, bleed horfes. Others ufe
adfpring fleam, fomething like a fingle, point-of the fcarify-
ing inftrument ufed in cupping; and/others employ a-fort ef
inftrument’ in form of a/dart;, butias the pofition and fize
of the veins is different, in different fubje@s, no inftrument
will ever be found fo ufeful as the conmon lancet of a proper
fize.

-FLECHA, Matuew, in Biography, a Spanith Car-
melite Monk, born at Prades, a {mall town in Catalonia:
he was Maeitro di Cappella to the Emperor Charles V.
Amongtt many other works in Spanifh and French, he pub-
lithed) ** Divinarum completarum Plalmos,’? « Se€tionem
Brevem,”’ and a ‘‘ Salve Regina,” together with a book of
Motets,.at)Prague, 15505 and died in. 1604, in the Bene-
diGine’s College at Salfona, alarge town in the ftate of
Catalonia.

FLECHE, La, in Geography, a town of France, and
priveipal place of a diltrict, mn the department of the Sarthe,
feated in a pleafant valley watered by the Loire; 21 miles
S.S.W. of Le Mans. N. lat. 47°42’. E.long.o° 1. The
place’ contains 5,099. and the canton 15.453 inhabitants,
on a territory of 255 kiliometres in 11 communes. In
1603, a college of Je{uits was founded here, by Henry IV.,
for the defcendants of nobility only : the centre is converted
into a town-houfe, and the wings have been rebuilt as a fe-
minary for the education of youth.

Fuecns, the name of a {mall work ufed in. Fortification,
having two equal faces, generally ftanding at an angle of
about 85° or 90°, perhaps rather more, and deriving its
defignation from the French word fleche, meaning an arrow,
to the head of which it bears much refemblance.
work is generally conftru€ted along the foot of the glacis,
before the re-entering and faliant places of arms: it confifts
only of a parapet, forming a faliant angle. The length of
the faces may be from 20 to 25 toifes, and the height of the
work may be 5 feet; communicating with the covert-way
by means of a cut through the body of the glacis in a direct
line; fo that, by means of traverfes, the defenders may
make one or more ftands, and prevent their ailailants from
’* making any lodgement within the fleche, or in any degree
commanding the place of arms before which it may

d.
AeLECHIER, Esprity in Biography, a French prelate,

This .

FL‘E"

was born at Pernes, in the county of Avignon, in the year
1632. Though his parents were but of low rank, they
contrived to give him a good education; and he made a
rapid progrefs in the different branches of literature. At
an earlyage, he was appointed profeffor of rhetoric in the
college belonging to his order at Narbonne. In this fituae
tion be was.called on to deliver, before the ftates of Langne-
doc, a funeral oration for Ciande de Rebeé, archbifhop of
Narbonne. His difcourfe was received with rapture ; and
the fuccefs.of this ficft attempt at fuch compofition indicated
the. road which would lead him to celebrity. Some circume
ftances arofewhich induced him to try his fortune at Paris,
where-he, was defirous of difiinguifhing himfelf as a poet 5
but he not only failed in his expe€tatioa of. a patron, but
was obliged to. drudge in the moft fubordinate duties of
education. to obtain a {canty livelihood. He was afterwards
appointed preceptor tothe fon of M. de Caumartin,. coun-
fellor of ftate, and. remained fome time in that fituation.
But {till thinking himfelf adapted for amore confpicuous,
place, he determined to bend his mind to pulpit clocution,
and almott immediately. rofe to confiderable celebrity: but
his repptation is built on his funeral orations. In thefe he
exerted: all his talents, and with fo much fuccefs, that he
ranks next.to Boffuet. Of Flechier’s orations, that for the
great Turenne is the moft celebrated. In 1673, he was
chofen one of the forty members of the Frenca academy 3;
and in 1679. he publithed his ** Hiftory of the Emperor
Theodefius: the Great,’? which was drawn up for the in-
ftruGtion of the dauphin, as.a mode! of a pious and Chriftian
monarch. After this he publifhed ‘* The Life of Cardinal
Ximenes,”’ in which he feems to have forgotten the charac.
ter of this man as an intriguing politician. In 1685, Fle-
chier was nominated by Lewis XIV. to the bifhopric of
Lavaur, on which occafion the fovercign paid him the
higheft compliment ;. ‘* I have,” fays he, “ made you wait
fome time for a place which you have long deferved, but I
was unwilling fooner to deprive myfelf of the pleafure of
hearing you.” ‘Two years afterwards he exchanged the
fee of Lavaur for that of Nifmes, but not without great
reluctance ; though in a pecuniary point of view he was
much: benefited by the tranflation. Nifmes abounded with
proteftants, and the edict of Nantes had been juit revoked,
The perfecutions which had followed that revocation bad
produced a crowd of martyrs, though it had added very
few, if any, real converts to the catholic religion. - In thefe
circumftances, Flechier was confidered as peculiarly qualified
by his learning, eloquence, and zeal, to prefide: over that
fee. His moderation gained him the efteem of the protef-
tants, who, in their retaliations on cruel perfecutors, always
held his. dwelling in reverence. He was eminent for bene-
volence; and, during the f{carcity in 1709, his charities
were very great, and equally divided between the protestants
and papifls. He was free from pride, but never at a Jofs to
chaftife thofe who were ready to look down upon him on
account of his low origin. Some time before his death he
had a dream, which he regarded as a prefage of his ap.
proaching diffolution. He accordingly ordered a {culptor
to attend with fome defigns. for his tomb: he fele&ted the
molt fimple, being anxious that after his death there fhould
be nothing oftentatious ere&ted to his memory. When he
had made his choice, he {aid to the artilt, “ Begin your
work without delay, for there is no time to lefe.”? “He
died fhortly afterwards, in the year 1710, lamented, fays
d’Alembert, by the catholics, and deeply regretted by the
proteitants; and leaving to his brethren a worthy model of
zeal and charity, Simplicity aud eloquence. He was author,

>

F 1B rE

of many works, which, in the year 1782, were colle€ted
and publifhed at Nifmes, in ten volumes o€tavo. Of his
funeral orations, d’Alembert fays, ‘ their ftyle is not only
pure and correét, but full of fweetnefs and eloquence.
They were truly pathetic; but this property became fli!l
more fenfible, when the orations were pronounced by the
author. His ferious a€tion, and his flow and fomewhat
feeble voice, brought the hearers into a difpofition of fym-
pathetic forrow: the foul felt itfelf gradually penetrated by
the fimple expreffions of the fentiment, and the ear by the
foft cadence of the periods. Hence he was fometimes
obliged to make a paufe in the pulpit, that he might leave
a free courfe to plaudits, not of the tumultuous kind which
refound at our profane fpeétacles, but expreffed by that ge-
neral and modeft murmur which eloquence wrefts, even in
our temples, from an audience deeply moved; a kind of in-
voluntary enthufiafm, which not even the fanGity of the
laces can reprefs.”? Moreri. Gen. Biog.

FLECKED, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying pied,
cr ftreaked with different colours, as is often the cafe with
cattle.

FLECKERAC, or Freexaren, in Geography, an
ifland near the coalt of Norway, in the North fea. Between
the ifland and the continent is a famous harbour, which may
be entered or quitted by the fame winc. In the 17th cen-
tury a fortrefs was built ior its defence, fo that the largeft
fleet may lie in it fecure from ftorms or enemies. N. lat.
58° 4’. E. loug. 5° 18".

FLEDWITE, or Fricur-wutre, in our Ancient Laws,
a difcharge, or freedom, from amercements: when one,
having been an outlawed fugitive, comes to the peace of
our lord and king, on his own accord, or with licence.
Raftal.

Others rather take it to denote a mu'ét, or fine, fet upon
a fugitive to be reftored to the king's peace.

FLEECE, the name of the woolly covering fhorn from
off the body of the fheep, and rolied up ina long round
form. Tleeces are of different weights ard fizes, according
to the breed of fheep. See Woot, and SuHeep.

Freece, the Golden, is famous among the ancient writers.
It was this that the Argonauts, under the command of
Jefon, went in purfuit of to Colchis, a province of Afia,
now called Mingrelia.

The myttery of the golden fleece is varioufly explained ;
either of the profit of the wool-trade to Colchis; or of the
gold that they commonly gather there, with fleeces, in the
rivers. Arbuth. Diff. p. 224. S-e ArGonauTs.

Freece, Order of the Golden. Sce Gorven Fleece.

FLEECY Hostery, a kind of manufacture of moderna
invention and ufe, confifting of fine fleeces of wool inter-
woven into cotton pieces of the common ftocking texture.
The proecfs of this manufa€ture may be thus defcribed.
Having twilted filk, cotton, yarn, &c. in the common
ftocking-frame, let the work be begun as in the common
hofiery ; and when a few courfes are wrought in the ufual
method, in order to add a coating, draw the frame over the
arch, and then hang weol or jerfey, raw or unfpun, upon
the beards of the needles, and flide the fame off their beards
upon their ftems, till it comes exaGly under the ribs of the
finkers; then fink the jacks and finkers, and bring forward
the frame, till the wool or jerfey is drawn under the beards
of the needles; and having done this, draw the frame over
the arch, and place a thread of fpun materials upon the
needles, and proceed in finifhing the courfe in the ufual way
of manufa@turing hoficry with {pun materials. ‘he article
thus manufaétured has, on the one fide, the appearance of

FL,E

common hofiery, and on the other fide the appearance of
raw wool.

FLEET, a number of veffels, going in company, whether
on a defign of war, or commerce.

In times of peace merchants fhips go in fleets, for their
mutual aid and affiftance: in times of war, befides this fe-
curity, they likewife procure convoys of men of war; either
to efcort them to the places whither they are bound, or only

-a part of the way, to a certain point or latitude, beyond

which they are judged out of danger of privateers, &c.

The admirals of his majefty’s fleet are claffed into three
f{quadrons, viz. the red, white, and blue. When any of
thefe officers are invefted with the command of a fquadron,
or detachment of men of war, the particular fhips are diftin-
guifhed by the colours of their refpeétive fquadron; the
union is common to them all, and in thofe of the red fquad-
ron it is difplayed on a red field; on a white for thofe of the
white {quadron, and on a blue field for the blue fquadron.
A fleet, whatfoever be the number of thips of which it con-
filts, is ufually divided into three fquadrons; and thefe
again, when the fhips are numerous, into three divifions,
diftinguifhed by a particular flag or pendant, and ufually
commanded by a generalofficer. The admiral, or principal
officer, commands the centre; the vice-admiral, or fecond
in command, fuperintends the van-guard; and the opera-
tions in the rear are direéted by the rear-admiral, or officer
next in rank, The moft convenient order of a fleet, pro-
ceeding on a voyage, ts that in which ic is ranged into three
lines or columns, each of which is parallel to a line clofe-
hauled, according to the tack on which the line of battle is
defigned to be formed, The fleet being thus more inclofed,
will more readily obferve the fignals, and with greater eafe
form itfelf into the Line of dattle, which fee. See alfo Ex-
GAGEMENT.

The Spanifh fleet fent againft E-gland by Philip IT.
confifted of athoufand veficls. In the Eaft there have been
fleets feen of three thoufand veflels.

Merchant ficets generally take their denomination from
the place to which they are bound; as the ‘Turkey fleet,
Eaft India fleet, &<.

The Spaniards call fimply the fleet or flota, a certain
number of veffels, belonging partly to the king, and partly
to merchants, fent every year to Vera Cruz, a port of New
Spain.

The flota confifts of the captain, admiral, and patach or
pinnace, which go on the king’s account; and about fixteen
fhips, from four hundred to a thoufand tons, belonging to
particular perfons. They are all fo heavy laden, both going
and coming, that they have much ado to defend themlelves
when attacked. ‘lhe fleet puts out from Cadiz about the
month of Auguit, and makes it eighteen or twenty months
before its return.

The ficet fent annually from the fame port to Peru, they
call the galleons.

When the two flzets put out together, they go in com-
pany as far as the Antilles, where they feparate; the gal-
leons for Carthagena and Porto Bello; and the flota for
Vera Cruz: at their return they join at the Havanna.

Of the two flcets the galleons are the molt richly jaden ;
not but the cargo of the flota is alfo very confiderable.

FLeer is alfo a famous prifon in London, thus called
from the river Fleet, on the border whereof it ance ttood.

To this prifon perfons are ufually committed for contempt
of the king and his laws; or upon abfolute command of the

king, or fome of his courts, particularly that of chancery ;
and laftly, for debt.

‘ Fuset,

1 AL. &

Freer, in Geography, ariver in Kirkendbticht-fhire, in
Scotland, is navigable from Murray’s ifle in Wigton bay,
into which it enters by a wide mouth, called ‘* Fleet bay,”
‘up to Gate-houfe bricze. N. lat. 54°54/. W. long. 4° 15/.
—Alfo, ariver of England, in Dorfetthwe, navigable for
barges from Portland-Road at Pefflage-Houfe to near Ab-
botfbury, at the back of that remarkzble mdge of pebbles
and {and calied Chefil-bank — Alle, a river of Nottingham-
fhire, which mins intothe Trent. 8 miles N. of Newark,

FLEETING, in Sea Language, is the a@ of changing
the fituation of a tackle, whea the blocks are drawn to-
gether; or what is called block and block by failors, The
ufe of fleeting is to replace the mechanical powers into a
ftate of action, and the operation is nearly fimilar to that of
winding up a clock o# watch.

FLEETWOOD, Wictiam, in Biography, a learned
Englifh prelate, was born in the Tower of London, in the
year 1656. He was iuitiated in claffical learning at Eton,
from whence he was elected to King’s college in the uni-
verfity of Cambridge. He took orders about the time of
the Revolution, and became diftinguifhed for the excellence
of his pulpit talents. He foon obtained the honour of being
chaplain to the king, and fome other valuable preferment.
He was appointed rector of St. Aultin, and, almoft im-
mediately, leGturer at St. Dunftan’s, Fleet-ftreet, where his
fermons actraéted great crowds of hearers. In the year
1691, he publifhed an ufeful introduction to the knowledge
of antiquities, entitled ‘* Infcriptionum Ant quarum Syl-
loge, in duas Partes diftributa,”? &c. oGavo. The firtt
part containing remarkable pagan in{criptions, colleéied
from Gruter, Reinfius, and other writers; and the fecond
confifting of ancient Chriftian monuments: the whole illuf-
trated wich fhort notes, which were partly original, and
partly fele¢ted from other writers. This work was well re-
ceived, and contributed not a little to maintain the high re-
putation which the author had already acquired during his
refidence at the univerfity. Mr. Fleetwood was next known
as a theological writer. Of his works under this charaéer,
the principal was publifhed in 1701, under the title of «An
Effay on Miracles,’’ which is reckoned a very ingenious
performance, and was prorounced, by Mr. Farmer, as
abounding in excellent refleGtions, A fhort time before
king Wiliam’s deceafe, Mr. Fleetwood was nominated by
his majefly to a canonry of Windfor; but, asthe grant had
not paffed the great feal before the king’s demife, the houfe
of commons addreffled queen Anne to beftow that dignity
upon their chaplain. She, however, attentive to the late
king’s wifh, confirmed the grant in favour of Mr. Ficet-
wood, and allo appointed him her own chaplain, About
the year 1705, he refigned his rectory and le€turefhip, and
retired to a {mall living which he had iu the neighbourhood
of Eton. He indulged his inclination for privacy, and ap-
plied much of his time to the ftudy of Britith hiftory and
antiquities. In 1707 he publifhed a work, entitled ‘* Chro-
nicon Preciofum,”’ or * An Account of Englifh Gold and
Silver Money, the Price of Corn, and other Commodities,
and of Stipends, Salaries, Wages, &c. in England, for fix
hundred Years laft paft.”” In the following year he was
appointed, without his requeft, and even without his know-
ledge, ‘to fucceed bifhop Beveridge in the fee of St. Afaph.
4\t this period, party rage and animofities ran very high,
and no where more fo than in the diocefe of St. Afaph; but
fo high was the reputation of the new prelate, fo great his
«prudence and addre{s, fo amiable and conciliating his man-
ners, and fo uoblemifhed and exemplary his life and condu@,
that he not only efcaped all indecent and difrefpeGful treat-
ment, but fecured the reverence and affcCtion of his clergy,
Vou, XIV.

FLE

who almoft all differed from him in principle. The queem
now frequently attended the fermons of her bifhop, many of
which were made public at her defire. He likewife conftantly
atrended his place in the houfe of lords, where he cov-
ducted bimfelf with dignity and fpirit, maintaining his inde-
pendence ; and he was invariably governed in his votes by 2
regard to what he confidered to be the true interelts of his
country. Ip his firft epifcopal vilitatior, he delivered and
publifhed a charge, which has been generally regarded as
one of the moft perfe&t performances of that kind. This
was early in 1710; and towards the ciofe of that year a
change in the miniftry took place, and tory principles be-
came triumphant at court. From thefe the bifhop was very
averie, and nothing could induce him to give his {upport to
the meafures of the new miniftry, which he conceived to be
equally prejudicial to the glory of the queen and the true
intereft of the nation. In the year 1711-12, he was ap-
pointed to preach before the houfe of Lords; but by fome
means it was known that the difcourfe which he had pre-
pared was very hoftile to the fentiments of minifters, ard they
accordingly adjourned the houfe beyond the day on which it
was to have been delivered. ‘The bifhop determined to
print what he was prevented from preaching, and publithed
it under the title of ‘“* A Sermon preached on Falt-day,
Jan. 16, 1711-12, againft fuch as delight in War, by a Di-
vine of the Church of England.”? In the political part of
this difcourfe, the bifhop fpoke his mind with the utmoft
freedom, relative to what he judged to he the difgraceful
and ruinous meafures of adminiitration ; which fo exaiperated
them, that they refolved to lofe no opportunity of refeating
the infult, as they deemed it. He next engaged in the
controverfy refpecting lay-baptifm, excited by Mr. Dodwell
and others. In 1712, the bifhop publifhed feur fermons,
which he had formerly preached with great applaufe on the
deaths of queen Mary, the duke of Glocetter, and king
Wiiliam, and on the acccffion of queen Anne.. In his pre-=
face he affigned the rcafons for their publication at this par-
ticular period, and made fome fevere animadverfions on the
fafhionable politics of the day. It was now determined to
crufh the bifhop. With this view, minifters carried in the
houfe of commons a motion that the obj=Gionable work
fhould be burned by the hands of the common hangman:

to which it was replied, ‘the fire is certainly a conclufive,

Wenefrede, topether with her Litanies, and fome hiforical
Obfervatious made thereon.” He undertook this work to
countera&t the artifices of popifh emiflarics, who made ufe
of it to feduce to their faith the weak and unwary among
the crowds who reforted for the benefit of the waters to the
well of Holywell, which was m his diocefe. On the accef-
fion of the houfe of Hanover, Dr. Fleetwood was tranflated
to the fee of Ely; which new and unexpected dignity
ferved only to {pur him on to be. more diligent in the dif
charge of thofe duties which belonged to the epifcopal of-
fice, His indefatigable labours br. ught upoa him infirmi-
ties, which produced a gradual decay, under which he
funk at Tottenham, Middélefex, whither he kad removed
for the benefit of the air. This happened in 3
the worthy bithop had attained his fxry-feven:!
had ever maintained an excellent chara&ter, and was a bright
pattern of innoceuce of life, integrity of heart, and fanéiury
of manners. Diog. Bn.

FLEGA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of
Engia; 8 miles E. of Engia 5

FLEICHER, Joun Curisroruer,

4L

in Biography, a
very

FLE

very celebrated inftrument-maker of Hamburgh, at the bes
ginning of the laft century. He had harpfichords from 60,
+0, and 100, to 1000 dollars each. His theorbo and other
lutes were in the greatett requett ; and in all his inftruments
the imitative {tops were ingenious, aud the mechanifm ex-
cellent.

' FLEISCHER, M,, a Brunfwick compofer of great
merit, in 1772, whofe church mufic, comic operas, and harp-
fichord leffons, are ali written in an elegant and pleafing
ftyle.

“FLEMEN, aterm in Surgery, having two different fig-
Rifications, viz. a tumour near the ankles, and the har-
dened furrows which occur on the hands and feet. Fiemen
(quafi flegmen) is {aid to be derived from /leéo, to incline
downwards.

FLEMENEFRIT, FremenerrinTHE, or FrymMena-
FRYNTHE, in our Old Writers, figoifies the receiving or re-
lieving of a fugitive or outlaw.

FLEMESWITE. Fleta, who writes of this word, in-
terprets it Aabere catalla fugitivorum.

FLEMING, Roserr, in Biography, fon of a learned
Scotch prefbyterian minilter, was born in Scotland, where
he received the early part of his education, which was com-
pleted at the univerfities cf Leyden and Utrecht, where be
profecuted all thofe branches of learning which were deemed
neceflary to qualify him for tne mintfterial profeflion, His
firft fettlement was with the Englifh church at Leyden,
whence he afterwards removed to become minifter of the
Scotch church of Amfterdam. In the courfe of a few
years, he accepted of an invitation as pafter of a Scotch
church in Lothbury, London. Here he expeéted to be-
come more extenfively ufeful as a minifter of the gofpel: he
was moreover urged to make the exchange by king Wil-
liam, who often advifed with him on the concerns of his own
country. So great was his modefty, that he requeited he
might at all times be called to court with the utmott privacy.
His great learning and talents procured him much re-
fpe&t abroad, and alfo in this country, where he was
greatly efteemed by churchmen and diffenters, as well as by
thofe belonging to the Scotch prefbytery. He was on terms
of friendfhip with the archbifhop of Canterbury ; and was
chofen one of the preachers of the leture, inftituted by the
merchants of London, at Salters’-hall, every Tuefday.
From his early years he was eminently devout ; and he was
firmly attached to the Britifh monarchy and conftitution.
He died in 1716. He publifhed feveral works; but that
by which he was chiefly known is entitled ‘ Chriftolozy,
a Difcourfe concerning Chrift.””? This excited much atten-
tion in the early part of the French revolution, on account
of the ftriking coincidence between the author’s interpreta-
tion of the fourth viel in the book of Revelation, and the
events which were taking place at that period, (Gen.
Biog.

Evans’ Caves, was born at Nottingham in the year
1698, and, while very young, he difcovered an uncommon
ta(te for literature, and employed every Jeifure moment in im-
proving his mind, in which he had the afliftance of a learned
and liberal divine of his native town, who took the care of
a {mall number of pupils. He continued at Nottingham
fome years, engaged in a fecular employment, and then re-
moved to London. He became intimate with Mr. Holt,
afterwards one of the tutors at Warrington, who aflifted and
encouraged him in thofe ftudies which enabled him after-
wards to embark in the work of the Chriftian miniftry. His
abilities and acquirements had attraéted the notice of Dr.
Thomas, bifhop of Winchelter, who was defirous of making
provifion for him in the eftablifhed church. A. living was

FLE

offered him in Cumberland, and Dr. Thomas benevolently
propofed advancing a fufficient fum of money to defray the
expences of his journey and removal to fo great a diftance.
His feruples upon the fubje&t of conformity prevented him
from accepting this liberal and very handfome offer; but he
never ceafed to acknowledge with fentiments of unfeigned
gratitude the kindnefs of the worthy prelate. Nothing but
a fenfe of right, and an ardent love of the truth, could have

- led him te decline the proffered introdution to the national

church ; for he, at that time, had a wife and feveral chil-
dren, and was almott deftitute of every refource to provide
for their wants. In forming hts determination, he was en

couraged by the magnanimity of his wife, who affured him.

fhe was ready to undergo any privations, and fuffer any
hardfhips, rather than accept of affluence at the expence of
his integrity and peace. From this moment he refolved to
engage in the work of the miniftry among the proteflant
diffenters, and was, after an interval of fome years, chofen
paftor of a congregation in Bartholomew-clofe, London,
Here he continued to officiate till the year 1752, when he
was chofen affiftant to the celebrated Dr. Fofter at Penners-.
hall, whom in .a fhort time he fucceeded in the paftoral
office, the duties of which he difcharged with exemplary
diligence, until he became incapacitated for public fervice
by the infirmities of age. He died in the year 1779, in the
eighty-firft year of hisage. He was the author of numerous
publications on important and interefting topics, relating to
morals, the caufe of Chriftianity, and of civil and religious
liberty. The titles of many of thefe are given in the Gene-
ral Biography. He was an able and judicious defender of
the truth of divine revelation, and a clofe and diligent in-
quirer into its doétrines. He was led to renounce what are
called the orthodox tenets of eftablifhed fyftems, and to ems
brace the fimple unitarian creed. He was a fteady and re«
folute affertor of the rights of confcience, and of private
judgment; and confidered the interpofition of human power-
in matters of religion as the principal fource of tbe corrup-
tions of Chriftianity. His piety was cheerful and rational ;
his charaGter and manners upright and exemplary; and his
private and focial virtues fuch as rendered him the obje& of
warm efteem among thofe who enjoyed his acquaintance.

FieminG, in Geography, a county of Kentucky in
America, bounded N. by Mafon, S.E. by Virginia, S.W.
and W. by Montgomery : it is mountainous, and watered
by feveral ftreams which fall into Sandy and Licking rivers ;
it contains 4,893 inhabitants, of whom 240 are flaves. The
chief town of this county is Fleming /burgh, containing 122

eople, and a poft-office.

FLEMINGIANS, or FLanprians, in Ecclefiaftical
Hijiory, a {e& of rigid Anabaptills, who acquired this name
in the fixteenth century, becaufe moft of them were natives

of Fianders, by way of diftinG@tion from the Waterlandians, -

In confequence of fome difienfions among the Flemingians,

relating to the treatment of excommunicated perfons, they-

were divided into two feéts, diftinguifhed by the appellations
of Flandrians and Frieflanders, who differed from each other
in their manners and difcipline.
time came over to the moderate community of the Water-
landians; and thofe who remained feparate are {till known

by the name of the old Flemingians, or Flandrians; but -

they are comparatively few in number. Thefe maintain the

opinion of Menno, with refpeét to the incarnation of Chrift,

alleging, that his body was produced by the creating

poser of the Holy Gholt, and not derived from his mother
ary.

FLEMINGS, natives of Flanders, a colony of whom.

were ¢ftablifhed in South Wales by Henry 1., in order to
7 ftrengthen

Many of thefe in procefs of -

et

‘

FLS

flrengthen thofe provinces that remained under the power of
England. During the reign of his father, a great number
of them, having been driven ont of their dwellings by an
extraordinary inundation of the fea on that coaft, had come
over to England; where they hoped to receive proteétion
from the queen, who was a daughter of Baldwin earl of
Flanders. The king entertained them with great hofpitality
and kindnefs, not only from a regard to her patronage of
them, but from true notions of policy; with a vicw of in-
creafing, by {uch an acceffion of ufeful inhabitants, the
wealth and ftrength of his kingdom. Many of them were
planted by William Rufus in the wafte lands of Northum-
berland, and about Carlifle ; and others were difperfed all
over England, and began by their multitude to give fome
uneafinc{s, which Henry removed, and availing himfelf of
them to {till greater advantage, he fent them all to fettle in
South Wales; where he gave them the diftriG about Tenby
and Haverfordweft, in which their polterity remain to this
day. ‘They were very induftrious, and, at the fame time,
very valiant; fkilful in hufbandry, manufaétures, and com-
merce, and equally expert in the ufe of arms: fo that they
anfwered all ends which can be propofed in planting a co-
lony, cultivation of lands, improvement of trade, and de-
fence of the country. William of Malm{bury fpeaks of
them as a {trong barrier, which reftrained the Welfh in
thofe regions from infeiting the Englifh territories: and cer-
tainly fuch a plantation was a more effectual fecuriry than
any fortrefs or bulwark, This colony was farther {trength-
ened by Henry 1I., who allowed fome of the Flemifh mer-
cenaries, whom, in the firft year of his reign, he banifhed
out of England, to go to their countrymen eftablifhed in
Pembrokefhire, and fettle among them. This proved in the
event a very politic meafure ; for this reinforcement of brave
and veteran foldiers was fufficient to defend the Flemitfh co-
lony, and a ceffation of hoftilities on the part of the Wellh
foon followed that event. © This colony was attacked in the
year 1164, and their country ravaged by Khus ap Gryffyth
of Dynevowr.

Fremines. If the Natives of Flanders and the Nether-
lands were not the inventors of counterpoint, many proofs
are extant of their having fuccefsfully cultivated it at a very
early period. Almoft all the elder great contrapuntilts, of
whofe works there are many remains, fuch as Okenheim,
Jufquin du Prez, Adrian Willaert, &c. were Flemings ;
as the molt curious fpecimens of early counterpoint, among
the printed mufic in the Mufeum, there isa colleétion of mafles
in four parts, the firlt that iffued from the prefs after the in-
vention of printing. ‘They confift of the firft and third fet
of the mafles which Jufquin compofed for the pope’s chapel,
during the pontificate of Sextus the Fourth, who reigned
from 1471 to 1484; the maffes of Pierre de la Rue, fome-
times called Petrus Platenfis, a fet of mafles by Anthony de
Feven or Feum, Robert de Feven, and Pierzon. The
maffes of John Mouton; ditto of different compofers,
4“ Miffe diverforum Auctorum,”’) viz. Obrecht, Phil. Bal-
firon, Brumel, Gafpar, and de la Rue.

All thefe were printed by Ottavio Petruccio da Foflem-
brone. He firft publifhed the maffes of de la Rue at Venice,
1503, and in 1508 thofe by different authors. In 1513,
removing to Foffembrone, in the Eccleliaftical State, he ob-
tained a patent from Leo the ‘lenth in behalf of his inven-
tion of types, for the fole printing of figurative fong,
(“ Cantus Figuratus,”’”) and pieces for the organ, (‘ Or-

anorum Intabulature,”) during the term of twenty years.
“This patent is figned by the learned cardinal Bemboe, Leo’s
fecretary.

The maffes are followed in this colle&ion by the fecond,

FLE

third, and fourth fets of Latin motets, m four or five parts,
called ‘* Mottecti della Corona,’’ from the figure of a crown
ftamped on the title page. The words of thefe excellent
compofitions conlift- of fhort portions of Scripture, and
hymns of the Romifh church, fet by Julquin, Carpentras,
Mouton, Adrian Willaert, Conftantius Fefta, end other
great mattcrs of the fame period: they were all printed at
Foffembrone, in 1519. by Petruccio, and publifhed with
the fame patent as the mafics.

The only Ltalian compofer amongft thefe is Conftantio
Fefta, but there is fo much of that grace in his melody,
clearnefs and facility in his harmony, as have always been
the diftinétive chara¢teriftics of matters of the highett clafs
in his country, that we can hardly think a genius fo highly
polifhed ftood alone among fuch a number of foreigners at
this early period; or that fuch regular compofitions, and
learned and ingenious contrivances, could be attained by the
gigantic ftride of any one mufician, however fuperior his
genius may have been to that of his predecefiors.

FLEMINGTON, in Geography, a {mall poft-town of
New Jerfey, in Huntingdon county, abcut 6 miles N.E. of
Amwell or Delaware river; 53 miles NE. by N. from
Philadelphia. It has a poft-cflice and about 12 compact
houles.

FLEMISH, or the Fremisn Tongue, is that which we
otherwife called Low Dutch, to diitinguifh it trom the
German, whereof it is a corruption, and a kind of diale&.
See Flemi/h Bisres.

The Flemifh is the language ufed throughout the pro-
vinces of the Netherlands. It differs confiderably from the
Walloon, which is a corrupt French.

Fremisn Lricks. See Bricks.

Fremisu Hufbandry, in Agriculture, a name fometimes
applied to that fort which was introduced from the Low
Countries, and which confifted in the combining of the
green crop fyftem with that of corn. Itis fuppofed to have
been practifed there at an early period. See Hussanpry.

Fremisy School of Engravers. See NETHERLANDS.

FLEMMING, Ricuarp, in Biography, an Englifh
prelate, who flovrifhed in the fifteenth century, and who
was founder of Lincoln college, Oxford, was born at Crof-
ton, in the county of York. He finifhed his fludies at the
Univerfity college, Oxford; and was, in 1406, collated to
a prebend in the cathedral church of York ; and in the next
yesr, he had the honour of being one of the pro@ors of the
univerfity. He now efpoufed warmly the caufe of Wick-
hff, and, by his zeal, induced others to join in the fame
bufinefs. Some preferment in the exilting church induced
him'to change fides ; and he became more violent in defence
of what he had been in the habit of holding to contempt as
grofs corruptions, than he had been in the caufe of reform.
He obtained the friendfhip of Henry V., and was promoted,
in 1420, to the bifhopric of Lincoln. After this he was
fent deputy to the council of Conftance, where he obtained
great applaufe by an eloquent {peech delivered in the
fence of pope Martin V., in vindication of his country
againit the calumnies and afperfions of the French, Spanithy
and Scottifh deputies. He was now probably appointed
chamberlain to the pope; and, on his return, to exhibit his
zeal, in fubferviency to the decree of the council of Con-
{tance, he caufed Wickliff’s bones to be dug up and burnt,
The fee of York being vacant, the pope, by bis own autho-
rity, tranflated Dr. Flemming from Lincolf to that arch-
bifhopric ; but the king put in his veto, and the difappointea
prelate was obliged to be contented with Lincoln. After
this he formed the defign of founding a college, avowedly
as a feminary for divines to write, preach, and difpute

: 4La againtt

tS

FLE ;

araintt Wickliff. Before he had made much progrefs in the
building, he died at Sleaford, in 1430-31; leaving, how~
ever, fullicient money and effets in the hands of truttees to
tomplere the undertaking. Biog. Brit.

FLEN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Sudermania;
2z miles N.N.W. of Nykoping. .

FLENSBORG, a fea-port town of Denmark, fituated
on the eaftern coat of the duchy of Slefwic, in a gulf of the
Baltic, called ‘ Flenfborzerwieck,” which extends about
18 miles inland, and forms a good harbour, fo that the
Jargett veffels are unloaded at the quay, and fecured from all
wiods by furrounding hills. Ic is the capital of a diftn@,
and onc of the handfomeft and molt commercial towns in the
duchy ; 22 miles N. of Slefwic. N. lat. 54°47’. E. long.

e207 ls

FLE/RON, a town of France, in the department of the
Ourte, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Liege.
The place contains 950, and the canton 15,412 inhabitants,
on a territory of 130 kiliometres in 23 communes.

FLESBERG, atown of Norway, in the provinee of
Aggerhuus; 36 miles W. of Chriftianta.

FLESH, in Anatomy, is underftood to denote only the
moufcular fubftance of an animel body, although in common
language it feems to include all the foft parts of the frame,
except the fkin. Yet it is ufed fometimes more loofcly by
the old anatomifts, who fpeak of mufcular flcfh, glandular
flefh, &c. .

Fresu, in Rural Economy, the fine healthy fibrous matter
that couflitutes the principal value of domeftic animials.
‘The nature and properties of flefh are of great importance
to the breeding and grazing farmers, in re{pect to the feed-
ing and fattening of their animals. Such breeds as do not
poffels perfeGly good flefh fhould never be encouraged either
in fheep ttock or neat cattle.

Fresu is alfo ufed, in Theology, in {peaking of the myf-
teries of the incarnation and eucharift.

The word was made flefh, Verbum caro fadum gf.

The Romanitts hold, that the bread in the facrament of
the {upper is turned into the real flefh of Jefus Chri. See
TRANSUBSTANTIATION.

Fresu, Fungous. See Funcus.

Fvesu is fometimes alfo ufed by botanifts for the foft
pulpy fubftance of any fruit, inclofed between the outer rind
or fin, and the feeds, or tone; or for that part of a root,
fruit, &c. fit to be eaten.

Fiesu-colour. See CARNATION.

Fresu Bay, in Geography, a bay of the Indian fea, on
the coait of Africa. N. lat. 54°35’. W.long. 22° 20!.

FLESHY, Carnosus, in Botanical Phrafeology, is ufed to
exprefs any more than ordinary degree of thicknefs or
juicinefs in fuch parts as are naturally in fome degree pulpy,
‘asleaves. Witnefs the whole tribe of fucculent plants,com-
prehending the genera of Aloe, Craffula, Mefembryanthemum,
Sedum, &c. all which have folia carno/a, flefhy, or very pulpy,
leaves. [tis alfo applied to parts ufually dry or juicelefs, when
they happen, contrary to their general nature, to be pulpy,
as the capfule in Chironia baccifera, and the receptacle of the
feeds in the Strawberry ; but in thefe laft inftances the word
éaccatus, expreffing a fruit afluming the nature of a berry, is
more precife. Several {pecies of Buphorbia, Pelargonium, &c.
have flefhy ftems; anda great number of perennial plaxts,
few unnual ones, have flcihy roots, In all fuch cafes the
part is more durable, more tenacious of life, and lefs de-
pendent on contingencies than it might otherwife be. The
roots of fome grafles, as Phleum praten/e, though naturally
fibrous, become ficfhy, when they, are expoled to occafional

FLE

privations of food or moifture, by which they beeomé mor®
independent of fuch accidents in futures
Fresny Roots, in Gardening, are all fuch as are confti-

» tuted of a large mafs of pulpy matter, whether in a lami-

nated form, or the contrary. See Roor.

FLESK, in Geography, a river of Lreland, in the county of
Kerry, which flows into Lough Lane, better known as the
lake of Killarney.

’ FLESUS, in Jchthyolncy, a name ufed by fome authors
for tne common flounder; the pafer fluviatilis of moft writerse
See PLeuronecres Filefus.

ELET-Mivk, in Rural Economy. fach milk as has beem
fkimmed, or had the cream taken off from it. "This fort of
milk is fometimes employ-d in forming a poor kind of
cheefe, termed /Fim-milk-cheefes f

FLETA, in Biography. Itis not a little fingular that
this, which is the title to one of our early law-books, fhould
almo{t unifermly have been noticed as the aamé of a writer
on law, and that by lawyers themfelves. Even profeffor
Blackitone, in his Commenteries on the laws of England,
{peaking of the legal period, which commenced in the time
of Edward I., when enumerating the great Jaw writers of
that reign, mentions Britton, Fieta, and Hougham, as emi-
nently confpicuous. The commentary under the title
Fleta was evidently written at the affizned period in 134¢e~
But Nicholfon, in his invaluable work, ‘* The Hiftorical
Library,’’ obferves, that the writer is uoknown ; that it was
fome perfon refident in the Fleet, and who thence adopted
the name of the place as a title for his work. Yet Moreri
fays the authors of it were fome lawyers, who wrote it in
the prifon of the Fleet, where they had been confised for
the crime of concuffion, the particular nature of which has
been difcufled at large by the learned Selden. Grand Did.
Hitt.

FLETCHER, Gives, brother of Richard, bifhop of
London, was born in Kent, and educated at Eton {[chool,
whence, in 1565, he was elected king’s {cholar at Cam-
bridge. He obtained at the univerfity the charaéter of an
accomplifhed gentleman and an excellent poet, and after he”
had taken the preliminary degrees, he took that of deGtor of
laws in 1581. He was employed by queen Elizabeth as com-
miffioner in Scotland, Germany, and the Low Countries, and.
in 1588 was fent ambaflador to the czar Theodore Ivano-
vitch, with the charge of re-ettabiifhing the commercial
concerns of the Ruffian company, which had fallen into de-
cay. His reception at firft was very unfavourable, but he
at length fucceeded in concluding an advantageous treaty,
by which the former privileges of the company were renewed
and confirmed. After his return, in 1591, he publifhed an
account * Of the Ruffle Commonwealth,” which contains
many curious and authentic particulars of that country, then
little knowa to the reft of Europe. The freedom of cer-
tain remarks and ftri€tures in the book caufed it to be fup-.
preffed, through fear of giving offence to the reigning
prince, but it is to be found in Hekluyt’s colle€tion. After
this he was made fecretary to the city of London, a matter
of requefts,.and treafurer of St. Pau)’s church.-

Frercuer, Joun, a dramatic writer, fon of Richard’
Fletcher, bifhop of London, was born in Northamptonhhire -
in 1576, and received his education at Cambridge. It does
not appear that he followed any profeflion except that of a
poet, in which capacity he was the infeparable companion of
Beaumont. He died of the plague in 1625, and was buried
in the church of St. Mary Overy. Several of the plays of
Beaumont and Fletcher were publifhed during: their lives,
and various editions have been given of them in a colle@tive -
form.. The.ten volumes edited by Theobald, Sympfon, and

Seward,

FLE
(Seward, in ry51; and the fame number publithed by Col:

man in 1775, are efteemed the molt corre. The poetical
powers of Fletcher are advantageoully difplayed in a piece
which was certainly his own unaided compofition, entitl-d,
s¢'The Faithful Shepberdefs,” a dramatic paftorat on the
model of the ltalian. ‘It poffeff-s,” fays an able critic,
“€ many beauties, and has been honoured with a clofe imi-
tation of fome of its paflages by Milton in his Comus. Its
plot, however, 1s defeSiive and unpleafant, to which may
be attributed its unfavourable rece ptiou on the ftage.” Biog.
rit,

Fietcuer, PaineAs, fon of Giles, was educated at Evon
f{chool, and from thence he was ele&ted to King’s college,
Cambridge, in 1600, In 1621 he obtained the living of
Helgay, in Norfolk, on which he appears to have paffed the
greater part of his mature life. Little more is known of
this perfon but that he was additted to poetical compofition
at avery early pericd. His principal works are “ The Pur-
ple Ifland,” ‘* Pifcatory Eclogucs,’’ and ** Mifcellanies,’’ all
printed together at Cambridge in 1633. Amn edition of his
Pifcatory Eclogues, with fome of hts Mifcellanies, was pub-
hifhed at Edinburgh in 1781; and all his poetical compo-
fitions have been received into Dr. Anderfon’s coll: Aion.
He wrote a book in profe, entitled “De Literatis Antique
Britanniz.”

Friercuer, Anprew, fon of fir Robert Fletcher of
Saltown, in Scotland, was born in 1653. Being left father-
lefs while he was a child, he was placed under the tuition of
Dr. Gilbert Burnet, then reGtor of Saltown, from whom be
imbibed the learning, piety, and attachment to the principles
of a free government, by which that eminent prelate was dif-
tinguifhed. He fpent fome years of his youth in foreign
travel, and firft appeared as a public character in the ftation
of a commiffioner for Eaft Lothian in the Scotch parliax
ment. He became fo diftinguifhed by his oppofitica to the
arbitrary meafures of the court, that he thought it advifeable
to withdraw to Holland, and upon being cited to appear by a
fummons from the lords of the council], which it was known
he could not obey, he was outlawed, and his eftate confif-
cated. In 1683 he came over to Enzland to affitt, with his
friend Mr. Baillie of Jervifwood, in the confultations held
among the friends of liberty in England and Scotland, to
concert meafures for their common fecurity; and by his pru-
dence and addrefs he avoided giving any pretext to the mi-
niftry for his apprehenfion, He returned to the continent,
and in 1685 engaged in the enterprize of the duke of Mon-
mouth. He landed in the weft of England, but was obliged
to quit the country again on account of a difpute which he
had with a rude, vulgar, and violent man, whom he fhot
dead. From England he embarked for, and landed in
Spain; he afterwards pafled into Hungary, where he en-
gaged in the war with the Turks, and diflinguifhed himfelf
by his valour and fkill. The intereft which he took in the
fate of his country foon brought him back to join in the con-
ferences which were held among the Scotifh refugees in Hol-
land, for the purpofe of eficéting a revolution, When that
eyent took place, he returned to Scotland, and refumed the
pofleffion of his eftate, He was a member of the convention
for the fettlement of the new government in Scotland, and
in all his political conduét he fhewed himfelf the zealous af-
ferter of the liberties of the people, without any regard to
party diftinétion, and free from al) views of his own intcrelt.
In 1698 he printed “ A Difcourfe of Government with re-
Jation to Militias’?
the Affairs of Scotland,”’’ In one of thefe he fuggelts a
plan for providing for the poor by domeftic flavery, which,
to fay the lealt of it, comes with a very ill grace from one

Alfo **'Two Difcourfes concerning.

FL SE

fo zealoufly attached to the caufe of liberty as Mr, Fletcher,
When a bill was brought into the parliament of Scotland for
a fupply to the crown, in 1703, he moved, that previoufly
to this, or to any other butinefs, the houfe fhould confider
what adts were nec: {lary to fecure their re'izion and liberties
In cafe of the queen’s death, and he propofed various limite-
uns of the prerogative, which were received in the * A@
of Securty,’? peff-d through his exertions into a law, but
rendered ineffGtual by the fubfequent union. Of this laft
teafure he was a zealous oppofer, and made many {peeches
ep the fubj-&, but it was not a matter to be decided by elo-
quence, cr elf that of Fletcher, which was more nervousand
corre&t than that of any other fpeaker in the Scotch parlia-
ment, enforced by his known patriot'{m, would have had
much weight. He died at London in 1716. His publi-
cations, and fome of his [peeches, were colle&ed in one vo-
lume cétavo, entitled, “ The Political Works of Andrew
Fictcher, Eiquire.’ Asa writer he pofleffed great power :
his ftyle was perfpicuous, elegant. and evergetic, and his
mind was enlarged by acquaintance with the beft authors,
ancient and modern, and by every fpecies of knowledge
which forms the politician, ‘ He wes,” fays one of his
biographers, ‘‘ a fure friend, but an irreconculeabie enemy :
wou'd lofe his life readily to ferve his country, and would
not doa bafe thing to fave it. His thoughts are large as
to religion, and could never be bronght within the bounds:
of any {cét, nor will he be under the diftin@ion of whig
or tory, faying thefe names are only ufed to cloak the knavery
of both parties.” Hume.

Fretcuer, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in
Franklin county, Vermont, containing 200 inhabitants,
having Cambridge on the S. E. and Georgia on the W.

Frercuer’s Wool, a cape of America, on the coatt of
Main. N. lat. 43°25'. W. long 70! 29/.

TLETZ, or Frorz, among German miners, a term of
high antiquity, generally denoting 2 layer of any kind of
rock, the pofition of which approaches the horizontal line.
The word, thus applied, being vague and infignificant, it,
would fcarcely claim our notice in this work, but for the
more fixed and fcientific meaning it conveys in the compounds
“Fletz Mountains”? (fate gebirge), and ‘* Fletz-rocks’?
(Flatz-gebirge-arten), which terms, as proceeding from the
country which may properly be called the cradle of mineralogy
and geology, are now admitted into the technical dice
tionaries of moft European languages. We too (in the
fucceeding article) have adopted the prefix ‘* fletz,?? in
preference to ‘ fecondary,”? which latter, (not to mention
other obj<€tions againit it,) cannot be adopted by thofe who,
with Mr. Werner, admit a formation of rocks, intermediate
between the primitive and fecondary rocks of other geologifts,

With regard to the fpelling here propofed, it is to be:
obferved that, although “ flotz” with a diphthong may
be conformable to the rules of modern German orthography,
yet the ancient mode of fpelling the word is» * fletz;’?
and this we prefer, partly becaufe the found of the letter
é, as pronounced by the Germans, is foreign tothe Eng
lifh language, and partly becaufe the old {pelling and
pronunciation (which latter is {till heard in feveral parts of
Germany ) are more correct, as they approach nearer thofe
ot other words, which in various dead and modern languages
equally convey the idea of a horizontal even plane, fuch
as waarus, latus, frat, plat, fret, &e.

Fruetz-Mountains, Fletz-Rocks; Fiotz Gebirge, Fictze-
Gebirge-arten, Germ, The mountains and rocks to which
thele names are given by the German {chool of geology,
are obvioufly of much more recent origin than thofe called
primitive (fee Rocks, Primitive), They bear more dif

oo tingly

bc hae Da Ns

tinétly than thefe latter the marks of being depofited from
a fluid, and of their having been formed when animials and
vegetables exifted in abundance. They have their hiftory
imprinted in chara&ers more legible than thofe of all the
other roeks, the alluvial alone excepted: but from the
youngeft fletz-lime-ftone, to the oldeft of the primitive
rocks we kucw, namely granite, the records before us
become gradually more illegible, till at lat not a character
is found but the attempt to decipher it leads the oblerver
into the mazes of fancy and furmife. ct
From the alluvial, the fletz rocks are diftinguifhed by
all thofe pofitive and negative characters that befpcek an
earlier origin, being the refult of a general revolution that
extended over the whole furface of the globe; while the
former can, without any gratuitous aflumption, be confidered
as partial formations produced by the detritus of all the
ethers : they have originated, as it were, under the eye of
the geologilt, who difcovers in their fofter fubftance, in the
compounds of loam, marle, &c. the remains of fubttances
known to him, as belonging to the prefent creation, and
{wept together by pertial inundations, by overflows of
rivers, &c. (See Rocks, Alluvial). From the primitive,
the fletz mountains are in general eafily diftinguifhable :
for while the former, (fuch as the Hartz, the Saxon
Erzgebirge, a great part of the Fichtelgebirge, &c )
ufually tower to a majeltic height, divided up to their
fummits by ravines and chafms, the fletz mountains are
generally of a lefs bold and fteep afcent, and run aleng in
more uniformly undulated ranges. Viewed on a large
{cale the fletz-rocks are much more compound than the
primitive ; but they appear much lefs fo, and often of a
perfeétly homogeneous nature, when viewed in fmall maffes.
Though lime-{tone is already feen to occur in the primitive
rocks, yet this formation owes its principal charaGer to the
filiceous and argillaceous earths, (from granite to clay-ftone);
while calcareous with argillaceous earth, appear to be the
leading features in the compofition of fletz-rocks. Very
charaéteriftic of thefe rocks are the petrifa€tions with which
they abound, and which decreafe in number as the fletz
approaches the primitive formation, where they are no longer
obferved. Thefe petrifa€tions confit in part of vegetables, and
fhells of various marine animals, moft of the prototypes of
which no longer exift; and frequently one particular {pecies
occupies a ftratum throughout a confiderable tra& of country,
while the adjoining ftratum is ftocked with a fpecies totaly
different from, and unmixed with the others. Bituminous
foffils, of rare and ambiguous occurrence in primitive rocks,
have their principal depoficories in fletz mountains. Thus
coal, moit frequent in the comparatively new formations,
can fcarcely be traced higher than to the oldeft fand-ftone,
where it becomes unfrequent and difappears. But a great
feature of the mountains under contideration is their ftrati-
fication, marked by many peculiarities not obfervable in other
formations. The ftrata generally run parallel with one
another; their pofition, though fometimes fcarcely deviating
from the horizontal, is often highly inclined ; they accom-
pany the fides of primitive mountains, either partially, or
they furround them ; while the fummit of the latter, pro-
jeAing over the encompafling fletz-rocks, will often make
the fuperficial obferver fuppofe to fee a primitive rock
fuperincumbent on a more recent formation. ‘Thus, for
initance, we have the Schweitzerling, an old porphyry
_ mountain, near Wettin, in the diftri€t of Halle, rifiog in
the fhape of an infulated mafs out of the furrounding fletz
ftrata. It has been faid above that fletz mountains are
lef rapidly rifing, and it may be added that they do not
generally attain any confiderable height, if we except fome

of thofe belonging to the clafs which Mr. Werner calls the
newelt fle:z-trapp formation, comprifing bafalt, wacke,
&c. rocks, fome of which, by other geologitts, are clafled
with the genuine volcanic produdiions. If, however, the
fletz mountains can be faid iad general to poffefs many
characters that keep them diftin@ from the primitive, this
is not {triétly applicable to all of them; for there isa {mall
feries of rocks of ai ambizuous nature, which, being often
intermediate between the two formations, and participating
of the charaéters of either, have frequently embarrafled the
framers of geological arrangements. ‘Ttefe rocks have
been formed by Mr. Werner into a particular clafe, under
the title Ubergangs gebirge, (fee Veansitiow - Moun.
rains) ; a diltinGtion which is not admitted by Mr. Voigt
and others.

As the ideas which the two laft-mentioned geologilts
entertain rclative to the origin of the fletz mountains have
regulated their claflitication of the rocks belonging to that
and the tranfition formation, ic will be proper, before we
proceed, to give a fhort outline of their refpective theories,
as far as they relate to the fubj.& under confideretion.
Werner accounts for the difference that fublifts between the
rocks of his three firlt claffes of the aquatic formation,
from the oldeft granite down to the newelt fletz lime-
ftone, by the gradual diminution of the water on the fur-
face of the earth. At that period, when the earth was in
a chaotic ftate, and entirely encompaffed by the ocean,
which contained their firft materiais, the primitive moun-
tains were formed by the laws of cryftallization, As
the volume of the water gradually diminifhed, and dry land
made its appearance, in fhort, when the earth pailed intoan
inhabitable ftate, a feries of rocks originated, which par-
ticipate, in fome meafure, of the nature of the primitive,
at the fame time that they difplay the firlt traces of remains
of fimple organic bodies that inhabited the fea, and of
mechanical depofition, which could take place only near
the furface of the water. The increafe of thefe mechanical
depofitions corre{ponded to the diminifhing level of the ocean,
from the tranfition to the more recent periods, each of
which furnifhed the fucceffive fletz-ftrata with their peculiar
contingents of organic bodies, moft of which remain only as
petrifactions. Itis in this manner that the celebrated pro-
feflor of Freiberg affigns to all the known rocks their refpec-
tive places in his arrangement, the whole forming an unin-
terrupted feries from the granite to the youngeft of the
alluvial mountains. There is, however, another eflemblage
of rocks allied to thofe of the fletz formation, and which,
(being fuperimpofed promifcuoufly on other formations,
from the primitive to the moft recent,) is kept feparate by
Werner, as one of the fubdivifions of that clafs; to this be-
long bafalt, the kindred wacke, porphyry-flate, amygdaloid,
and other rocks enumerated by Werner as members of the
fletz-trapp formation. The whole of this is fuppofed by
him to owe its origin toa pofterior deluge, or a fudden
rifing and retiring of water, and is confidered as the neweit
member of the fletz formation. eae

Mr. Voigt, who has given a claflification of rocks,though
he reje& the tranfition period adopted by Mr. Werner, {till
divides the fletz rocks into thofe of older, and thofe of
newer formation. A\s his ideas on this fubje& are but little
known to the Englifh reader, we fhall here give a fhort
fketch of his theory, omitted under the article Earra.
His hypothelis is, that in its primordial ftate, our planet
was entirely encompaffed by water, in which, without hav-
ing either mountains or valleys, it floated like the yolk in the
albumen of theegg. Of the fubftances that compofed the
earth in this fate of {ubmerfion, fome were apt to undergo

fere

FoL'E-'T.-Z.

fermentation, to ignite, to give out elaftic vapours and gafes,
and to produce cxplofions. It was by thefe energies, that
maffes were raifed from the bottom of the ocean towards its
furface, where they formed iflands, which afterwards confti-
tured the principal ranges cf primary mountains. The body
of water difplaced by thefe elevated maffes filled up the {pace
the latter originally occupied ; and this diminution of the
water was the caufe of the appearance of an additional por-
tion of dry land. Of the detritus of thefe primary moun-
tains, and by the depofition of mineral fubftances, fill dil-
folvedor floating in the ocean, the fletz mountaing were pro-
duced, which formed layers furrounding the original iflands.
As according to this theory (which the reader will ob-
ferve is not unlike that of Lazzaro Moro), no confiderable
time intervened between the formation of the primary and
flctz mountains, it isno matter of furprize that’ the newelt
of the former fhould fhow confiderable affinity to the oldeft
of the latter formation ; and chat intermediate kinds of rocks
fhould have been formed, which appear of an ambiguous
origin only when viewed out of conneétion with the rett.
But, though our author does not admit tranfition rocks in
the fenfe in which this wordis taken by fome geologitts, he
neverthelefs thinks that there are ftratificd or fletz rocks that,
ftri€tly fpeaking, might be referred to the primary ; namely,
fuch ftrata of lime and fand-ftone, that, according to his
theory, were raifed at the fame time with the primary moun-
tains on which they were depofited at the bottom of the
fea. To this divifion belong thofe ftrata which are fometimes
obferved in fuch places, which, from their elevation, cannot
be fuppofed to have been reached by the water when the re-
gular fletz rocks were depofited. Thus, for inftance, we
fee on the primitive granite mountains of the Hartz, not far
from Claufthal, a calcareous rock called the Hiibigenftein,
which conftitutes areef almoft entirely made up of corals,
which prove its having been formed at the bottom of the
ocean. Not lefs remarkable in this refpe& is the Hans-
kithnen-burg, a huge fand-ftone rock, on the high Bruch-
berg, one of the Hartz mountains, at an elevation which
precludes the idea of its having been produced at the fame
time with the younger fletz-fand-flone, from which it differs
alfo in its external chara&ters. Inthe fame manner, our au-
thor refers to the older fletz rocks thofe ftrata that are met
with on the declivities and inthe chafms of high primitive
mountains, at a greater elevation than the younger fletz
formation reaches ; and which were depofited foon after the
fummits of the primitive mountains were raifed above the
furface of the ocean. The fr/? of Voigt’s older fletz-rocks
is what he calls the old fand-/lone, the fame which has been
above alluded to, and which is totally differeut from that of
Werner, as we fhall fee hereafter. The old fand-ftone of
Voigtis of a much rougher nature than the common fletz
fand-ftone, and always occurs in very elevated fituations.
2. The principal coal formation, confidered by Werner as of
‘much later date. The geognoltic relation of this interelting
inflammable fubftance, much as has been written on it,-1s
ftill involved in obfcurity ; more recent obfervations appear,
however, to be in favour of Voigt’s ideas ref{peéting it.
3. Slate-clay (Schieferthon) nearly of the fame age with coal
and its fand-itone, it being found alternating with thefe latter,
and in general occurring under fimilar ctrcumftances. In
this rick are found the moft perfect impreflions of vegetables
which the earth produced in its primordial \tate ; mo!tly be+
longing to the arundinaceous and fern-tribe, the former of
which required nothing for their » owth bot water, the
latter nothing but naked rocks. 4. The rowz) lime-jlone, as
Mr. Voigt cails it, of yellowifh, aid fomctimes fmoke-grey
colour, coarfe grain, confiderable hardacls, aod deditute of

petrifaGions. It never occurs diftin€tly ftratified, but
generally as infulated amorphous maffes acd rocks in more
elevated fituations. The higheft maffles are {een at Reichl
in the foreft of Thuringia, where they reft on high porphyry
mountains; and lower down it frequently encompafles
thofe mountains in grotefque groups.of mafly rocks. Lafius
has defcribed the fame kind o! lime-ftone in his work on the
Hartz mountains. Some kinds of rocks, deferibed by pupils
of Werner, as tranfition lime-ftone, eppear to be tue fame
with the oldeft lime-ftone of Voigt.

From what has been faid, (ard from what remains to be
faid under the article Transirion-Rocxs), it appears
that, however the followers of different geological fyftems
may be agreed with regard to the nature of primitive and
fl-tz*mountains in general, their optuion will be found to
diverge at thofe points where adjoining diftin& formations,
by mutually borrowing of each other geognoftic and oryc-
tognoftic charaGters, baffle difcrimination, and caufe the-
orifts to draw lines of demarcation that are more or lefs
derived from hypothetical propofitions.

In order to illuflrate the different ftrata of the fletz
formation more generally acknowledged as iuch, we fhail
caft a view over the traG of country extending in an eattern
direGion, from the foreft mountains of Thuricgia to the
Hartz; and enumerate them in the order in which they
fucceed each other, according to the obfervations of Mr.
Voigt. This fuccefiion, however, -fheuld not be fuppofed
to prove exadtly the fame in all parts of the world: the
fat is, that cften entire ftrata, efpecially fubordinate ones,
are wanting without being {upplied by others, and fometimes
ftrata are fubftituted in their room that are foreign to
other countries, fuch as the vaft rock-falt ftratain Hungarys ”
Poland, the chalk in England, &c.

The ftrata, which almoft without interruption fill up the
{pace between the two above-mentioned ranges of moun-
tains, whofe diftance from each other is about twenty-two
miles, are the following: :

The old red fand flone of Werner, called by the miners
of Germany, das rothe Todt-liegende (2. e. the red dead
or barren rock). It occupies the loweft fitmation of all
the newer fletz rocks. In the Hartz it reits on grey-
wacke, one of the tranfition rocks of Werner, but re«
ferred by Voigt to the primitive. (See Grey-Wacks.)
Where this fand-ftone bafkets out it appears in pretty high
mountains, and often covers confiderabie tra¢ts of jand, as,
for inftance, at Eifenach, Eifleben in Manstieid, &c. It is
often difficult to diftinguifh ‘it from the’ newer fletz fand-
ftone, when not viewed in its conneGion with the forma-
tions that accompany it (fee Sanp-stoNne); but in’ general
itis much harder, and of acoarfer grain then ‘the latter,
often appearing as conglomerate; and its colour is ufually
brick and cochineal red, from which its nameis Gerived;
but is alfofound grey. The coarfe grained often zlternates
with fine grained varieties, in lzyers of various thicknefs.
Mr. Jaimefon infinuates-that, if the obfervations lately made
in Germany by Karften, Buch, and others, be corre&,
much of the red fand-ftone of England will be found ‘to
belong to thisald fand-ftone formation. This ftratum, in
the above-mentiuned tra of country, is regularly followed
by .
Bituminous Marl-Slaie, for the defcription of which, : fee
Maru-Suate, Bituminous.

The moft diftinG tins is drawn between this and the pre-
ceding itratum. It bears evident marks of being depofed
onthe old red fand-flone from a calm and undifturbed fluid.
Impreffions of fifhes are frequently feen in it, but none of -
vegetables.- It-is rich in metals, efpecially copper ore,

whence

ERXLiE2T Z

whence the appellation copper /late flctz ; fometimes the me-
tallic veins, thofe of copper and filver, penetrate through
the bituminous marl-flate to the furface of the old fand-ftone
ftratum underneath, which thus becomes metalliferous. (See
Sanp Ort.) The bituminous marl-flate is claffed by Werner
under his firit lime-ffone formation, as is likewife the

Zechflein, which refts on the preceding. This 1s.a coarfe
fplintery afh-grey compat lime-fone (in fome places it
approaches the nature of indurated marle); it does not pafs
over into the adjotning ftrata, but is feparated from them by
a marked line. Lt contairs nether b:tumen nor metals, ror
impreffions of fihes as the bituminous marl-flate, This
ftratum, and the two following, are wanting in fome parts of
the foreft of Thuringia, but their places are fupplied by a
bed of yellowifh-brown iime-ftone, accompanied by confider-
able beds of brown iron ftone, and containing a great quan-
tity of the petrifetion called Anomia gryphus. The zech-
Atein is fucceeded, upwards, by a ftratum of

Gypfum, called the firft fletz-gypfim by Werner. It is
compofed of granular and compact gypfum, ofa whrte and
grey colour, often variegated and veined, penetrated by
bitumen, and containing felenite, fibrous gypfum, ttink- tone,

&c.; but petrifactions are feldom found init. See Gypsum

Compaé, Granular.

By what chemical combination it happened that the
zechftein-{tratum, being a carbonate of lime, was imme-
diately fucceeded by a combination of lime with fulphurte
acid, is a queltion not eafily to be anfwered; but the cir-
cumfance is the more ftriking, as this fulpbAte is imme-
diately fucceeded by another carbonate, called

Stink-tone, a ftratum confidered by Werner as fubordinate
to his firtt feta. gypfum (See Stink-Srone.) On this
re{ts another,

Sand-flone, which appears to belong to the variegated or
fecond fand-ftone formation, as characterized by Werner.
Its colour is partly yellowifh-white, partly light grey-brown
and red. This is fucceeded by another ftratum of

Gypfum, being the fecond fletz-zypfum, which, though
in fome parts of Thuringiait affumes confiderable thicknefs,
is entirely wanting in others, as for inftence in the princi-
pality of Fulda. But a more conftant attendant on the
laft-mentioned fand-ftone is the fuperincumbent ftratum of

Clay, moftly of a brown-red colour, often intermixed
with other tints, fuch as light mountain-green and blueifh-
grey. Mr. Voigt obferves, that moft rivers of Thuringia,
Franconia, and Heffia have cut their way through the fletz
lime-ftones, through this reddifh clay and the gypfum (where
they met with it) down to the lait-mentioned {and-ftone ; and
in moft low grounds and valleys of thofe countries, the arable
land confifts almoft entirely of that clay, which, though
unfavourable to vegetation in its pure ftate, becomes
the moft fertile foil when mixed with fand, gypfum, and
lime, as is the cafe in the neighbourhood of Erfurt, and
in feveral other parts of Thuringia.

The common clay belongs partly to the alluvial, partly
to the fletz formation, and principally to that fub-divifion
of the latter called the neweft flctz trap formation by the
Wernerian fchool. The uppermoft ftratum, and the molt
confiderable next to fand-ftone, is

Fieiz-lime-flone. Like the fand-fone, and almoft all other
rocks of the fletz formation, it is compofed of feveral ftrata,
each conttituting a different variety of compact lime-ftone.
Thofe of Thuringia, according to Mr. Voigt, are, 1. A
compaé lime-{fone of yellowilh-white or blueifh-grey colour,
of even and earthy freQure, wrought asa marble at Weimar.
Except cornua ammonis, few petrifaGtions are found in it;

but often inditin€, vermiaular, and ferpentine elevations
are difcovered on the planes of its principal frafture. 2. A
Nght afh-grey limestone, entirely compafed of fmail petrified
pectinites, and called by the provincial rame of toad-eye.
3. A light afh-grey fplintery \ime-ftone, with here and there
fome p-trifa@tion, and alfo containing nodules of grey flint,
whieh, however, on account of its fraéture not being con-
choidal, does not anfwer the purpof= of making gun-flints of.
(See Frirr, Gun-Puint.) 4. Comp-& lime-fone, ap-
parently compofed of irregu’arly cubic fragmenta, into
which it feparates on being {truck upon; it is by far the
moft common varicty in thofe parts. 5. Lamellar lime-
flone, fife into thin leyers; only found in the vicinity of
Jena by proftffor Voiz:. Thefe five layers, conftituting the
above fl-tz lime-ftone ftrata, ‘ollow each other, though in
irregular fucceffin, The whole formation correfponds with
that of the fecond fletz or hell lime-ftone of Werner, fo
called from containing a great nuxber of petrified fhells,
but feldom any other fecondary foffils; thouzh in the upper
of the beds ali> petrifections of fithee, crabs, vermicutites,
&c, are frequently met with. It is in this lime-ftone that
mo!t caverns are found containing remains of land animals.
Various diftin@ lim--ftone formations are probably included -
m this; but the obfervations of well-informed travellers on
this fubjedt are as yet too feanty and imperfeé to be turned
to account by the geolowilt.

Mr, Werner has adopted twelve formations in the clafs of
the fletz rocks, 1, Firtt or old red fand-itone, 2. Firtt
or oldeit fletz-lime-itone. 3, Firft or olde filctz-gypfum,
4. Second or variegated fand-ftone. 5. Second Aetz-
gypfum. 6. Second fl-tz or thell lime-ftone. 7. Third
fi:tz fand-ftone. §. Rock-falt formation. g. Chatk form.
ation, 10. Fietz-trap formation. 11. Independent coal
formation. 12. Neweft fletz-trap formation,

The principal of thefe formations being illuftrated by the
above feries of ftrata in Thuringia, we fhall here add a few
words on thofe that are not found in that diftri@. FFirft,
with regard to the fecond of Werner’s formation it is to be
obferved, that in feveral countries a {tratum of porous grey
lime-ftone is found fubordinate to it, called rauch wacke,
which is wanting in that part of Thuringia; and the fame
is the cafe with roe-flone, confidered as {ubordinate to the
fourth of Werrer’s formations, and of which confiderable
{trata are feen in other countries, though it does not appear
to conftitute an independent formation. ‘The feventh forme
ation, being the third flctz fand-ftone, is reprefented by the
commentators on Werner’s arrangement as a very extenfive
one; but its geognoltic relations do not appear to be fuffi-
ciently determined. It is fuppofed to be of much newer
origin than the other preceding fand-ftone formations ; it
exhibits many traces of coal ; is con{tantly of a white colour,
and as negative characters are given its not containing
any clay-galls, or gypfum, its not alternating with fand-
{tone flate, or roe-ftone, The hills formed by this fand-ftone
have a peculiar appearance: they are conical and fteep, and
exhibit in the varioufly {haped and arrauged mafles of which
they are compofed, a ftriking feene. ‘ One of the moft
ftriking appearances of this kiud,’”? fays Mr. Jackfon, ** is
at Andernaeh in Bohemia, where we obferve numberlefs
cones, pyramids, and pillars, fometimes ifolated, fometimes
joined together, and from two to three hundred feet high,
{preading over a confidevable tra€t of country. In other
places, Caverns or grottos appear, from which there iffue
many ftreams, that give rife to waterfalls, and thus inereafe
the beauty of this ftriking feene. Thefe caverns are wide
at the mouth, but become very narrow towards their farther
extremity, and are generally very fhort. This form fhews,

that

es

ere Bo Lee

that they owe their exifterce to external agents, particu-
Jarly water. A more near exemination difcovers, that the
feams of the ftrata of the different ifelated mzfles correfpond
to ezch other, which renders it probable that all thefe cones,
pyramids, and pillars, have heen formerly united, end that
the perpencicular rerts or fifi:res have given rife to this
‘difunion, which has been efterwards increafed by the 200
of the air, and by the water carrying away tie fofter or
‘more lecfely agaregated parts of th favd-flone, aud kaving
the harder perts in thefe varicus forms. A: fimilar apprar-
ance of fard-{ftone occurs near ‘junis; and, frem its ftrikiae
refemblance to ruins, is delcribed os the remains of a great
city, by fome travellers who faw it at a diflance. In
the land ot the Namaquas in fouthern Africa, and on the
‘banks of the Wo'ga, there are fimiler :pocerances. This
formation paffes through S:xony, Lufatiz, into Silefia and
Bohemia, and ts wrapped around almott the whole of the
Ricfen-Gcbirge.”

An excellent chara@terittic of this fand-ftone formation,
as it appears in Bohemia, we poffeis from the able pen of
Dr. Reufs.

_ Another formatior; not in the above feries of Thurirgian
fletz rocks, nor, indeed. abundantly met with in many parts
of Germany, is the rock-falt formation. It generally occurs
with the firtt fletz-gypfum ; and in the territory of Salines of
Upper Auttria may be confidered 2s fubordinate to the
firft fletz limelton-, the princ‘pal formation of that country.
It is almoft coultan:ly accompanied by beas of that clay
called by Humboldt /a/t-clay, which being a variety bat
little underftood, we hall here add Bueh’s defcription
‘of that occurring at Halftadt, Wchel, &c. in the jult-
‘mentioned Auttrian territory. Its colour is {moke-grey,
_and it alfo occurs greyifh-black and greyith-white, more (el-
dom reddifh-brown acd tile-red, It is perfeétly dull, but
always mixed with minute glimmering faline particles;
fra&ture fiae earthy, and in large pieces, flat conchoidal ;
fragments indeterminately angular. It is perfectly opaque,
does not foil, is foft, approaching to very foft, rather auc-
tile, and not particelerly heavy. Its flrezk is light afh-prey.
This clay ts faid +o become of a darker colour when expofed
to the air, which is the more fingular, as, according to
Humboiet’s experiments, it eagerly abforbs the oxygen of
theatmofphere. It is quite penetrated by falt ; and the fmall
angular fragments, approaching more or kfs to the cubical
ferm, are often fecn coated with a cruft of faline particles.
Rock-falt is genera ly found in huge mafl<s, in low parts be-
tween mountains, or at their foot, fuch as in Trenlyivania ;
though vatt depofitions of it alfo cccur in hizh Situations,
fuch as at the foot of the elevated range of mountains
which, to the north-weft from Tibet, encompafles Cachemire ;
a fituation equally clevated with a great part of the European
Alps. For a more detailed account of this interetting
formation, fee the article Rock Salt.

The feventh of Werner’s fletz tormations, that of cha/k,
is but little underitood with regard to its geognoftic relation:
all we know is, that its occurrence in low fituations on the fea
coalt, where it forms high and rugged cl'ffs, and its earthy

-alpeét, befpeak its more recentorigw. In England it occurs
in confiderable ftrata, f.rming cliffs and high mopotains.
Wedo not know much of its occurrence-in Germany ; itis,
however, faid to be found at Luneburg, ahernatung with thin
ftrata of clay. Chalk contains no metals except fome iron

*. ores, and but few petri‘: Gions have been found in tt; but

the nodules of flint imbedded in this rock are almolt cha-
racteriltic of it. See Print. :
As to the eleventh or independent coal formation, we
have already had occafion to mention itas. one of Mr. Voigt’s
Vor. XIV.

older fletd-rocks. We fhall here adda few words on- Mr.
Werner’s coal formation in general. According to Em-
mer.ing, who gives us an expofition of the Wrrnerian fyf-
fem, the coa!-meuntains (Kohlen gebirge) are to be divided
into four diflin& formations: to the cldelt belorg the coal
{trata occurring in fictz-lime-flone, 2s, for inftance, thefe of
the Bratenberg, near Kratigest, on the Thuner fea. Younger
thar this, bunt of the fame age with one of the newer fand-
{tone formations, is the indeperderct coal formation: of
fill more recent origin ts the coal which is fuberdinate to the
trap formation: and the newelt of all is that contained
in alluvial mountains. Mr. Jamefon, cn the other hena,
informs us that Werner has afcertained three difi-nét
formations, without including the beds of cecal found 1a
fand-ftone and lime-ftone formations, which latter, he fays,
are in general of no importance. Accordizg to thet new
arrangement, therefore, the independent coal formation is
the oldeft; the fecond is that of the neweft fletz-trap forma-
tion; ard the third, that which occurs tn alluvial land.
Again, according to later accounts, it is underftood that
Mr. Werner has adcpted another arrancement of that forma-
tion which approaches to that of Karften, who makes the
independent coal formatitn dependent on the clder fand-
ftone, and that of the lime-flone fubordinate to the fit
fl.tz, or Alpine lime-ftone. From th-fe frequent changes
it weuld appear that the hiftory of the different formations
of coal and their relatyve age are {till involved in confiderable
darkrefe. What is known with certainty amourts, we fup-
pofe, to this, that coal is of early as well as of late formation;
the former is found under the older fand-tione, fometimes
even refting on primitive rocks; the latrer, on the newer
fand-{tone in the vicinity of the rocks that belong to Wer-
ner’s younger flctz-trap formation. We are happy to find
that Mr. Jamefon has promifed to pub!ifh the refults of his
obf{crvations on the relation in which thefe formations of
coa) ftand to the other fletz-rocks; and, indeed, many
doubts remaia to be cleared up refp: ting the determination
of this point, as well as of many others intimately connected
with the natural hiftory of thofe important mineral depo-
fitions.

The laft of Werner’s formations of fletz-rocks is called
the newett fletz-trap formation, comprifing prigcipally thofe
enigmatous maff-s, known by the pames of bafalt, por.
phyry flite, wacke, and amygdaloid; rocks which, though
they contain no oryanic remains, cannot be ranked with the
priaitive, fince they rett both on thefe and the fletz-moun-
tains; rocks which are confidered by many gevlogiils as
the principal produéts of volcanic: agency, but which, ac-
cording to Werner, are the refults of a deluge. or fudden
vife of the waters at a more recent period than that in which
the other fictz-rocks were formed. Belides the jult-men-
tioned, the following rocks are referred to this formation:
green-tone, grey-ftone, pitch-ftone, compet feld{par, ob-
fidian, pumice; and thoie that are mechj»tcal depofitions,
viz. gravel, fand, bituminous wooed, brown coal, clay, and
trap-tuf ; to which articles we refer our readers, as likewife to

athe article Trap,

For further remarks on the fubjeét of fictz frata, and on
the order.in which they fucceed cach other in various parts
of the world, fee Srrara.

Not wnconneSed with the hiftory of the {rata of fletz-
mountains are th fe remarkable appearsnces well known to
the miners under the appeliations of //ips, /eifts, or faults.
They. are dillacations that have happened to the ftrata,
after being divided by vertical fiflures; the oppolite fides of
the fifures, which ave gewerally fillkd up, do no longer cor-
refpond, the ftrata of the one being either above or below

4M thofe

ELE

thofe of the other fide, with which they were conne&ed
before the difturbance took place. See the articles Sur
and VEIN. %

FLEUKAN, Frooxan, in Mining, denotes rubble

and unconfolidated earth concained between the fides of

ftrata vertically divided by a fiflure and diflocated. See
Surp and VEIN.
FLEUR-DE-LIS, Frevrerre!’, Jleuronné, and

Fleury, in Heraldry. See Frory. :

FLEURENCE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Gers, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Le&toure, feated on the Gers; 4 miles
S. of LeGtoure. N. lat.43° 51! E. long.o? 15° The
place contains 3,021, and the canton 12,159 inhabitants,
on a territory of 300 kiliometres, in 22 communes.

FLEURIEU, Care, a cape on the W. coaft of
North America, fo called by Peroufe. It is fuppofed to
be the fame with that which captain Dixon called Cape
Cox. Nolat. 51° as5/.° W.long. 128? 55%.

FLEURTIS, a termin French Mufic, now obfolete.
It implied florid counterpoint, fuch as is not note againit
note, but compounded of notes of different value and pro-
portion as to meafure. It likewife implied the graces or
ornaments of a melody when toofimple. See Baopverirs,
Dovs.es, Variarions, and PassaGces.

FLEURUS, or Frorus, in Geography, avillageof France,
in the department of the Sombre and Meufe, remarkable
for having been the place near which three battles were
fought, viz. the firft Augult 1c, 1622, the fecond between
the allies and the French, and the third between the
Auftrians and the French, in June 1794, in which the
former were defeated with great lofs; 6 miles N. E. of
Charleroy. ,

FLEURY, Anprew-Herecures re, in Biography,
cardinal and prime minifter of France, was born ti 1653.
He was educated at Paris in the Jefuits’ college, and
became, ata proper age, canon of Montpellier, and doétor
of the Sorbonne. Poflefling an agreeable perfon, and thofe
manners that never fail to reéommend a man at court, he
obtained the poft of almoner to the queen, and afterwards
to the kiag. In 1698, he was nominated to the bifhopric
of Frejus, when Lewis XIV. paid him a high compli-
ment; “ I have made you waita long time,’’ faid the
monarch, ** but you have fo many friends, that I was
defirous you fhould be obliged for your advancement to no
one but myfelf.”? Fleury, however, was not always plealed
with his fituation, the diocefe was in a diitant and dif-
agreeable country, and he became difgufted, probably, for
the want of that kind of fociety which was conformable to
his withes. Ina letter to a friend he fubferibed himfelf,
« Fleury, by divine indignation, bifhop of Trejus.””? He
neverthelefs held the {ee many years, and on one occafion,
when the allies under the duke of Savoy and prince
Eugene made anirruption into France, the bifhop, by his
prudent conduct and engaging manners, faved his city and
its neighbourhood from pillage, and perfuaded the generals
to be contented with a moderate contribution. He was
nominated by the will of Lewis XIV. preceptor to his
fucceffor, the young king, with whom he fo completely
ingratiated himfelf, as to infpire him with a profound
efteem and attachment. Nor was he lefs anxious to pay
his eourt to the marfhal Villeroy, the king’s governor,
and to the regent the duke of Orleans, by the moft refpect-
fal demeanor. "The regent would have conferred upon him
the archbifhopric of Rheims, but he refufed that iplendid

romotion, dreading, perhaps, that it might be a pretext

er removing him —_ the perfon of the king. At the

FLE

death of the regent, it was through his recommendation
that the duke of Bourbon was appointed prime minifter,
though in truth it was Fleury who governed, by means of
the influence which he poffeffed over the king’s mind. This
was put to the trial, when the duke, urged by his miftrefs,
attempted to exclude the bifhop from his private confulta-
tions with the king. Fleury immediately retired, and wrote
to his fovereign a iter filled with exprefiions of tendernefs

‘and regret, the effe@ of which was fuch, that it was im-

poffible to pacify the king, till he was recalled and reftored
to his prefence. From this time Fleury became’ chief
minifter, without afluming the title and apparent funétions
which pointed out the premier. He was created cardinal
in 1726, and at the age of feventy-three devoted the remains
of hte, which had hitherto. challenged the public efteem,
to the ungrateful toils that attend minilterial power, and at
a period when the moft ambitious are ready to feek repofe,
he avowediy entered the lifts of fame. ‘The fpinit of his
adminiltration was economy in the public revenue, and the
prefervation of peace. The pacitic difpofition of this
great man correfponded with the immediate welfare of
Vranee, and he quictly left the kingdom to repair its lofles,
aud to enrich itfelf by an advantageous and extenfive com-
merce, without making any innovations. This tranquil
and u enterprizing difpofition was not calculated to gain
the ref{peét of a nation like the French, who have ever been
more defirous of being thought great, than anxious to be
really profperous. Peace the cardinal could not always
attain, but he terminated in three years the war of 1733
with the emperor Charles VI., and obtained for France
the important acquifition of Lorraine. In the year
174!', Frederic JI1., king of Pruffia, laid claim to four
duchies in Silefia; he fuddenly entered that country, defeated
the Auftrians near Molwitz, aud occupied the whole of
the duchy. This vitory was the fignal for war to France;
but Fleury, now in his eighty-fifth year, was but little
inclined to relinquifh the pacific fyftem that he adored,
but he was overwhelmed by the impetuofity of the mare-
{chal and chevalier de Belleifle, who reprefented to Lewis
that the period was now arrived of finally breaking the
power of the houfe of Auftria, and exalting that of Bour-
bon on isruins; and that fo favourable an opportunity
never again would offer of raifing the eleétor of Bavaria
to the imperial throne. The monarch affented, and car-
dinal Fleury, tottering on the brink of the grave, yet itill
defirous of keeping his power, fan@ioned with his name
an enterprize he had never approved, and confented to
prefide over a people whofe councils he was not permitted
to dire&t. This war embittered the clofe of his life,
which, however, by habitual temperance and natural
cheerfulnefs, was protracted to nearly his ninetieth year,
He died in 1743, and was buried in the church of the
Louvre at the king’s expence. In private life he was
fimple and modeit, content witha moderate income, and.
remote equally from avarice and oitentation. Moreri.
Hiftoire de France.

Fieury, Craupe, was born at Paris in the year 1640.
His father was an efteemed advocate, and he intended his
fon for the fame profeffion. Claude, indeed, was admitted
an advocate of the parliament of Paris in the year 1658,
and from this period, for the next nine years, he diligently
applied himfelf to the ftudy of jurifpradence, and the
belles lettres; after this he determined to embrace the
ecclefiaftical ftate. To forward himfelf in this new courfe
he attended the conferences which the celebrated Bofluet
held at his houfe on the feriptures, and on fubjeéts. of
religion aud literature. During his interviews with this

excel.

FLE

excellent man he tranflated his well-known work, entitled,
* The Expofition of the Catholic Doéttine.”” Fleury
foon acquired a high charaGter for abilities and literature,
while he was equally the object of refpe&t for his piety
-and virtues. In the year 1672, he was chofen preceptor
to the princes of Conti, and afterwards fuftained the fame
chera&er with refpeét to the count de Vermandois, the
favourite natural fon of Lewis XIV. In the year 1689,
the king fixed upon him as the fitteit perfon to be aflociated
with the great Fenelon in the education of his legitimate
offspring, and made him fub-preceptor to his grandfons,
the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry. Ina the year
1696, he was admitted a memy:r of the Krench academy,
at the meetings of which he affifted as often as his other
duties and engagements would permit. He had not been
overlooked by the king in church preferment ; but being
a very diftinterefted man, he was content with compara-
tively fmall emolument, and fought nothing fer himfelt
_till the priory of Argenteuil became vacant, which, from
its proximity to Paris, offered a commodious retreat for
fludy within reach of defirable fources of affiftance and
information. This benefice the abbé Fleury obtained from
the king without difficulty ; at the fame time he refigned
an abbacy irto the fovereign’s hands which he had held
before. In his retreat at Argerteuil he continued till the
year 1716, when he was drawn out of it by the duke of
Orleans, the regent of the kingdom, after the death of
Lewis XIV. to occupy the place of confeflor to the
young king. His own infirmities, and the intrigues of
the Jefuits, obliged him to refign his eflicesin the year
1722, and in the following year he died, leaving behind him
a charatter eitimable for extenfive learning, firm and nice
integrity, tree modefty and candour, great purity and
fimplicity of manners, and ardent and unaffected piety.
He was’author of numerous works of merit, but his mott
confiderable and important, the fruit of thirty years ftudy,
was his Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, in 20 vols. 12mo., of which
the firft was publifhed in the year 1691, and the Jatt in
the year previoufly to his death. This work has been pub-
lithed fince his death in 13 vols. gto. It contains the
hiflory of the Chriftian church, from the earlielt times to
the council of Conftance in 1414: his faéts are collected
with great induftry and impartiality from the beft autho-
tities, and they are, in general, combined in a fimple and
unornamented ftyle. Moreri. Hift. de France.

Fievury, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loiret ; 2 miles N. of Orleans.—Alfo, a
tewn of France, in the department of the fliaits of Calais ;
4 miles N.W. of St. Pol.

- FLEWS, in Rura/ Economy, a name fometimes provin-
cially applied to the phlemes employed in bleeding
cattle.

FLEXIBLE, in Phy/ics, is applied to bodies that are
capable of being bent, or changed from their natural form
and direétion. °

A body is not capable of being infle&ted or bent, unlefs
the whole thereof be at reft. In bending a body, it con-
ftitutes, as it were, two levers; and the point it is to be
bent in, is a fulcrum; hence, as 4 moving power, the
farther it is from the fulcrum, it acquires a greater force ;
the longer the flexible body is, the eatier it is bent.

FLEXION, in dnaiomy, the act of bending, or the
attitude into which any part of the body is brought by the
action of the flexor muicles. When the parts compoling
an articulation are fo fituated with refpeét to each other,
as to form one {traight line, the joint is faid to be extended ;
when they are moved fo as to form an angle with each other

FLE

it is bent. Some joints, as thofe of the hip, knee, end
elbow, admit of being bent only in one direGtion ; and from
this bent attitude, they can be moved in the oppofite
courfe only fo far as to bring the two parts of the limb into
the fame ftraight line. In other cafes, as at the wrift, mo-
tion is almoft equally free in both dire&tions, from the atti-
tude in which the limb defcribes a ftraight line. Yet here
the term flexion is confined to one of thefe motions; and
the othet is called extenfion, although the joiat 1s not then
ftraight.

FLEXOR, a name given to thofe mufcles, particularly
of the wnft, fingers, and toes, which have the- office of
bending thofe organs: they ave the autagonifls ef the ex-
tenfors.

Frexor brevis minimi digiti manus; flexor proprius ;
flexor pa vus, Alb.; carpo-metacarpien. This is fometimes
wanting, abd in all cafes it isa very {mall mufele. It arifes
from the annular ligament and os unciforme, is fituated at
the fide of the abdudior minimi digiti, and inferted in com-
pany with it into the outer and anterior part 6f the firil
phalanx of the little finger. It is covered by the fkin, and
by the palmaris brevis, and covers the addu¢tor offis meta-
carpi minimidigiti. It will bend the firit phalanx of the
little finger on the metacarpus.

Fiexor brevis minimi digiti pedis 5 }
Winflow ; tarfo-phalangien du petit orteil. This muicle,
fituated within the abduétor minimi digiti, has an elongated
form, and is thicker in the midcle than at,the two extremi-
ties. Itis attached, by means of aponeurotic fibres, to the
under furface of the tarfal extremity of the laft metatarfal
bone, and to the fheath of the peroneus magnus. Ad-
vancing forwards, it firft increafesin fize, and then dimi-
nifhes again, and is fived to the metatarfal extremity of the
firft phalanx of the little toe, adhering clofely to the joint.
It is covered by the abduétor, and by the palmar fafcia ;
while its fuperior furface correfponds to the laft metatarfal
bone, and to the interofleous mufcle of the little toe. It
bends the little toe on the metatarfus. ;

Vrexor, Carpi radialis brevior

Erexor, Carpi radialis longior

Flexor, Carpi radialis ulnaris

FLexor brevis pollicis manus ; thenar of Winflow ; carpo-
phalangien ; is a. fhort mufcle belonging to the ball of the
thumb, and placed within the opponens pollicis. It has
two origins, ore from the annular ligamert and os trape-
zium, the other from the os magnum and the third metacar-
pal bone. The two flefhy portions of which it confifts
run parallel to the metacarpal bone of the thumb, and unite
at the oppofite end, ftill leaving a channel between them for
the tendon of the flexor longus. It is inferted into the
two fefamoid bones of the thumb, being connected to the
abdu&or and adductor mufcles of this organ. The abdu€tor
pollicis, the fkin, the tendon of the flexor longus, that of
the flexor profundus, and the two firft lumbricales, cover this
mufcle externally. It covers the tirft metacarpal bone, the
tendon of the flexor carpi radialis, and the firft interoffei,
This mufcle will bend the articulation between the metacar-
pal bone and the firft phalanx of the thumb; and it will
alfo draw the metacarpal bone gowards the carpus.

Fvexor brevis pollicis pedis ; flexor brevis pollicis ; thenar;
tarfo-phalangien du pouce ; is a fhort and thick mufele, fim-
ple behind, and bifurcated in front, and placed on the infe-
rior furface of the firft metatarfal bone. It arifes by a
flattened, but clearly marked tendon, from the under furface
of the os calcis and two of the cuneiform bones, and the
ligaments which join thefe. It is alfo attached to the
plantar faicia, where that covers the flexor brevis digitorum

aM-2 pedis,

bd
pirathenas minor of

See Carri.

WL Ex Ome.

pedis, and the abduétor pollicis. The flefhy fibres, colled-
ed into a thick fafciculus, marked below witha groove fof
the tendon of the flexor longus, proceed forwards to the
sveat toe, and are inferted in two divifions. The inner and
larzeft, clofely connected to the abductor, is fixed with it
by tendinous fibres to the internal fefamoid bone, and to
the correfponding extremity of the firft phalanx. ‘The
external, which is {maller, is fixed tothe external fefamoid
bone. Botliare clofely attached to the fynovial membrane

f the articulation, which joins the great toe to the firlt
metatarfal bone. Its upper furface is covered by the firlt
metatarlal bone, and by the tendon of the peroneus longus 5
its under furface reits on the tendon of the flexor longus and
the plantar fafcia. By beuding the great toe at its meta-
tarfal articulation, this mufcle contributes to render the fole
of the foot concave.

Flexor digitorum pedis accefforius.
rum pedis longus. ;

T'Lexor digitorum fublimis ;fublimis, Alb.; flexor perfora-
tus ; epitrochlo-phalanginien ; fléchiffeur digital fuperficiel.
This mufcle is thick, elongated, and flattened. It arifes,
iit, by means of the common tendon, from the internal
condyle of the humerus, and then from the éorrefponding
lateral ligament, and from the coronoid procefs of the ulna,
by fhort aponeurotic fibres; 2dly, froma feptum which
feparates it from the flexor carpi ulnaris ; 3dly3 by tendi-
nous fibres from a confiderable portion of the front edge of
the radius, between the fupinator brevis and the flexor polli-
cislongus; 4thly, from feptawhich feparate it from the flexor
¢arpi radialis and palmaris longus. From the origin juft
enumerated, a thin portion of mufcular fibres 1s produced ;
but the mufcle grows thicker towards its middle, runs ina
direétion parallel to the bones of the fore-arm, and divides
into four flefhy portions, correfponding to the four fingers 5
of which, the two belonging to the middle fingers are the
moft fuperficial, and thofe of the fore and little fingers
the moft deeply feated ; the latter is the fmalleft. Thefe
end in tendons. proportioned to their bulk ; which are com-
pletely difengaged from the mufcular fibres at the annular
ligament. The four tendons, connected together in the
manner which will be prefently explained, pafs in the
deep channel formed by the annular ligament, in front of
the tendons.of the profundus, feparate as they proceed, and
continue their courle towards the fingers under the palmar
fafcia., ‘They become broader aud thinner, enter the tendi-
vous thece of the fingers, and each prefents, at the com-
mencement of the fheath, a concavity adapted to the cor-
refpond.ing tendon of the flexor profundus. As the ten-
don paffes over the firit phalanx, it divides into two por-
tions, which feparate to allow the paffage of the tendon of
the profundus, then unite together behind that tendon, fo
as to form a channel, with its concavity in front, lodging the
tendon of the profundus ; and afterwards feparate again to
be implanted; diftin€tly from each other, in the lateral and
anterior margins of the fecond phalanx.

Thus each tendon is firft concave pofteriorly, where it
Ves on the tendon of the profundus ; then prefeuts a large
fit for the paffage of the Jatter ; is afterwards concave an-
teriorly, from the two fides of the flit uniting below, and
then ezds by a double infertion in the bone.

“On the fore-arm, the pofterior furface of this mufcleis in
contaét with the profurdus, the flexor longus pollicis, and
the median. nerve; while its anterior furface is covered by
the pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus,
and the fafcia of the jore-arm. It covers the profundus and
lumbricales in the haad, andis covered by the annular liga-
ment and palmar fafcia. In the fibrous theath of the fingers,

See Frexor diito-

it is placed firft between the fheath aud the tendon of the
profundus, and lower down between the latter and th
bone. =
Friexor disitorum profundus ; profundus, Alb,; flexor pere
forans ; cubitu-fous-ouguien ; fiéchifleur digital profond,

This mufcle is fituated in the forearm, under the former, .

which it very muchrefembles. It isthick, flattened,elongated
in its form, flelhy above, and tendinous below. It arifesy.

‘rit, from the aponeurofis extended from the flexor carpi ul-

naris tothe ulna, and from the inner furface of that boue’
in one-third of its length; 2dly, from the anterior furface
of the bone for three-fourths of its length, next to the el-
bow,-and from the corre iponding portion of the interof-
feous ligament, by apondurotic fibres. Smaller at its ori-
gin, it {wells inthe middie, and diminithes again, dividing
into four more or lefs ciltin& portions, terminated by four
tendons, which are at firft concealed by the flefhy fibres,
but become entirely difengaged at the annular ligament,
where they are clofely conneéted by cellular fubftance.
They pals in the deep channel of the ligament, behind thofe
of the flexor fublimis, fepar te as they proceed into the
hand, give origin to the lumbricales, enter the tendinous:
fheaths, perforate the tendons of the flexor fublimis, and
lie in the channels formed on the anterior furfaces of the
two firlt phalanges, ach tendon terminates in a flightly
flattened form, by an infertion in the anterior furface of the
lalt phalanx.

In the fore-arm this mufcle is covered by the flexor carpi
radialis, the flexor fublimis, the median and ulnar nerves,
and the radial artery ; and it covers the furface of the ulna,
the interofleous ligament, and the pronator quadratus.
The bones of the carpus and metacarpus, and the interoflei
mufcles, lie behind it in the hand ; and the lumbricales and’
tendons of the fublimis are before it. In the fingers, its
tendons lie on the bones, being covered by the tendons of
the fublimis and the fibrous fheaths. It is furnifhed with
certain fynovial membranes, common to it with the pre-
ceding mutcle.

The annular fynovial Membrane.—On cutting the annular
ligament of the hand, and lifting up the fubjacent packet of
tendons, we obferve a cavity terminated by a cul-de-fac
above and below, and formed by a membrane, which en-
velops the tendons of the flexor fublimis and profundus of
the flexor longus pollicis, and the median nerve ; and whicly
is fpread over the furface of the annular ligament and the
carpal ligaments. ‘This membrane conneéts all the parts
into one fafciculus, fends numerous folds between them, is
very foft and yielding, but contains fo little fynovia, that
a doubt may be entertained whether it fhould properly be
regarded as a fynovial membrane. Yet its office and ufe
are exaétly the fame as thofe of the burfe mucofe ; it en-
ables the tendons to play eafily in the channel of the annular
ligament. ‘The latter part confines the tendons in their
proper fituation ; they would otherwife ftart up from the
wrilt when the hand is bent on the fore-arm, and deferibe
a of aa are formed by the fore-arm, writ, and.
rand. ;

Synovial Membranes and fibrous Sheaths of the Fingers.—
Thefe membranes are expanded on the tendons of the two-
flexor mufeles juft deferibed, and on a, canal containing
them, formed partly of bone, and partly of a ftrong fibrous:
fubftance. The auterior concave furface of the phalanges,
and the front of their articulations, form the bon . portion:
of the canal. The fibrous part is a deufe flroag (fae at-
tached to the fides of the bony channel, and terminating”
below by a conneétion to the flexor profundas. Thus the:
cavity ends in a-cul-de-fac.. The fheath is very thick and:

ftrong

————

———————— a

PLEX OR

flrone at the middle of the firft and fecond phalanges, and
compofed of femicircular fibres of cartilaginous firmnefs ;
the refl is weaker, and compofed of decuflating fibres. A
{ynovial membrane lines this cavity, and is reflected at its
commencement over the tendons, fo as to form here alfo a
cul-de-fac. The tendons are completely unconneéted in
this fheath, being lubricated, as well as the containing
cavity, by’a fynovial fluid: there are, however, one or two
flender vafcular threads going from the fheath to the ten-
don. The ufe of this ficath is the fame with that of the
annular ligament, viz. to confine the tendons in their fitua-
tion. When it is divided in the dead fubjeét, and the
mufcles are drawn fo as to bend the fingers, the tendons
immediately ftart up from the bones. As they move con-
fiderably within the canal during the motions of the fiugers,
the neceflity of the parts being lubricated by fynovia is ob-
vious. No fimilar apparatus belongs to the extenfor mufcles
of the fingers; becaufe thofe members cannot be moved in
that dire&tion beyond the point at which they form ftraight
lines with the hand, and their extenfor tendons do not con-
fequently admit of difplacement ; which would be prevent-
ed too by the attachment of the lumbricales and interoffei
to thofe tendons. At the wrift thesextenfor tendons are
confined as well as the flexors; becaufe the hard can be
moved in this direétion beyond the ftraight line, and the
tendons wonld be fubject to ftart from the bones.

~ The lumbricales mufcles are fmall, flender, and elongated
mufcular fafciculi, fo named from a comparifon to earth-
worms. Their number is four, and they are defignated by
numerical epithets, counting from the thumb to the little
finger. ‘They are placed in the palm of the hand, and de-
rive their origin from the tendons of the profundus. The
firft arifes from the anterior and radial fide of the firft ten-
don, and the fucceeding ones from the bifurcations of the
tendons, fo that each of the latter has an attachment to two
tendons. ‘They accompany the tendons towards the fin-
gers; are fmall at firft, then grow larger, and afterwards
contract again, and end at the firft phalanx in {mall flat.
tened tendons. Thefe turn round the articulation, which
joins the metacarpus to the phalanges, and go towards the
back of the fingers. The expanded tendons are conneéted
to thofe of the ititeroffei, and are joined by a broad furface
to the edge of the extenfor tendons. They then run along
the fide of the finger, and terminate by an infertion at the
back of thethird phalanx. The firft lumbricalis runs along
the radial fide of the fore-finger; and the fucceeding ones
hold the fame relation to the other fingers. The middle or
the ring-finger may have a lumbricalis on each fide, and
then the little finger has none. ‘They are covered by the
flexor fublimis, the palmar fafcia, the digital nerves and
veffels, and lie upon the interoffei mafcles. In the fingers
~ tendon covers the phalanges, and is covered by tlie
ikin. ;

The flexor fublimis and profundus, and the laumbricales,
are flexors of the three joints of the fingers: the firft bend-
ing the middle joint; the fecond, the laft jot; and the
third, the fittt or that which conneéts the Metacarpus to
the firft phalanges. When the two firlt have produced
their effet upon the articulations to which they belong,
they have the further power of bending the firft joint, con-
eurvifig in this office with the lumbricales. Since the latter
mufeles turn round the firft joints, and run afterwards along
the back of the phalanges, being confined in their fituations

their connection to the extenfor tendons, they will ex-
tend the fecond and third joints, although they are placed
in'the palm of the hand: tor their peculiar courfe alters the
dire@ion of the force. It is neceffery, in order to the
flexion of the fuft joints by the lumbricales, that the flexor

profundus fhould be in aGtion; that its tendons may be
fixed, fo as to afford a firm point, to which the lumbricales
may move the fingers. Hence, where all the three joints
are bent, asin clenching the fift, in grafping a ftick, &c,
the middle and laft are bent firtt, and afterwards the firit.
The latter, however, may be bent, while the others are
kept itraight; but this requires a painful effort. Here,
the flexor profundus is put in a€tion, and the extenfor com-
munis alfo contraéts, to prevent the fingers from being
bent. By feeling in the fore-arm, we can afcertain that
both the flexors and extenfors are exerted on this occafion,
and the effort is attended with confiderable pain. Thus a
fixed point is produced for the aétion of the lumbricales.
The fublimis and profundus, after bending the fingers, or
if the fingers are kept extended, will concur very powerfully,
with the flexors of the carpus, in bending the wrift. As
they arife chiefly from the inner fide of the fore-arm, they
will alfo co-operate in turning the palm towards the ground,
or producing the ftate of pronation. Inafmuch as any cf
their fibres are derived from the humerus, they will have
the power of bending the elbow joint. We cannot avoid
noticing, even on the mott fuperficial examination, the great
fuperiority in bulk of the flexors over their antagoniits the
extenfors of the fingers. The fablimis or profundus alone
contains twice or three times as many fibres as the extenfor
communis ; and this difpreportion becomes itill more ftnk-
ing, when we obferve that the internal condyle, from which
the flexor mufcles arife, is very prominent, fo as to give
them a mechanical advantage.in their action. The bending
of the fingers is employed on many occafions, which require
great mufcular forces: the lifting of heavy weights is an
example of this kind; where the ring of a weight is grafped
by the fingers, and the weight elevated, it is entirely fup-
ported by thefe mufcles. Now any individual can eafily
lift, in this way, from fifty to a hundred pounds and up-
wards, by his little finger only: In feizing and holding
bodies firmly great power is required, on ocesfions which
are conftantly occnring, not merely among the laborious
parts of the community, but alfo in thole who do not de-
pend for {upport on their perfonal exertions. In the latter,
indeed, the fact is more obvious: the aét of rowing, the
handlisg of cables, the ufe of the hammer, the mallet, the’
pick-axe, and fimilar inftruments, all exemplify the great
importance of the flexors of the fingers. No effeéis of any
analogous defcription are produced by the extenfors: they
merely reftore the fingers from their bent {tate. The fingers
may be rendered the fixed point, and then their flexor
mufcles will bend the fore-arm on the hand. In climbing,
we grafp firmly an obje&t above our heads; and we then
fee ithe fore-arm moved upou the hand. The whole weight
of the body is fuftained in that pofition, without any dufli-
culty, by the flexors of one fide; and it can be fupported
even by the flexors of a fingle finger.

Fruexor /ongus digitorum pedis ; ftexor profundus orcom--
minis, or perforans ; tibio-fous onguien ; grand’ féchiffeur
des orteils ; is placed on the pofterior furface of the tibia,
between the bone and the mufeles of the ; poffeffes an
elongated form, is thin and fr d and divided
into rtendons below. From its origin in the leg it enters
the fole of the foot, and receives, before dividing iato its

above,

four tendons, the infertion of the @exor accefforius, which
comes from the wader furface of the os calcis. The lume.
bricales: pedis: arife from its feparate tendons. It is at-

tached on the inner fide, by thort aponeurotie fibres, to the
back of the tibia, from the oblique line of that bone to its
inferior fourth part ; on the outiide to a long apouewrotic
feptum, which feparates it from the tibialis Be Sass and
flexor longus pollicis pedis. From this double origin th,
2 fieth.

: y

BLE OR!

flefhy fibres defcend obliquely oa each fide to a tendon,
concealed in the fubftance of the mufcle at firft, but foon
appearing fuperficially at the back of the mufcle. The
fibres of the fecond origin continue to enter the tendon as
low as the ankle; but thofe of the firit ceafe higher wp in
the leg. ‘The tendon paffes in a fuperficial groove behind
the internal malleolus, feparated by a fibrous feptum from
that of the tibialis pofticus; and then paffes behind the
a{tragalus, turning afterwards horizontally forwards in the
fole of the foot. It now turns rather outwards ; pafles
under the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis pedis, to
which it is conneéted by a fmall tendinous chord; then
becomes confiderably broader and flattened, and fhews the
marks of a divifion into four portions. Here it divides
into four tendons, which proceed towards the four
{maller toes, entering with the correfponding portions of
the flexor brevis into the tendinous fheaths of the toes,
pafling in the flits of thofe tendons, and inferted into the
lower and poiterior part of the laft phalanges. The relative
pofitions, the infertions, and the fibrous fheaths of thefe
tendons are analogous in the toes to thofe of the flexor fub-
limis and profundus in the fingers; to the defcription of
which the reader is referred. ;

In the leg this mufcle is covered by the foleus, the fafcia
of the leg, the pofterior tibial artery and nerve; and it
covers the tibia and the tibialis pofticus. The tendon re-
flected behind the ankle, at its entrance into the fole, is
confined in a fibrous fheath attached fucceflively to the
groove at the back of the tibia, to the malleolus internus,
the altragalus, aud front of the os calcis. On flitting up
this caval, we find it lined by a diitiné fynovial membrane,
lubricated with a mucous fluid, and refleéted over the tendon
above and below fo as to form two cul-de-facs. The deep-
feated mufcles of the foot, and particularly the flexor accel:
forius, lie over the tendon inthe fole. The abductors of
the great and little toes, the plantar nerves, and the
flexor brevis, are under it.

The flexor acceflorius, or mafla carnea Sylvii, is a thin,
flattened, and rather fquare portion of mufcle, fituated
under the tarfus, and above the preceding tendon. ‘There
is nothing analogous to it in the profundus of the hand.
It arifes, by aponeurotic fibres, from the inferior and
internal furface of the os calcis; thefe proceed horizon-
tally forwards parallel to each other. The mufele is in-
ferted, either by flefhy fibres or by a tendon, into the upper
and outer furface of the flexor longus, where it expands
previoufly to the divifion into its four tendons. It is inter-
pofed between the under furface of the tarfus and the ten-
den of the flexor longus.

The lumbricales pedis arife from the tendons of the
flexor longus in the foot, as thofe of the hand do from the
profundus. Their number, fize, figure, and courfe corre-
{pond very much to thofe of the lumbricales manus. They
are inferted, at the roots of the toes, into the metatarfal
extremities of the firft phalanges, detaching a thin produc-
tion to the extenfor tendons.

The flexor longus will bend the laft joints of the toes,
and afterwards the middle and firft articulations. Inthe
latter effet it is affilted by the lumbricales, which at the
fame time will give a flight degree of lateral motion. The
toes being bent, or kept ftraight by the extenfors, the
foot will be carried back upon the leg by the flexor longus,
in which cafe it aflifts the mufeles of the calf. It will alfo
aid thefe mufcles in elevating the leg, and through it the
whole body, while the foot refts on the ground ; it aéts
therefore when we ftand on our toes, as well as in the office
of progreffion. When it bends the toes, or extends the foot
upon the leg, it draws them at the fame time inwards, fo

that the fole faces backwards and inwardé, in confequence
of its tendon going~ behind the internal malleolus. This
effect is counteracted by the flexor acceflorius, which draws
the tendon outwards ; and the toes are confequently bent
without any obliquity to either fide. Its aétion, when the
body is erect and fupported by the feet, fixes the fole to
the ground ; and by bending the front of the foot accom-
modates the organ to inequalities of furface. When the
foot is firmly fixed to the ground, the flexor longus may
draw the leg backwards upon the foot ; in this way it will
reftore the legs to their upright bearing upon the aftragalus,
when the knees have been. bent forwards.

Fiexor longus pollicis manus ; radio-fous-onguien ; grand
fléchiffcur du pouce ; is.a peculiar and feparate fexor of the
thumb, placed on the furface of the radius, and on the fame
level, in the fore-arm, with the flexor profundas digitorum.
It has an elongated form, and is flattened at the fides. It
arifes from the anterior furface of the radius, commencing in
a narrow pointed form juft below the tubercle, and continued
as far as the origin of the pronator quadratus; being alfo
attached to a {mall part of the interofleous ligament.
Sometimes a {mall fafciculus joins it from the coronoid pro-
cefs of the ulua. From this origin the fibres defcend iuc-
ceffively in an oblique diveétion, and terminate in a tendon
lying on tke front of the mufcle, and pafling with the flexors
of the fingers, to which it is united by the fynovial mem-
brane already defcribed, under the annular ligament of the
carpus. It then turns outwards, paffes between the two
portions of the flexor brevis pollicis, and between the two
{efamoid bones; it is continued over the firft phalanx of
the thumb, and is inferted in the root of the fecond, being
previoufly marked by an impreffion dividing it fuperficially
into two porticns. In the fore-arm, the flexor fublimis,
lexor carpi radialis, {upinator longus, and radial artery and
nerve lie on this mufcle, which covers the furface of the
radius, a little of the interofleous ligament, and the pronator
qnadratus. In the hand, it occupies firft the radial fide of
the channel formed by the annular ligament, and then is
furrounded by the two portions of the flexor brevis pollicis :-
being afterwards contained ina fibrous fheath. ‘The latter
is tixed to the two edges of the firit phalanx of the thumb,
and to the whole furface of the fecond, where it is conti-
nuous with the infertion of the tendon, and, together with
the concavity of the bone, forms a complete canal a pe
the tendon. It is lined by a fynovial membrane, refleGe
at the commencement of the canal over the tendon, fo as to
forma cul de fac. It will bend the laft joint of the thumb
towards the palm of the hand; and afterwards alfo the
articulation of its metacarpal bone with the carpus. T'ur-
ther, it may affiftin bending the wrift on the fore-arm. |

Tiexor longus pollicis pedis ; flexor longus pollicis ;
grand fiéchiffeur du gros orteil, The great toe, like the
thumb, has a feparate long flexor, which is a thick and.
itrong mufcle, lying on the back of the fibula, and covered
by the mufcles of the calf. On the outfide, it arifes from
a kind of feptum placed between it and the , peroneus
longus and brevis; on the infide, from a more difliné&
tendinous produ@tion feparating it from the tibialis pof-
ticus and the flexor longus digitorum; between‘ thefe
points, from the two inferior thirds of the back of the
fibula, to which the above-mentioned fepta are alfo at-
tached. It has above a thin and pointed form, but grows
confiderably thicker as it defcends ; becoming thinner again
below. A middle tendon receives the mufcular fibres, ap-
pears at the back part of the mufcle, from which it is com-
pletely difengaged at the ankle. It goes behind that
joint, and then turns horizontally forwards in the fole of
the foot ; pafies over the flexer longus digitorum, bein

conne&

FLE

connected to it by a portion of tendon, continues its courfe
along the inner fide of the foot, between the two portions
ef the flexor brevis pollicis, and afterwards between the
two fefamoid bones of the great toe. Here it generally
expands, then proceeds in a narrowed form, under the firft
phalanx of the great toe, and is inferted into the under
and back part of the fecond phalanx. In the leg, this
mufcle is covered by the foleus and by the fafcia of the
leg ; and covers the fibula and tibialis pofticus.

It then lies on the back of the tibia, and is confined to
the aftragalus and os calcis by a fibrous fheath, lined with a
fynovial membrane. On the firft phalanx of the great toe
it is contained alfo in a fheath with a fynovial ming. This
mufcle has the fame ufes with refpec to the great toe and
foot, as the flexor longus digitorum has in regard to the
other toes. See the account of the ation of that mufcle.

Frexor brevis digitorum pedis ; flexor perforatus or fub-
limis ; calcanéo-fous-onguien. This mufcle is placed in the
middle of the fole, and is one of the fuperficial mufcles of
the foot. It is moderately thick, of an elongated form,
and poffeffes four tendons in front. It arifes behind from
the os calcis, on the fides from two fepta, which feparate
it from the abductors of the great and little toe, and below
from the plantar fafcia; proceeds in a ftraight direétion
to the end of the metatarfus; and then divides into four
portions, which give origin to four tendons. The latter
pafs in the intervals of the double infertions of the plantar
fafcia, and enter the fibrous fheaths of the toes. At firft
they are concave above, to receive the tendons of the flexor
longus, then they are divided for the paflage of the latter,
unite again, and afterwards feparate to be attached by means
of diftin& portions to the edges of the fecond phalanges.

The edges of this mufcle correfpond to the abduGtors of
the great and little toes; its inferior furface is covered by
the plantar fafcia; and the fuperior by the flexor ac-
ceflorius, tendons ef the flexor longus, lumbricales, and
plantar nerves and veffels. By bending the toes, this muf-
cle renders the inferior furface of the foot concave, and
thus enables it to accommodate itfelf to uneven ground,
and in a manner to grafp fuch unequal furfaces. This
effe& is much limited in the human fubject by the practice
of wearing fhoes. By drawing the toes downwards, it
tends to fix the foot to the ground.

FLExoreES primi internodii digitorum; a name given by
fome of the older anatomifts to the lumbricales.

FLexor primi internodii minimi digiti pedis; is the name
under which Douglas defcribes the flexor brevis of the little
toe: Cowper calls it flexor primi offis minimi digiti.

Frexor fecundi internodii digitorum ; is a name by which
the flexor fublimis of the hand, and the flexor brevis of the
foot, have been defcribed. The flexor profundus of the
hand, and the flexor brevis of the foot, have been called
flexwres tertii internodii digitorum.

Frexor primi internodit pollicis ; is the opponens.

Frexor fecundi internodit pollicis ; is the flexor brevis.

Frexor ¢ertii internodii pollicis ; is the flexor longus.

Fiexor primi et fecundi offis pollicis of Cowper, includes
the addutor, opponens, and flexor brevis.

FLEXUOSUS Cauuis, in Botany, a zigzag ftem.
See Cavtis, n. 3.

FLEXURE, or Fusxion, in Geometry, is ufed to fig-
nify that a curve is both concave and convex, with re{pect
to a given right line, ora fixed point. And the point
which limits the concavity and convexity is called the point
of contrary flexure. See RetTRoGRavaTion of Curves.

As to the method of finding che points of the contrary
flexure, fee INFLECTION.

FLIDETHRIFT, or more truly Slidethrift, is the

FLI

game we now call /hovel-board. It is otherwife called /bove-
groat, and is mentioned in the ftatute 33 Hen. VIII. cap. 9.

FLIE, or Fry, that part of the mariner’s compafs on
which the thirty-two winds are drawn, and over which the
needle is placed, and faftened underneath.

Fur, or Vie, in Geography, a river or channel,
which runs from the Zuyder fea, near the coaft of Frief-
land, into the German ocean, between the ifland of Schelling
and Vlielandt.

Frre’s Bay, a bay on the W. coaft of Africa. S. lat.
14° 50'.

Fries, a river of Lufatia, which runs into the Spree,
near Luben.

FLIGHT, the a& of a bird in flying ; or the manner,
duration, &c. thereof. See Fryinc.

The feathers of birds are admirably contrived, and fitted
for the eafe and convenience of flight. See Fratuers.

Almott every kind of bird has its particular flight : the
eagle’s flight is the higheit ; the flight of the fparrow-hawk
and vulture are noble, and are fit for high enterprize and
combat. ‘The flight of fome birds is low, weak, tranfient,
and as they callit, terra a terra; the flight of the partridge
and pheafant is but of fhort continuance; that of the dove
is laboured ; that of the fparrow undulatory, é&c.

The augurs pretended to foretell future events from the
flight of birds. ;

Fiicur, in Rural Economy, a young brood of different
forts of birds, as pigeons, &c.

Fiicur. In melting the lead ore in the werks at Men-
dip, there is a fubftance which flies away in the {moke,
which they call the flight.

They find it {weetith upon their lips if their faces happea
to be in the way of the {moke, which they avoid as much
as poffible. This, falling on the grafs, kills cattle that
feed thereon ; and, being gathered, and carried home, kills
rats and mice in their houfes; that which falls on the fand
they gather, and melt upon a flag hearth, into fhot, and
fheet-lead.

Fricut, Capon’s, in fome Cuffoms, isa compafs of
ground, fuch as a capon might fly over, due to the eldett
born of feveral brothers, in making partition of the father’s
effe&ts with them, where there is no principal manor in a
lordfhip. It is ufually eftimated by a bow-fhot.

Fricut of a Stair-cafe. See Sv air-ca/e.

Fricut, in Heraldry. See Vor.

Fricur of aw Army. Were it poffible for each indivi-
dual of an army to be {ufficiently imprefled with the inevit-
able confequences of “taking to flight,’? fueh an occur
rence would be extremely uncommon. Whatever may he
the dangers of oppofing an enemy front to front, they
tainly fall very fhort of thofe infeparable from that di
evafion, which, while it difgraces the whole, fubje&s cach
to be maffacred in detail. Very fortunately for the Britifh
fervice, and with the moit heartfelt pride do we declare it;
very, very few inftances could be adduced wherein our fol-
diery have fo far lof fight of fubordination, or been fo far
overcome by panic, as to induce them to adopt this ruinous
condu&t. Chat they have been led very improperly into
fueh fituations as to render their valour and diicipline of no
avail, cannot be denied ; but even under fuch dif-heartening
circumitances their exertions have kept pace with furround-
ing difficulties, and taught their enemies to refpect them,
even when compelled to furrender at difcretion,

The flight ofan army is ufually attended with great car-
nage, and with the total lofs of its artillery, ammunition,
baggage, ftores, treafure, &c. This rarely happens when
the difcomfiture is unconne&ted with the precipitate abany
donment of pofitions, and of the ordnance; in this latter

caley

HEY GH.

cafe, the referve commonly offers an afylum tothe defeated
corps, enabling them atileaft to retire, af not:to make head
againit their purfuers. The French, in their-ufual mode
of varnifhing over blemifhes in:their conduG, and.of recon-
ciling, at leaft to themfelves, the errors of their generals,
as well.as-the mifconduG of theirifoldiery, never admit the
allertion, that their troops were putoto flight,” but swith
much fang froid obferve, that ‘they made a precipitate
retreat.” This is fomething on a par with the defence
made by a gentleman, who, having beens unhorfed wather
abruptly, was found lying in the mud; but denied. having
been thrown. Oh, no, ‘ be had.only difmounted, to get
a better feat.”

In that neat little volume, “ The Pocket Gunner,”’ pub-
lifhed by captain Ralph Willett Adye, of the Royal
‘Artillery, is the following maxim, which canrot be ‘too
affiduoufly circulated, aot ouly among artilleritts, but among
every clafs of foldiery. He fays, “never abandon your
guns till the lat extremity. The la‘t difcharges are the
mott deltructive ; they may be your falvation, and crown
you with glory.”

Fiicut ofa Shot or a Shell. Referving ourfelves for an
ample differtation on the fight of miffiles in general, under
the head of projediles, (which fee,) we take the opportu-
nity of offering fome remarks regarding thofe very errone-
ous opinions which are, in many inftances, prevalent
regarding ‘the Ime in which a fhot proceeds fiom the
mouth of the cannon to that objeét towards which it is
direGed.

The term point-Glanc has been greatly mifunderftood. It
originated in the practice among the French artillerifts, of
firing at a vile centre within various concentric circles of
black; whereas we commonly make the centre of a target
black ; defignating it ‘ the bull’s-eye.’? Therefore, when
a piece was laid for the centre of the target, it was fup-
pofed to be exactly horizontal, fo far as related to the line
of the chace; the target being only eight feet in its whole
height, which correfponds with the average height of a
man on a middle-fized horfe: the centre of the point-blane
(or white fpot) was then about as high from the ground,
{uppoling the intermediate diftance to be level, as the muz-
zle of the gun.

Now it was found, that with the proper fervice-charge,
a gun would at a certain diftance throw the fhet to the
= of the point-blanc, aud, if correctly “ laid,’ that it
would ftrike with exaGtnefs thereon. This gave rife to the
opinion, that the fhot procceded to that dittance in a direét
line, after which it began to form an angle downwards.
That fuch an error fhould maintain its ground while
{cience was only in the womb of time, may not be extraor-
dinary ; but that any man who has either obferved the
practice, or confidered the theory, fhould for a moment
attempt to uphold fo falfe a pofition, muft appear abfolutely
wonderful. Were no fuch opinions extant, we fhould not
have expended one drop of ink towards explaining the
real flight of a fhet, and to remove the vulgar errror of
what are called paini-blanc ranges, being rectilinear,

In confuting the popular opinion on this fubje&, we mutt
obferve that, exclufive of the ‘perpetual tendency of all
bodies in'motion, (from whatever impetus,) to defcend ac-
cording to the rules of gravity, (which fee,) certain
circumftances, sparticularly relating to artillery, feem to
eombine for the purpofe of giving an afcendine: direétion to
all fhots impelled by the aGion of gunpowder. We are to
eonfider, that every piece of ordnance, when difcharged,
rifes from the ground in proportion ‘to the quantity of oun-
powder ufed, and ‘to the weight-of metal, of the carriage,

&c. in oppofing ratios. This alone would probably give
fome determination upwards ito the fhot at the moment ief
its quitting the piece, and when the air, oppofed to the ex-=
peading flame, fo forcibly occafions the piece to recoil ; but.
if we eall to mind, that that fame being fo-much lighter
than the atmofphere, mutt amttantly, be foresd upwards
thereby, (efpecially.as- the conenffion upon the foil below

-would add to fnchaitendency), we may at once:ind fofficient

caufe for the afcent of adhot at the very moment it quits the
cannon ; for both will, with the aGion of the cannon and the
rarefaction of the air at ats débouchure, whereby a rapid
and ‘trong current of afeenfio:.ds given, tend to caufe fome
departure from a horizontal direction.

The faét Kes ina nut-fhell; for, uvlefs when followin
the line of gravity, which is-every where locally -perpendi-
cular, and of courfe always poists to the centre of that globe
we inhabit, nobody can muintain a retilimear motion ; there
will always ‘be a tendency to gravitation. This being ad-
mitted, it follows, that in order to arrive at a certain level,
at acertain diftance, an elevation muft, either naturally or
artificially, be given, wliereby the line of flight will be found
to defcribe that unequal curve called a parabola, (which
fee). Every boy that ufes a fling, or throws up a cricket-
ball, muft be convinced of the truth of our pofition. The
fact may, however, be fully certified to the eye, by ftanding
rather behind a cannon (the greater its bore the better) and
at about an angle of 20° from the line of fire, when the -
flight of the fhot will be feen to give a curve upwards.

With refpeét to fhells, their lines of flight are exa€tly on
the {ame principles, but their altitudes being confiderably
greater in proportion than their bafes, the parabolic curve
generated affumes a different figure. It fhould be particu-
larly noticed, that, for the fake of giving effet to the fufes
driven into fhells, the ordinary periods of flight for par-
ticular ranges, i.e. diftances horizontally, together with
the charges of powder, and the angle of elevation, (ufually
45 ) are to be carefully noted. If the powder were all of
equal ftrength, the fufes all exactly fimilar, and equally
well driven, or filled, the weight of the atmofphere always
the fame, and the angle of elevation ever fixed immoveably,
the lengths of fufes for particular ranges might be always
determined; as it is, we fee that confiderable variation
often takes place even with the fame powder, the fame
gun, the fame temperature, and, in fact, with, every thing
perfectly fimilar, to all appearance. Obferving that the
more protracted the line of flight, the greater the force
with which a fhell will fall, we thall fubmit the following
table of ranges made with fea-fervice iron mortars, at 45
upon a horizontal plane. ;

13<Inch Mortar. |

1o-[nch Mortar.
Charge,| Flight. | Range. Charge. Flight. | Range.
| Ibs. oz. ‘Seconds,| Yards. lbs. oz. (Seconds: Yards.
per) | 13 | 690 1 13 680
4 18 1400 |" 2 18 1340
iO ss 21 1900 3 21 1900
8 245 | 2575 + 245 | 2500
10 264 2975 sia 26 2800
12 29 3500 6 24 3200.5 |
14 293. | 3860 7 29 3500. *
16 30 3900 || 8 EX) 3800.
18 30 | 4000 +H 9 304 3900 ©
20 eee! 4200 1 9 Bi gOs 4000
: ‘The

BL.

The great increafe of velocity gained by the heavier
charges muit be apparent ; in the firft inftances the time of
flight is 13 feconds to about 680 yards of horizontal dif-
tance, which gives only 50 yards for each fecond ; whereas
the latter flights gain on the feveral preceding ones fo
rapidly, as to give 400 yards in eyery added fecond.
From this we fee, that, unlefs fired at an improper elevation,
mortars cannot be ufed with their greatett efle€, unlefs fo
far removed from their objeci, as to admit of their being
charged as high as the metal will bear.

FLING, in the Manzge, is the fiery and obftinate aétion
of au unruly horfe.

To fling like a cow isto raife only one leg, and give a
blow with it.

To-fling or kick with the hind legs, fee YerKinc.

FLINGING, among Bowlers. See Bow tina.

FLINK, Govaerr, in Biography, a painter of hiftory
and portraits. He was born at Cleves in 1616. Early in
his youth he exhubited a {trong inclination to painting, from
which neither the defire of his father that he fhould purfue
a mercantile occupation, the influence of his friends, nor the
profpeét of making a fortune, could divert him. He was
therefore placed under Lambert Jacebs. With him, at the
fame time, Barker alfo ftudied under Jacobs, and the emu-
lation which exifted between thefe two greatly advanced
their progrefs in the art, but Flink outftepped his compa-
nion confiderably. He afterwards entered in the fchool of
Rembrandt, and imitated the works of that extraordinary
man with great fuccefs, acd his pictures are now frequently
fold as the produétions of his malter.

He very foon rofe into high repute, and was almoft con-
ftantly employed in painting the portraits of diftinguifhed
perfonages, although his genius inclined him to paint hif-
torical fubjects, and feveral of his performances in that
{tyle were admired for the goodnefs of the defign and the
beauty of their colouring. He died in the year 1660, at
the age of 44, very much regretted. After his death his
collection of prints and drawings were fold for twelve
theufand florins.

FLINT, in Geography, a {mall borough town in the hun-
dred of Colefhill, and capital of the fhire to which it gives
the appellation. Though almott deflitute of trade, it is
conveniently fituated upon the river Dee; diftant from
London 204 miles, and 12 W.N.W. of Cheifter. This
place was formerly fortified, having been furrounded by a
double fofs and vallum, and, during the ftruggle of Cambria
for her independence, was celebrated for its ttrong caitle,
begun by king Henry IJ. but not completed till the time
of Edward I. his fortrefs ftands upon an ifolated rock
ina low marth, which is occafionally overflowed by the
tide Anciently the eftuary of the Dee laved the walls,
and acommunication was formed between the cattle and the
advanced works, called the barbacan, by means of a bridge ;
but the channel of the river is now at fome diftance. "Che
flruéture is fornied of a reddith grit-ttone from quarvies
in the vicinity. The form is a right-angled parallelogram,
having three of its angles defended by polygonal towers,
fome remains of which ave {ull itanding, including an area
within. the walls of about anacre. At the fouth-ealt isa
detached tower ef tingular conftruction. It is of arcireular
form, confilting of two concentric arches, leaving a {pace
between for a gallery eight feet broad; the diameter of
the inner circle is twenty feet. In this caftle the unfortu-
nate Richard IT. took-fhelter, on his arrival from Iveland ;
when, quitting it, he was feized by the duke of Lancatter,
and carried prifoner to Cheiter, During the civil wars it

Vo be RIV, ;

: i cae Ey |

was garrifoned for the king, but furrendered to general
Mytton in 1646.

Flint is a corporate town, governed by a mayor, two
bailiffs, and other inferior officers; and, in conjunétion with
Rhyddlan, Overton, Caerwys, and Caergwrle, fends one
member to parliament. The voters are fuch as pay fcot
and lot in the refpe@tive places, and the returning officer
is the mayor of Flint. ‘he church, which is a chapel of
eafe to Northop, is a mean looking building, having for a
fleeple a boarded turret. In 1785 a new county gaol was
erected upon the plan of one previeufly built at Ruthin;
although the affizes are regularly held at Mold. In the
fummer feafon Flint is frequented as a bathing place, but
the marfhy nature of the coaft, over which the fea at high
tides flows, renders the bathing incommodious, and the air
rather infalubrious. Though: privileged as a market town,
the market has been long difcontinued. By the returns
made to parliament in i1go1, the number of houfes was
3¢y, and inhabitants 1169.

A wood in the vicinity of Flint is celebrated, in the an-
nals of hitory, for having been the fcene of many a fan-
guinary conflict, and as ominous to the Englifh caufe.
Here Henry IT. was twice defeated in one campaign, lofing
not only his principal officers, among whom were included
many of the nobility, but the king himfelf was frequently
ia imminent danger of being killed, and narrowly elcaped
being taken. Pennaat’s Tour in North Wales. Skrine’s
Tour.

Furnt, a confiderable river of America, in Georgia,
which rifes in the country of the Creek Indians, and pur-
fuing firft a fouth, and then a fouth weft courfe, joins the
Appalachicola at tts entrance into Florida. The territory
adjoining this river affords a rich foil capable of profitable
cultivation, and offering an uninterrupted navigation to the
bay of Mexico and Atlantic ocean, and thence te the Weit
India iflands, and other parts of the world, On this river
there is a number of villages belonging to the Creek
Indians.—Alfo, a fmall river, about 25 miles long, in the
Geneilee country, in New York, which runs N.N.E. into
Canandarqua creek.— Alf, a river of Jamaica, which runs
into the fea, feven miles W. of Montego bay.

Fuint Jflaed, an ifland in the gulf of St. Laurence, near
the ealt coait of the ifland of Cape Breton. N. lat. 46° 10".
W.. long. 59° 40’.

Furnt, Silex cretaceus, Linn.
Pyromachus, Wern.
Feusrfein, Germ.
feu, Vr.

The flint, one of the moft remarkable of the filiceous
ftones, has frequently been confounded with other hard
ftones of the fame clafs; the quality it poffefles in an emi-
nent degree of giving fparks with the iteel, and the popular
denomination it has thence derived among almott all nations,
haye been the principal caufes of this confufion, which may
eafily be avoided by a proper attention to its more diitin-
guifhing characters. “1t muft, however, be confeffed, that,
1n fome caies, its diagnofis is rendered uncertain by its toa
great affinity to Horn/fone and Fuint flate, (fee thofe ar-
ticles,) and by its gradual traniition into thefe kindred
itones.

Igniarius, Carth. et Wall.
Quartz-Agathe pyromaque, Hauy.
Flinta, Bofs fiinta, Swed. Pierre a

Its colour is chiefly grey, of which yeliowifh, blueith, and
fmoke-grey, are the more ufual fhades, and thefe pafs, the
latter into greyifh-black, the former into all the well krown
tints of yellow, red, and reddifh-brown, that approach it,
to the carnehan. Jt is fometimes found perfeatly black,

4-N ané

PL iN,

and alfo difplaying feveral of the juft-mentioned colours in
ftripes, zones, and f{pots. :

Flirt occurs maffive, in angular pieces of various fize, in
globular boulders, frequently tapering at one end, (the
petrified melons of Mount Carmet, vulgarly {0 called, belong
to this variety): alfo in knobbed, branching, amorphous,
perforated pieces, and as hollow balls filled with various
fubflancess (See Grove.) Befides: thefe forms, it fome-~

times adopts-thefe of cryitals, which however do not be-’

long to it, as fome writers, have fuppofed, but are fuppo-
fititious: from calcareous {par it’ derives the double three-
fided pyramid, as alfo.the fix-fided prifm acuminated by
three planes ; and it has been likewife ebferved in eryftals
formed after thofe of lamellar barytes or caulk, It is alfo
frequently obferved, (contrary to what we know of horn-
ftoney) in extraneous external fhapes, as petrifaGions of
{pecies'of echinus, madrepora, coral, &c. Surface little
gliftening, and of various degrees of fmoothnefs, often
coated by, and pafling into, a white or yellowifh-white
ernft, of which we {hall fay more hereafter. Fra€ture con-
choidal, never perfeétly {plintery ; internal furface but little
gliftening, or dull, of an almoft imperceptibly fine grain.
Fragment fometimes tabular, very fharp-edged, and more
or lefs tranflucid in proportion to the lighter or deeper
colours of the ftone. It is eafily frangible. Its hardnefs
appears to be ina ratio with the depth of its colours: in
general it will feratch quartz.

Specific gravity, according to Gellert, 2.581 ; Blumen-
bach. 2.594; Gmelin 2.999.- To thefe phyfical characters
of flint we may add the one afforded by its phofphoref-
cence, and the peculiar fmell, which are manifeited when two
pieces are rubbed together.

Flint is infufible before the blow-pipe without addition,
but lofes its colour and becomes opaque. By the intenfe
heat excited by a flream of oxygen gas, Mr. Ehrmann
found it to melt into a white gliftening quartz-like globule.
Its confltituent parts are, i

Klaproth. Vauquelin. Wiegleb.
Silica - - ‘98.00 97-0 80
Lime - - O50 : ° 2
Alumine = 0.25 18
Oxyd ofiron - 0.25 i
Lois) = i» satkee 2 °
100 100 100

Flint.is met with in moft parts of Europe, particularly
in the north of France, in England, Saxony, Tyrol, Po-
dolia, &c. . Norway feems to be dettitute of flint, as it is
of chalk ; alfo in Sweden it is fearce. In Denmark it is
principally at Wordenborg and Taxoé, in the ifland of
Seeland, that fome chalk-hills with imbedded fints are
found ;, and more copioufly in the remarkable Steeyens-
Klint. It occurs but feldom in primitive mountains, and
when found there, only in veins, as, for inftance, in the
Saxon Erzgebirge. Its principal geognollic fituation is in
fletz-mountains, where it occnrs chiefly in comman compact
lime-ftone or in chalk; in the fand-ftone formation, where
it isalfo met with in the fhape of thofe conglomerates vul-
garly called Pudding-/ione. See this article.

Though the formation of flints is a fubje& which has
engaged the attention of many naturalifts, yet but few opi-
nions have beeu broached refpeCting it that will at all ftand
the teft of clofer inveftigation, The theory which explains
their origin by a metamorphofis of one earth into another,
though it may appear abfurd to the chemift who is unable

4

to produce the fame changes in his laboratory, has note
withftanding had its able and celebrated defenders. Some
have endeavoured to prove that the argillaceous, others,
that the calcareous earth, underwent this converfion into
flint. Buffon was an advoca-e for the argillaceous origin’
of this ftone; and the obfervations of Pallas appeared to
corroborate the opinion of the French naturalift ; for he
found that the Ephemera horaria, which abounds in the’
Mofkua, had in fome places perforated the clayey bottom
of this river with innumerable tubes clofely joined ; and’
in the adjacent fields pieces of perfe flint frequently oc-
curred that were pierced precifely in the fame manner as
the clay, from which they were not found to differ in any
re{pect but in fra€ture and hardnefs. Inthe fame manner
he ftates that, in the {mall river Sunghir, near Woldemir,
black, globular, rolled maffes occur, which, on being
broken, exhibit, from their circumference to the central
part, a gradual tranfition from real clay and clay-ftone into’
what he confiders as perfect flint. With all deference, how-
ever, to the great merits of this excellent obferver, we can-
not but fee in his account one of thofe frequent cafes in
which hard ftones of the filiceous clafs (and clay ftone and
jafper belong to it) have been mittaken for real flint merely
by reafon of their giving copious {parks with fteel: for
this appears to be the charaéter on which Pallas has chiefly
founded his diagnofis of the {tone he deferibes.

According to other geologifts, it is lime-ftone, and prin-
cipally chalk, which have undergone a transformation into
flint: an opinion which Wallerius endeavoured to {apport
both by geognoftical and chemical faéts, and which was
followed by Linnzus himfelf. Alfo Gillet-Laumont and
Girod-Chantrans, from obfervations they refpeétively made
in various parts of France, were induced to confider flint as
a mere modification of chalk. The principal ground on
which this hypothefis appears to reft is the geognoltic rela-
tionfhip that fubfifts between the ftrata of chalk and of
flints, together with the intimate union of the boulders of
flint and their white earthy cruit; both thefe fubftances be-
ing 1o completely incorporated with one another, as to’
preclude the poflibility of our afcertaining the lite where
each may be confidered as perfeétly diltinét from the other.
This latter reafon, though {pecious, may, however, lofe
much of its force by future analyfis of that white earthy
fubftance. To us it appears that moft of the boulders of
flint, fuch as they are found embedded in chalk, are but
feldom furnifhed with a coating throughout calcareous: it’
feems to be compofed of a twofold cruft, viz. an’ outer
chalky one, originating from the matrix of the ftone; and
an inner one pafling over into the outer, and, by reafon of
the fimilarity of colour, not diftinguifhable by the eye.
This inner cruft fhews no effervefcence with acids; it-ap-
pears to be filiceous, and may perhaps be properly looked
upon as the refult of incipient decompofition ; efpecially if

. it be confidered that flints with uncoated furface, by a long

expofure to the influence of moifture and other atmofpheric
agents, have been known to“acquire another thin coating,
(but not calcareous,) with lofs of weight. el
Many geologifts of the prefent day, whe confider the
idea of a tranfmutation of the calcareous into filiceous earth
as unworthy the advanced {tate of modern chemiitry, at the
fame time that they are unwilling to have recourfe to floods
and other revolutionary agents for rolling fragments of flint
into boulders, and.difpofing them in the regular manner in

which they are now found, have adopted, fome, the hy-
pothefis of infiltration by means of a filiceous fluid ; others}
that of a forcible injection of melted flint into vacuities pres
vioufly exifting in the calcareous ftrata, But either of thefe
theories

FL1

theories is open to objeCtion; and, indeed, the fame ob-
jeGtions appear to apply to both. It is difficult to account
for the ftrange predileGtion the flinty fluid (whether its
fluidity proeeeded from water or fire) has manifeited for
_Aletz lime-ftone, particularly for chalk; while other fletz
and.primitive rocks, feveral of whieh muft be fuppofed to
have been equally expofed to it, remained perfectly un-
touched. Nor is it much eafier to conceive how that fup-
pofed fluid can have found its way into fo many approxi-
mate, but perfectly diftin&, hollows in the chalk, without
more or lefs penetrating the intermediate parts, or leaving
traces of mafles that were connected with the nodules as
they now appear; not to mention the improbability that-fo
many almott contiguous vacuities (efpecially thofe that mutt
de fuppofed to have been the moulds for the frequently oc-
curring tabular expanfions of flint) fhould not have yielded
to the preffure of the fuperincumbent ftratum. As, morye-
over, thefe hypethefes are filent refpecting the origin of this
flinty mafs, (although a fubitance fo different in its appear-
ance from common filex), another theory of the generation
of the-nodules of flint has been propofed, which, however,
ds not likely to meet with any followers among thofe geolo-
ifts, whofe exalted ideas of the prefent ftate of chemical
EnoWledize lead them to fuppofe that the refult of their
analytical and fynthetical proceffes muft of neceffity, in all
cafes, {quare with thofe great, operations that, with her
ample means, and affiited by a long feries of ages, have been
accomplithed by Nature in the valt laboratory of the earth.
_ We allude to the hypothefis, according to which all flint,
whether it be found in nodules or as flat tabular plates, ori-
ginates from the fle& of a {tratum of marine gelatinous’ani-
amals, which perifhed by fome revolution, and were buried
ain’ their fhells. The internal afpe&t of the nodules, and
their being almoft conttantly- found imbedded in fletz
dime-ftone, which, by molt geologifts, is allowed to owe
its exiftence to fhells and other calcareous coverings of tef-
-taceous animals, feems firft to have fuegetted this new idea ;
«which, itrange as it appears, may be allowed to have as
-much plaufibility as any of the former; efpecially as it may
-be adapted equally well to the fyitem of an igneous, and to
-that of an aquatic origin of terreftrial bodies. Mr. Patrin
ais of opinion, that when the chalk was depofited at the
-bottom of the fea, in thofe ftrata which we now fee, it met,
ton other ftrata already exifting, a vaft number of marine
bodies, fhells, madrepores, &c. while others were carried
-along with the precipitating chalk itfelf, fuch as meduf,
- &c. whofe foft and gelatinous bodies, while they occupy
.much fpace, contain but little fubitance. When all thefe
_ Marine animals were buried in the chalk, and their decom-
_pofition tock place, thofe of a confiltence merely gelatinous
. left in their matrix an empty fpace, nearly equal to the {pace
they occupied when alive: their fubftance, almoft in a ttate
of fluidity, was abforbed by the porous fides of the cavity ;
and by the combination of this animal fluid with the chalk,
_thefe fides were, by fome unknown agent, converted into
. flint. In this manner Mr, Patrin accounts for the generation
- of nodules that are either hollow or filled up with chalk ;
_. which latter may have been depofed there by means of
. fome aperture, or may have penetrated through the flinty
~cpatfitlelf, when ftill in a flate of foftaefs. As to thole
s nodules, the central part of which is of a more perfely

flinty nature than that nearer the circumference, they were, |

according to the fame author, formed of marine animals of
+ more’coufiftence or folidity ; and it is in thefe particularly
. that veltiges.of animal organization aré found. ‘The more

¥ eoufitent part af the, body of thefe animals produced the

5:4 :

N Tt

more perfect flint, fuch as we fee it in fuch folid nodules +
while the. fluid which efcaped from the body, by the effects
of decompofition, formed the external lzyers of this nicleus,
which, being mixed: with the fubftance of the chalk, be-
came lefs perfeét. flint the farther it removed from the
central part. According to. this explication, the molt im-
perfect part of a nodule of flint would be that, which, in
its original fituation, occupied the loweft place, and to-
wards which the fluid which efcaped from the more folid
nucleus muft. naturally have taken its dire@ion. This,
however, is never found to be the cafe; nor has Mr. Patria
endeavoured to account for that circumflance. What ap-
pears to be much in favour of this explanation is, that the
whole body of echini in their hells has been found con-
verted into flint: and Gillet-Laumont has frequently ob-
ferved that thofe echini, which he met with in the chalk
ftrata of Montrewil-fur-Mer, were furnifhed with a flinty
appendage iffuing from their mouths, and which appears
to have been the animal fubftance converted into a fluid
flate by decompofition. The fame cirgumftance is not fel-
dom obferved in bivalve fhells, whofe gelatinous inhabitants
have been found in a perfectly filiceous ftate; while the
fhells themfelves had retained their original calcareous na-
ture, and were partly converted into fpar. In’ cafes where
the gelatinous marine bodies were in fuch abundance that ne
intermediate {pace was left for the depofition of chalk, the
flint has been formed into large maffes and plates of con-
fiderable extent. Dr. Darwin’s ideas on this fubject are
nearly the fame, and modified only by his adopti:g a dif-
ferent theory for explaining the converfion of the gelatinous
animals into flint. He conjetures that the nodules of flint

found in chalk-beds have gained their form, as well as their

dark colour, from the fleth of the fhell-fith from which they
had their origin, but which have been fo completely fufed
by heat, or heat.and water, as to obliterate all veltizes of
the fhell; in the fame manner as (according to the doctor’s
opinion) the nodules of agate and onyx were produced from
parts of vegetables, but which had been fo completely fuled
as to obliterate all marks of their organization.

A. remarkable circumftance, relating to the geologicat ©
hiftory of flint, fhould not be paffed over unnoticed in this
place: it is that fir Henry Englefield has obferved in the
neighbourhood of Carifbrook, and in other parts of the Ifle
of Wight, an immenfe nuniber of nodules of flint, all of
which, though not removed out of their places, and re-
taining perfeétly their original fhape, were more or lefs burft
or fhattered. Some few were only fplit into large pieces,
but the greater part were broken into fmall fragments, and
fome abfolutely reduced to impalpable powder. The chalk
{trata in which they were imbedded had an inelination of at
leait 67 degrees, and perpendicular fiffures traverfed the
whole. Sir Harry conjectures, “that when the tremendous
convulfion took place which funk them to the fituation in
which they now appear, (at which time the channel which
feparates the Ifle of Wight from the main land was perhaps
formed,) the {trata of chalk, in the a@& of fubfiderce, had
a tendency to flide on each other; and this weuld be exerted
mott fenfibly where, from the admixture of the flints, the
cohefion of the parts of the chalk was the weakéft. This
motion, or rather ftrain of fo enormous & weight, might in
an ihitant fhiver the flints, thoogh their refiltance ftopped
the incipient motion; for the flints, though crufhed to
powder, are not difplaced, which muft have been the calc
had the bed flipped fenfibly.” This theory, dppears to us
very unfatisfactury, though we ate not prepared to give a
better, The advocates for the igneous drigia of flint my,

OV A on peal echaps,

FLINT.

perhaps, be inclined to account for the phenomenon by an
accidental fudden cooling of the flinty maffes.

We conclude this article by adding a few words on the
ufes to which flint is applied, fome of which are of con-
liderable importance. ‘The one derived from its giving
copious {parks with fteel is the moft ancient and generally
known; but the art of cutting or rather breaking this ftone
into regularly fhaped gun-flints is of more modern date,

and was not practifed till a conliderable time after the ih-.

vention of fire-arms. -'The mode ef making gun-flints has
for a long time been involved in fable and mytftery: the
moit abfurd and contraditory accounts having been given
of it by various authors; and it was not till lately that we
have been made fully acquainted (by Hacquet of Vienna,
and by Dolomien) with the fimple manner in which thefe
flints are manufactured in Gallicia and in France, where
they conftitute an important article of trade. (See Gun-
Fiint.) The art of {quaring and chipping flint was prac-
tiled long before that of making gun-flints; and as this
latter requires exactly the fame management and the fame
tools, the former cannot properly be called a loft art,
though, on account of the expentfivenels of fuch fquare pieces
of flint, if employed for conftructing walls and coverin
roofs, it is not much praétifed. The north wall of the
Bridewell at Norwich, mentioned in a letter of Mr. Baker,
in the 43d volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&tions, was
built of flints, “ fquared to fuch a nicety, that the thin
edge ef a knife could not be infinuated between the joints
withowt a great deal of difficulty.” And we learn from a
note to that letter, that the gate of the Avuttin friars at
Canterbury, the gate of St. John’s abbey at Colchetter,
and the gate near Whitehall, Weftminfter, are executed in
the fame tafte; and the platform on the top of the Royal
obfervatory at Paris, which is paved with flint after the
fame manner, is adduced asa proof that the French have in
fome meafure recovered the art. Flint is alfo often em-
ployed in the manufactory of glafs, {malt, porcelain ; and
fome of its lighter coloured and ftriped varieties are made
ufe of for ornamental purpofes. They take an excellent
polifh, and are not unfrequently manufactured into fmuff-
boxes, &c.

Fuiyt-Slate.. The hiftory of this foflil prefents a laby-
rinth of blunders and confufion. On one hand it has been
defcribed under the names of well defined Wernerian {pecies
of rocks, fuch as horn-ftone, trapp, &c.; on the other hand
it has been jumbled together with various mineral fubftances,
under the vague and unfy{tematic appellations of roche cor-
néenne, petrofilex, and particularly (by German mineralo-
gical writers) under that of “ hornfchiefer,”? or corneous
flate. This latter was applied by fome mineralogifts to the

fubje& of this article ; but by others it was indifcriminately
given to hornblead-flate, to varieties of clay-flate, to mica,
and to porphyry-flate ; whence profeflor Werner, to prevent
the fame contulion that has been introduced into mineralogy,
by the term “fhorl,’’ expunged that of hornfchiefer, (though
he had made ufe of it himfelf,) applying to the foffil in
_queftion the name of Lic/el-/chiefer, now generally adopted
in Germany, and of which “ fiint-flate”’ is a literal tranfla-
tion. The juft mentioned author has divided this fpecies
into two fub-fpecies, viz. into common flint-flate, and
_ Lydian ftone, The latter has been confidered by fome as a
mere. variety of the former ; but there are good reafons for
eepiug it diltm@. See Lypian Srone.
Common flint-flate occurs generally of a dark grey
colour, which has frequently an admixture of blue, of red,

"and of yellow ; and thefe tints often. pafs over into eath

7

other, or are feen feparately in the fame fragments, as fpots
or ftripes. The blood-red and brownifh-red varieties are
the fearceft. It is found maffive and in rounded pieces,
which latter have a fmooth furface. Internally it is dull.
now and then rather glimmering. In {mall fragments its
fraéture varies ; it is {ometimes fplintery, and imperfeGly
conchoidal, and fometimes paffes into even; the blackifh~
grey variety with the latter fracture approaches the Lydian
{tone, In large maffes it manifefts its flaty nature. Its
fragments are angular and fharp, and but little tranflucid at
the edges. » It is brittle, and its hardnefs nearly the fame as
that of quartz. Another pretty conitant charaéter of flint-
flate is its being traverfed by veins of quartz, that are
often of a greyifh or reddifh colour. Specific gravity, ac-
cording to Gerhard, 2.860; according to Kirwan from
2.596 to 2.641. Thofe varieties of flint-flate that have
been chemically examined are not fufible per /e ; nor do they
much change their colour in the fire; the grey becomes
rather lighter coloured, the black does not appear to be at
all affected by the heat of the blow-pipe. Wiegleb’s ana-
lyfis of flint-flate from Fulda (in vol. i. of Chem, Annalen,
where, however, it is called hornfchiefer, and confidered as
of volcanic origin) has given the following refult :

Silica 75EO
Lime 10.00
Magnefia 4.58
Oxyd of iron 3-54

Inflamm. particles 5.02

-———

98.14

Flint-flate appears to pafs over nto Lydian ftone, into
horn-{tone, quartz, and particularly into clay-flate ; fo that
when feen in fmall fragments, it is often difficult to feize
its diftinguifhing charaéters. It is found in various parts
of Germany, Bohemia, Silefia, in Bareuth, the kingdom
of Saxony, the Hartz, Palatinate, Salzburg, &c.; and, ac-
cording to Mr. Jamefon, in various parts of the great tract
of tranfition rocks in the fouth of Scotland. he geo-
gnoftic relations of flint-flate are not well afcertained, and
indeed it is difficult to affign it a proper place among the
rocks. It is generally found in huge, cliffy, and craggy
mafles, particularly on granite and clay-flate, and more
frequently as beds in tranfition, clay-ftone, grauwacke, and
grauwacke-flate. From the obfervations of fome geologifts
it would appear that flint flate is, in many cafes, to be
referred to the tranfition rocks of Werner; and, according
to Freiefleben, the fpecimens in Lafius’s colleétion of rocks,
which by this author are deferibed as varieties of trapp,
belong to the tranfition flint-flate; whence its occurring
as angular fragments in:grey-wacke, and as rounded pieces
in the old red fand-ftone can be no matter of furprize,
Mott frequently, however, it occurs in the fhape of
boulders, on plains, and in the beds of rivers.

Fiinr is ufed, in our military fervice, ‘for the purpofe
of affixing into a vice made'at the top of the cack of amuf-
quet, or piltol lock ; fo that when impelledagainft a piece
of fteel, called the hammer, it may itrike fire, and ignite
the gun-powder contained in a pan, coricealed by the bam-
mer, until the latter is forced backwards on a pivot, by the
great force with which the cock Rrikes againft it ; when it
not only produces fire, but, ‘by ‘its ‘peculiar form, direés
the {parks towards the priming in'the pan.

Fimts are eafily adapted to'this purpofe ; thofe great
maffes which are ‘fotind chiéfy’ in ehalky “foils, being
broken by hammers, yield a numiver of wedge-like pieces,

of

FLIN T.

of which the fides are trimmed to the proper width, and the
tacks brought into a proper form, which fhould be rather
concave. This concavity 1s, however, very little attended
to, but is of great fervice, fince it embraces the ferew of
the vice, and caufes the flint to retain a much firmer hold
than when its back is made either ftraight, or convex ; the
latter is a great fault, but is commonly overlooked.

The proper fizes for flints are as follow ; for a mufquet,
one iach ard five-eighths, for the length, with a width of
an inch and a quarter; the thicknefs at the back one-third
of an inch, and the tapering to be rather fudden than
gradual, fomething like the end of a chifel. Such flints fit
well in the vice, being previoufly laid in a bed of thin fheet-
lead, or for want of it, in ftout leather. The edge of a
flint, thus formed, is far lefs fubje& to fplinter, than where
the angle is more acute. It may perhaps be objeéted, that
a thin edge ftrikes fire better than a thick one; but that
will be for only a few rounds; whereas the thicker edge
refifts better, and preferves an equable facility of {cintillat-
ing for a long time. All military men muft know that
nothing is more adverfe to the operations of a regiment,
than the neceffity (which too often occurs in confequence of
the proper form not being {ufficiently attended to) for
men to quit their ranks for the purpofe of either hammering,
or changing their flints. To the brave man fuch a neceflity
is painful, as well as dangerous, while to the lefs refolute
it ferves at leaft for a pretext to pafs into the rear, or
eventually to relinquifh his polt altogether.

A carabine flint fhould be one inch and a quarter in
length, by one inch in width ; that for a piftol, fuch as is
ufed among our military, ought to be rather more than an
inch in length, by three quarters in width. In fixing them
into the vice, great care fhould be taken that their left fides
pafs down clear of the barrel, which they would otherwife
hack very much, and be themfelves fubjeét to fplinter,
while the cock itfelf might, by being unduly checked, be
fnapt at its neck.

When flints have acurve, they fhould always be fo fixed
in the vice, as to give the curve a downward direétion ;
fince, in that way, they a¢t more forcibly, and offer the
greateft refiftance. Straight flints, after being fo far
rounded as to vield no {parks, when their chamfered fides
may have been uppermoft, may be again rendered fervice-
able by being reverfed, fo as to bring their flat fides upper-
molt. Soaking flints in water reftores them partially, pro-
bably by fupplying them with hydrogen, but in a very
{mall degree, and that net permanently.

The beft flints are fuch as, when acted upon by fteel, pro-
duce ftrong lafting corrufcations, which emit .a fulphureous
{mell, and are fufficiently large to leave fome little ftain on
tiflue paper, or on fine lint. Such will not only be found
‘to yield a'certain fire, but to break up admirably under the
hammer employed to reduce them to {plinters, and to fit
them for the foldier’s ufe. On the contrary, however
clear, black, and'firm a flint may appear, if its {parks are
not vivid, and highly fulphureous, it ought to be at onee
thrown afide.

The hardeft flints being generally the beft, experiments
were made with agates, cornelians, &c. all of which pro-
duce beautiful fparks, but, being extremely brittle, could
mot be brought into general ule; however, in. fituations
where they are obtainable, and where flints are not to be had,
they become valuable fubftitutes. Various attempts have
been made to produce flints by means of compofition ; but
fuch have always proved vitreous, and confequently weak
both in fubftance, and in the produétion of {parks. We
cannot conclude this article without itrongly: recommending,

that more attention be paid at our arfenals to the rejection
of flints of defeQive form and quality,

Flints are generally packed in fmall cafks, called half-
barrels, each of which contains,

Number qrs. lbs.
Mufquet flints 2000 weighing 2 14
Carabine do. 3000 2 10

Piftol do. 4000 7M

The tonnage of this article is computed at 28 kegs of
mufquet-flints- to occupy 18 cwt. and so kegs of pittol-
flints to occupy 3 cwt. 2 qrs. which our readers cannot
fail to obferve by no means correfponds with the foregoing
table of contents.

Firnts, in the Glafs-trade. The way of preparing
flints for the niceft operations in the glafs-trade is this.
Choofe the hardeft flints, fuch as are black and will refift the
file, and will grow white when calcined in the fire. Cleanfe
thefe of the white cruft that adheres to them, then calcine
them in a ftrong fire, and throw them, while red-hot, into
cold «vater ; wath off the afhes that may adhere to them,
and powder them in an iren mortar, and fift them through
a very fine fieve ; pour upon this powder fome weak aqua
fortis, or the phlegm of aqua fortis, to diflolve and take
up any particles of iron it may have got from the mortar ;
ftir this mixture feveral times, then let it reft, and in-the
morning pour off the liquor, and wah the powder feveral
times with hot-water, and afterwards dry it for ufe. You
will thus haye a powder for making the pureft glafs; as
perfe&tly tine and faultlefs, as if you had ufed rock cryftal
itfelf. Cramer’s Art of Afiaying Metals, p. 438.

The wathing off the ferruginous particles with aqua
fortis is not neceflary when the glafs intended to be made
is to be tinged with iron afterwards; but when meant to
be a pure white, this is the method that will fecure fucceds.

Fiints, the {mall, fharp, hard, vitrifiable ftones which
often abound in foils of the more thin, poor kinds.

Fruints, oil or liquor of, a name given by fome-to a pre-
paration made of four ounces of flints, calcined and powdered,
and mixed with twelve ounces of falt of tartar ; thefe being
melted together in a large crucible, by a itrong fire, run
into a glafs, which quickly and {trongly attra&s -moifture
from the air, and is entirely foluble in water, except a very
{mall portion of earthy matter ; this glafs, being afterwards
powdered and fet in a cellar, runs into an oil per deliquaum ;
with this and the calx of any metal is prepared one of the
metallic vegetations. If any acid be added to the liquor of
flints, fo as to faturate the alkali, the flint, which was kept
diffolved in water by means of this alkali, will be now pre-
cipitated in the {tate of a fine earth, which earth is entirely
foluble by acids.

Fit Walls. See Watt.

Fuint Nodules, in Geolagy, are a phenomenon of a curious
and important kind, when their regular difperfion through
the chalk ftrata are taken into coniideration, as weil as the
fingular and fomewhat-regular fhapes which they aflume.
The great affemblage of chalk-ftrata which form the upper-
moit but two of the aflemblages of {trata in Britain, as far
as\is yet known, (vz. the London-clay and Bagfhot-fand,
abounds with'thefe nodules in about the upper half thereof,
called the upper or flinty chalk,.while the under part,
called the lower or hard chalk, has few if any flints occurring
in it, and’thefe, at its upper part, if fueh do occur. Itis
well afcertained, ‘that none of the chalk ftrata are entirely
free of minute grains of filiceous or gritty matter in them,
whence the-ufe of chalk or whiting ia {cowering tin, filver,
and other -veffels arifes ; and modern obfervations by Mr.

‘Smith and:his pupils have fhewn, that where the layers of

fliats

Fal

fints moh abound, or ate neareft together, as they are near

to the top of the whole feries, that there the intervening
beds of chalk are moft fie or foft, as well as the whitett,
and that from thefe fituations it is, that the writing chalk

ufed by carpenters, &c. and the belt for the manuta¢ture

of whiting for lime for the platterer’s ufes, or for chalking

land by‘the hufbandmen, ‘are taken. It has further been

obferved, that as the flints decreafe in quantity, in defcend-

ing the chalk feries, that more filiceous grains appear in the

chalk itfelf, until the flints ceafe altogether, and the lower-
chalk commences; which lower chalk is much harder, more

Jike lime-{tone, and is more filiceous, which properties

feem to render it preferable for the common purpofe of

mortar-making, than the fofter chalks. This hard or

inferior chalk, ufed for lime-burning in Bedfordfhire and

the adjoiaing counties, is called hurlock ; and it is obferved,

«that the beds of this hard chalk become more hard and
compact in defcending the feries, as was a few years ago

vifible to travellers in the cutting of the new road down

, Ruddle-Hill, a mile from Dunftable, and as may again be
fhewn, if the tunnel which has been propofed under the old

: road for ayeiding the inconvenient bend aceafioned by the
- new one, fhould be carried into effet. The hard chalk or
. hurlock continues to increafe in its filiceous qualities
until near the bottom of the feries, where it becomes a

free-(tone, which is in great repute there, under the name

» of Totternhoe-ftone, which has a fharp and fine grit, and
: inftead of being lime-ftone, poffeffes the properties of a
fire-flone, under which denomination the ftone of this ftra-
tum is brought to the metropolis from Ryegate, Godftone,

and other places on the fouthern fkirt of the North Dawns

of Surry. Thus it appears, that filiceous or flinty matter

abounds in the chalk, through the whole feries, from the
fand flrata which lie above it (at Croydon), to the fand

ftrata which lie below it (at Ryegate) ; but it is in the

upper part of the chalk feries collected into nodules and

layers of flint, and in the lower part of the feries is diftri-

. buted in the mafs of chalk.
It feems probable, from the obfervations of Mr. Parkin-

. fon, and other late obfervers, that the flint nodules of the
chalk flrata, or great part of them, owe their origin, or

rather perhaps occupy the place of the Aleyonium and

. others of the zeophytic tribes of the primitive creation.
. The vaft number of hollow tubes in flint, which we meet

with in the chalk pits at Harefield, near Rickman{worth, .

_ Herts, and other places, though often miftook for petritied

» bones, {eem tous to be remains of the coralline tribe.
Achini ave often found among the flint nodules of the chalk
flrata, fome of them large and rather of arude fhape, com-
pared with the delicate workmanfhip obfervable on many of
echinus; this kind are found in vaft numbers in the chalk-
pits, about Brandon in Norfolkg and are ufed in building
walls and houles, in a neat and very fingular ityle.

FLINTSHIRE, in Geography, a county in» North

Wales, bounded en the fouth and weft by Denbigh- .

_fhire; on the north by the Lrifh fea; and on the north-eaft
is feparaied from Chefhire by the eftuary of the Dee. At
an eurly period this. diltriét formed a portion of the coun-
try to which the Romans gave the appellation of Ordovicia ;
the inhabitants of which fo eminently diltinguithed them-
felves in their pertinacious refiltance to the Roman aris.
Subfeguent to the Romans leaving the ifland, it long con-
flituted the territory known to the Britons by the name of
Deheubarth; and feveral trong cattles {till remaining, thew
it was formerly a fcene of fanguimiry contention. In the

time of Henry VIII, when Wales. was incorporated with «

England, this was made one of the tix counties of “North

FLT

Wales. This county‘extends in leiéth 33 ‘miles, afd fh
breadth from 8 to 9, containing abotit 1 66,<00 acres of land,
of which, according to the report to the Board of Agricul-
ture, only 20,000 are in an arable ftate, 116,000 under
patturage, and the remainderin a {tate of wafte. ‘The prin-
:cipal rivers:are the Dee; which rifing in Merionethfhire,
after running through-Denbighthire, wathes this county,
and is navigable from Cheiter to the fea. “The Clwydd has
its fource in Denbighthire, and; running in # northerly direc-
tion, is jomed by the Alan below St. Afaph, and falls into
the Irifh fea. It is alfo watered’by the Sevion, the Wheel-
er, anda few {malier ftreams. The face of the country is
much lefs diverfitied than: any other Welfh coynty.” A
ridge of low hills rifes abruptly on the north-eaftern part ‘of
the county from the Dee, and, running parallel with that
river, terminates at the fea. The vale of Mold isa rich
level country, and the vale, or ratlter valley of Clwydd, has
has been long celebrated for its pi€turefque beauty. The
northern part is champagne, and abounds with corn; the
vallies confit of an argillaceous foil, -and are produétive in
grafs. The cattleare fimall, but confidered excellent milch-
ers. Quantities of honey are annually produced, which
the inhabitants manufaéture into a Kind of wine called Me-
theglin. he hills are barren, but are internally rich, con-
taining free-ftone, lime-ftone, coal, lead, copper, and cala-
mine, the ores of which are fmelted, and the metals exported
via the port of Cheiter. The county politically is divided
into five hundreds, wiz. Colefhill, Maylor, Mold, Preftayh,
and Rhyddlan, comprifing one city, St. Afaph, ‘one bo-
rough, Flint, and four other market towns, viz. Caerwys,
Caergwrle, Mold, and Holywell ; and twenty-eight parifhes,
23 of which are in the diocede of St. Afaph, atid five in that
of Chefter. By the returns made under the population a& to
parliament, im 1801, the number of houafes was 7585, and
inhabitants 39,622 ; out of which number it appeared 10,332
were occupied in the labours of agriculture, and 6989 em-
ployed in trade. Many of the latter find employment in ~
tue mines and {melting-houfes, and others in the linen trade,
a manufactory of which was, by the patriotic exertions of
Mr. Fitzwilliams, introduced into the county, and has fince
{pread, and is at prefent in a flourifhing ftate. The county
is reprefented by one member in the Britifh fenate.
FLINTY Graves, are fuch gravelly foils as contain a
large proportion of flints in their compofitions. They are
met with in many fituations. tee Oy
Fuintry Sojls, all fuch as are conftituted with a large
dal aaa of flinty eat Thefe foils are moftly thin,
and of no‘very great fertility. The avail i
fituations. See Seas ; dn ~ eed”
FLIP, a fort of failor’s drink, made of malt liquor, bran-
dy, and fugar, mixed. ; i : Wi
_ FLISSINGCUE, in Geography, a {mall ifland or fortrefs
in the Kait Indian fea, a little to the weft of Am-
boyna. ; at
FLITTER-Mouse, in ‘Zoolg
PERTILIO. ihe /
FLIX, in Geography, a {mall town of Spain, in Cata-
lonia, formerly defended by a caftleon an eminence, but
now dilmautled, peninfulated by the Ebro; 8 leagues above
i Tortola, ear the cataraét of that river. ecw arian
Vurx Weed, in Botany, afpecies of water-crefles, which
grows in uncultivated places, and by the fide of foot-ways
-in many parts of England: it flowers in June, and the
feeds, which ripen in Augutt, are greatly recommended by
sfome fot the gravel and retention of urine.
“‘FLIZE, in Geography, atown of France, in the depart-

5 Hier E orl Seeivhs-

ment of the Ardennes, *and chief place of a canton jn the

diftri&

re aes (CO

#iftriG of Mezierés, feated on the Meufe; 5 miles S.E, of
Mezierés. The place contains 92, and the canton’ 5362
inhabitants, on a territory of 155 kiliometres, in 26 com-
munes.

FLOAT, or Freer. See Frora, and Freer.

Froart of a fifbing-line, &c. See Visutnc-/foat.

Froar, fometimes called catamaran, alfo denotes a cer-
tain quantity of pieces of timber, joined togethér with rafters
athwart, thrown into a river to be conveyed down the flream ;
and even fometimes to carry burthens down a river with
the ftream. The invention of floats is of great ufe ; it is
faid to have been firft put in execution at Paris in the year
1618: (See Boar.) The term alfo fignifies to turn water
upon meadow-land, with the view of dreffing and improving:
it. And it likewife implies the paring off the furface, turf,
or {ward of grafs lands. See Rarr. 5

Froat, in Lnginecry, fignities a low or fhallow boat,
often called a dirt-boat, ufed in the repairs of canals 3 which
fee. See Frartrs. : :

Froar-Loards, thofe boards fixed to water wheels of un-
derfhot mills, ferving ‘to receive the impulfe of the
ftream, whereby the wheel is carried round. Sce Water-
WHEEL. : x ;

It is a difadvantage to have too great a number of float-
boards; becaufe, whien they are all ftruck by the water in
the beft manner it can be brought to at againft them, the
fum of all thefe impulfes will only be equal to the impulfe
made againft one float board at right angles, by all the
water coming out of the pen-ftock, throughthe opening,
fo as to take place on the float-board. The beft rule in this
cafe is, to have juft fo many, that each of them may come
out of the water as foon as poflible, after it has received and
acted with its full impulfe ; or, which comes to the fame
thing, when the fucceeding one is in a perpendicular direc-
tion to'the furface of the water. As tothe length of thefe
float-boards, it may be regulated according to the breadth
of the'ftream. See Defaguliers, vol. ii. p. 425.

Froat Grafs. See Festuca.

Froat-Ore, in Mining, or fhoad-ore, fignifies, in fome
places, the fame with ftream-ore, or that found alluvial in the
bottoms of vallies, as tin often is in the valleys in Cornwall.

Froar-flone. See Quartz.

FLOATAGES. See Froraces.

FLOATING Bopies. On ihe Stability and Equilibrium
of Floating Bodies —Althoughthe general principlesrelating
to this fubje& will be confidered in their proper order under
the articles Fruips and Specific:Graviry, yet there are a
few interefting theorenis more particularly belonging to
floating bodies, and which, forming a fubje& of themtelves,
feem to merit attention in this place. ,

Taking for granted the elementary principles of hydro-
ftatics, as previoufly eftablifhed, we fhall examine the cafes
in which floating bodies are in equilibrium, when that equi-
librium is ftable, and when ‘tottering or unftable. In every
fyftem of bodies, whether floating in fluids or aéted on by
the force of gravity, there are two ttates of equilibrium, en-
tirely diftin&t. - In one, if the equilibrium be ever fo little
deranged, the bodies which compofe the fyitem only ofcils

Yate about their primitive pofition, and -the equilibrium: is

faid to be firm or ftable. This ftability is abfolute if it
takes plaee, whatever be the nature of the ofcillations ; it
is relative if it only takes place in ofcillations of a certain

kind ;in the other ftate of equilibrium, if the fyitem be

ever fo little deranged, all bodies deviate more and more, and
the fyttem, inftead. of having any tendency ‘to- re-eltablith
itfelf in its primitive pofition, i¢ overfet, and aflumes a new
polition, entirely different from the farmer, te
qgik

FLO

We may form a juft conception of thefe two ftates, by
fuppofing an ellipfe placed vertically on an horizontal plane :
if the ellipfe is in equilibrium on its {maller axis, it is evi-
dent that, upona flight derangement, it willtend to regain
its original pofition, after feveral {mall ofcillations, which
will foon be terminated by the fri€tion and refiftance of the
air ; but if the ellipfe be placed in equilibrium on its greater’
axis, if once it deviates from this pofition, it will continue’
to deviate more and more, till it fisally turns itfelf on its
leffer axis. Inthe above example there is this remarkable
circumftance ; the four pofitions of equilibrium of the
ellipfe on the extremities of its two akes are alternately
ftable and unftable ; and this takes plaee in every cafe. For
fuppofe two pofitions of {table equilibrium to take place in
any body, and fuch that there does not exift between them
any pofition of the fame kind, if the body is placed in one
of thefe-pofitions, and is made to deviate from it, and to
approach the other, according as this deviation is greater or
lefs, the body will either return to its original ftate, or will
arrive at.the other pofition. There will evidently, therefore,
be fome intermediate pofition in which the body will neither
tend towards one or the other of the former, but will re-
main at reft: but this ftate of equilibrium will be unttable,
fince, if the body be made to deviate ever fo little towards
one of the other pofitions, it will neceflarily arrive at it.
Hence it appears, that if a body turning round a fixed axis
pafles through feveral pofitions of equilibrium, they will be
alternately ttable and unftable.

’ The itability of a floating body is the greater as its cen-
tre of gravity is lower than that of the difplaced fluid, or
as the diftance between thefe centres is encreafed; it is for
this reafon that ballaft is putin the lower part of veffels to.
prevent them from being overfet. :

The nature of the equilibrium, as to ftability, depends
on the pofition of a certain point, called the meta-centre, or
centre of preffure. ‘The term was firlt adopted, we believe,
by Bouguer, in his Traité du Navire.

W hen‘the meta-centre is above the centre of gravity, the
equilibrium is ftable ; on the contrary, when the meta-centre
is lower than the centre of gravity, the equilibrium: is tot-
tering ; when the meta-centre coincides with the centre of
gravity, the body will remain at. reit in any pofition it is
placed in, without any tendency to ofcillation,

The determination of the meta-centre, and of the nature
of the {mall ofcillations ofa floating body about its primitive
pofition, isa problem of confiderable importance.

Laplace gives the following rule for determining whetlier
the force which folicits the fyftem tends to reitore.it to the
fame ftate again, when deranged from its primitive pofition.

«If, through the centre of gravity of the fection of the
furface of the water on which a body floats, we conceive a
horizontal axis to pafs, fuch that the fm of the produés
of every element of the fection, multiplied by the {qaare of
its di ‘ance frem this axis, be lefs than relatively to any other
horizontal axis drawn through the fame centre ; the equili-
brium will be {table in every direction, when this fum fur=
pafles the product ef the volume of the difplaced fluid, by
the height of the centre of gravity of the body above the
centre of gravity of this volume.” :

This rule is principally ufeful in the conftruion of
veflels which require fufficient {lability to enable them to
refift the effects of ftorms, which tend to fubmerge them

Ina fhip, the axis drawn from the ftern to the prow is
that relative te which the fum above-mentioned is a mini-
mum ;:it is eafy therefore to afcertain and meafure its: itabi-
lity by the preceding rule.

In order that a floating bocy may remain in equilibrium;

it

FLOA

i¢ is alfo necefflary that its centre of gravity be in the fame
vertical line with the centre of gravity of the difplaced fluid,
otherwife the weight of the folid will not be completely
counteraéted by the preflure of the difplaced fluid.

When the lower furface of a floating body is {pherical or
cylindrical, the meta-centre mutt coincide with the centre of
the figure, fince the height of this point, as well as the form
of the portion of the fluid difplaced, muft remain invariable
in all circumftances. The place of the meta-centre is deter-
mined by the deétrine of Forces combined with the ele-
mentary principles of hydroflatics, by confidering the form
and extent of the furface of the difplaced portion of the
fluid compared with its bulk and with the fituation of ils
ceitre of gravity. According to Dr. Young, if arectangu-
lar beam be fleating on its flat furface, the height of the me-
ta-centre abuve the centre of gravity will be to the breadth
of the beam as the breadth to twelve times the depth of the
partimmerted. Hence, if the beam be {quare, it will float
fecurely when either the part immerfed, or the part above
the furface is lefs than 2.4, of the whole, but when it is lefs
unequally divided by the furface of the fluid it will overfet.
If, however, the breadth be fo inereafed as to be nearly one-
fourth greater than the depth, it will poflefs a certain de-
gree of ftability, whatever its denfity may be. Plate VIII.
Hydraulics, fig. 1, taken from Dr. Young, is intended to
iluttrate this.

Two fquare beams floating at the depths fhown at A and
B, will have a certain degree of ftability, but if they fink,
as at C, they will overfet ; but a beam of the breadth fhewn
at D will always float fecurely.

Theory of the Stability and Ofcillations of floating Bodies. —
When a floating body is in equilibrium, if it be deranged
from this {tate by any caufe whatever, it is the object of
this inveltigation to determine the circumikances in which it
will return to this ftate, or continue to deviate more and
more from it.

In the ftate of equilibrium (fig. 2.), the ftraight line
G O, which joins the centre of gravity G, of the body
DFE, to the centre of gravity O, of the difplaced fluid
AFB, is vertical. Let this line be taken as the axis of
2; (fee Force, where this method of analyfis isexplained).
If the body be deranged, this line GO becomes inclined,
and O is no longer the centre of gravity of the difplaced
fluid a F 4; the derangement is here fuppofed intinitely
{mall ; the:plane of x and y isttaken us horizontal, and pafling
through G, the axis y is* projected asa poant in-G, Gx
is the axis of x. AB reprefents the floating Jurface ma
ftate of equilibrium, @ é in its new polition; the co-ordi-
nates y are fuppofed parallel to the axes of thefe furfaces,
which feparate the immerged part of the body from that
which is above the fluid; this axis may be called the axis of
the floating furface : it.is projeéted on the;point'C. The
point O may be ‘placed lower than G, without changing
ary of thefe confiderations. The figure fuppofes a body
not homogeneous, but having the inferior part artificially
rendered {pecifically heavier than the fluid, as in’the.cate of
fhips. The angle aC. A=6= GOW is fuppofled
infinitely fmall; fo that we may imagine the elementary
folid A Ca as formed by the, revolution of the furface
AC, round the axis C of the floating furfaee. The
fame may be faid of BC 4; ¢ q', and.pp', are-the pro-
jections of the arcs defcribed by the centres of gravity of
Bey A G:

Negleéting the vertical motion of the body, we may con-
filer a F 4 as equal to AFB; fo that the portion
A Ca out of the Huid is equal to the part B.C 4, which
isimmerged in it. If it were otherwife the weight of the

TING.

body would no longer be equal to the preffure of the fluid;
and thefe two forces ating on C would produce a vert cal
motion in the body; befides which it would turn round C
as a fixed centre ; and as this Jaft motion is independent of
the firft, andthe only one which we are to invelligate, this
hypothefis fimplifies the queftion by confining it te the
latter motion only. The expreflions, therefore, for the
volumes A Ca, BC 4, are to be made equal, that is,
AC x pp' = CB x gq’; and fince the momenta of
the areas AC and BC are equal with refpect to the
axis C, the centre of gravity of the furface A B, or a 4,
is fituated on this axis. ‘The equilibrium being difturbed,
we are to confider the motion which the body will take.
Let'G O =a, the volume A-F B = a¥b='5; alfo
fine § = 6, col. 6 = 1.

The preffure of the fluid on the immerged portion @ F 4
is equal to the weight of the difplaced fluid; this force acts
on the centre of gravity of a F'4, and fince it is the pofition
of this centre which is to determine the motion of the body
about the point G, its pofition mult be determined by taking
the momenta relatively to the planes x z, y x.

aFb+ aCA isthe fame as AFB +CBAS; andit
can be fhewn, that confidering the volumes a F 4, aC As
as concentrated im their refpeCtive centres of gravity, as
likewife thofe of AFB and C B4é, and taking their
momenta relative to any plane, their momenta will be equal.
Let them be taken relatively to the plane y z, or the plane
perpendicular to the figure, and then AF B x GV =Sa;3
fin.6 = Sa, is the momentum of AF B, fuppofed con-
centered in O.

CBé x gi will be that of CBZ, becaufe g differs
but an infinitely {mall quantity from the extremity of the
vertical pafling through the centre of gravity of BC 4.

Likewife, aC A x if, will be that of aC A,

Let g 2 be the projeétion of the vertical paling through
the centre of gravity of a@F 2, then a af xGa=S8*x
will be the momentum of a F'4, fuppofing Gu = x. The
momentum of aC A fhould be taken with a contrary fign
from.that of ‘a F J, fince the weight and the preflure tend
to make them revolve in contrary direGtions round the axis
y- Hence

Sx—ACaxip=Sa9+CBb xgi,
andSx =Sa4 +CBdb xX pg:

To determine the centres of gravity of the elementary
portions ACa, BCé, we muit divide the fum of the
momenta of their elements by their yolumes; let any ele-
ment, «, be taken of the furface A C, whofe diftance from
the axis of the floating body C is», then 9p is the arc of
rotation of A C round this axis, or the height of the little
elementary parallelopiped which it deferibes; 9 p « will equal
its volume, 4 f*« its momentum relatively to a vertical plane
pafling through C; 4 / (;° +) is the fum of thefe momenta,
theretore, § /(p°*) = ACa x Cg.

In the fame manner will be obtained Ccb x € q3 and
by addition BCd x pg = 66; b* expreiling the mo-
mentun of inertia of the area A B relative to its axis,
which momentum is politive and-known, <fince this axis is
parallel to that of y, and pafling through the centre of gras
vity of AB; lattiy, the abfeifla Ga of the preflure of the .

fluid is
sash

The momentum of the volume A FB is politive, only
becaule the centre of grayity O of the difplaced fluid is
more elevated than that of the body. If, on the contrary,
the point O had been loweft, the perpendicular GV would
have fallen on the -eppolite fide, then the momentum of

AFB

FLQ

A YB would have tended to turn in a contrary direction,
and we fhould have had

— ( —a+t z ) 9.
The general formula is therefore x = ( 2 + a) §; the

fign + for the cafe of the centre of gravity of the body
being lower than that of the fluid, the fign — for the
contrary.

The co-ordinate x being thus determined, it now remains
to determine y.

We have alreadya F54+aCA=AFB+CB4,and
taking the momenta relatively to the plane of xx, that of
aF bisSy, that of A F Bis zero, ince the centre of gravity
O isin the plane x z ; we have. therefore only to eftimate
thefe of the two elementary fections.

Jet us fuppofe that the ordinates of their refpetive
centres of gravity in the direétion of the axes of y are
pofitive, the element «taking upon C B gives the elemen-
tary parallelopiped §»:,p denoting its diftance from the
plane x z5 4p:r denotes its momemtum; the fum of thefe
momenta is therefore 4 /(p:r), obferving that their figns
mult vary with tue fign of r, that is.as thefe elements are
fituated on one or the other part of the plane of xz, the
momentum of BC 4 is therefore $f (<r): a fimilar ex-
preffion will be obtained for a C A, but with a contrary
fign, fince the preffure relative to Bed anda F d atts
evidently in a contrary direCtion to the weight of A Ca:
this negative expreffion, tranfpofedon the contrary fide of the

6
equation, becomes pofitive, hence Sy =9 /(«pr); and y = ¥

(<pr). The fymbol /denotes the integration relatively to
the whole floating furface, and of a right line which is the
interfection of this furface with the plane of x z, it may
therefore be confidered as known, but it is not neceflarily
pefitive, like / (<p) fince the elements vary with their figns ;
therefore the co-ordinate y of the meta-centre may become
either pofitive, negative, or zero with /(<)r). If the body
is cut fymmetrically in two equal parts by the plane of x z,
J (epr) =o and y=a, and the co-ordinate x of the centre of

gravityis given bythe formala found above, x = (st a) 4

When x =o, the centres of gravity, and the difplaced
fluid, are in the fame vertical G x, therefore the equilibrium
fubfifts in the new pofition of the body: this happens

E ‘ e in &
when a, being negative, a=% but when this is not the
cafe, as the preffure of the fluid as upwards, it is evident
that when x is pofitive, the body tends to reeain its
former pofition, and the equilibrium is then {table ; this
happens when a is politive, or when a is negative, and at
2

the fame time lefs than Bs Finally, if a is negative, and

Be!
lefs than, x is negative, which denotes that the centre

of gravity of a Fis on the other fide of the vertical
G x, the :preflure of the fluid then caufes the body to
~ deviate more and more from its original pofition, and the
equilibrium is tottering or unitable. This point in the
axis of x, which is met by the preflure of the fluid, is called
the meta-centre, and hence is derived the theorem. men-
‘tioned-above. That a floating body is ina table equili-
brium when the meta-centre is above the centre of gravity
of the body, that the equilibrium is un{table when the meta-
centre is below, and that when the two centres coincide
Vou. XIV.

FLO

the body has no tendency to ofcillate, It is evident
that the point g is more or lefs elevated than the point G,
or coincides with it according as the value of G a is politives
negative, or zero.

We fhall conclude this article with the following theorem
from Dr, Young, which will ferve to illuftrate the preceding
theory.

If a floating body have its fe@tion made by the furface of
the fluid a parallelogram, its equilibrium will be flable or
tottering, accordingly as the height of its centre of gravity
above that of the fluid difplaced is {maller or greater than
one-twelfth of the cube of the breadth, aeaad Be the area
of the tranfverfe vertical fe€tion of the immerfed part.

Let the body be inclined in a {mall degree from the
pofition of equilibrium ABC into the potition DEF;
then the triangles GHIJ and K HI will-be equal, fince
the area of the feGtion immerfed mult remain conflant, and
G K and IL will ultumately bife& each otherin H. Now
the ¢entre of gravity of the feGtion ILE is the common
centre of gravity of its parts 1 H M F and LH M, making
KM= GI; but N, the centre of gravity of LH MB, is
in the line HF, bifeGting it, andthe common centre of
gravity may be found by making N O parallel to H K or
HL, inthe fame ratio to the diftance of the centre of gra-
vity of L H M from H, that LHM bears tol F L. Now
the diftance of the centre of gravity of any triangle from
the vertex is two-thirds of the line which bife&s the bafe,
that is, in this cafe, 3 H K, and the area of the triangle
LHM isHK. KP; therefore NO: 2 HK: Ke
KP: LFI, NO=" —— but drawing O Q vere
tically through O, NO: NQ:: KP: HK, and NQ=
IN Oc: Hee 2K cobine 4 DE luicnb-

PS SS Seth. ae OE ape
centre of gravity be in Q, the body will remain in its
pefition in any {mall inclination; fince the 1efult of the
preflure of the fluid aéts in the dire@tion O Q; if the cen»
tre of gravity be below Q, it will defcend towards the
line Q O, and the body will recover its fituation ; if aboye
Q, the body will overfet ; hence the point Q is fometimes
called the centre of preffure, or the meta-centre. The
ae may be eafily accommodated to bodies of other
orms.

Froatinc-bridge, a bridge confifting of feveral boats
covered with planks; which ought to be fo folidly framed
as to bear both horfes and cannon. See Baince.

FroatinG-iflands. See Istanns.

Froatine Meadows, in Rural Economy, the practice of
overflowing them with water in order to the improvement
of their crops. See Mranow, and Watering Lanp.

Froatinc Vofil. See Boat, Vessru, &c.

FLoatine Upwards, an old term ufed in watering lands,
where large dams for keeping up the water were had re~
courfe to:

FLOBY, in Geography, atownof Sweden, inthe province
of Weft Gothland ; 51 miles N. E. of Gotheborg.

FLOC, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Drontheim ;
48 miles E. N. E. of Ramfdal.

FLOCK, a number of theep kept together under a fhep-
herd. Flocks are fometimes diftinguified into the paiture,
and mountain kinds,

Frock, Sefting of, the practice of calling and forting the
different Kinds of ftheep-ftock. © It is’ afially had re-
courfe to amnually for lambs, where fheep ‘hulbandry is ‘ex -
tenfive. , F

Frocn-Paper,

If therefore the

See Parte.

40 FLODAY,

FLO

FLODAY, in Geography, one of the {maller Weftern
iflands of Scotland. N. lat. 57° 40’. W. long. 7° 13’.

FLODDAY, another of the above-mentioned iflands.
N. lat. 57° 31/.. W. long. 6°.

FLODOARD, or Fropoarp, in Biography, an
ecclefiaftic and hiftorian, was bern at Epernai, in Cham-
pagne, in 894. He was educated at Rheims, and was ap-
pointed keeper of the archives in the cathedral, and after-
wards canon. He had-other preferments, and in 936 was
deputed to pope Leo VII. by whom he was kindly
received. At length he became an abbot of a monaflery in
the diocefe of Rheims. An attempt was made, in 951, to
place him in the fee of Noyon, but without fuccefs. . In
963 he refigned his abbacy, and devoted himfelf to pious
exercifes. He is known as an author by “ A Colleétion of
Hittories in Verfe,?? containmg the triumphs of Jefus
Chrift and his difciples, and the abridged hiftory of all the
popes down to Leo VII. and of the moft illuftrious faints,
&c. He wrote alfo “A Hiftory of the church of Rheims,”
and * A Chronicle comprifing the Hiftory of the Times
from 919 to 966.”?_ Moreri.

FLOETZ. See Fvierz.

FLOGEL, Cuarctes Freperic, in Biography, a
learned Silefian author, was born at Jauer, in December
1729. Inthe year 1774 he was appointed profeffor of
philofophy in the academy of Leignitz, and died in March
1788, at the age of 59. He left behind him many able
works, among which was “‘ A Hiitory of the Human Un-
derftanding,’”? and “A Hiftory of the prefent ftate of
Belles Lettres in Germany.””? He had read a great deal,
and poffefled an extenfive knowledge of the hiftory of lite-
rature, as well as of philofophy and other fciences. He
was highly efteemed on account of his integrity and agree-
able difpofition, and his memory has been immortalized by
his excellent works. Gen. Biog.

FLOGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Tonnerre; fix miles S.E. of St. Florentin.
The place contains 339, and the canton $367 inhabitants,
on a territory of 155 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

FLOHA, atown of Germany, in the circle of Erzge-
burg; fix miles E.N.E. of Chemnitz.

FLOHAU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz ;
eight miles S. of Saatz.

FLON, 2 river of France, which rurs into the Arly,
abouta mile S.W. of Flumet.

FLONE, or Frorn, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ourthe ; eight miles §.S.W. of Liege.

FLONHEIM, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle; 12 miles E.S.E. of Crantz-

nach.

FLOOD, a deluge or inundation of waters. See De-
LUGE.
Froop is alfo ufed in {peaking of the tide. See Tipe.

When the waser is at loweft, it is called flood; when
rifing, young; or old flood; when at higheft, high flood ;
when heginning to fall, ebb-water... ”

Froop-mark, the mark which the fea makes on the
fhore, at flowing water, and the higheft tide: it is alfo
called high-water mark.

Froop Sand. See Sanv. rs

Fioop-gate, among Engincers, fignified a gate or
fluice which can be opened or fhut at pleafure to retain or
give paflage to the water of a river liable to be {wollen by
floods. Flood-gates are neceflary in many fituations upon
rivers where the water is retained for the fervice of mills,
canals, navigations, docks, &c.; in thefe only a certain

FLO

quantity of the ftream can be employed, and the furplus in
time of a flood mutt be fuffered to efcape by another paf.
fage. or inftance, in the cafe of mills upon a large and
rapid river, the ftream of water is intercepted by a weir
erected acrofs it, and penned up the proper height to obtain
a fufficient fall for the mill, which is fituated by the fide
ofthe river, with a channel leading from aboye the weir, to
convey the water to the mill, whilit another conduéts it into
the river below the weir. In ordinary times this arrangement
is fufficient, for whenever the mill is not in aétion, the
water which would otherwife pafs through it, flows over
the weir, and efcapes into the river below. Now if the fud-
den falling of rain, or melting of fnow, cavfes a flood in the
river, it often happens that the length of the weir is infuf-
ficient to vent the torrent of water coming down; and with-
out fome contrivance anfwering the purpofe of a flood gate,
to give paflage to the water, it becomes penned up many
feet above the crown, or highett level of the weir, inun-
dating the lands adjacent to the channel, above the’ weir.
If the river is provided with a proper flood-gate, it as,
when open, in the fame manner as removing a part of the
weir, and allows the water to pafs down quietly without
rifing much above the level which is common in ordinary
times. From this, the ufe of a flood-gate will be compre-
hended ; navigable rivers, which are penned up to form
locks, require flood-gates, which are applied in the fame
manner as before-mentioned.

Flood-gates may be conftruéted in various forms ; but it
is indifpenfable that they fhould be capable of being
opened or fhut during the time when a preflure of water
is acting againit them. Small gates are always made to flide
up and down ina groove in the manner of a fluice ; fome
very confiderable rivers are furnifhed with anumber of fuch
{mall draw-gates, which open a great extent of water,
when drawn up. Inthe molt extenfive works it is neceflary
to make ufe of a different kind of gate, which can be
opened or fhut with greater eafethan a number of fhuttles,
and which will lay open a more extenfive paflage ; for in
violent floods itis not uncommon for large trees, bufhes, hay
ricks, thatched roofs of low buildings, é&c. to be brought
away by the torrent; and if the food-gates have any ob-
itruction, thefe matters accumulate before the paflage, and,
when the flood lalts long, frequently choak up the gate,
and the water overflows its banks. To ayoid fuch accidents
is the ftudy of the engineer in conftru@ing works of this
kind ; the late Mr. Smeaton defigned feveral flood-gates, in
which the preflure of the water was balanced, fo that the
gate at any time could be opened or fhut with eafe, even
while the preffure of the water was-aGting againit it on one
fide only. Figures 5 and 6 of Plate XV. Mi/cellany, isa plan,
and fig. 2. an elevation of this contrivance ; A A B B repre-
fents a channel made through the weir, or, if more conve-
nient to fuit the local circumftances, it is made by the fide
of the river, leading from aboye the weir to below it ; this
channel mutt be fubftantially built in mafonry to refift the
violent aétion of the water rufhing through it when the
gate is opened ; in fome convenient part of this paflage a
{tout beam C is placed acrofs the bottom,;.and another, D,
acrofs the top, both firmly bedded in mafonry ; thefe fup-
port the gudgeons of the vertical axis E of the gate F F.
When this gate is turned fo as to prefent its edge to the
current, the water has free paflage by it, and on the other
hand, when it is placed perpendicularly acrofs the channel,
the whole of the water is detained : the axis of the gate is
placed fo as to pafs very nearly through the centre of
preffure of the fuperficies expofed to the ation of the wa-
ter; and as the preflure of the furfaces on each fide of the

axis

td

FLOOD-GATE.,

asis aét to turn the gate in contrary direCtions, they balance
each other, and the gate may be turned with fcarcely any
other refiltance than the friction of its gudgeons. The gate
‘mutt neceffarily be framed exceedingly itrong to bear the
‘great weight of the water ating againft it, without
yielding. G, H, are two ground-cills firmly bolted down
upon the floor of the conduit and the piles which are
beneath it ; one of the arms of each of thefe cills fupport
the gate when fhut, and the other arms fuftain it when open,
.as is clearly fhewn by the figure ; thefe muft be very firmly
_fixed to avoid any danger of the gate remeving them; one
_of the upright fides of the gute is fupported by falling into
_a recefs made in the mafonry of the conduit, and to keep
_the other fide of the gate up to its cill, a lever. called a vallet,
which is in the form of a triangle I K, and moves upon a
vertical axis placed in a reeefs inthe mafonry fo as to be out
of the way of the gate’s motion, when placed in the pofi-

other pofition it aéts as a lever to clofe the gate, being
‘drawn tight by tackle, and afterwards lafhed by a {mall
line to the beam D, The gate is retained fhut, but can be
_ opened inftantaneoufly by cutting the line ; and as the gate
.1s made rather larger on the fide of the axis where the
vallet is placed, that it may have a tendency to open when
releafed by the preponderating preffure on one fide. The
gate in queftion is 15 feet in height, and the fame in breadth ;
when open, it allows two paflages of 15 feet by 6 feet

of a capftan and blocks, for which purpofe eye-bolts are
provided on the proper points of the gates and beam D.

and from its fimplicity is not very liable to be deranged,
as before mentioned ; for large rivers the principal objet is,
to open a great extent of water-way, which will admit the
paflage of large bodies brought down by the ftream ; Mr.
Smeaton’s gate above mentioned, as the axis is always in the
channel, would be liable to be choaked by trees, &c.; for
this reafon large fluices or fhuttles are very generally
adopted, though the great power and expenfive machinery
required to raife fuch gates are an objectien.

A flood-gate lately ereéted by Mr. Bramah is the moft
perfec in this refpe&t of any that we have met with ; it is
raifed (on the hydroftatic principle which he has fo fuc-
cefsfully applied to many other ufeful purpofes) with fuch
facility, that a paflage 19 feet wide, and ro feet high, can
be opened by one man in 15 minutes, and this when the pref-
fure of 10 feet of water is acting on one fide only. Fig. &. is

_ an elevation of this gate, and fig. g. an horizontal fection ;
_tion at fig. 5, leaving the gate at liberty to open; in the .

A, A, reprefent two large beams which are partly received
into the mafonry of the conduit ; the lower ends are framed
into a ftrong ground-cill B, and the upper ends conuetted
by a framing ; this forms a frame in which the gate rifes
and falls: it is guided in its motion by two iron plates a, a,

. bolted to the fides of the gate, forming a groove, as fhewn
_in the plan. T'wo {quare pieces of calt iron, denoted. by 4, 4,

,and the dark fhading in the plan, are bolted againit the

-infide furfaces of the beams A, A, and received into the

. grooves of the gate, to confine it to move-in a vertical di-
3 inches in width ; the gate is to be fhut by the application _

oe AIS gate, though very proper for large rivers where ,

a watchman mutt be in conftant attendance to open and fhut
it when neceffary, is not-fo applicable as a common {fluice
to a {mall mill-dam, where, if a fudden flood occurs in the
night, the miller muft rife to open the gate ; and, unlefs he

‘

conttantly attends to fhut it when the flood fubfides, the .

mill-dam may be emptied and the water loft, which he
. would wifh to referve for the enfuing day. Great com-
plaiuts are frequently made in the country of lands being
overflowed in the night when the miller is not in the way
to open his flood-gate; to remedy this a felf-acting flood-
gue would be defirable, and we beg leave to fuggeft the
ollowing. Let AA, fe: 7. be a gate fimilar to the one
before mentiened, but of {maller dimentions, and poifed upon
a horizontal axis pafling rather above the centre of preflure
of the gate, fo as to. give it a tendency to fhut clofe: aa is
.a lever fixed perpendicular to the gate, and connected by an
iron rod with a cafk 2 floating upon the furface of the
water, when it rfes to the line.B D, which is affumed as a
, level of the weir or mill-dam BC E F, in which the flood-
_grate is placed; by this arrangement it will be feen, that
_when the water rifes above the dam, it floats the cafk,
opens the gate, and allowing the water to efcape until its
furface fubjides at the proper level BD; the cafk now acts
_by its weight, when unfupported by.the water, to clofe the
_ gate and prevent leakage; the gate fhould be fitted into a
. of timber H K, which is fet in the mafonry of. the
“dam, the upper beam. H of the frame being jutt level with
the crown of the dam,.fo that the water runs over the top
,of the gate, at the fame. time that .it pafles through it; to
revent the current difturbing the cafkc it is connected by a
mali rod ¢ at each end to the upper beam H of the frame,
_and jointed in fuch a manner as to admit of motion in a, ver-
tical direCion. :

_ This flood-gate would be very ufeful in mill-dams of
{mall dimenfion, which are therefore liable te be fuddenly
everflowed, for being felf-ating, it requires no attendance,

fen

rection: thefe pieces of iron-have cylindrical chantbers

- through them, as fhewn by the {mall white circles in the

plan, to admit two polifhed iron cylinders d,.d, attached te
the end of the upper rail D D of the ornamental. framing
on the top of the gate; aclofe fitting is made round the
cylinders d,d, by leathers.confined with fcrews to prefs
againit them at the top of the iron barrels, fo that no fluid
can pafs out of the chamber in the barrels 4,4; ¢,¢, in the
plan, are two {mall pipes communicating with the chambers
at the bottom of each barrel, and thefe pipes,are united at

_f; proceeding to a pump, by which water is injeéted into

the two chambers together ; and as this fluid is incompref-
fible, it follows that the cylinders d, d, mutt be forced out
of their re{pective chambers railing up the gate. As the
area of the pump is much lefs than that of the cylinders,
and as it fupplies two of them, it follows that the motion

_of the pifton of the pump will inje@t fuch a quantity of

water as, when diftributed into the two chambers, producesa
very {mall protrufion of the cylinders ; it is on this princi-
ple of the differences of the two motions that the power Is »
gained: the area of the. pump in the prefent inftance is
«7854 of a {quare inch, and the cylinders about 7.07 {quare
inches, or nine tifnes as much; by this means a power is
gained in the two cylinders equal to 18 times the force
exerted upon the pifton of the pump, whith being moved
by a lever multiplying the power ten times, the power of
a man applied to the pump is increafed 180 times ; fo that
a weight of roolbs, applied to the lever, will raife 18,002 lbs.
on the pifton rods.

The pump may be placed at any convenient diftance
from the gate, a {mall copper tube. only half an inch
diameter conducting the water into the cylinders; in many
{ituations this will be extremely convenient, as it obviates
the neceflity of an expenfive fcaffold or framing over the
gate, which is indifpenfable in other fluices to ae the

labourers and,the machinery for drawing up the gate; the
pump is explained by Ags. ro, and 14. on a much larger {eale

than the other parts; 4 is a ciftern containing water, and ithe
pump-barrel fixed perpendicular in it; the plunger oy piltong
is folid, and leather packed round it ia a manaer fom thing

4Q2 timtat

FLO

Similar to the cylinder; it is‘confined to a rectilinear motion by
Sliding through a fixed focket / at the upper end, and in the
middle it has an opening to admit of a lever m, by which
the pump is moved ; it is connected with the rod by a
coupling rod within the opening, which allows its devia-
tions from the reétilinear motion; the pump has two valves,
the one is fituated in the bottom of the barrel at x, and the
other in the pipe beneath 0; its aétion is fimilar to the or-
dinary force pump, inhaling the water into the barrel when
the pifton is lifted up, and expelling it through the pipe f
when forced down ; at p is a tteel-yard and weight acting
upon a fmall valve, which permits the efcape of the water
if the preffure fhould be fo great as to endanger the rupture
of the pipes when the gate is lifted up to the top of its
frame ; hence it is termed the fafety-valve : it fhould never
‘be loaded with a greater weight than will keep the valve
fhut againft a fufficient preflure to elevate the gate. Atr
is a cock which difcharges the water from the pipe into the
ciftern, and permits the defcent of the gate. To refift the
great preflure of the water againtt the gate, it is ftrengthened
by three trufled frames, reprefented by #,4,4, in the
elevation, fig. 8. and in the plan; each trufs is an iron rod
attached to the gate at each end, and fupperted in the
middle by a block, which anfwers the purpofe of a king-
poft: the rods can be drawn tight by iron wedges pafliug
through the gate ; therefore it is evident that in this ftate
the gate cannot yield to the preflure of the water, unlefs one
rod is fhortened and the other ftretched ; thefe frames ren-
der the gate fo ftiff that it does not fhew any figns of weak-
nefs when the preffure atts againft it; the truffles are placed
nearer together at the lower part of the gate, where the
greateft ftrength is wanted.

The limits of our plate do not allow us to do juttice to
the precife and more minute parts of this admirable inven-
tion, but as thefe will again come under our notice in the
article Press, Hydroflatic, we refer the more complete elu-
cidation of the pump, mode of packing the cylinders, &c.
to the plates belonging to that article. It fhould be no-
ticed, that the gate reprefented in ourafigure is intended to
admit the paflage of loaded barges beneath it, and is there-
fore much higher in the frame A A than would be necef-
fary for flood-gates in all fituations; it weuld form a mott
excellent fluice for clearing out harbours from mud, as the
torrent of water it lets out would be much more effective
than three or four of the {mall fluices at prefent in ufe.

Froop-bridge, fignities a low bridge conftructed for the
towing-path of a canal, over a weir or over-fall for difcharg-
ing fuperfluous water. See Canat.

Froop-/ock, fignities a tide lock, or that epening into
the fea, era tidal river.

FLOODING, Profluvium Sanguinis, in Surgery, may be
applied to any unnatural or profufe difcharge of blood, but
it is ufually confined to preternatural difcharges of blood
from the uterus. The mo{t common of thefe are proflu-
vium menfium, or an increafed difcharge of the menftrual
flux, (fee Menses), or thofe difcharges of blood from
the uterus, which precede, and not unfrequently occafion
abortion. (See Anortion.) The hemorrhage alfo, which
follows a partial ‘or total feparation of the placenta from
the uterus, if profufe, whether it takes place before or
afterthe birth of the child, is called a flooding. Flooding
is fometimes, though rarely, occafioned by falls or blows,
and fometimes by ulcers, polypi, or other difeafes of the
uterus, In all cafes of flooding the patient fhould be con-
fned, as much as conveniently may be, to a recumbent
pofture, the body fhould be kept cool and open, and a few
$poorfuls of the infufion of red rofes fhould be given two

FLO

or three times in the day, adding to the portion given at
night from five to ten drops of the tinéture of opium.

Froopine Land, in Agriculture, is the practice of
flooding, or cee grafs lands with the water of rivers,
&c. at particular feafons. In this mode the water is
fuffercd to remain upon the ground tor a confiderable length
of time, which is quite different to that of irrigation, in
which it conftantly runs off as faft as it is brought upon
the land. This method has probably been introduced in
confequence of obferving the fertilizing effects that take
place after pafture lands have been overflowed with water
for fome time inthe winter feafon. This plan of watering
is of vaft importance in mofly meadows, even where the
water ie perfectly clear and free from any material that is
capable of being depofited.

In preparing lands for being flooded, there are two
circumitances that mutt be particularly regarded, namely,
firft to lay them as level as poffible, either by dividing
them into different levels, or any other means; and fecondly,
to convey the water upon them in the moft fafe and con-
venient manner for the cultivation. of the furrounding
grounds, In fandy or mofly lands, this is often not accom-
pipe without confiderable difficulty. See Watering

AND.

FLOOK of an Anchor. See Ancuor.

FLOOKING, in Mining, a term ufed to exprefs a
peculiarity in the load of a mine. The load or quantity of
ore is frequently intercepted in its courfe by the crofling
of a vein of earth or ftone, or fome different metallic
fubftance ; in which cafe the load is moved to one fide,
and this tranfient part of the load is called a looking. See
Fautr.

FLOOR, in Building, the under-fide ofa room, or that
part on which we walk, or perform different operations,
uch as threfhing, drefling, and meafuring grain, &c.

Floors are of divers forts ; fome of earth, fome of brick,
others of ftone, others of boards, &c.

Carpenters, by the word floor, underftand as well the
frame-work of timber, as the boarding over it. The fup-
porting timbers are called naked flooring, which fee. The
boarding is alfu of different kinds, as batten floors, common
boarded floors, dowelled floors, and ftraight-jointed floors,

For brick and flone-floors, fee PAVEMENT.

For boarded fioors, it is obfervable, that the carpenters
never floor their rooms with boards, till the carcafe is fet
up, and alfo inclofed with walls, left the weather fhould
injure the flooring. Yet they generally ‘otigh:plaie' thelr
beards for the flooring, before they begin any thing elfe
about the building, that they may fet them to dry and
featon, which is done in the moft careful manner. This
operation fhould be performed for at leatt one year, fo
that the natural fap may be thoroughly expelled. The
beft wood for flooring is the fine yellow deal well feafoned,
which, when well laid, will keep its colour for a long
while ; whereas the white fort becomes black by often
wafhing, and looks very bad, “The battens ufed for floor-
ing are of three kinds: the beft is that free.of knots,
fhakes, fap, and crofs grained fibres, well matched. The
fecond beft is that in which only ‘fmall, but found knots are
permitted, and free of fhakes and fap. The third and
common kind is that which remains after taking away the
beft and fecond bet. .

With refpect to the joints of flooring’ boards, they are
either quite {quare, or plowed and tongued, or rebated,
or dowelled. In fixing them, they are either nailed’ upen
one or both edges. ‘They are always neceflarily nailed
upon both edges when Square jointed, without be ah i

en

,

FLO

When they are dowelled, they may be nailed on one or
both Edzet, though one edge only is neceffary ; and in the
beft dowelled work there are no brads or nails feen whatever,
the outer edge being faftened by driving the nail obliquely
through the wood, without piercing the upper furface ; fo
that the floor, when planed off, appears without blemith.

In laying boarded floors, the boards are fometinies laid
‘one after the other; or otherwife one is firft laid down,
then the fourth, leaving an interval fomewwhat lefs than the
Breadth of the fecond and third together. The interme-
diate boards are next laid in their places, with an edge of the
fone upon the edge of the firft board, aud an edge of the
third upon the inner edge of the fourth, and the two mid-
dle edges together, which will form a ridge; to level which,
‘two or more workmen jump upon it, till they have made
the under ‘furface coincident with the joifts, then they are
jailed down in their places. The ‘operation is called fold-
ing floors, and the boards are faid to be folded. ‘his mode
is only taken when the boards are not fufficiently feafoned,
ertutileied to be fo. -In order to make clofe work, it-is

obvious that the two edges forming the joint of the fecoud
and third boards mufl make angles, with the faces, togéther
lefs than two ‘right angles, or cach one of each board lefs
than aright angle. The feventh ‘board is fixed as the
fourth, and the fifth and fixth inferted as the fecond and
third, and fo on till completed. In this kind of ‘flooting
the headings are generally fquare or fplayed.

When floors are dowelléd, the regulating line for the
centre of the dowels fhould ‘be drawn from'the lower fide,
which, as has been obferved, ought to be ftraightened on
purpofe. The diftances to which'the dowels are fet, are
from fix to ‘eight’ inches, generally-one over each joilt, and
one over each inter-joift.

When it is neceffary to have a heading joint in the length
of the floor, it fhould always be upon a joift; one heading
joint fhould never meet another. In dowelled floors ‘the
heading points are always plowed and tongued.

In common floors the boards are adzed on the lower fide,
in order to bring them to a thicknefs between rebated
edges. In doing this, great care fhould be taken fo-as not
to make them too thin, which is frequently the cafe; they
mutt then be raifed with chips, which is a very unftable re-
fiftance to a preflure upon the floor. The manuer of mea-
furing floors is by fquares of ten feet on each fide, fo that
taking the length and breadth, and multiplying them to-

ether, and cutting off two decimals, the content of a floor

In fquares will be given. Thus 18 by 16 gives 288 of
2 fquares atid 88 decimal parts.

’ Froors, Earthen, are commonly made of loam, and
fometimes, efpecially to make malt on, of lime, and brook-
fand, and gun-duft, or anvil-duft from the forge; the
whole being well wrought up and blended together with
‘plood. The fiftings of lime-ttone have alfo been found
highly wleful when ‘formed into floors in this way.

Ox-blood:and ‘fine clay, témpered together, fir Hugh
Plat fays, make the’ fineft floor in the world. The *prin-
cipal objeét in ‘conftruéting floors of this nature is that
of. blending and incerporating the different fubftances in
a full and perfe& manner for fome time’ before they are
‘laid; and when that is done they fhould be repeatedly’ beaten
down and rendered perfe&tly fmooth and even,

‘The manner of making earthen floors for plain country
habitations is as follows. Take two-thirds of'lime, and
one of ‘coal afhes well fifted, with a fmall quantity of
loam clay ; mix the whole together, ‘and ‘temper it well
with water, making it up into a heap: let it lie a week
or ten days, and then'temper it over again. 'A\fter this,

7

FLO

heap it up for three or four days, and repeat the tem-
pering very high, till it become {mooth, yielding, tough,
and gluey. The ground being then levelled, lay the floor
therewith about 24 or 3 inches thick, making it {mooth
with a trowel: the hotter the feafon is the better; and
when it is thoroughly dried, it will make the beft floor for
houfes, efpecially malt-houfes.

If any one would have their floors look better, let them
take lime made of rag-ftones, well tempered wich whites
of eggs, covering the floor about half an inch thick with
it, before the under flooring is too dry. If this be well
done, and thoroughly dried, it will look, when rubbed
with a little oil, as tranfparent as metal or glafs. In elegant
houfes, floors of this nature are made of ftucco or of
plaifter of Paris beaten and fifted, and mixed with other
ingredients. Well wrought coarfe platter likewife makes
excellent fafe upper-floors, for cottages, out-houfes, &c.
when neatly fpread out upon good ftrong laths or reed.
See Praster-F/oor.

Froor ‘of a fbip, ftri@tly taken, is only fo much of her
bottom which the refts'‘on, when aground.

Such fhips.as have long, and withal broad floors, lie on
the ground with moft fecurity, and are not apt to feel, or
tilt on one fide; whereas others, which are narrow m
the floor, or, in the fea-phrafe, cranked by the ground,
cannot ‘be grounded without danger of being over-turned.

Froor-timbers, in a Ship, are thofe parts of a fthip’s
timbers which are placed immediately acrofs the keel, and
upon which the bottom of the fhip is framed; to thefe
the upper parts of the timbers are united, being only a
continuation of floor-timbers upwards.

Foor, in Mining, or fole, thill, or pound ftone, fignities
the bottom of the work in a mine, or in coal-mining,
the ftratum immediately under the coal-feam; which if
foft, the upper part of it for fix or cight inches in height
generally is ‘holed in,” as the colliers call it, that is, the
fame is picked out in order to undermine or loofen the
coal, but if the floor be hard, as clunch is, the holeing or
picking isthen made in the bottom or fome inferior bed of
the coaiitfelf, in order to under-go or give room for wedging
down the blocks or webs of coal. In examining and com-
paring the finkings of the numerous coal-pitsin Derbythire
and Nottinghamfhire, Mr. Farey lately difcovered, what
feems likely ta prove a general and important geolo-
gical fact, viz. that the floor of every coal is a fire-ekay,
more 6r lefs thick, more or lefs perfe&t in its infufible
property, and more or lefs indurated ; fometimes being
in a foft or duétile ftate, when it is called floam, fpavin,
fire-clay, pipe-clay, (ifwhite,) potter’s-clay, brick-elay, &c.
at'others, in an indurated er almoft ftony ttate, but which
it quickly lof s and falls to clay, on expofure to the atmo-
fphere,’ in which cafe it is called clunch, which is the nanie
that the floor of coal moit generally bears. This new fa&
appears to throw a great degree of light on the new theory
of the formation of coal, near the end of our article
Cotriery, by rendering it probable that the growth of the
fabaqueous beds of -vegetables there fpoken of were pros
duced by this peculiar fubftance as their foil or pabulum.

Froor, a fuperticial meafure of 400 fquare feet or
docking, is a fquare whofe fide is 20 feet, and occurs in the
facing of the fen-banks, and in other works on the fens of
Cambridgefhire and Norfolk, &c.

Froor, afolid meafere of 400 cubit feet, or a fuper-
ficial floor, one foot thick, ufed in mieafuring the pits dug
to obtain earth for forming the banks againft the tide or
rivers in the fens on the eafterm coaft, (Smeaton’s Reports,
Yol. ie ps 330.)

Froog

FLO

Froor isa term applied to the pits, which are dug
in the fens, to furnifh ftuff for making their banks, by
the cubic meafurement of which the bankers are paid.

FLOQUET, SreruenJosern, in Biography, a French
mutical compofer, whofe firft preduction for the lyric
theatre was fo fuccefsful as to merit a record, having
fapported an hundred reprefentations always with the
fame applauf , and crowded audience ; this piece, whichis
called a ballet, written by Mont. le Monnier, is entitled
* The Union of Love and the Arts,” (1’ Union de ? Amour
et des Arts), was performed in 1773, when the mutic of
the old fchool began to fade. This was the year preceding
the arrival of Gluck, and a year betore Piccini was in-
‘vit-d to Paris, which divided the nation into two furious
mulical faétions, as hoitile to each other as thofe in
England enlifted under the banners of Bonongini and
Handel. Sacchini’s tender and graceful {trains had not
yet been heard; it feems therefore as if there mutt have
been merit of fome kind or other to captivate, without
‘cabal, a whole ‘nation. Floquet was born at Aix in
Provence, 1750; and was the firft mufical author that
was called for by the audience to be crowned, and to re-
ceive on the ftage their approbationin perfon. A mafs of
his compofition was performed in the cathedral at Aix
before he was eleven years old. In 1774 he fet another
. opera, which not having the fame fuccefs as the firit, he
determined to travel into Italy te receive inftructions
from the moft able mafters of that country, and obtained
them for fome time at Naples, under the celebrated Sala,
the worthy fucceflor of Durante, and matter of the
Confervaterio of la Pieta; which had furnifhed the mufical
art, and all Europe, with. fo many great matters. On
quitting Naples he went to Bologna, and had the further
“adyantage of receiving. inftruétions from the profound
father Martini, the zreateft theorift that Italy has ever
produced. A Te Deum, a due Cori, of his compofition,
was performed at Naples with great fuccefs; and he was
-admitted of the Philharmonic Society at Bologna ; it is
however known, that to be received into that academy, it
is neceffary for a candidate to give proofs of his abilities
three feveral nights; but M. Floquet performed all the
feveral exercifes the fame evening, and compofed in two
hours and a half, on caito fermo, a f gue in five parts,
and the verfe cruc fixus of the credo; a that he was im-
mediately received unanimoufly. On his return ro France,
he compofed the opera of Hellé, performed in 1778,
but which had no fuccefs ; not but that the mufic. mani-
fefted the progrefs which the young Floquet&had made
in-his art; but from the badnefs of the words enfued a
total want of intereft in the fubjeét. This compofer was
ill advifed by friends to attempt giving meaning to a drama
fo deteftably dull. We advife him to be more cautious
in future in the choice of his words, and will venture to
an{wer for his fuccefs. Laborde, 1780.

FLORA, in Mythology. See Froraves Judi.

Fora, in Botany, is very generally applied as a title to
books whofe profeffed objeé&t is to enumerate, define, or
fully defcribe the wild plants of any. particular country or
diftri&. Publications of this kind, with which the botani-
cal library at the prefent day abounds, are not lefs various in
their {cope than in their merits. Some are mere catalogues,
difpofed either in alphabetical or fyftematic order, while
others are compleat hiftories of the plants they enumerate,
refpecting not only their botanical chara&ers and diftine-
tions, but alfo their {cientiic hiftory, and even that of ani-
mals conneéted with them, as well as their actual or proba-
ble ufes and qualities. Of this Jatt kind, the Flore Lap-

‘

FLO

ponica of Linnaeus, publifhed at Amfterdam in 1737, in ene
volume 8vo. with 12 plates, and republifhed at Londen in
1792, is a tranfcendent, asd hitherto unrivalled example
Of the former. fort, it would be invidious to cite inftances,
nor ought even the moft humble attempts of this nature to
be difcouraged, however they may have been affeétedly def-
pifed by pedantic, but lefs praétical, writers. The moft ef-
{ential difference in the real.merits of {uch works confifts in
their degree of originality and authenticity. A {mall cata-
logue, the firft attempt of its kind, fuch as How’s Phy-
tologia Britannica, printedin 1650, or Franckenius’s Specu.
Jum Botanicum, firt pubhthed at Upfal in 1638, however im-
perfect or incorreét, ought to rank far above compilations
which only purfue a plain, well-trodden track, without af-
fording any additional difcoveries or illuftrations, fuch as
the moit beaten. path will yieldto a real obferver. Of this
no more {triking example can be given, in a purely botani-
cal work, than the Flora Germanica of Prof. Schrader,
the firft volume of which, comprifing the firft three of the
Linnean clailes, though publifhed at Gottingen in 1806,
has only juft reached our country. This book, as far as
we have been able to ftudy it, is unrivalled for original and
accurate de(criptions, faithful well-ftudied fynenyms, and
acute as well as candid criticifm. Decandolle’s. new edition
of Lamarck’s Flore Francai/e is a work of fimilar merit.
Haller’s Hiforia Stirpium Helveticarum, publifhed in three
vols. folio, in 1768, with fome exquifite engravings, is one
of the mott celebrated Floras, in which the fubjeét is treat-
ed with that enthufiafm which gains the reader’s heart ; but
its fynonymy and references are extremely incorre&. Of
the merits of Curtiss unfinifhed FYora Londinenfis we have
already {poken; fee Curtis, Ray’s Synopfis, the only
Britifh Flora which ranks above it, is as far as the original
author goes, a truly excellent and nearly faultlefs publica-
tion. His own labours we have moft cerreé in the 2d. edi-
tion, publifhed in 1696; the 3d, as is remarked under
our biographical article DitLentus, being extremely faulty,
though commonly ufed, and even the plates added by its
editor, quoted as the work of Ray.

We beg leave here, being not unufed to the perufal, nor
indeed the compofition of tach works, to offer a few re-
marks of a practical tendency.

It is in the firft place effential that the author of a local
Flora fhould be refponfible for the identity of the plants he
enumerates, and the places in which they are faid to grow,
either on his own authority, or that of fome perfon or an-
thornamed. If any ob{curity attends the determination of
a {pecies, it is his indifpenfible duty, either by a figure or
minute defcription, to place his own plant at leaft out of
all doubt, if he has not accefs to opinions or authorities
which may decide his fynonyms in other writers. In this
particular, Relhan’s /Yora Cantabrigienfis, Sibthorp’s Flora
Oxonienjis, and Abbot’s Flora Bedfordienfis, have their
appropriate value. Nor is Lightfoot’s Flora Scotica. at all
inferior as to the enumeration or determination of fpecies,
for which its author was favoured with peculiar advantages.
The great fault of the laft work, which ought ever to be re-
probated, is the compiling defcriptions from various authors,
without mention of the quarters whence they are derived,
which do not certainly belong to the fame plant, though
thofe authors happen. te have called it by the fame name.
This is the fault of Withering’s Botanic Arrangement of
Britith Plants, where widely difcordant defcriptions, from
foreign writers, are.often brought together te determine a
Britith {pecies.; but in this excellent writer there is no de-
ception, all his authorities being properly acknowledged.
Another very blameable, practice, which we wilh to expose

Ss , to

FLOR A. 7

tojuft cenfure, is copying fynonyms from Linnzus or fome
ether author, fuppofed of authority, without ever turning
to the books cited to fee whether their figures or defcrip-
tions anfwer to the plant intended to be illuftrated by them.
This has been but too common, as a matter of courfe, nor
are fome of our bett Englifh writersexempt from it. The
practice is detected by occafional errors of the prefs which,
exifting in the oiiginal, are transferred to the copy. Thus,
there is hardly an error of the prefs in Ray’s or Linnzus’s
citations of former authors, that is not exa¢tly copied in
the Flora Anglica of Hudfon, who was otherwile a practical
and accurate botanift. For inftance, under 4/i/ma Dama-
fonium the quotation of Bauhin’s Hiforia fhould be p. 779;
but Dillenius in Ray has it 789, and fo has Hudfon;
under drenaria rubra marina the fame author is erroneoufly
cited, after Dillenius, 772, but it ought to be 720; un-
der Sedum rupeffre Hadion, copying Dillenius in Ray’s
Synopfis, refers to Petiver’s tab. 41, whereas it ought to be
42; for Spergula eel Linnezus refers to Dodonzus
p- 527, fo does Hudfon after him, but the right page is 537 5
under A/arum europeum Hudfon quotes Gerarde as calling
it Afarum vulgare, an error taken from Dillenius, for Ge-
rarde calls it only Afarum. Even the Flora’ Londinenfis is
not exempt from this fault, of which one inftance will fuf-
fice. Under Lobelia urens, fafc. 6.t. 63, Morifon p. 407
is cited, though the proper page is 467, the error being ob-
vioufly copied from Hudfon, who took it from Linnzus’s
Species Plantarum, in both editions of which, and in the
Vienna copy of the fecond, the fame error exifts, as well as
in Willdenow’s Sp. P/. v. 1. 947, no fuch miftakes being
ever correéted in the laft-mentioned publication. In like
manner, ever the great Gaertner, fo profefledly critical of
Linneus, under Aigilops ovata quotes, after the ‘Species
Plantarum, Dodon. Pempt. 73, whereas the proper page is
539.—The deteétion of only a fingle fault of this fort in an
author, overturns our confidence in his whole fyftem of fy-
nonymy ; for how are we to know whether he has judged of
a fynonym for himfelf or not? except indeed by fearching
out the paffages which no other writer cites.

To avoid the fault we have juft been expofing is in every
body’s power. ‘There is another lefs eafy to avoid, and
more common, though more excufable, that of copying

enerie or ipecific definitions, or defcriptions, without ac-
Faswledgenbat: Since ‘the prevalence of the 'fyftem of
Linneus, and the great popularity of his works, thofe who
have written Tloras, or Catalogues of Gardens, have gene-
rally implicitly adopted his definitions, at leaft his generic
ones, fcarcely prefuming to fuppofe they could be incorre&.
Some miftakes having thence arifen, which the introduction
ef the Linnean herbarium into this country firft led us to
correct, the duthor of the Flora Britannica judged it ue-
ceflary to bring every definition to the teft of examination,
fuch being one of the few means left him, after the labours
of fo many able preceding botanifts, to render his work im-

ortantly ufeful. With regard to fpecies indeed, Mr. Hud-
on, when he found the Linnean {pecific charafters not ac-
cord with his own plants, very properly, and often advan-
tageoufly, reformed them, but he by no means detected
every errer of this kind. On the other hand,’ too great a
propenfity to correét and reform fhould not lead us,‘in cafes
where one idea or expreffion is as good as another,’ and cer-
tainly preferable, from being already adopted, to make al-
terations merely for the fake of fhewing our zeal ; for it is
very probable w- may alter for the worle, though our felf-
love will make us the laft to perceive it. : ;

Tis leads me to confider the fubje& of fyftem, or me-
thodical arrangement, which the writer of a F/ora fhould well

confider before he aims at diftinétion by any reformations in
that department. Hewould be wife, in the firftt place, to adopt
the moft popular and eafy fy ftem, and hence moft perfons have
followed that of Linnzus. Some excellent and original writers
in this line have chofen methods of their own, which, from
their ftrangenefs or imperfeétion, have depreciated their
works, and rendered them far lefs popular than they de-
ferved ; as Villars in his Flora of Dauphiny, -Aliioni in his
Flora Pedemontana, Gerard in his Flora Galloprovincialis,
and seen the firit edition of his F/sra Carnizlica, though
in the fecond he wilely adopted the Linnzan arrangement.
Whether the fyftems of thefe writers poffefs any merit or
not, nobody thinks it worth while to enquire. The reader
revalts at them asa perpetual inconvenience. A Flora is
too limited a theatre for the difplay of a new botanic fyitem,
and we expeét a different kind of information from it, which
itis the writer’s duty to give us in the eafieft moit intelli-
gible form, without troubling us to learn a new language
on purpofe. In early times indeed, before any fyftem was
regularly eftablifhed, it became leading botanifts, like Ray,
to attempt to teach the world fome {cientific principles ; but
even this great man condefcended, in his firit catalogue of
Britifh plants, to ufe an alphabetical arrangement, as did a
{carcely lefs excellent writerin this department, Magnol in
his Botanicon Mon/pelienfe. An alphabetical arrangement
is, at any rate, unexceptionable, not proving a hindrance,
if it affords no {cientitic aid. ;

Some Fioras, befides {cientific definitions, defcriptions,
or fynonyms, are illuftrated with figures, a very ufeful
though fometimes expenfive: addition; as the Flora Lon-
dinenfis above-mentioned, the £nglife Botany, Jacquin’s
fplendid Flora Aufiriaca, to which the Plante Rariores
Hungaria by Waldftein and Kitaibel are a fort of fequel,
as is alfo the ftill more fplendid Fora Greca, publifhed ac-
cording tothe will of the late profeffor, John Sibthorp of
Oxford. The Flora Danica confifts of little elfe than
plates; which may be had either coloured or plain. The
Flora Roffica of Pallas, intended, by its original patroneis
the emprefs Catharine, to outfhine every work of the kind,
and to be beftowed gratuitoufly on every perfon worthy to
poffefs it throughout Europe, very foon proved abortive,
and became a job in the hands of thofe entruited with its
publication ; nor is the execution of the plates to be com-
mended, they haviag often been coloured from dried {peci-
mens. Of extra-european Fioras illuttrated with plates,
though uncoloured, the Hortus Malataricus of Rheede,
Herbarium Amboynenfe of Rumphius, and the recent Flora
Peruviana by Ruiz and Pavon, are the moit magnificent.
The performances of the Burmanns in this line are but in-
different, though much quoted by Linnezus. The Flora
Japonica of the celebrated Thunberg is valuable for the
novelty of its materials, but nothing can be more rude thaa
his Jcones fubfequently publifhed to illuftrate it. In point
of novelty nothing can exceed the Neve Holmndia
Plantarum Specimen by Labillardiere, full of ufeful, though
not oftentatious, plates, nor is its feienti°c merit inferior
to any. “The elegant Flora Atlantica of his countryman
Desfontaines, with more beautiful plates, though lefs fine
gularity of materials, deferves no lefs commendation.
France at prefent teems with fuperb works of a fimilar na-
ture.

We cannot attempt in the compals of this article to
mention, ftill lefs to do juitice to the merits of, every Flora
that has appeared. We refer the reader to the article
Ficures of Plants for fome remarks conne@ed with
the fubje&t. More particular notice of feveral of the pub-
lieations alluded to, as well as an account ef many jimilar

onee

FLO

anes here altogether omitted, may come underthe Biographi-.

cal articles relating to their feveral authors. S.

FLORAC, in Geography,a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lozere, and chief place ofa diftriG@, near the
Tarn ; 13 milesS, of Mende. N. lat. 44° 19!. E. long, 3° 40'.
The place contains 1,905, and the canton 7,985 inhabitants,
on an extent of territory of 305 kiliometres, in g com-
munes.

FLORAL Lear, in Botany. See Bractea,

FLORALES Luo, or Frorat ganies, in Antiquity,
were games held in honour of Flora, the goddefs of flowers.

They were celebrated with fhameful debaucheries. The
moft licentious difcourfes were not enough, but the
courtezans were called together by the found of a trampet,
and made their appearance naked, and entertained the
people with indecent fhews and poftures: the comedians
appeared after the fame manner on the flage. Val. Maximus
¥elates that Cato being once prefent in the theatre on this
occalion, the people were afhamed to afk for fuch immodett
reprefentations in his prefence ; till Cato, apprifed of the
refervednefs and refpeét with which he infpired them, with-
drew, that the people might not be difappointed of their
accultomed diverfion.

There were ‘divérs other forts of fhews exhibited on
this occafion; and, if we may believe Suetonius in
Galba, c. vi. and Vopifcus in Carimus, thefe princes
prefented elephants dancing on ropes on thefe occa-
fions.

The ludi Floralés, according to Pliny, lib. xviii. cap. 29.
were initituted by order of ‘an oracle of the fibyls, on
the 28thof April; not in the year of Rome 1oxvi. as
we commonly read it in the ancient edition of that au-
thor; rior ’in rox1v. as I. Hardouin has corrected it,
but as Voffius reads it, in 513; though they ‘were
not regularly held every year till after 580. The occafion is
faid to have been ‘this: a famine had lafted three ‘years,
which had been introduced by cold and rainy {prings ; upon
which ‘the fenate, to appeafe Flora, and obtain better crops,
paffed ana& that year, appointing the annual celebration
of thefe games at the end of April, in honour of that
goddefs; which was regularly executed for the future.
They were chiefly held in the night time, in the Patrician-
ftreets ; fome will have it there was a circus for the pur-
pofe, on the hill calléd Hortulorum.

The goddefs Flora is by fome held to be the fame with
the Chloris ofthe Greeks. (Ovid. Fatt. 1. iv.) Others
maintain, (as Ladtantius, Minutius Felix, Arnobius, and St.
‘Auguftin, among the fathers of the church ; and Plutarch
and Macrobius, among profane authors,) that this Flora
was a famous courtezan at Rome, who, having enriched
berfelf by proftitution, made the people of Rome her
heirs, on condition that they fhould celebrate the anniver-
Yary of her birth-day by the games and feafts above men-
tioned. Some time afterwards the fenate, judging fuch a
foundation unworthy the majefty of the Roman people, to
ennoble the ceremony, converted Flora into a goddefs,
whom they fuppofed to prefide over flowers; and fo made
it a part of religion to render her propitious, that it-might
be well with their gardens, vineyards, &c. This is the
common account: but Voffius (de Idolol. lib. i. cap. 12.)
can by no means allow the goddefs Flora to have been the
courtezan above mentioned: he will rather have her a Sa-
bine deity, and thinks her worfhip might have commenced
under Romulus. His reafonis, that Varro, (in his fourth
book of the Latin tongue,) ranks Flora among the deities,
‘to whom Tatius, king of the Sabines, offered.up vows,
before he joined battle with the Romans. Add, that

FLO

from another paflage in Varro it appears, that there were,
priefts of Flora with facrifices, &c, as early as the times of
Romulus and Numa. To which we may add that Pliny
(1. xxxiv. c. 4.) fpeaks of a ftatue of this goddefs by the
hand of Praxiteles, which proves that her worfhip was.
famous in Greece, whence it was propagated to Italy,
Jong before Romulus, who adopted it, when he entered into”
an affociation with Tatius and the Sabines. Moreover, we
learn from Juftin, that the Phoceans, who built Marfeilles,
worfhipped the fame goddels,

FLORAL Games. There is alfo a kind of floral
games obferved at this day in France; @rft inftituted in
1324.

The defign and eftabkifhment were owing to feven perfons
of condition, lovers of poetry, who, about All-faints-day,
in 1323, fent a circular letter to all the Provengal poets,
called Troubadours, to meet at Thouloufe on May-day
following, there to rehearfe their poems ; promifing a prize
of a violet of gold to the perfon whofe piece fhould be’
judged the belt.

The capitouls found the defign fo good, that it was after.
wards refolved at a council of the city, to continue it at the
city-charge ; and this was done ina manner that did honour
to the place

In 1325, a chancellor and fecretary of the new academy
were chofen; and the feven inftitutors took the quality of
maintainers thereof. Two other prizes were afterwards
added to the violet ; viz. aneglantine for the fecond prize,
anda panfy for the third. It was alfo decreed, that the
perfon who bore away the firft prize, might demand tebe
made bachelor: and that whoever bore away all three,
fhould be created doétor in the gay Jcience, that is, in

oetry.

: There isa regifter of thefe games kept at Thouloufe,
which gives this account of their origin; though others
reprefent the matter differently. It was an ancient cuftom
they fay,.for the poets of Provence to meet yearly at Thou-
loufe, to-confer together, rehearfe their verfes, and receive
a prize allotted to the beft performance. This held till
about the year 1540, when a lady of quality left the beit
part of her fortune to-eternize the cuitom, and bear the
expence of prizes; the number of which fhe inereafed,
ordering an eglantine, a panfy, a violet, and a pink: the
three firlt, a cubit high; and worth fifteen piftoles a
niece.

The ceremony began on May-day, with a folemn mafs,
mufic, &c. The corporation attended; and poems were
rehearfed every day: the third day a magnificent treat was
given by the magiltracy, &c. and that day the prizes were
adjudged. The three prizes were the reward of three dif-
ferent kinds of compolitions ; viz. a poem, an eclogue, and
an ode.

FLORALIA, in Antiquity, a general name for the
feafts, games, and other ceremonies, held in honour of the
goddefs Flora. ‘

FLORENCE, in Geggraphy, the capital city of Etrue
ria, (which fee), and regarded as the Athens of modern
Italy, is fituated on the river Arno, at the footof the Apen-
nines. ‘lhe Arno divides it into two unequal parts, over
which there are no fewer than four bridges in fight of each
other, “That called the Ponta della Trinita, is uncommonly
elegant, being built entirely of white marble, and orna-
mented cath eae beautiful ftatues, reprefenting the four
feafons. “The ,quays, the,buildings on each fide, and the
bridges, render that.part of Florence, through which the
river. runs, -by far the fineit. Florence. was firft founded
by the foldicrs.of .Sylla, embellifhed and enlarged by the

~ triumvyirs

FLO

triumvirs, deftroyed by Totila, and rebuilt by Charle-
magne. The environs of this city are beautiful, rich, and

-populous ; containing, as it has been faid, 6900 villas or

country-honfes. The habitations of the peafants likewife
feem to be peculiarly neat and commodious ; the country
all round is divided into fmall farms, with a meat farn.
houfe on each. The circumference of the city is about
two leagues; the fortifications confilt only of a wall and
ditch, with two or three forts which defend it, and com-
mand a part of the town, This city vies, as to beauty,
with Rome itfelf. The buildings are magnificent, moft of
the ftreets clean, paved with fquare ftones, fo as to have
the appearance of a rock made level; they are generally
winding, and many of them too narrow for carriages to pais
each other. They reckon 17 public places, or fquares ;
feven fountains conftantly playing, fix pillars or columns,
two pyramids, 160 beautiful flatues, placed either in the
public fquares, or in the ftreets, or in the front of fome
palaces; one metropolitan church; 12 collegiate, and 44
parochial; 35 convents for men, 60 for women, 27 hof-
pitals, and about gooo houfes. The number of inhabit-
ants is eftimated at eighty thoufand. Florence has been
equally diflinguifhed by a fpirit of commerce, and
for the fine arts: fome of the Florentine merchants
were formerly men of great wealth, and lived in a mott
magnificent manner. Oue of them, about the middle of
the 15th century, built that noble fabric, which, from the
name of its founder, is {till called the Palazzo Pitti. The
builder was ruined by the expence; but the palace con-
tinued to be the refidence of the fovereigns. The gardens
belonging to this palace are on the declivity of an eminence.
On the fummit there is a kind of fort, called Belvidere;
from which, as well as from fome of the higher walks, you
have a complete view of the city, and the beautiful vale of
Arno, in the middle of which it ftands. The pro{ped is
bounded on every fide by an amphitheatre of fertile hills,
adorned with country-houfes and gardens. In this palace
is a library containing about 35,000 volumes, with a great
number of pictures by Raphael, Rubens, Titian, Andrea-
del-Sarto, Tiutoret, Guercino, &c. The Palazzo Vecchio,
or old palace, gontains a room 172 feet long, and 70 wide,

‘for public entertainments, in which the moft. celebrated

actions of the republic are painted by Vafari in frefco ; and

‘in the corners are four capital hiftorical pi€tures by Cigoli

Ligozzi and Paffignani. Thefe two palaces are connected
by a gallery, which prefents an inexhaultible fund of im-
proving amufement in fculpture and painting, to which the
public have daily accefs. In this place was inftituted a ce-
lebrated fociety for the improvement of the Italian language,
called “Academia della Crufca,’? (fee Acapgemy) ; and

‘yet the Florentines are noted for bad enunciation of their
‘language, accompanied with a guttural accent, though they
Buse I & g y

Write it with great elegance ; whence has arifen the proverb,
“ Lingua Tofcana, in bocca Romana.” In Florence there
are feveral theatres, all open during the carnival, which be-
gins on the day after Chriftmas day, and laits till Ath-wed-
nefday. Atother times one of them only is open, except
in Lent and Advent. The two principal are the Pergola,
finifhed in 1755, and the new Opera-houfe, firft opened in
‘the year 1779. The manufaétures of Florence are’ chiefly
filks and fatins of excellent fabric, The woollen manu-
facture, to which it was indebted for its fplendour and
opulence, has fo much declined as fearcely to fuffice for the
fupply of the common ea a At Doccia, three leagues
from the city, is a manufacture of porcelain, The Floren-
tines have been long famous for their Mofaic work, which
is formed of the finer marbles, agatcs, jafpers, and other
“Vor. XIV.

FLO

hard ftones, fome thin,. and inlaid in form of birds, flowers,
&c. The wine of the adjacent country is excellent, and
furnifhes a confiderable trade in [taly and other countries.
Society is maintained with eafe and freedom in this city 5
befides their converfaziones, many of the nobility meet every
day ata houfe called the ** Cafino ;”” and thefe meetings bear
fome refemblanceto the clubs of London. They alfo pay and
receive vifits at the opera, where the dancing engages-a much
greater degree of attention than the mufic. The country fur-
rounding Florence, or the Florentia, is one of the mott
fertile countries in Italy. Florence is fituated 129 miles
N.N.W. of Rome. N. lat. 43° 50’. E. long. 11° r4/.

Frogence-Courr, a {mall poft-town of Ireland, in the
county of Fermanagh, adjoining which the earl of Enanif-
killen has a beautiful feat, with very extenfive plantations.
It is in the weltern part of the county, about 74 miles
N.W. from Dublin, and 6 from Ennifkillen.

FLORENNES, a town of France, in the department
of the Sombre and Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Dinant; 16 miles S.W. of Namur. The
place contains 1,101, and the canton 6,711 inhabitants, in
22 communes, on a territory of 240 kiliometres.

FLORENSAGC, a town of France, in the department
of the Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri&
of Beziers; 10 miles S. of Beziers. The place contains
2,740, and the canton 4,990 inhabitants, in 4. communes,
on a territory of 1574 kiliometres.

FLORENT, Sr., a town of the department of Golo,
in the ifland of Corfica, aud in the diftri of Baftia; con-
taining in its cantons 1,487 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Maine and Loire, and
chief place of a canton, in the difinét of Beaupré; 19
miles W.S.W. of Angers. The place contains 1,433, and
the canton 10,101 iuhabitants, on a territorial extent of
190 kiliometres, in 10 communes.—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Cher, feated on the Cher; 7 miles
S.W. of Bourges.

FLORENTIN, Sr., a town of France, in the depart-
ment of che Yonne, and principal place of a canton, in the
ditri& of Auxerre; 13 miles N.N.E. of Auxerre. The
place contains 3,010, and the canton 9,740 inhabitants, on
a territory of 1624 kiliometies, in 12 communes.

FLORENTINE Worx. See Frorence and Mosaic
Work,

Frorentine, inthe Manufa@ure of Cloth, is the term
ufed for a f{pecies of fatin or tweeled iilk, which has evi-
dently been either originally or extenlively profecuted at
Florence. As from its very nature it muft always prove an
expenfive article of drefs, acceffible only to the rich parts of
any country or community, it muft be ceemed of fmall, or
at leaft fecoadary importance in one, where the extenfion
and fuccefs of every article of manufacture depend almoit
exclufively on the lownefs of the price at which it can be
furnifhed to the confumer, after frequently paying the pro-
fits of many intermediate agents. It may, however, be
proper to preferve ang rscord the manner of executing it ;
although it is by no means probable that it is likely to be
introduced as a matter of traffic in Britain. This defcrip-
tion of fatin or tweeled {ilk is generally very fine and clofe
in the fabric. It is woven with fixteen leaves of heddles,
and two or three reeds placed parallel to, and at a {mall
diftance from, each other. It is the moit comprehentive
kind of what is called broken or alternate tweeling. Its
only variety from other tweels confilts in the fuperior rieh-
nefs of appearance, which this. extenfive apparatus gives it
Below is a plan of the draught and cording, by which it

is effected,
qP FLOREN-

TO us Waeis Tekh ONO w 8h / Mom cm Ages

From the clofenefs of the fabric, it would prove very
inconvenient, if not abfolutely impracticable, to weave
goods of this kind in a fingle reed: for fo many threads
mutt be crowded together in every interval, that, in rifing
and finking, they muft impede each other fo much, that
the fhuttle could feldom, if ever, find a clear paflage. be-
tween the raifed and funk warp. To obviate this incon-
venience, the additional reeds are ufed; the threads which
pafs through the fame interval in the firft reed being divided
in the fecond, and again in the third, by which means both
the fri€tion and tendency to obftruétion are fo much lef-
fened as to render the operation comparatively eafy ; al-
though in fabrics fo clofe, it will require the moft clofe
and unremitting attention in the weaver to keep his warp in
proper order, and his /bed or paflage for the fhuttle tho-
‘youghly open. The mode of placing the reeds feems very
fimilar in plan and effe&t to the mode adopted by pradiical
gceometricians, of dividing fmall diflances with accuracy by
means of the diagonal feale. :

FLORENVILLE, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of Feréto, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Neufchateau. The place contains 1,268,
and the canton 9,072 inhabitants, in 15 communes, on a
territory of 2872 kilometres.

FLORES Trisres, in Botany. See Frower.

Fores, in Geography, one of the Azores iflands, which
takes its name from the variety of beautiful flowers with
‘which it is covered, is abuut 30 miles long and g broad ;
‘and contains from 1,300 to 1,400 inhabitants, who fubfift
upon their grain, cattle, and fruits. On this ifland, which
is clothed with wood, grain, and pafture, and other necef-
fary produtions, are two towns and fome hamlets. The
capital is Santa Cruz, but Lozeus is the moft populous.
N. lat. 39° 34’. W. Jong. 35°.

Frores, or Floris, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
about 180 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 45 in
breadth. S. lat. 7° 54’ to 9°2'. E. long. 120° to 123° 5!

Fuores, an ifland in the N. Pacific ocean, near the
coaft of the ifland of Quadra and Vancouver, 19 miles in
length from N.W. to S.E., and from 2 to 6 in breadth.
N. lat. 49° 20/. E. long. 234° 3’. }

Frores Argenti, in Natural Hifory, a name given by
fome to the earth called by the generality of authors lac
lune. It has both thefe names from its being fuppofed to
partake of the nature of filver.

Fiores Martiales, a name given to a preparation of the
nature of what was formerly called ens veneris. Thefe
flowers are thus prepared: take of wafhed colcothar, or
green vitriol, or of iron filings, one pound; of fal ammo-
niac, two pounds: mix them,-and fublime them in a retort,
and mixing the bottom again with the flowers, renew the
fublimation till the flowers acquire a beautiful yellow colour.
To the refidue may be added half a pound of frefh fal am-
moniac, and the fublimation repeated; and the fame pro-
cefs may be continued as long as the flowers remain duly
coloured. Pemberton’s Lond. Difp. p. 215. See Iron.

FLORESZTI, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Moldavia; 60 miles E. of Stephanowze.

FLORET, in Botany, flofculus, (the diminutive of fos,
a flower,) is applied to the individuals which all together
compofe either a compound or aggregate flower, but more
efpecially the former. Florets of compound flowers are
invariably monopetalous and fuperior, They are of two
kinds, ligulate or flrap-fhaped, as in the radiant margin of
a daify, fun-flower or marigeld ; or tubular, as in the difk,
or central part, of the fame flowers. Ligulate florets are
toothed at their extremity, more or lefs equally, the num-
ber of their teeth being ufually five, more rarely but three.
‘Tubular florets have a regular border, cut into equal {pread-
ing fegments, almoft univerfally five in number; in Eclipia,
however, they are but four, and in one fpecies of Siege/-
beckia, the flofculofa, no move than three. The ftamens,
whofe filaments are inferted into the tube, always agree in
number with the fegments of the floret. The generality of
florets, whether ligulate or tubular, have a perfeét or fertile

iftil as well as {tamens. In the diminutive marginal florets
of the Guaphalium and dArtemifia, whofe corolla is hgulate
indeed, but fo rolled up, or conneéted by its edges, as to
form a capillary tube, the piftil is very perfe&, though the
ftamens are wanting.

Some compound flowers confilt entirely of ligulate florets,
which in that cafe are all perfect, furnifhed with ftamene

and

FLO

and piftil, and fertile.
Tournefort, and make the firft feGtion in Linnzus’s Synge-
nefia. Polygamia equalis, as the Dandelion, Sowthiftle,
Hawkweed, &c. Such flowers are generally yellow,
fometimes blue, very rarely reddifh. They expand in a
morning, and clofe towards noon, or in cloudy weather.
Other compound flowers are formed of tubular florets only,
as the Thiftle, and Bidens. The greater number confiit
partly of tubular, and partly of ligulate ones, and the latter
are always marginal, or external with refpeG to the former.
Very frequently the margiail ligulate florets, though fur-
nifhed with an apparent piftil, are abortive, and fometimes
they have merely fo much of the rudiment of a germen, as
is neceflary to ferm a bafis for the petal. It appears that
fome of the tubular florets, from circumftances are capable
ef becoming ligulate, which is analogous to the doubling,
or change of the organs of impregnation into petals, in
fimple flowers. Witnefs the Chamomile. Another change
happens in the Chry/anthemum, and Tagetes or African
Marigold, whofe ligulate forets become tubular, or, as the
gardeners term it, quilled. Such quilled florets are abortive
of courfe, being owing to preternatural luxuriance. Com-
pound flowers entirely compofed of tubular florets, all pro-
lific, occafionally acquire. uewter or abortive ones in their
margin, which are likewife tubular, but greatly dilated.
This happens in fome {pecies of Carduus and Serratula, and
according to the Linnzan fy{tem they thus become Cen-
tauree, for no fyfem can provide againft fuch anomalies.
In like manner fome fpecies of Bidens acquire a ligulate
radius, and conftitute the genus Corcopfis. Hence have
afifen many fpurious genera of botanical authors. In the
Order Polygamia neceffaria of Linneus, the florets of the
diflk have ftamens only, or at leait a mere rudiment of a
_germen ; thofe of the radixs being furnifhed with perfeé
piftils without itamens. Thus they are both neceflary to
the perfecticn of the feeds. Linnzus, confidering umbelli-
ferous flowers as aggregate ones, ufes the term flofeulus for
what we prefume to call fos, or a fimple flower. S.
FLORID Srvcrzs, is that enriched and heightened with
figures and flowers of rhetoric, in an exceffiye degree; or,
when the ornaments, applied to ftyle, are too rich and
gaudy in proportion to the fubjeét ; when they return upon
us too faft, and itrike us either with a dazzling luftre, or a
falfe brilliancy, In ayoung compofer this is very pardon-
able: perhaps, indeed, it is a promifing fymptom in young
people, that their ftyle fhould incline to the florid and
luxuriant. ‘ Volo fe efferat in adolefcente facunditas,
&e.” fays QuinGilian; i.e. In youth, I with to fee
luxuriancy of fancy appear, Much of it will be diminifhed
by years; much will be corrected by ripening judgment ;
fome of it, by the mere praétice of compofition, will be
worn away. Let there be only fuflicient matter at firft, that
can bear fome pruning and lopping off. At this time of
life, let genius be bold and inventive, and pride itfelf in its
efforts, though thefe fhould not, as yet, be correét. Luxu-
riancy can be eafily cured; bnt for barrennefs there is no
remedy.?? But a fimilar apology cannot be pleaded for
perfons of maturer years, which is admitted for young com-
pofers in their firft effays. Judgment, as it ripens, fhould
chaften imagination, and rejeét, as juvenile, all fuch orna-
ments as are redundant, unfuitable to the, fubjeét, or not
conducive to illuftrate it. Nothing can be more con-
temptible than that tinfel fplendour of language, which
fome writers perpetually affect. This cannot always be
afcribed to the real overflowing of a rich imagination. If
this were the cafe, it might be in fome meafure exculed ; and
we might accept amufement where we fought mitruction.

Thefe are the femifio/culofi of

FLO

But with thefe frcthy writers, it is 2 luxuriancy of words, *
not of fancy. We fee a laboured attempt to rife to 2
fplendour of compolition, of whieh they have formed to
themfelves fome loofe idea; but having no ftrength of
genius for attaining it, they endeavour to fupply the defe ©
by poctical words, by cold éxclamations, by common-place
figures, and every thing that has the appearance of pomp
and magnificence. It has efcaped thefe writers, that fo-
briety in ornament is one great fecret for rendering it pleaf-
ing; and that, without a foundation of good fenfe and
folid thought, the moft florid tiyle is but a childith impoft-
tion upon the public. The public, however, are too apt
to be fo impoled on; at lea{t, the mob of readers, who are
very ready to be caught at frrft with whatever is dazzling *
and gaudy. Dr. Blair, after paying a deferved tribute of
refpe@ to the good qualities of Mr. Hervey, clofes with
obferving that the perpetual glitter of exprefiion, the
{woln imagery, and itrained defeription, which abound in
his writings, are ornaments of a ftalfe kind. T would,
therefore, advife ftudents of oratory to imitate Mr. Hervey’s
piety rather than his ftyle; and in all compofitions of a
{erious kind to turn their attention, as Mr. Pope fays, froma
founds to things, from fancy to the heart.”? Blair’s Lec-
tures, lect. 18.

Longinus ufes the terms forid and affeéted ftyle indif-
ferently, and lays them down as quite contrary to the true
fublime.

FLORIDA, in Geography, a country of North Ame-
rica, bounded on the North by Georgia, on the E. by the
Atlantic, on the S. by the gulf of Mexico, and on the
W. by the Mitiiflippi.. * This country is faid to have been
difcovered by Sebaftian Cabot in the year 1496, 18 years
before it was known to the Spaniards; but received its
name from John Ponce, who, failing from Porto Rico in
1513, landed here in April, when the country appeared in
full verdure and bloom. Florida has frequently changed
its mafters; in 3564 the French took poffefiion of fome
part of it, but they were driven from their fettlements in
the following year by the Spaniards, who then began to
form eftablifhments for themfelves. In the year 1763
Florida was ceded to Great Britain in exchange for the Ha-
vanna, which had been taken from the Spaniards. Whilft
the Englith were in poffeffion of it they divided it into
two governments, viz. Eaft and Weft Florida, & parated
by the Appalachicola. During the American war, both
the Flondas were reduced by the Spaniards, and guaranteed
to the crown of Spain by the definitive treaty of 1783.

Although this country was of little utility to Great
Britain, the poffeffion ‘of it would be valuable to the
United States, more efpecially fince they have obtained
the province of Louifiana. On the part of Spain, the cei-
fion of it would be politic, as it might ferve to divert the
attention of the States from the riches of the weit, and as
a means of amity. Wet Florida in particular, 1s chiefly
ufeful as prefenting avenues of commerce. Eall Florida
extends much farther, fouth than Welt Florida; the gulf
of Mexico wathing the weitern coait from N. lat. 25° te
30°; whereas the moit fouthern part of Weft Florida is in
N. lat. 29° 30'.. Theform of Eait Florida is triangular,
the bafe towards the NU being 160 miles in breadth from
E. to W. near the fouthern extremity about 40, and about :
350 from N.to S. Along the coaits the bays of fmall
iflands are numerous. ‘The foil near the fea-coatt is fandy
and barren, but further inland it improves. The produc-
tions are chiefly rice and indigo, Wet Florida is about
3z0 miles from E. to W., and from 40 to Soin width from
N. to S.3 on the W. it is bounded by the river Mifliffippi,

4Pa2 ae

FLO

Snd onthe E.byAppalachicola. The country is pleafant, and
the foil is exceedingly fertile, fothat the inhabitants have fome-
times two or three harvefts of maize in the fame year. To-
wards the coaft itis flat, but rifes gradually into hills, which
are covered with verdure and large trees, fuch as white and
sed oak, crab oak, mulberry, magnolia, pine, hickery, cy-
prefs, red and white cedar, &c. Orange and: lemon trees
grow here without cultivation, and produce better fruit
than in Spain and Pertugal. They have ealfo vines, which
yield grapes equal in fize and flavour to the beft mufcadine;
and they have abundance of other fruits of excellent fla-
veur. The cabbage tree furnifhes a food that is pleafant
and wholefome. Cotton is produced in great plenty; as
well as flax and hemp. Among the richer produétions of
the country we may reckon cochineal and indigo. The
eoafts furnifh oyfters and amber. The rivers abound in
fith, but are moletted by alligators. In the weltern parts
are numerous herds of cattle and flovks of fheep: hogs
alfo, whofe flefh acquires an excellent flavour from the
acorns and chefnuts on which they feed, are numerous.
Jn the forefts aud defarts are found feveral fpecies of
wild beafts, and alfo a variety of birds. In fummer the
air is very hot, but in feveral places it is pure and whole-
fome ; the winter is commonly temperate, though the cold
fometimes deftroys the orange trees. The rivers are
covered with ice. The principal town in W. Florida is
Penfacola, and in E. Florida St. Auguftine. The popu-
lation of W. Florida is very inconfiderable ; Mobile and
Penfacola together not containing ebove 1500 fouls. The
interior of IE. Florida is little known, aad only inhabited
by a few Creeks or Seminols. ‘The town of St, Auguttine
in E. Florida is lefs healthy than fome have fuppoted it to
be; but the climate, arid alfo the general appearance of
the country, would be much improved, if induftry and la-
beur were beftowed upon it, and the inland marfhes were
properly drained.

Fiorina, a polt-town of America, in Orange county,
New York; 50 miles N.W. of New York city.—Alfo, a
tewn of Montgomery county, New York, on the &. fide
of Mohawk river, at the mouth of Schoharie creek. It
has 4218 inhabitants.

Froriva, La, one of the Solomon iflands, in the Paci-

¢ ecean, difeovered by -Mendana, in 1567. S. lat.
9° 30.

Veoripa, Cape, the mok fouth-cafterly point of land of
Bet: Florida. “N. lat. 25° 24’. W. long. 81> 30’.

Forwa, Gulf of, or Bahama fraits, the narrow chan-
nel that feparates the peninfula of Florida from the Baha-
ma lands.

Froripa Stream, or Gulf fircam,a channel which fepa-
rates the ifland of Cuba from the coaft of Florida, between
the gulf-of Flomds and the gulf of Mexico.

FLORILEGIUM, Frerirece, a name the Latins
have given to what the Greeks called eforoyer, anthology ;
viz. a colfection of choice pieces, containing the fineft and
brighteft things in their kind.

Froriece, is alfo particuarly. ufed as a kind of bre-
viary, inthe Eaftern church, compiled by Arcadius, for
the conveniency of the Greek priefts and monks, who can-
not carry with them, in their travels and pilgrimages, all
the volumes wherein their office is difperfed.

The florilegium contains the general rubrice, pfalter, can.
ticles, the horologium, and the office of the feriz, &e.

FLORIN is fometimes ufed fora coin, or real money ;
and fometimes for any imaginary money, or money of ac-
count.

Faoxin, a6 acoin, is of different values, according to

FLO

‘the different metals, and different countries where it is ftruck.

Pieces under this denomination were anciently very frequent

in commerce; at prefent they are lefs common, though -
there were abundance of t»em ftruck in Holland, of Eng-

lith filver, during the war, which was terminated: by the

treaty of Ry{wick. In all appearance they took their name

from the place wh-re they were firit ftruck, viz. the city of

Plorence. The erais about the year 12513; though others

afcribe the name to a fleur-de-lis, which was ftrack on one

fide.

Villani obferves, that there were geld florins in the
year 1067, from which time the names frank or’ flovin
became applied to the gold coins, which till that time
had been called /olidi; /billings. See Coin and Ex-.

CHANGE.

Frorin, asa money of account, is ufed by the Italian,
Dutch, and German merchants and bankers, in keeping
their books, and making up their accounts. But this floria
is very various, and admits of different divifions. See Coin
and ExcnanGe.

Frorin, or Florence, was alfo a gold coin, ftruck in
England in the eighteenth year of Edward III. of the value
of fix fhillings.

Camden fays, it was fo called, becaufe made by Floren-
tines. Fabian obferves, the florins were not of fo fine gold
as the nobles and half-nobles of that prince.

But what is moft obfervable is, that Fabian calls the florin
a penny, value 6s. Sd. the half-florin, a halfpenny, value
3s. 4d.the quarter-florin, a farthing, value 1s, Sd. Thefe
words were often met with in old hiftories and accounts,
applied to feveral coins, as royals, angels, &c. where we
are therefore only to underftand by penny or denarius the
whole, by odc/us the half, and by guadrans the fourth part,
or farthing.

By indenture of the mint, in 18 Edw. III. every pound
weight of old ftandard gold was to be coined into nft
florences or florins, to be current at fix fhillings a-piece ; all
which made in tale fifteen pounds ; or into a proportionable
number of half and quarter florins.

Torin, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sardi-
nia, eight miles S. E. of Saffari.

FLORINIANI, or Froriant, in Eecl-fiafical Hiflory,
a fect of heretics, of the fecond century, denominated from
its author Florinus, or Florianus, a prieft of the Roman
church, depofed along with Blaftus, for his errors.

Florinus had been a diiciple of St. Polyearp, along with
Ireneus. fire made God the author of evil; or rather
aflerted, that things forbidden by God are not evil, but of
his own appointing, In which he followed the errors. of
Valentinus, and joined himfelf with the Carpocratians. He
feems te have maintained the doctrine of two principles,
with other Gnoftic errors. :

They had alfo other names given them. Philaftrius fays,
they were the fame with the Carpophorians. He adds, that
they were alfo called foldiers, milites, quia de militaribus
fuerust. St. Irenzus calls them Gnoftics ; St. Epiphanius,
Phibionites ; aud Theodoret, Barborites, on account of
the impurities of their lives. Others call them Zaccheans ;
others Caddians, &c: though for what particular reafons it
is not ealy to fay, nor perhaps would it-be worth while’ to
enquire. : . ;

FLORIS, Francis, in Biography, a painter of hiftory,
born at Antwetp in 1520. Paving oomeied checaneed
feulpture till he was 20 years of age, he then indulged his
partiality for painting, and changing his profeffion, ftudied
the latter under the tuition of Lambert Lombard. He

8 after

FLO

afterwards went to Rome, there copying the works of the
ancients ; but he appears to have felt with more fervour the
works of Michael Angelo Buonaroti; which he imitated
with great zeal, particularly his Laft Judgment; unhappily,
however, attending more to the parts than the whole.

The tafte which he imbibed by thefe ftudies not a little
{urprifed his countrymen on his return to his native city ;
and it acquired for him the honourable appellation of the
“Raphael of Flanders,” though not very juitly, for his
ftyle of defign is more in imitation of M, Angelo than of
Raphael.

He painted for the Contrafeftivity Hall of St. Michael
at Antwerp a large pi€ture, which now graces the walls of
the Louvre at Paris. The fubject is The fallof Lucifer
and his Angels.’? It is highly celebrated for the goodnefs
of the compofition and handling, for the variety of atti-
tudes in the fallen angels, and for the ftrong expreflion of
the mufeles in the naked figures. In fact it is a very
curious pe. painted with great capacity, and exhibits
a powerful, though eccentric, imagination. The fiends in M.
Angelo’s Laft Judgment are not more horrible, or nearly
fo grotefque. The power of colour alfo is admirable, and
in fome parts has been rarely furpafled.

He had a {trong and bold manner, and, like his great
model Buonaroti, marked the mufcular parts too full for a
jutt imitation of nature. He invented and compofed with
eafe, but ina dry and gothic manner ; and though fometimes
his figures have an agreeable air, yet in general they poflefs
a reprehenfible degree of the ftiffuefs and formality peculiar
to the age and country he livedin. He died in 1570, aged

oh
: FLORIST, in Gardening, a name applied to fuch per-
fons as are curious in, or have much {kill in the knowledge
and nature of flowers. A good florift fhould be perfectiy
aequainted with the names, characters, and kinds, or forts
of flowers; and at the fame time have a thorough know-
ledge of their nature, habits, and methods of cultivation
and manazement.

FLORUS, L. Annzus, in Biography, a Latin hilto-
rian, who wrote about 200 years after the reign of Ausuttus,
This is his own account, thouch from what he fays elfe-
where, viz. that he lived under Trajan; it has been con-
jeGured that his hiftory was written about 150 years after
Anguftus. His work is « A Compendium of the Roman
Hiftory,” from the foundation of the city to the reign of
the emperor Auguftus, in four books. It 18 to be regarded
rather as a panegyric ow many of the great attions of the
Romans, than a faithful and correé recital of their hittory.
Throughoxt the narrative there are, unqueftionably, pleafing
reflections which difplay great animation, and ftrong poweis
of fenfibility. It has obtained a fufficient fhare of popu-
larity to be recommended very generally as a proper book
for the learners of the Latin language ; and it has employed
the erudition of feveral critical authors. Florus was a
writer of poetry as well as an hiftorian, and has been thought
to have entered the lifts again{t the emperor Adrian. ‘lhe

_beit editions are, that by Duker, in 2 vols. 8vo. Lug. Bat.
1722, 17443 the Delphin edition; and thofe of Grevius,
Rom. Hitt. Lempriere.

Frorus, Drepanius, who was furnamed’ “ the
Mafter,”? a deacon of the church of Lyons, floerifhed in
the ninth century. He obtained fo high a reputation for
learning and acutenefs, that he was chofen by the church
of Lyons to anfwer the treatife of John Scotus Erigena,
on the fubject of predeftination. This was publifhed in the
year 852, and entitled ‘* Liber de predeftinatione, contra
Johaunis Scoti erroncas definitiones.” Itis to be found in the

F.uO

8th vol. ofthe * Bibliotheca Patrum.” It is not afcertained
how long the author lived after the production of this work.
Florus was the author of ** Commentarius in omnes S.
Pauli Epittolas,’? which has been falfely afcribed to the
venerable Bede, and admitted into the colleétion of his
works, and feveral other theological pieces. Moreri.

Frorvs, in Ornithology, a name by which, Aldrovand
and fome other authors have called the bird commonly
knowa with us by the name of whinchat, a kind of the
cenanthe or fallow-finch. See Moracitia Rudetra. See
alfo Loxita Chloris

FLORY, Frowry, Fleury, Floretté, Fleur-de-liffes.
&c. terms in Heraldry, ufed when the outlines of any ordi-
nary are drawn as ii trimmed with, or in the form of flowers,
lilies, fleur-de-lis, &c. hus, he bears a crofs flory, é&c:

FLOS, in Botany. See Frower.

Trios 4ris. See Es.

Fros Ambervalis, in Botany, a name given by fome to
the polygala or milkwort. See PoryGava.

Fros Argenti. See Frores argent.

Fros dfe, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by Swenk-
field and fome other writers, to that fault which is found on
the furface of the earth in fome part of Afia, in form of an
efflorefcence, and is called the Smyrna foap earth,

This falt is evidently the fame with the nitre of the an-
cients. It will ferment with any acid in the manner of our
pot-ath, or other fixed falts, made by fire; and with oil or
any fatty fub{tance, boils into a foap. Euelius gives us a
great many different places for its produdtion, from which:
he diftinguifhes it into feveral kinds; all thefe lie in the
ea{tern parts of the world; but to thefe Wormius adds,.
that it is found in New Spain. It is always ealy to be
known, however, in whatfoever place it 1s found, being a
native alkali falt, perforated like a {ponge, and of a lixivial
tafte. Its prisciples feem to be a marine and a urinous falt.

That it contains a marine falt feems manifeil from thisy.
that it-has the fame tafte in folution, or nearly fo, with
marine falt; that the particles of it, when coagulating in:
the evaporated water in which they were diffolved, firt rife
to the top of the furface, as thofe of common falt do, and
that it is always of a {fpongy texture, or full of holes, which

m its
that

the flower of the heaucns, a2 name given by
the alchemiits:to the poftech, which. often appearing after
rain, was fuppofed to full from heaven. See Flos terra.

Fros Martialis.. Sec Fuorts mariialesy and IRox.

-Fros Salis. The flower of fak flows down with the

Nile, and is alfo fousdon the farface offome lakes. Itis
to be chofen of the colour of faffron, fomewhat of a rank
fmell like garum, of a biting talte, and cf a faxtith fub-
itance. What.is coloured with minium, or is grumous, is:
to be rejeGed; befide, what is pure and genuine is. not to
be diffolved but ia oil ; whereas what is adulterated is partly
diffoluble ia water. 4 a

It is effeCtual againft makignant and phagedenic ulcers 5,
nom in the pudenda, and purulencies in the ears; it alfo
cures dimneis of fight, and removes {pecks and albugos,
from the eyes. Itis mixed with plafters and ointments, as
alfo with om of rofes, for the fake of the colour it commu-
nicates to them. ‘Taken inwardly, in wine or water, it
provokes {weat, difturbs. the belly, and incommedes the
itomaoh. It is alfo an ingredient in acopa and finegmata,

for extenuating the hair, In general, it is of an acrimo~
nloue

FLO

ious and pyrotic quality, as are all falts themfelves.
Diofeor. lib. v. cap. 129.

Fos Terre, flower of the earth, a narae given by fome
‘of the chemical authors to the noftoch, a remarkeble plant,
which refembles the common green cylter-weed, but that it
is thicker and more like a jelly. It fuddenly appears on
gravel walks and gardens after rain; and the alchemitts,
who knew vot what to think of its origin, fuppofed it to
contain an univerfal fpirit, capable of turning metals into
gold. See Nosrocn.

Fios TinGorius, in Botany, aname given by Fuchfius,
and many others, to the geniltella tin@toria, or dyer’s-weed,
called alfo lutea herba, and lutum by the Latins, and al-
comenium, cymene, and thaplos, by the Greeks. See
GeENISTA.

FLOSCOPA, from fas, a flower, and /copa, a
broom, in allufion to the fafciculated form of the fpikes.
Ysour. Cochinch. 192. Clafs and order, Hexandria Mono-
gynia. Nat, Ord. Lnfate, Linn. Junct, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, funnel-fhaped, hairy,
coloured, permanent; its border in three ovate, curved,
{preading fegments. Cor. Petals three, ovate, erect, as
long as the ferments of the calyx. Stam. Filaments fix,
awl-fhaped, longer than the corolla; anthers roundifh,
with two lobes. Pi/?. Germen {uperior, ovate, compreffed,
two-lobed ; ftyle awl fhaped, inflexed, longer than the
ftamens; ftigma ratherthick. © Peric. Capfale nearly ovate,
two-lobed, two-celled. Seeds folitary, ovate, comprefled,
thorny, with many concentric radiating furrows.

~ EM Ch. Calyx inferior, three-cleft. Petals three,
ovate. Capfule of two cells. Seeds folitary.

1. F. feandens. Deei hoa choi of the Cochin-chinefe.
Native of hills in Cochin-china. Stem fhrubby, climbing,
without tendrils or fpines, unbranched, long, round.
Eaves altervate, lanceolate, entire, fheathing, many-
nerved; fringed at the bafe; rough on the upper fide ;
fmodoth beneath. “Flowers {mall, pale violet, on very fhort
partial ftalks, in fleader, rigid, cluftered, level-topped
{pikes refembling a broom. Loureiro.

By the above defcription of Loureiro, this plant is evi-
dently very nearly akin to 7radefcantia and Commelina, but
its fimple filaments, and two-celled capfule, feem to autho-
rize its being kept diftin&. We have from Sierra Leone a
plant which, in the charaéter laft-mentioned and. the inflo-
refcence, how far elfe we cannot fay, agrees with it, and
is furely of the fame genus, if not the very identical
fpecies. Cras

“It feems to us that Tradefcantia paniculata, Roxb.
Corom. v. 2. 6. t. 109, muft be the fame genus, if not the
very fame fpecies, as the above. The fimple filaments
evidently: fhew it not to be a Yradefcantia, which the in-
florefeence confirms. Perhaps F/o/copa is not generically
different from the Callifia of Jacquin and Linneus- See
CAcuisia. /

FLOSCULOUS, a term ufed by Mr. Tournefort, and
others, to exprefs fuch flowers of plants, as are compofed
each of a great number of other {mall flowers placed clofe
to one another, and inclofed in the fame common cup ;
each of thefe fmaller flowers confiits of one petal, which is
fender and hollow, and wider than the bottom, and ufually
divided mto many fegments, which fometimes are difpofed
in the form of a ftar. Each of thefe flowers ftand upoa an
embryo, or young fruit, from which there grows a capilla-
ment, which reaches beyond the flowers. Thefe embryos
are lodged in the bottom of the cup, which is called by
authors the thalamus of the flower, and finally become feeds
wiaged with down, er fometimes without that, and fome-

FLO
times are armed with prickles. Of this fort are the flowers.
of thiftles, knapweed, &c. -

FLOSCULUS. See Frorer.

FLOSS, in Geography, a town of Bavaria; five miles:
E. N. E. of Weiden.—Alo, a river of Silefia, which rung:
into the Oder, fix miles N. W. of Breflan.

FLOT Hoan, a cape on the N. coatk of Iceland. Ni
lat. 66° 6’. ; :

FLOTA, a fmall weftern ifland of Scotland, near the
N.W. coait of Lewis.—Alio, one of the fmall Orkney?
iflands, between South Ronaldfha and Hoy. N. lat. 55%
42'. W. long. 2° 59'—Alfo, one of the fmaller Hebrides,
on the S. E. coait of North Unit. N. dat. 57° 28. Wa.
long, 7° 8’. ;

Frora, or Jetta, Fleet; a name the Spaniards give
particularly to the fhips which they fend annually from
Cadiz, to the port of Vera Cruz, to fetch thence the mer-|
chandizes gathered in Mexico for Spain. It confifts of the
captains, admiral, and patach, or pinnace, which go onthe
king’s account ; and about fixteen fhips, from four hundred
to a thoufand tons, belonging to particular perfons. They
fet out from Cadiz, about the month of Augult, and are
eighteen or twenty months beforé they return.

Thofe fent to fetch the commodities prepared in Peru,
are called galeons. See Gareon. :

The name flotilla is given to a number of fhips, which
get before the reit in their return, and give information of
the departure and vargo of the flota and galeons.

FLOTAGES, all {uch things as are floating on the top
of the fea, or great rivers, a word chiefly ufed in the com-
miffions of water-bailiffs.

FLOTE-Fescue Grafs, a kind ef natural grafs which
is found in watery fituations, and faid to be an excellent
cattle grafs, affording much fodder. See Festuca.

FLOTSON, Frorzam, or Floi/am, a term fignify-
ing any goods loft by thipwreck, and {wimming on the top
of the waters which, with jet/on or jetfam, and Jagon or,
ligan, and /hares, belong to the king, if no owner appears -
to claim them ; but if any owner appears, he is entitled to
recover the pofleflion. For even if they be caft overboard,
without any mark or buoy, in order to lighten the fhip,
the owner is not by this aét of .neceffity conitrued to have -
renounced his property (Init. 2, 1. § 48); much lefs can
things /igan be fuppofed to be abandoned, fince the owner
has done all in his power to aflert and regain his property:
Things jerfam, fiotfum, and ligan, are accounted fo far.
diftinét from wreck (which fee), that by the king’s grant
toa man of wrecks, the others will not pafs. Over thofe
the admiralty courts have jurifdiction, as they are in and
upon the fea. (5 Rep. 108.) i

Jet/an is what is caf out of a fhip, being in danger of a
wreck, imto the fea, and there fink and remain under
water. agon or ligan, is that which lies in the bottom of
the fea; but tied to.a cork or buoy, in order to be found
again (5 Rep. 106.) Shares are goods due to feyeral per-
ens by proportion. } eck

FLOTTE, Le, in Geography, a town of France, on
the N. coaft of the. ifland of Ré. eae

FLOTZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of _
Aovhalt Zerbft ; fix miles N. W. of Zerbit. ght

FLOUNDER, in Jchihyology, the Englifh name of the
fifth called by the. generality of authors paffer fluviatilis,
and flefus. It is a {pecies of the plewronedes, which fee.

. The flounder inhabits every part of the Britifh fea, and
even frequents our rivers at a great diftance from the falt-
waters. Itnever grows large in our rivers, but is reckoned
f{weeter than thofe that live in the fea.

2 FLOUR >

FLO

FLOUR, the mieal of any grain, but more particularly
ef wheat, ground and fifted for the purpofe of food.

The grain itfelf is not only fubjeét to be eaten by infeéts
in that ftate, but’when ground into four, it gives birth to
another race of deflroyers, who eat it unmercifually and ia-
creafe fo faft in it, that it is not long before they wholly
deftroy the fubftance.. The fineft flour is moft liable to
breed them, efpecially when {tale or ill prepared; in this
cafe, if it be examined in a good light, it will be perceived
to be in a contimtial motion; and on a nicer infpeétion,
there will be found in it a great number of little animals of
the colour of the flour, and very nimble. Tf a little of this
flour be laid on the plate of the double microfcope, the in-
feéts are very diftin@lly feen in great numbers, very brifk and
lively, continually crawling over one another’s backs, and
playing a thoufand antic tricks together; whether for
-diverfion or fearch of food, it is not eafy to be determined.
‘Thefe animals are of an oblong flender form, their heads
sare furnifhed with a kind of trunk, or oblong hollow tube,
by means of which they take in their food, and their body
-is compofed of feveral rings. They do valt mifchief among
the magazines of flour, laid up for armies and other public
ufes ; when they have once taken poffeffion of a parcel of
this valuable commodity, it isimpoflible to drive them out,
and they increafe fo faft, that the only method of prevent-
ing the total lofs of the parcel, is to make it up into bread
as foon as can be. The way to prevent their breeding in
the flour is, to preferve it from damp ; nothing gets more
injury by being put up damp than flour, and yet nothing
is fo often put up fo. It fhould be always carefully and
thoroughly dried before it is put up, and the barrels alfo
dried into which it is to be put ; then if they are kept ina
room tolerably warm and dry, they will preferve it well.
‘Too dry a place never doesany hurt, though one too moitft
always {poils it. See Mea.

Frour, St. in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Cantal; before the revolution, the
capital of Upper Auvergne and the fee of a bifhop ; con-
tainirg inits north and fouth divifions 5000 inhabitants ; in
the canton of the former 10,538, and in that of the latter
15,121, on a territory of 585 kiliometres, in 27 communes.
‘The inhabitants carry on a coafiderable trade in corn, with
manufactures of cloth, carpets, and cutlery. N. lat. 45°
2'.. E. long. 3° 10.

FLOWER, in Phyfological and Syflematical Botany,
comprehends all thofe organs of a plant which are prepara-
tory and necefflary to the impregnation and perfection of
the fruit or feed. (See Fecunpation and Frucririca-
tion.) Of the feven parts of fructification diftinguifhed
by Linnzus, five conflitute the flower. Thefe are, firft, the
calyx or flower-cup ; fecond, the coroll2 or petals ; neither
of thefe is indifpenfable, one, and fometimes both of them
being occafionally wanting ; (fee Caryx and Coroxta ;)
third, the ftamen or flamens, generally filamentous bodies,
ranged internally with refpect to the two former ; thefe are
effential, being the male organs; fourth, the pitti or piltils,
in the centre of the flower, which conhit of the rudiments
of the fruit, and the female organs of impregnation, being
therefore effential, though not always fituated in the fame
individual flower, nor even on the fame plant, with the
ftamens; fifth, the receptacle, or common point of connec-
tion, which mutt be prefent in fome fhape or other, and in
compound flowers is very important ; fee Compounp.

Flowers are ufually the moit ornamental part of vegeta-
bles, but the moft fleeting and trarfitory. After their pro-
duction, the vegetation of the plant, however rapid and
uxuriant before, is checked, at leait for a time, even in

FLO

perennial plants end trees; and annual ones furvive flower.
ing only till they can ripen their feed. The fame fpecies,
which will endure for feveral winters without bloffoming,
after this event lofes its vigour, and yields to the firit
attacks of froft. Pliny obferves that ‘ bloffoms are the
joy of trees, in bearing which they -afflume a new afpe&,
vyeing with each other in the luxuriaace and variety of their
colours.” Linnzus has adopted and exemplified this idea,
fo cangenial with his owa theory of vegetable propagation,
and with the importance which he gives the Mower in his
principles of clafiification, as the fure guide to a true dif-
crimination of the kinds of vegetables. Tie various modes
in which flowers are fituated upos, or connected with, the
plant that bears them, will be explained under the article
of IxFLORESCENCE, an important fubjeé& in fyftematic
botany. In pofition they greatly differ in different genera
or fpecies. Molt generally they expand, and prefent them-
felves to the light, in a remarkable manner, clofing or
drooping when its ftimulus is withdrawa ; but fome flowers
always droop, {hading their internal organs, and protecting:
them from rain, as long as their own delicate fub{tance
endures. Flowers are eminently dittinguifhed from the
other parts of a plant by their general beauty and vivacity
of colour, chiefly feated in the corolla, and likewife, in
many inftances, by their peculiar fragrance, the theme of
poets and the admiration of all whofe nerves, which is not
always the cafe, can endureit. This fragrance is proved by
experiment to depend on a volatile, efleatial oil, in many
cafes obtainable by diftillation, in others by infufion in
fpirits, or in expreffed oil, either of which imbibe or dif-
folveit. Flowers do not give it out alike at all times; fome
have no {cent during the day, but become highly fiagrant
in the evening. hefe enhance the luxury of the bright
moonlight nights of India, nor is our own country deftitute
of many fuch flowers. They are elegantly termed by
Linnzus flores trijtes, fad or melancholy flowers. Their
colour is very frequently pale and fickly, iaclining to
greenifh or brownifh yellow, agreeing remarkably in plants
of very different claffes and characters, which moreover
have ufually the fame lufcious evening {cent. Among thefe
ave Hefperis triflis, Pelargonium trifle, Mefembryanthemum
noGiftorum, Nydanthes Arbor-trifiiss and ethers. Many
oriental flowers have a fine lemon-like odour ia an evening,
which are, for that reafon, afliduoufly cultivated by the
Chinefe ; as the Chloranthus inconfpicuus, whofe merit: in
this refpect was not difcovered in England till it had long
been cultivated, nor. was the fweet and powerful fcent,
obfervable on firit opening the hot-houfe in.a morning,. fuf-
pected to proceed from fo minute and inconfpicuous a
bloffom, till the late Mr. Aiton of Kew, whom no ratural
phenomenon could efcape, firlt made the difcovery. There
feems to be an analogy between the {mell and colour of
flowers in other inftauces. The yellow variety of Chry-
Janthemum indicum differs altogether in feent from the dark-
purple one, agreeing rather with the yellow wall-flower,
which it alfo refembles in colour, The deep crimion. Car-
nation, called the Clove Carnation, and the Clove Pink
now nearly exting, have a clove-like fragrances. richer than
the paler or whitith kinds.

Ever fince Botayy has been cultivated: on fcientifie prin
ciples, the flower and. fruit have univerfally been reforted
to for the leading diftin@tive charaéters of plants, (See
CrassiFication.) Qa thefe conjointly all natural cha-
racters of Genera, Orders and Claffes-are founded. The
herbage of the plant is, accordiag to the Linnwan idea, a
fort of matk, which. conceals its true chara@ers till they
become manifeit in the fower. Artificial {yitems of arrange.

ment

FLOWER.

ment have been conftruéted by fome authors on the fruit,
‘by others on the flower. ‘The former are ufually confidered-
as molt according with natural affinities, the latter as the
molt convenient. The principal of thefe laft are thofe of
Rivinus and Tournefort, in which the corolla takes the
Jead ; and the fexual fyftem of Linnzus, founded chiefly
con the ftamens and piftils.

The medical properties and fenfible qualities of flowers,
their peculiar odours excepted, agree much more with the
herbage, than with the fruit to which they are fo intimately
attached. Thus in the clafs /cofandria, as far at leaft as
that clafs is a natural one, the flowers, as in the peach and
cherry for inftance, partake of the acrid, noxious, effential,
oil of the leaves and bark, not at all of the fweet, acid, or
aromatic qualities of the pulpy fruit. 5.

Frowers, Colours of. It has been afferted by fome
chemifts, that all colours arife from fulphurs, and that
they differ according to the different admixtures of falts
with thefe fulphurs. Perhaps on thefe principles, it may
be poflible to form fome rational conjeétures in regard to
the origin of colours in the flowers of plants. We know
very well that the flowers of all plants abound in an effential
oil or fulphur, to which, according to this doStrine,
their colours may be rationally fuppofed to be owing ;
and though this oil fhould be preved to be the very fame
fubitance in all, yet their variety of colours may be
accounted for from it, fince we find that one and the
fame oil, the effential oil of thyme, according to Mr.
Geoffroy’s experiments, may be turned to all the colours
thot we find in the different flowers of plants, from white
to deep black, with all the fhades of red, yellow, purple,
‘blue, and green, by mixing it with different fubitances ;
and by the fame laws, the effential oil of plants, while
contained in their flowers, may by the different mixtures
they meet with, give them all their beautiful variety of
colours. See Lfential Oris.

We know that the infufions of flowers, and of other

parts of plants, become red on being mixed with acids, and
green on being mixed with alkalies; and there is no reafon
to doubt, but that itis the fulphureous part of the vege-
table in thefe infulions which thus changes colours on thefe
mixtures. This, however, ought to be proved poflible,
before it ig allowed in argument.
' This proof is given in the change of colours before men-
tioned, which are produced im oils merely by the ad-
mixture of different falts; and as all the colours im thefe
are the regular refult of certain combinations, there is
great reafon to believe, that in thofe plants whofe flowers
give the fame colours, there may be the fame combina-
tions.

The principal colours of plants, and their feveral parts,
are green, ycllow, red, purple, blue; white, black, and
tranfparent whitifhnefs; all the others are produced by
different combinations of thefe. The green, which is
the common colour of the leaves of plants, is probably
the effe& of an oil rarefied in that part of the plant, and
there mixed with the fixed and volatile falts of the fap,
which remain entangled by theearthy particles after moft
of the aqueous humidity is evaporated, and by that means
become in a ftate to a&t upon the oil. A clear proof of
this is, that if the leaves:are covered up in fuch a manner
that the aqueous humidity of the fap cannot evaporate
itfelf, the oil and faits cannot aét upon one another as they
uaturally would, but becoming diffufed among fo great a
quantity of water, lofe the colour they would otherwife
have obtained together, and become’ whitifhi or tranfparent.
This is feen in the obvious inftance of fuccory aud celery,

the leaves of both which plants, though naturally green,
become white by being covered up with earth by the gar-
dener.

The leaves of both plants and trees ufually turn red in
autumn, or on the attack of the firft froft; the reafon
of which is, that the feveral canals of the fap being con-
ftringed by the cold, the juices are detained in the veffels
of the leaves, or at leaft its circulation is greatly inter-
rupted; and being detained there, it naturally grows four,
the acidity of this altered juice deftroying the green colour,
produced by the alkaline falts, The {ap brings ona red
colour, in the very fame manner that the effential oil made
green by a mixture of oil of tartar is again changed to red,
by adding to it a proper quantity of diftilled vinegar.
Where we find in our common experiments the acids of the
mineral kingdom turning the infufions of flowers ved, it
feems by the analogy of thefe experiments to be only
owing to their deftroying the blue, brown, or other colour,
which the alkaline falts of the plant had made with its
eflential oil.

All the thades and degrees of yellow and faffron colour
in the flowers of plants, feem wholly owing to a mixture
of anacid in their jui es, with their eflential oil; as the oil
of thyme, which itfelf has very litule colour, is made to
pafs through all thefe fhades of colours, only by digefting
it with diftilled vinegar. From the digefting the volatile
alkalies, fuch as fpirit of fal aramoniac and urine, with the
fame oil, it appears that all the thades of red, from the
paleft flefh-colour, to purple, and even to the violet blue,
are only owing to the different admixtures of an alkaline
volatile falt of the urinous kind, mixed in different manney's
with their ciiential oil.

Black, which isa very uncommor colour in flowers, and
which in them ought to be regarded only as a very deep
violet, feems the effeét of an addition of an acid juice to
their oil, already turning purple to violet colour by a vola-
tile alkali.

All the fhades of blue and purple feem alfo, by the ana-
logy of the fame experiments, to be only the effects of mix-
tures of alkalies of the fixed and volatile kind, with the eils
of plants; fince thefe colours are all produced in thofe ex-
periments, by mixing the fpirit of fal ammoniac, and the
oil of tartar with oil of thyme.

The bright green of fome flowers feems alfo to be pro-
duced by the fame falts, only aéting on oils more rarefied.
For the oil of thyme of a parple violet-colour diluted with
rectified fpirit of wine, being diluted with oil of tartar,
becomes green.. Mem, Acad. Par. 1707.

Boccone is of opinion, that in many plants the colour of
the fowers is wholly owing to the colour of the juices of
the root. his he inftancesin the greater celandine, whofe
roots and flowers are of the fame yellow colour. The
barberry inlike manner, he cbferves, has both its roots and
flowers yellow. ‘The dentillaria has its roots and flowers
both of a pale red, and the acacia Indica Aldini, and many
other plants, he fays, are inilances of this. The reafon
that he afligns for this is, that the more fixed parts, wherein
this colour confilts, preferve the fame tinéture, without
being at allaltered by fe long a circulation as that from the
root to the flower; and he adds another very remarkable
obfervation, which is, that in all thefe plants and trees,

-whofe roots and flowers are of the fame colour, the juices

are more fixed; and thcrefore, that thefe are more fit for
dyeing than any other coloured wood of plants. Vide
Boccone, Muf,. de Plant. ' f
Dr. Lewis, in his notes on Neumann’s Chemiftry, has
many curious obfervations on the colours of flowers.
There

FLOWER.

“There are few of them which are durable in themfelves, or
that can be made durable by art. The only permanent
colour is yellow. The red, the blue, and the intermediate
-fhades of purple, crimfon, violet, &c. are very perifhable.
Many flowers Jefe their colours on being dried, and efpe-
~eially if they are dried ina fhady and not warm place.
_ The colours of all of them perifh by keeping even in the
_clofeft veffels; the more hattily they are dried, and the
-more. perfectly they are fecuved from air, fo much the longer
.do they retain their beauty. The colouring matter of
| flowers extracted and applied to other bodies is ftill more
» perifhable.
__ The colourof many blue flowers is extraéted by infufion
.in water; but from others, water acquires onlya purplifh
vhue. Of thofe which have been tried, not one gives a
blue colour to fpirit of wine; fome give no colour, and
fome give a reddiih colour. The expreffed juice of thefe
flowers is generally blue. ‘Lhe blue juices and infufions are
rendered red by acids; and the moft florid red is given
to them by marie acids. The flowers alfo, by maceration,
impart a red colour to acid liquors. Alkalies fixed and vo-
latile, and lime-water, change thefe blue colours to green.
And _thofe infufious or juices which have nothing of the
-colour of the flower, fuffer the fame changes from the
addition of acid and alkaline liquors. Even when the
. flowers have been kept till their colours are loft, their infu-
_fions acquire a red colour from acids, and a green colour
from alkalies, but in a lefs degree than when the flowers
_were frefh. The red colour produced by acids is fcarcely
more durable than the original blue; applied upon other
bodies, and expofed to air, it gradually degenerates into a
- faint purple, and at laft difappears, without leaving a ftain
“behind. The green produced by alkalies changes to a
. yellow, which does not fade fo foou. The green made by
lime-water is more permanent and beautiful. Green lakes,
. prepared from blue flowers by means of lime-water, have
been ufed by painters. ‘Che Howers of cyanus have been
-much commended for affording elegant aud blue pigments.
. But Dr. Lewis has not been able to extract from them any
blue colour, They retain their colour, when haitily dried,
longer than other blue flowers, but do uot communicate
their original colour to any menftruum.
Red flowers readily communicate their colour to water ;
jand thofe of a fullred colour give to a reétified f{pirit alfo
a deep red tinéture, brighter, though fomewhar paler,
than the watery infufion, But the light red flowers, and
thofe which are purplifh, impart little colour to pure
{pirit. The colours of infufions of thefe flowers are fup-
- pofed to be heightened by acids, and to be rendered green
_by alkalies. But this is not univerfal. For among{t thofe
examined by Dr. Lewis, the rofe colours and purplith red
were changed by acids nearly as blue flowers are; but the
~ full deep reds were not. The deep infufion of red poppies
was turned by alkalies not to a green, but to a dufky pur-
le. .

Yellow flowers communicate to water and to fpirit of
wine durable yellow colours, not alterable but in degree by
acids or by alkalies: the former only rendering them paler ;
and the latter, asalfo alum, rendering them deeper.’ Wool,

_or filk, impregnated with a folution of alum or tartar,
receives, on. being boiled with the watery infufion or decoc-
tion, a durable yellow dye. A durable, yellow lake is pre-
pared by precipitating with alum an infufion of yellow
flowers made in an alkaline ley. . In fome of the orange-co-
loured flowers the yellow matter feems to be of the fame
kind as that of the pure yellow flowers; but the red mat-
ter feems to be different from that of the pure ied flowers.

Vor. XIV.

The yellow matter is extracted from thefe flowers by water ;
and the remaining red matter is extrafted by {pirit of wine,
or by a weak folution of fixed alkaliin water. Such are
the faffron coloured flowers of carthamus. .Thefe flowers,
after the yellow matter has been extraGted by water, are
faid to give a red tin€ture to ley, from which a deep red
fecula fubfides, called faflower, Spanifh red, and China-
lake. This pigment gives a beautiful red colour to fpirit
of wine, but none to water. The yellow farina or fine
duft, refting on the tips of the ftamina of flowers, gives
a fine bright yellow colour to fpirit of wine, and a duller
yellow, colour to water. The colours of beth the watery
and fpirituous tinétures were heightened by alkalies, ren-
dered red by acids, and again reftored toa yellow by
adding an alkali. This is the only known inftance of the
yellow colour of a vegetable being rendered red by acids.
White flowers, or their exprefled juices, impart a green
colour to alkaline leys, but have not been obferved by
Dr. Lewis to give a red colour to acids. The white
flowers of the common wild convolvulus give a dee
yellow or orange colour to water, which is affeéted b
acids, by alkalies, and by alum, as the infufions of yellow
flowers are. The white flowers of xeranthemum give
a beautiful yellow colour to water acidulated with fpirit
of nitre. See Neumann’s Chem. by Dr. Lewis, p. 430,
432-

Fiowers, in Gardening, are diftinguifhed into early, or
{pring-fowers, which flourifh in the months of March,
April, and May. Of this clafs are the anemonies, daf-
fodils, hyacinths, tulips, jonquils, cowflips, primrofes,
&c. Summer-flowers, which open in June, July, and
Auguft, as pinks, gilly-flowers, lilies, daifies, campa-
nulas, poppies, fun-flowers, &c. Autumnal, or late
flowers, denote thofe of September and O@ober; as
the oculus Chrifti, Indian pink and rofes, panfy, flower-
gentle, &c. Of thefe flowers, thofe which fubfift all
the year, we mean in the ftem, or root at leaft, are called
perennials. And thofe which are to be planted or fowed
afrefh every year, according to the feafon, are called an-
nual.

Fiowers, Prefervation of. The method of pre‘erving
flowers in their beauty through the whole year has been
diligently fought after by many people; fome have at-
tempted it, by gathering them when dry, and not too
much opened, and burying them in dry fand; but this,
though it preferves their figure well, yet takes off from the
livelinefs of their colour.

The primrofe and cowflip kind are very eminent in-
{lances of the change of colours in the flowers of dried {pe-
cimens ; for thofe of this clafs of plants eafily dry in their
natural fhape, but they not only lofe their yellow, which
might be expected naturally enough, but they acquire a
fine deep green, much fuperior to that of the leaves in their
moft perfe& ftate. The flowers of all the violet kind lofe
their noble blue, and become of a dead white, fo that in
dried {pecimens there is no difference between the blue-
flowered violet and the white-flowered kinds.

Muntingius gives a method, which he fays is preferable
to all others; this is as follows: gather rofes or other
flowers when they are not. yet thoroughly open, in the
middle of a dry day; put them into a good earthen veffel,
glazed within; fill the veffel up tc the top with them;
and when full, {prinkle them over with fome good French
wine, with a little falt in it; then fet them by in a cel-
Jar, tying the mouth of the pot carefully down. After
this, they may be taken out at pleafure, and on fetting them
in the fur, or within the reach of the fire, they will open as

40 =~

FLOWER.

if onthe tree, and not only the colour, but the fmell, will be
preferved.

Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world a
method of drying plants, by which all flowers are pre-
ferved in their natural fhape, and many in their proper
colours. ‘To this purpofe two plates of iroa are to be pre-
pared to the fize of a large half fheet of paper, or larger
for particular occafions; thefe plates mult be made fo
thick as not to have any power of bending, ‘and there mutt
be a hole made near every corner for the receiving a ferew
to faften them clofe together.

When thefe plates are prepared, lay in readinefs feveral
fheets of paper, and then gather the plants with their
flowers, when they are quite perfect ; let this always be
done in the middle of a dry day, and then lay the plant
and its flower on one of the fheets of paper doubled in
half, fpreading out all the leaves and petals as nicely as
can be. If the ftalk be thick, it mutt be pared or cut in
half fo that it may lie flat; and if it be woody, it may
be peeled, and only the bark left ; when the plant is thus
expanded, lay round about it fome loofe leaves and pe-
tals of the flowers, which may ferve to complete aay part
that may prove deficient; when all is thus prepared, lay
{everal fheets of paper over the plant, and as many un-
der it; then put the whole into the iron plates, laying
the papers {moothly on one, and laying the other evenly
over them; then fcrew them clofe, and put them into an
oven after the bread is drawn, and let them lie there two
hours; after this make a mixture of equal parts of aqua-
fortis and common brandy; fhake thefe well together ;
and when the flowers are taken out of the preflure of the
plates, rub them lightly over with a camel’s hair pencil
dipped in this liquor ; then lay them upon frefh brown
paper, and, covering them with fome other fheets, prefs
them between this and other papers with a handkerchief,
till the wet of thefe liquors is dried wholly away. When
the plant is thus far prepared, take the quantity of a nut-
meg of gum dragon, put this into a pint of fair water
cold, and let it fland four and twenty hours; it will in
this time be wholly diffolved ; then dip a fine hair pencil
in this liquor, and with it daub over the backfides of the
leaves, and lay them carefully down on a half fheet of
white paper fairly expanded, and prefs them with fome
more papers over thefe. When the gum-water is fixed,
let the preflure and papers be removed, and the whole
work is finifhed. he leaves retain their verdure in this
cafe, and the flowers ufually keep their natural colours.
Some care mu{t be taken, that the heat of the oven be
not too great. When the flowers are thick and bulky,
fome art may be ufed to pare off the backs, and dif-
pole the petals in a due order; and after this, if any of
them are wanting, their places may be fupplied with fome
of the fupernumerary ones dried on purpofe ; and if any
one of them be only faded, it will be prudent to take
them away, aud lay down others in their ftead: the
leaves may be alfo difpofed and mended in the fame man-
ner. Another way of keeping both flowers and fruit the
whole year without fpoiling, is delivered by the fame au-
thor in the following manner: take falt-petre, one pound ;
bole-armenic, two pounds ; clean common fand, three
pounds ; mix all well together, then gather fruit of any
kind, that is not full ripe, with the ftalk to each; put
thefe in one by one into a wide-mouthed glafs, laying
them in good order; tie over the top with an oil-cloth,
and carry the glafs into a dry cellar, and fet the whole
upon a bed of this prepared matter of four inches thick
in a box; fill up the iad of the box with the fame

preparation, and let it be four inches thick over the top of
the glafs, and round all its fides. Flowers are to be pre-
ferved in the fame fort of glaffes in the fame manner, and
they may be taken up, after a whole year, as plump and as
fair as when buried.

Frower Garden, the place where flowers are chiefly
grown, cultivated and preferved. It fhould have a fhel-
tered fouthern afpea, but which is not by any means clofe.

Frowers, in Antiquity. We find flowers in great requeft
at the entertainments of the ancients, being provided by
the mafter of the feaft, and brought in betore the fecond
courfe ; or, as fome are of opinion, at the beginning of
the entertainment. They not only adorned their heads,
necks, and breaits, with flowers, but often beftrewed the
beds whereon they lay, and all parts of the room with
them. But the head was chiefly regarded. Potter Ar-
cheol. Gree. tom. ii. p. 383- See Garvanp.

Flowers were likewife uled in the bedecking of tombs.
Potter Archzol. Gree. lib. iv. cap. 7. tom. ii. p. 232, feq.
See Buriat.

Fiower, in Architedures according to Vitruvius, is a
reprefentation of fome imaginary flower, by way of crown
ing, or finifhing, on the top of a dome, &c. :

In lieu of this the moderns commonly ufe a vafe, ball, or
the like.

Frower-pe-tuce, Fleur-de-lis,, in Heraldry, is a bear-
ing anciently of great dignity; being reputed the nobleft
of all flowers, and as fuch having been in all ages the
charge of the royal efcutcheon of the kings of France,
though time has made the bearing thereof more vulgar.

In fome coats it is borne fingle; in others triple ; in
others it is, femée, feeded all over the efeutcheon. During
the exiltence of monarchy in France the arms confitted of
three flowers-de-lis or, in a field azure. 'Thefe arms, how-
ever, were {uperfeded in 1789 by the cap of liberty, and
the three-coloured flag, when the baftile was taken and de=
ftroyed by the inhabitants of Paris.

Fiower of the Capital is an ornament of feulpture, in
form of a role, in the middle of the {weep of the Corin-
thian abacus.

In that of the Compofite, it is not a rofe, nor any real,
but an imaginary kind of flower.

Frowers, in Chemiftry, are the fineft and mott fubtile
parts of dry bodies, raifed by fire, into the veflel’s head,
and aludels; and adhering to them in form of a fine pow-
el or duft. Such are the flowers of fulphur, benjamin,

cGy

Frowers of Antimony. See ANTIMONY.

FLowers Argentine, of regulus of antimony, are made by
putting the regulus into an unvarnifhed earthen pot, placed
in a furnace, fo that its bottom may be red-hot, while its
upper part fhall be much colder. The pot is to be covered
with a lid, without luting it, and heat is to be applied for
an hour or more. When the pot is cold, its internal fur-
face, and the remaining part of the regulus are found co-
vered with white flowers, in form of beautiful, tran{parent,
and fhining needles, which are to be gathered with a feather,
After this, a fecond fublimation may be commenced, and
managed in the fame manner; and the whole regulus may
be changed into flowers. Thefe flowers appear to be no-
thing elfe than the earth of regulus of antimony deprived
of almoft all its phlogifton. They are neither emetic nor
purgative ; they are foluble in aqua regia.

Frowers of Arfenic, white, are made, asall other flowers
are, by fubliming arfenic ; from which they do not differ in
their nature and properties.

Fiowers of Benjamin, or Benxoin, ave made by putting a

quantity

FLO

quantity of this refin into a varnifhed earthen pan, and co-
vering it with another inverted pan of ftone-ware; and let
the edges of thefe pans be made to fit well to each other,
and to be well luted together with paper dipped in pafte.
Put the earthen pan containing the benzoin ona gentle fire,
and with that the fublimation is performed ; when the veffels
are cool and unluted, thie flowers are to be {wept off with a
feather. For the properties and medical ufes of thefe fowers,
fee BEN zoIN.

Friowers of Bifmuth. See Bismurn.

Frowers of Cobalt. See Coxatr. hd

Frowers of Copper have been prepared by fubliming fal-
ammoniacum with the caput mortuum of blue vitriol. See
Copprr.

Frowers, Martial. See Frores Martiales.

Frowers of Sal Ammoniac are nothing more than fal am-
moniac fublimed ; and the fublimation is facilitated by ge-
nerally mixing with it aa equal part of decrepitated com-
mon falt. See Sa/ Ammontac.

Frowsrs of Sulphur, er Brim/flone, are the vapours of
melted brimftone conveyed from an iron pot (in which it is
kept boiling) through a proper flew, into a clofe room or
even, where this vapour condenfes into flowers. See
SuLpuur.

Frowers of Zinc. See Capmia and Zinc.

Frowrrs, in the Animal Economy, denote women’s
monthly purgations, or mez/es.

Nicod derives the word in this fenfe from fluere, q. d.
Sfleors. Others will have the name occafioned hence, that
women do not conceive till they have had their flowers; fo
that thefe are a fort of forerunners of their fruit.

Frowers, in Rhetoric, ave figures and ornaments of dif-
courfe, by the Latins called flo/culi.

Frower-fence, Barbadoes. See Poinciana.

Frower-fence, Bafard. See ADENANTHERA.

Frowsr of Briflol. See Lycunts.

-Frower of Conjlantinople. See Lycunts.

Frower-de-luce, in Botany. See Iris.

Frowers of an Hour. See Hisiscus.

Frower, Lternal, or Everlafling. See GNAPHALIUM,
Gompurana, and XERANTHEMUM.,

Frower, Four o'clock. See Mrirapicis.

Frower, Gentle. See AMARANTHUS.

Frower, Side Saddle. See SArRACENA.

Frower, Sky. See Cineraria.

Frower, Sultan. See CENTAUREA.

Frower, Sun. See Herianruus.

Frower, Jrumpet. See Bicnonia.

Frower, Wind. See Anemone.

.Frower of Ofeocolla, a name given by the people em-
ployed in finding the offescolla to a fort of white marley
matter, which they ufually find on the furface of the

round in the places where the ofteocolla lies underneath.
tt feems very nearly allied to the nature of the ofteocola
itfelf, and ufually has. under it fome of that blackith mat-
ter refembling rotten wood, which the otteocolla itfelf is
formed upon, and which fills up thofe hollows we tind
in moft of the pieces, while the whole is in the ground.

This rotten vegetable matter has much the refemblance
of the roots or branches of trees, and is called by the
common people the root of the ofteocolla or hammottei
radix. Phil. Tranf. N° 39. See Osrsocotta.

Fiower-root-worm, in Natural Hiflory, a peculiar fpe-
cies of fly-worm, which makes its habitation only in the bul-
bous roots of flowers. The roots of the narciffus, at the
time they are taken up out of the earth toward the end
of autumn, very frequently are found to contain each a

PLO

fingle worm which eats and deftroys them. Sometimes,
One root is found to contain two of them; but this is
but rarely the cafe. The roots which have them may ea-
fily be known, by having each a round hole in fome part,
at which the deftroyer has entered while it was f{mall,.
and which probably ferves it now in its large ftate for re-
{piration of the freer air. The interior part of thefe
bulbs is always found rotted and deftroyed, and the worm
is found in thefe, lying in a brown fort of dirt made by its
own liquid excrements, mixed among the fragments of the
coats of the root which it has deftroyed. Reaumur’s Hif.
Infect. vol. iv. p. 499.

Thefe worms undergo all their changes in a fhell made
of their own fkin, which is of the fame egg-fafhioned fhape
with that of the blue fiefh-fiy, but confiderably larger,
and of a greyifh colour. But this is not all its difference
from thofe fhells; for on its anterior and fuperior part it
has two horns of the fame kind with the four of the
fhells of the rat-tailed worm; and feeming to ferve to
the fame purpofes, and to convey the air neceffary for the
life of the creature, into its corcelet: the old fligmata,
which ferved the creature in its worm-ftate, being now ob-
literated, and fomething -neceffarily wanted in their place.
After having undergone all the neceffary changes, the
fhells are burft open, in the month of April, and let out
the fly they contained.

This has fo much the appearance of a humble-bee, that
at firit fight it is fcarce to be diftinguifhed from it. It is
covered with black, yellow, and ceddifh hairs, as the
{maller kinds of the common humble-bees are; but its
antenne, which are of the battledore fafhion, prove plainly
enough, that it is really no bee, even before one can deter-
mine with certainty that it has only two wings.

FLOWERAGE, a colleétion of flowers of feveral
kinds fet together in hufks, and hung up with firings.

FLOWERED, in the AJanufudures. A ftuff, or cloth,
is faid to be flowered, flourifhed, {prigged, or figured, when
there are reprefentations of flowers, either natural, or ima-
ginary, wrought thereon.

There are ftuffs flowered of almoft all kinds of matter:
flowers of gold, filver, filk, wool, thread, cotton, &c.
Stuffs and cloths are ufually denominated from the ground
whereon the flowers are raifed.

Thus, there are flowered velvets, taffeties, damafks, fat~
tins, mohairs, dimities, &c.

Thofe flowered with gold and filver are more ufually call-
ed brocades.

The flowers are ufually wrought at the fame time with
the cloth, or ground. The threads of the warp are raifed
and lowered by means of packthreads pafled through them
in mounting the loom; and the manufa@urer fhooting his
warp, or matter of the flowers, whether gold, filver, filk,
or the like, between the threads thus raifed, forms the
flowers.

It is very curious to fee them mount a loom ; or, as they
call it, read a defign, to be reprefented on a ftuff; but it is
next to impoffible to deferibe it; yet we have endeavoured
to give fome idea thereof under DesiGn.

FLOWERING, Bulbous-rooted Planis, in Gardening,
the art of blowing thefe forts of Hower-plants in the houfe,
This can be eafily done by proper care, as they are capable
of both growing and flowering in water without any fort
of earth. When well managed iv this way, flowers of this
kind have a beautiful and elegant appearance, at a feafon
when they cannot be found in other fituations.

It is the ufual practice to blow fingle roots ia pots or
glafles made for the purpofe, nothing more being requifite

4Qz2 than

FLO

than that of fupplying them properly with water, foasnat
to rife much upon the bulbs of the roots, asi they are very
liable to rot when they aretoo much immerfed in water,

Other contrivances have likewife been had recourfe to’

in order to blow feveral roots of the fame, or other kinds
together, in which fituations they have very pretty effe&is.
Where glafs or earthen-ware flands for this purpofe are not
at hand, the bufinefs may be eafily and conveniently ac-
complifhed by means of a common garden pot, which
fhould have the hole in the bottom perfeétly clofed, and
two pieces of pretty ftrong fheet lead cut fo as to’exaétly
fit the bottom and top of the pot; proper holes) fhould
then be made in the upper piece for the reception of the
yoot-bulbs, and fmall perforations formed in it, and the
lower or bottom piece, for receiving fuitable fticks for fup-
porting the flowering ftems of tlie different.roots. Water
muft then be poured in fo as to fill the pot quite up to the
upper plate of lead, when the roots fhould be placed in the
large holes made for them, fo as jult to touch the furface of
the water. Where different kinds are ufed, hyacinths, nar-
ciffufes, jonquils, tulips, &c. may be put in,in a varied
manner, and placed ina rather warm fituation in the houfe.
In this way the whole will be brought into flower at an
early period, and continue for fome time to afford a:fine
difplay of beautiful flowers. In this manner, by a careful
regulation of the heat of the room, and an occational pro-

er fupply of frefh water, they may be kept flowering from
Deedee till the beginning of the fpring.

When they have done flowering, the roots fhould be
removed and laid by in a dry, but not warm fituation, until
they may be wanted in the following feafon.

It is found by much experience that thofe bulbs which
are kept in a dry ftate flower by much the beft, as they

radually take in that quantity of moifture which is necef-
ty in the procefs, and are not fo liable to rot or fuftain
injury in that way.

The proper way of managing them is to let them at firft
only juft come in contaét with the furface of the water,
that they may ftrike forth their root-fibres in a full manner,
after which it may be raifed a little higher to promote the
full fowering of the plants. During the whole time of
flowering, they fhould be kept quite fteady by the fupport
of proper flicks.

There is an advantage in flowering bulbous roots in glafs
ftands, as they fucceed equally well in them, by the pro-
grefs of their roots being capable of being more perfectly
judged of, and at the fame time the fupplies of water
sore conveniently afforded.

Such roots as have been in the ground are always im-
proper for being employed in this way, as they never lower
im any perfeét manner. Before the roots are made ufe of,
it is conftantly neceflary to lightly rub off all the loofe old
coaty matters that may hang about them. And it 1s a good
practice to change the roots every two or three years; in
order to prevent their becoming weak, and of courfe
flowering imperfe@lly.

It has been fuggefted that the early flowering of roots
of this fort may be greatly promoted by the ufe of weak
folutions of nitre, and ammonia in its crude ftate. Where
either of them is tried, a fmall portion fhould only be
poured into the pots or glaffes containing the water at a
time, and not too frequently repeated. See Root. :

FLOWING, or Fiown:/heets, in Sea Language, denote
the potitions of the fheets, or lower corners of the principal
fails when they are loofened to the wind, fo as to receive
it into their cavities in a dire€tion more ufually perpendi-
cular than when they are clofe hawled, but more obliquely

FLO
than when the veflel is failing before tlle wind. This pofte

tion of the fheets takes'place when the wind croffes the line
of, her courfe nearly at right angles.

FLOX, inthe Colour Trade, a yery well cleaned wool

ufed to abforb the colours of cochineal, &c. It is prepared
in'this manner: infufe a pound of the fineft’ theerings of
woollen cloth in cold water for one day 3 then take them up,
and prefs them well together, to wath off the untuofity
the wool naturally has. This is the fimple fiox, which,
when impregnated with a folution of alum, is called alumed
flox. This is done in the following manner: Take four
ounces of roach-alum, and two ounces of crude tartar,
both in.fine powder; put them into an earthen veffel with

three quarts of water, fet it over the fire, and when it )

begins to boil, then put in the flox; let the liquor now
boil half an hour over a gentle fire, then take it off, and
when all is perfectly cooled, wafh the fox with fair water,
letting them fland in it two hours, then prefs them in the
hand, and let them dry. ist

FLOYD, in Geography, a new townfhip of America,
and chief place of a diitrié& in Oneida Herkemer county,
New York; containing 767 inhabitants—Alfo, a county
of Kentucky, containing 427 inhabitants, of whom 29
are Slaves.

Fioyp’s Fork, a river of Kentucky, which runs into
the river Salt. N. lat. 37° 48. Wilong. 857 57’.

FLOYER, Sir Joun, in Biography, an eminent phyfician,
was born at Hinters, in Stafford{hire, about the year 1649,
and received his education at the univerfity of Oxford, where

the degree of do€tor of phyfic was conferred upon him, on.”

the 8th of July, 1680. He fettled himfelf in the praétice
of his profeffion at Litchfield, in his native county ; where
his indefatigable attention to the fick, and the confequent
prattical {kill which he attained, not only procured for him
the confidence of the inhabitants, but gained hima repu-
tation fo extenfive, that his fovereign honoured him with
knighthood, asa reward for his talents. He was a great
friend to the ufe of cold bathing, and left no means untried,
by which he might diffeminate the knowledge of itsutility
and fafety, and bring the praétice into general vogue: he
particularly recommended it in chronic rheumatifms, and in
nervous diforders, and he maintained that confumptions had
prevailed extenfively in England only fince the praGtice of
baptizing children by immerfion had been relinquifhed.
The following are the titles of his different publications.
1. “The Touchftone of Medicines,’? London, 1687, 8vo.
2. “The Preternatural ftate of the Animal Humours
defcribed by their fenfible qualities,” London, 1696, 8vo. in
which he maintained the dotrine of fermentation. 3, * An
Enquiry into the right ufe of Baths,” London, 1697,
8vo. This work afterwards appeared under different titles;
fuch as “Ancient Pfychrolufy revived,” London, 1702;
and the fubject was-more amply treated in another edition;
«¢ Hittory ef hot and cold Bathing, ancient and modern,
with an Appendix by Dr. Baynard,’? London, 1709, and
again in 1715, and 1722. 4. His» next work was “A
Treatifeon the Aithma,”? firft publifhed in-1698, and re-
publifhed in 1717 and.1726. He was himfelf the fubje&
of afthma from the age of puberty, yet lived to be an old
man. 5: ‘* The Phyficians’? Puife-watch,” 1707 and 1710,
in two volumes, $vo. Sir John Floyer was one of the firft
to count the pulfations of the arteries; for although the
pulfe had been the fubje& of obfervation from aneient times,
the number of beats ina given time had not been attended:

to. 6. * Medicina Geronomica ; of preferving old men’s’
health; with an appendix concerning the ufe of oil and-

unction, and a letter on the regimen of younger years,”
3 London,

FLL.

London, 1724. Several of thefe treatifes: were tranflated
into the continental languages. on -; Pe

FLUATES, in Chemifry, a genus of falts formed by
the union of fuoricacid-with any alkaline or falifiable bafe.
Little is: known of thefe falts, but the properties of the
principal of them are enumerated in the article Fiuor,
to which the reader is referred. :

FLUCTUATION denotes, in Surgery, the motion
communicated to any collection of purulent matter, or
other kinds of fluid, by applying fome of the fingers of
each hand, at a certain diftance from each other, to the fur-
face of the tumour, and preffing with them alternately in
fuch a manner, that the fingers of one hand are to make a
little preffure, while thofe of the other hand remain lightly
placed on another part of the fwelling. When the ends of
one fet of fingers are thus delicately applied, and the
furgeon taps, or makes gentle preffure with the fingers of
the other hand, the impulfe given to the fluid is immediately
perceptible to thofe fingers which are lichtly Iaid on the
tumour, and the fenfation thus received is one of the prin-
cipal fymptoms by which practitioners are enabled to
difeover the prefence of fluid in a great variety of cafes.

When the colleétion of A. id is very deeply fituated, the
fluGtnation is frequently exceedingly obfcure, and fome-
times not at all diftinguifhable. In this circumftance, the
exiftence of the fluid is to be afcertained by the confidera-
tion of other fymptoms. Forexample, in cafes of hydrops
pectoris, and empyema, furgeons do not expect to feel the
undulation of the fluid in the thorax with their fingers ;
they confider the patient’s difficulty of breathing, the un-
eafinefs attending his lying on one particular fide, the edema
of the parietes of the cheft, the dropfical affection of other

arts, the more raifed and arched pofition of the ribs on the
a d fide of the body, the preceding rigors, fever, and
feveral other circumftances from which a judgment is formed,
both with regard to the prefence and the peculiar nature of
the fluid. esta

FLUDD, Rosert, or ashe ftyled himfelf in Latin, De
Fludibus, in Biography, the fecond fon of fir Thomas Fludd,
treafurerof war to queen Elizabeth, was born at Milgate, in

Kent, in 1574. He was educated at St. John’s college, Ox-

ford; andatter taking his degree in arts, attached himfelf to
the ftudy of phyfic, and fpent almoft fix years in his travels
through the principal countries in Turope. It was pro-
bably during thefe peregrinations that he imbibed a tafte
for the Rofyerucian philofophy, of which he was ever after
a moft ftrenuous fupporter, and indeed almoft the only
one who became eminent in it in this kingdom. He pro-
eceded as doétor of phyfic in 1605, and about that time
fettled in London, and was made a fellow of the college of
phyficians. He was a very voluminous author in his fect,
diving into the fartheft profundities and molt mytterious

obfcurities of the Rofie-crofs, and blending, ina moft ex--

traordinary manner, divinity, chemiftry, natural philofophy,
and metaphyfics. Eloy allows him fome credit on the
feore of mathematical and mechanical knowledge, but cha-
raéterizes his phyfic asa tiffue of fuperftitious nonfenfe.
Yet fuch a vein of wari enthufiafm runs throufh his
works, that we may readily fuppofe him to have been a
believer in the myttical jargon of his fyftem. He had the
faculty, at all events, of impreffiug his patients with an
‘ idea of his importance, and of infpiring them with great
faith in his fkill, by the ufe, it is faid, of a kind of fublime
unintelligible cant, whetherf uccefsfulornot; hewas therefore
at leaft very eminent in his medical capacity. He died at his
Kioufe in Coleman-{treet, London, on the 8th of September,

FLU

1637, and. was buried in the parith church of his native place.
It is faid that Dr. Fludd was in poffeffion of the manuicripts
of Simon Forman, the aftrologer. Although the fect of
Rofycrucians is now entirely extinG, a lift of the works of
Fludd, which were chiefly written in Latin, may not be
uninterehting to the curious. 1. The largeit, entitled,
«¢ Utriufque Cofmi, majoris et minoris, Technica Hiftoria,””
Oppenheim, 1617, ia two volumes folio, contains fome ex-
tremély fingular prints, which are intelligible only to au
adept. 2.‘* Traétatus Apologeticus integritatem focietatis
de Rofea cruce.defendens,’’? Leyden, 1617. 3.‘ Monochor-
don mundi fymphoniacum, feu Replicatio ad Apologiam
Joannis Kepleri,” Francfort, 1620. 4. ‘* Anatomie Thea-
trum triplici effigie defignatum,”’ ibid, 1623. 5. ‘ Philofo-
phia Sacra et vere Chriltiana, feu Meteorologia Cofmica,’’
ibid, 1626. 6. Medicina Catholica, feu, Mytticum artis
Medicandi Sacrarium,” ibid, 1626. 7. ‘¢ Integram Mor-
borum Myfterium,” ibid, 1631. 8. ‘* De Morborum
Signis,”’ ibid, 1631. Thefe two treatifes are a part of
the Medicina Catholica. g.‘‘ Clavis Philofophie et Alchy-
mie Fluddanz,” ibid, 1633. 10. ‘¢ Philofophia Mofaica,”’
Goudz, 1638. 11. Pathologia Demoniaca,” ibid, 1640.
Aikin Biograph. Memoirs of Med. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.

It is true, that as the great Kepler, his contemporary,
from the high refpeét which he bore even to the prejudices
and philofophic dreams of antiquity, in his work, entitled
¢‘ Harmonius Mundi,”’? endeavours to illuftrate and demon-
itrate the Pythagorean harmony of the fpieres, and to re-
concile it to geometrical laws, and the Copernican fyitem 5
but as it was in this vain attempt that he made the great
difcovery of the elliptic orbits of the planets, his vilionary
analogies between the diftance of the planets, and the har-
monic intervals in mufic, have been excufed. Now Fludd,
anxious for the honour which he thought Kepler had
gained by the very attempt which moft difgraced him with
pofterity, in his fanciful demonftration of the mufic of the
{pheres, oppofes him and his analogy with ebufe and feurri-
lity, and fets up a fyftem of his own itill more wild and abfurd;
for in the third book of the firlt tra&, entitled ** De Mufica
Mundana,”’ he fuppofes the world to bea mufical inftrument,
refembling a monochord, extending from the fummit of the
empyrean heaven to the bafis of the earth itfelf, dividing it
into parts conftituting confonances ; fo that if the half part
were touched or firuck, it would produce the confonant
diapafon, or o€tave, in the fame manner as in the inftrumental
monochord. Mafter doétor Fludd has given us a diagram
of his fyftem, reprefenting his mundane monochord, the
finger-board of which he has graduated by flats into a
feale of difdiapafon, to G fel re ut in the treble, and
placed oppofite to each note of this gammut, afcending
from the earth, the elements of water, air, and fire; then
the celeftial bodies from the moon to Saturn, afligning 2
place to each orb oppofite to fome found of his mufical fale,

After adjufting his mundane monochord, and dividing it
into fyftems of diateffaron, diapente, and diapafon, our au-
thor, chap. iv. undertakes to demonftrate his whimficak
hypothefis by the figure of a pipe or flute. But if our
readers have had perfeverance to follow us thus far, we can
hardly fuppofe that their patience will laft one iach further ;
we fhall therefore only obferve, that. this bewildered author,
in order to enable himfelf to put together his fyitem of
metaphorical mufic, muft previoufly have ttudied real
pra@ical mutic, concerning which, in his fecond traG, he
ipeaks like other Chri/fian folk.

FLUDER, or Sea-Fuupper, in Ornithology, the name
of a water-fowl ef the colymbus or diver-kind, defcribed by
Gefner, and fome other authors, under the name of the

colymbus

FLU

colymbus maximus, or largeft diver.
Glacialis.

FLUE, Sr. Nicwoxas ve, in Biography, a very dif-
tinguifhed patriot of Switzerland, was born at Saxelen in
1417. Defcended from an ancient family, he fignalized
himfelf in defence of his country, and particularly dur-
ing the war which the Swifs fupported againft Sigifmond,
archduke of Auftria. He was no lefs remarkable for
humanity than valour. To his countrymen, when they
were preparing to pillage and burn the convent of St. Mar-
garet, near Dieffenhofen, he exclaimed, “ If God grants
you the victory over your enemies, ufe it with moderation,
and {pare thofe edifices which are confecrated to him.”
This remonftrance was effeGtual, and preferved the convent
from deftru€tion. To the moft excellent qualities of the
theart and underftanding, to great political fagacity, he
added the exterior graces of figure, dignity of charaGer,
andthe moft winning affability. Raifed by his countrymen
to high employments in the ftate, he repeatedly declined
tthe office of landamman from motives of delicacy, becaufe
he difapproved the principles of the governing party. At
length, hurried away by his deteftation of evil, and a zeal
for monkifh devotion, he quitted his family in the soth
year of his age, and retiring from the world ina fit of
gloomy fuperflition, turned hermit. The place of his re-
treat was Ranft, a few miles from Saxelen, where-he built
an hermitage and a {mall chapel, and praétifed all the feve-
rities required by that auftere mode of life wich the ftricteft
‘obfervance. But though he withdrew from the world, the
flame of patriotifm was not extin€&; but he was the happy
inftrument in refcning Switzerland from the impending
horrors of civil difeord. When a quarrel took place
among the cantons, and the deputies affembled, in 1481,
at Stantz, in order to compromife the difference, De Flue
quitted his hermitage, and in the 64th year of his age
travelled during the night, and arrived at Stantz on the
very morning when the deputies, having failed to termi-
nate their difpute amicably, were preparing for their de-
parture. He conjured them to remain; and, having by his
mediation fucceeded in compofing the public diffentions,
returned to his hermitage, where he died, in 1487, in the
7oth year of his age, regretted and efteemed by all Switzer-
land. Such a general opinion of his extreme piety pre-
vailed among his contemporaries, that the bigotry of thefe
times afcribed to him an exemption from the common wants
of human nature. The following epitaph was inferibed on
his tomb: “ Nicholas de Flue quitted his wife and children
to go into the defart: he ferved God 19} years without
taking any fuftenance. He died 1487.” Coxe’s Travels
in Switzerland, vol. i.

Five, the long tube of a chimney, from the fire-place to
the top, for giving paflage to the fmoke. For a more par-
ticular account, fee CHIMNIES.

FLUELLIN, in Botany. See ANTIRRHINUM.

FLUENT, in dnalfis. Itis not eafy to give fuch a
definition of the term fluent as fhall be intelligible to thofe
not previoufly acquainted with the ufe of the word. And
indeed mathematicians themfelves differ in their conceptions
of it according to the different points of view in which they
have been accuftomed to confider the principles of the
fluxionary or differential calculus.

As the converfe of a fluxion, a fluent is the flowing
uantity, the rate of whofe increafe is exprefied by the
fusion. According to other writers the fluent or integral
is the fum of an infinite number of fmall factors increafing or
decreafing according to fome given law, each of which

See Cotymsus

FLU

may be confidered as the fluxion or differential of the whole
integralor fluent, See Fruxion.

According to the more accurate ideas of modern analyfts,
a fluent or integral is nothing more than an algebraic ex-
preflion, confifting of variable quantities with or without
others that are conftant, which expreflion being expanded
into a feries according to certain rules, gives for the frft
term the fluxion or differential of which it is the fluent.
In this view of the fubje& a fluent and its fluxion, or an
integral and its differential, are merely certain analytical or
fymbolical relations, not depending on any theory relating
to velocity, or indeed on any difputable hypothefis what-
ever, fince it is founded on arbitrary definition alone :
and it is prefumed that this will be fufficient for all the pur-
pofes to which the application of the differential or inte-
gral calculus can poflibly be applied. But the difcuffion
of this fubjeé& will be again refumed under Analytic Func-
TION.

The moft luminous and corre&t explanation of the real
meaning of the term flucnt is given by Mr. Woodhoufe in
the Tranfaétions for 1802, in a paper on the independence
of the analytical and geometrical methods of inveftigation.
His obje& 1s to fhew that analytical expreflions, involved in
geometrical language, are foreign to the fubje&t, and tend
to produce confufed and erroneous notions. Such, for
example, are the following; fin. x; cof. x; hyp. log. x;
fin. nx = 2cef.x.fin. (2 — 1) x — fin. (nx — 2) x3 fx (1 —

d 1 ay Sal
x)!

1—x
&e.

The value of f+ (1+) 7‘ is faid to be aportion of the
area of an hyperbola intercepted between two ordinates to
its allymptotes; but as Mr. W. obferves, this is a circum-
locutory mode of expreffion, fince to find the value of the
area, x. (1 + x)~' muft be expanded, and the integrals of the
feveral terms taken, which fame operation muft have taken
place in order to approximate to the value of /x (t +.x)7',
if no fuch curve as the hyperbola had ever been invented.

Mr. W. then proceeds to explain what he himfelf under-
ftands by an integral or fluent of an expreffion. We fhal!
ufe his own words.

Let 9x denote a funétion of x; if x be increafed by o
then 9x becomes ¢ (x + 0) and $ (x + 4), developed, ac-

circular arc; f * = = elliptical arc,

cording to the powers of 0, becomes ?x + Po + =

a + = o', &c. where P is derived from ¢x, Q from
P, R from Q, &c. by the fame law, fo that the manner of
deriving P being known, Q, R, &c. are known. The en-
tire difference or increment of ¢x is? (x +0) —@x; but
the differential or fluxion of @x, is only a part of this dit-
ference, or P.o.- If inftead of 0, dx or x be put, it is
P.dx or P¥; the integral or fluent of P x is that funGion
from which P x is derived ; and in order to remount. to it,
we muft obferve the manner or the operation by which it
was deduced, and by reverfing fuch operation the integral
or fluent is obtained. Now in taking the fluxion of certain
functions of x, it appears that there are conditions to which
the indices of x without and under the vinculum are fubject.
Hence, whether or not a propofed fluxion can have its
fluent affigned, we muft fee if the fluxion has the necef-
fary conditions.

x

x
Expreffions, fuchas —, 3 » &e. lawanat
x Ete W771 —x

thefe conditions ; and confequently there is no function ? x
ot

FLUENT.

of x, fuch that the fecond term of the developement of 9
:) is equal either to ~ peLAE. SEER
(«+ 4) iseq =, or 2, or —_,
&c. There are, however, integral equations from which
fuch expreffions may be derived. Thus, let « = :,
: L

I+x

= 2%; let x=

* :
then — =; let 1 + x = &*.-,
x

2/—1
Now from thefe equations, the differential equations
oe *

x
erga (ae &c, may, by expunging
the exponential quantities, be derived; confequently, if
the fymbol / is to defignate a reverfe operation, I can only
know what that reverfe operation is by attending to the
manner by which the expreffions affected with the fymbol
J were derived. Hence

= E
—=2, whenx = «*,
x

of :

= >

—— = z, when i+ x = *
I+x

pS ae
—————— aE ie | a a les ie

rts ? )

acai heak

In like manner,

‘ —— eee
fx(E +) 3 =2z,0+ VE + PS ore = ——
fe Bers) t ay w+ aban tat HE

2% 1+x *—I1
See ee ef: SS ol tat .
Mariad ee hand
2x Vi+x°—1 sree
of = a5 =— = *,orvi+x =

XS r+ x? Vitxt+i

1+: 2
ors = —

t= ef—8%

‘ ——l 'f =V= =-2V=,

Again, fuppofex ={2 v1 } {: = == m1

Ta Wisin +s. °% vai} 5 but Pd eae ire

l—x,

‘ { Ee Sa eye x mt ; confequently x = = 4/
( x ‘

x
Pee hence reverfely, ae Peay
J

osz= 7
V1
ayer h

aye 20 { et vT

being = (2 /— 7) 7 "| e* yr
—<x
In like manner a aS

*

senvrk, Vv 2x -

fees)

‘ak Se g?* i

x?

_

St
a Po lig apGee Y=" 4.2),

= i 2 Phu malated
ee re)
‘Anda variety of forms may be obtained by fubftituting

*

for x different funétions of x, in the expreffion

.

a/ Ii —>x*

Hence if the fymbol / is made to denote a reverfe opera-
tion, the integral equations of the preceding Cifferential
equations have been rightly afigned. All other methods of
affigning the integrals by the properties of logarithms, by
circular arcs, by logarithmic and hyperbolic curves, are
indire&t, foreign, and ambiguous. _ Mr. Woodhoufe next
proceeds, by the above method, to integrate certain differen-
tial equations which Euler and Lagrange have before treated
of, and which are faid to admit for their compleat integra-
tion an algebraic form, although the integration of each
particular term depends on the quadrature of the circle and
hyperbola. }

Let fx, fy, denote funétions of x and y. Suppofe the

differential equation to be —+ = =o;thenfx+fy=a

=

when x= :f%,y= 2/7, Hencexy=el* +7 =e?

A, acontftant quantity.
x y
Let 2

Vi-xt WV i—y

2dly.

~~!
.
I

24 — 1

Vie EN Pa SEE se =
(< Slay ‘), and vi—-y =? re
(° Vico i ny ae

Hence x. 4/ Ci =i RE Ate ce) @ va a

—

Vie x 2

—2 erry Ce ~

=—i—€E

-(fx+fn —(fx4fr)

I— = OM :
|: ae Sie t = A, a conftant quantity.

x y

ly. Let —— + a == c
3dly e Vatbx +ex Vat byte #
x eee. J cia
. A b is by oa
age? GOTT as waa Ae (s+2+=
= ©,
’ @ % '
Let « + —=U, yp + — =, and P= — ——.
c : 4c
= “
a 4+ ———=-—= =o.

Taking the integrals «~! {v ~ vt =% Vv

2.=V uy

-Vv

—re

weg +! 7 Geb eye to

2

= (SEND e8VT mrt eet VS

2 2
values of x and y ;

« — 3
2c te Vary yt J @+8s
+x)

t

= A, and reftoring the

FLU

+ ex’) = A'. By the above operation it appears that cer-

‘tain algebraical expreflions, asx “1 — y? + y V1 =,

ERE Patt: Jatby + cy, &c. may be deduced, which

c
i eal

anfwer the equations. [T= age shisha yea
But, ftri¢tly fpeaking, fuch algebraical expreffions are: not
the integrals ; they are rather expreflions deduced from the
true integral equations, from which other algebraical ex-
preffions, befides thofe put down, might be deduced, For
the integration of this fort of differential equations, fee
Mem. de Turin, vol.iv. p. 98. Sur Pintegration de
quelques equations differentielles, dont les indeterminees
font feparées, mais dont chaque membre en particulier n’eft
point integrable.”

In this memoir are given three different methods of in-
tegrating « (1 — x*)7!=y? (1 — y’) 743 by circular
arcs and certain trigonometrical theorems, by impoflible
logarithms, and by partial integrations, Striétly {peaking,
all thefe methods are indire&t ; and the two firft are only
different but circuitous modes of exprefling the method
abovedefcribed. See likewife Euler, Calc. integral, vol. ii.
Novi Comm. Petrop. tom. vi. p. 37; tom. vil. p.1. It
is to be obferved, that in the prefent {tate of analytic {cience,
there is no certain and direé&t method of integrating

{a+ bx tex" + dx?
ie i
texth +5 fatiy tes tay tert

= 0; becaufe no analytical expreffion or equation of a finite
form has hitherto been invented, from which, according to
the procefles of the differential calculus, fuch differential
equations may be deduced. To find the algebraical expref-
fions which anf{wer to thefe equations, recourfe muft be had
to what are properly denominated artifices. or fuch, fee

differential equations, fuch as x

Mem. de Turin, vol. iv. Comm. Petr. tom. vi. vii.
Lagrange. Fonét. Analyt. p. 86. La Croix Cale. -diff.
p-427, &c.

ELMGGEA, in Botany, fo named by M. Louis Claude
Richard, in honour of Mr. John Flugge, a very able
German botanift of the prefent day, whofe afliftance is
particularly acknowledged by profeffor Schrader in the firft
volume of his own truly excellent 2/ora Germanica, jutt
imported into this country. Richard in Schrader’s New
Journal, v. 2. fafe. 1.8. (Ophiopogon ; Gawler in Curt.
Mag. v. 27. 1063.) Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Sarmentacee, Linn. A/paragi, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none, except, with Richard, we take the
corolla for fuch. Cor. inferior, of one petal, bell-fhaped,
in fix deep, equal, oval, fpreading, permanent fegments.
Stam. Filaments fix, very fhort, inferted into the bafe of
the corolla; anthers oblong, vertical, ere¢t, fhorter than the
corolla, fomewhat arrow-fhaped at the bafe. Pi.
Germen fuperior, in the bottom of the corolla, roundith,
of three cells, with rudiments of a double row of feeds in
each ; ityle folitary, rather longer than the {tamens, erect,
columnar, furrowed, tapering at the fummit ; ftigma mi-
nutely bearded, acute. Peric. Berry fuperior, globofe,
-when ripe generally of one eell-only. Seed folitary, large,
‘erbicular, cartilagmous.

Eff. Ch. Corolla in fix deep equal fegments.
inferted into the bafe of the corolla, very fhort.
~ ‘acute. Berry fuperior. Seed folitary, globofe.

x. F. japoni¢a. Richard, in Schrad. N. Journ. v. 2.

Stamens
Stigma

Phat

fafc, 1.9, t. 1. f, A, »(Ophiopaogon japonicus; Gawl, in
Curt. Mag. t. 1063. Conyallaria japonica; Thunb. Jap.
140-6. -Linn. Suppl. 204. Ait. H. Kew. v. 1 45/5.
Willd. Sp, Ph vi 2, 160, Redout. Lil. v. 2. t. 80.
Mondo; Sceempf, Ameen. 823: t.824. Adanfon, v. 2. 496.)
Gra{s-leaved Fluggea, or Japan Svakefbeard Native of
fhady places among ‘hrubs, near Nagafaki in Japan.
Thunberg. YKept with usin greenhoufes, where it flowers
ia June. Thunberg made it: known to the Dutch, from
whofe gardens we-obtained roots in 1784, and who treat
it asa hardy plant. The root is perennial, -ereeping by
means of ‘flefhy horizontal fhoots, which are mucilaginous
and nutritive. Stem none. Leaves radical, numerous,
naked, graffy, linear, recurved, bluntifh, flat, rough-edged,
winged at the bafe with abroad thin membrane. Stalé
central, folitary, much fhorter than the leaves, compreffed,
racemofe. Flowers drooping, {mall, white, or blueith,
with yellow arthers. Berry the fize of a pea, of a rich
deep blue. “Ihe leaves in our plants are from three inches
toa foot long. Thunberg fpeaks of a variety in which
they exceed two feet, but of this we know nothing.

This plant appears to be properly enough feparated from
Convallaria, on account of its habit, and perhaps the
effential charaéters given above may ferve to define the
genus, Which was publifhed by the two writers to whom
we have referred, in the fame year, unknown to each
other. We conceive the germen is proved by analogy to
be truly fuperior, and the ripe fruit is altogether fo; nor
can we account for that part of M. Richard’s defcription
which reprefents it as “ {carved at the top by the veftige of
the flower;’’ this, if true, would decide the fruit and
germen to be inferior, Redoute’s beautiful figure faith-
fully reprefents the parts in queftion. Richard’s plate’ is
more minute as to the ftructure of the flower, and fhews
the germen to be in an early ftate attached to, and. as it
were imbedded in, the bafe of the corolla, but the more
advanced {tate of -the fruit proves that it-cannot be deemed
even half-inferior, nor is it, by that mark, tobe difcrimi-
nated from Convallaria.

FLUIDITY, in Phy/fcs, that ftate or affeGtion of bodies
which denominates or renders them fluid.

Fluidity ftands in dire& oppofition to firmne/s, or /o-
lidity, which fee.

Fluidity is diftinguifhed from liquidity or humidity, in
that the idea of the firft is abfolute, and the property con-
tained in the thing itfelf; whereas that of the latter is rela-
tive, and implies wetting, or adhering, 7. e. fomewhat that
gives us the fenfation of wetnefs, or-moifture, and-which
would have no exiftence but for our fenfes.

Thus melted metals, air, or ether, and even fmoke, and
flame itfelf, are fluid bodies, but not liquid ones; their
parts not leaving any fenfe of-moifture ; whereas water,
milk, wine, &c. are at the fame time both fluids and liquids,

The nature and caufes of fluidity have been varioufly
affigned.

‘Fhe Gaffendifts, and ancient Corpufcularians, require
only three conditions as neceflary to it, viz. a fmallnefs and
{moothnefs of the particles of ‘the body ; vacuities inter-
fperfed between them ; and a {pherical figure. “Thus the
Epicurean poet Lucretius: / P

“© Tila autem debent ex levibus atque rotundis _
Efle magis, fluido. qua;corpore liqnida conftant.”

The Cartefians, and after them Dr. Hook,’Mr. Boyle,
&c. befide the circumftances above mentioned, require a va-
rious, perpetual, inteftine motion of the particles of \be
bodies, as that which principally contributes to fui A

uidity

-actions of corrofive men{truums, &c.

FLUEDIT'Y.

Fluidity then, according to thefe philofophers, confifts in
this, that the parts of the body, being very fine, and fmall,
are fo difpofed by motion, or figure, as that they can eafily
flide over one another’s furfaces all manner of ways; and that
they be in conftant, various, feparate agitation to and fro ;
and that they only touch one another in fome few parts of their
furfaces. Mr. Boyle, in his “* Hiftory of Fluidity,’ men-
tions three conditions principally required to fluidity, viz.

1. The minutenefs of parts: thus, in effeét, we find that
fire, by dividing metals into fine, fmall parts, renders them
fluid ; and that acid menftruums diffolve and render them
fluid after the like manner; and that fire turns the hard
body of common falt almoit wholly into’a liquor, by dif-
tillation: not but that the figure of the particles may have
a confiderable fhare in fluidity.

Thus mercury, whofe parts are doubtlefs much groffer
than thofe of oiland water, is yet more fluid than either of
them: and thus oil, by the aétion of fire, may be converted
into a confiftent fubftance like butter. :

z. A number of vacuities interfperfed between the cor-
puicles, to give room for the feveral particles to move
among themfelves. _ ;

3. A motion and agitation of the corpufeles; either
from fome principle of mobility within themfelyes, or from
fome extraneous agent, penetrating and entering the pores,
moving varioufly among them, and communicating to them
a part of its motion.

That this laft is the qualification chiefly required in
fluidity, he argues from divers obfervations’ and: experi-
ments. Thus, a little dry powder of alabafter, or platter
of Paris, finely fifted, being put ina veffel over the fire,
foon begins to boil like water; exhibiting all the motions
and phenomena of a boiling liquor. It will tumble va-
rioufly in great waves like that: it will bear ftirring with a
ftick or ladle like that, without refifting; nay if ftrongly
ftirred near the fide of the veffel, its waves will apparently
dafh againft them: yet it is all the while a dry parched
powder.

The like is obferved in fand ; a difh of which being fet
ona drum-head, brifkly beaten by the fticks, or on the
upper ftone of a mill, it in all refpeéts emulates the proper-
ties of a fluid body. A heavy body, ¢. gr. will immedi-
ately fink init to the bottom, and a light one emerge to
the top. Each grain of fand has a conttant vibratory and
dancing motion; and if a hole be made vin the fide of the
difh, the fand will {pin out like water.

That the parts of fluids are in continual motion, the
Cartefians evince from divers confiderations: as, r. The
tranfmutation of folidsinto tluide, ¢. gr. ice into water, and
vice verfi; the chief difference between the body in thefe
two ftates, confifting in this, that the parts being fixed and
at reft in the one, refift the touch; whereas in the other,
being already in motion, they give way to the flighte/t
impulfe.

2. The effe&ts of fluids, which commonly proceed from”

motion: fuch are the infinuation of fluids among the pores
of bodies ; the foftening and diflolving of hard bodies ; the
Add, that no folid
can be brought to a ftate of fluidity without the inter-
vention of. fome moving or moveable body, as fire, ‘air, or
water. ,

Air the fame gentlemen hold to be the firft {pring of
thefe caufes of fluidity, it being this that gives motion to
fire and water, though itfelf receives its motion and action
from the ether or fubtle medium.

Boerhaave, however, pleads {trenuoufly for fire’s being
the firlt mover, and the caufe of all fluidity in other

Vout. XIV.

bodies, as air, weter, &c. Without this, he fhews that
the atmofphere itfelf would fix into one folid mafs. To
the fame purpofe, Dr. Black maintains that fluidity is the
effect of heat. “The different degrees of heat which are
required to reduce different bodies into a ftate of fluidity,
he fuppofes, may depend on fome particulars in the miy-
ture and compefition of the bodies themfelves ; and’this
is rendered further probable from confidering that the na-
tural {tate of bodies in this refpeé&t is changed by certain
mixtures: accordingly, when two metals are compounded,
the mixture is commonly more fufible than either of them
feparately. See Fire and Hear.

Sir 1. Newton fets afide this theory of the caufe of
fluidity, and fubftitutes inftead of it the great principle of
attraction. Thecorpufcular fyftem,. with all the improve-
ments of Defeartes and Mr. Boyle, did not. fufficiently
account for the primary condition, requifite to conftitutea
body fluid, viz. the various inteftine motion -and agitation
of its particles. But this motion is naturally enough ac-
counted for, by fuppofing it a primary law of nature, that as
all the particles of matter attra&t each other when within-a
certain diftance; fo at all preater diftances they fly from,
and aveid one another. For then, though their common
gravity, together with the preifure of other bodies upon
them, may keep them together in a mafs, yet their con-
tinual endeavour to avoid one another fingly, and the ad-
ventitious impulfes of heat and light, or other external
caufes, may make the particles of fluids continually move
round about one another, and fo produce this quality.

There isa difficulty, indeed, in accounting why the par-
ticles of fluids always keep at fucha diftance from one an-
other, as not to come within the fphere of one another’s
attraGtion. The fabric and conftitution of that fluid body,
water, are amazing; that a body fo very rare, and which
has a vaft over-proportion of pores, or interfperfed vacuity,
to folid matter, fhould yet be incompreffible by the greateft
force, as philofophers very generally, and for a long time
have imagined, (fee Compression;) and yet this fluid is
eafily reducible into that firm, tranfpazent, friable body,
which we callice, by being only expofed to a certain de-
gree of cold. ;

One would think, that though the particles of water
cannot come near enough to attract each cther, yet the in-
tervening frigorific matter doth, by being mingled per mi-
nima, ftrongly attract them, and‘is itfelf likewife flrongly
attracted by them, and fo wedges or fixes all the mafs inte
a firm folid body ; which folid body -lofes its felidity again,
when by heat! the vinculum is folved, and the frigorific
ticles are disjoined’from thofe of the water, and ar
to fly out of it. And thus may the fumes of lead, per-
haps, fix quickdilver.

When a firm folid body, fuch as metal, is by heat re-
duced into a fluid, the particles of fire disjom and feparate
its conftituent parts, which their mutual attraGion caufed
before to cohere, and keep them at fuch a diftance from
one another, as that they are out of the {phere of each
other’s attraction, as long as that violent motion laits ; and
when by the lightnefs and adivity they are f

} flawn eff, unlefs
they be renewed by a continual fupply, the component par-
ticles of the metal finally come near enough again to feel
one another’s attractions. :

As, therefore, the caufe of cohefion of the pérts of
folid bodies appears to be their mutual attraGion, fo the
chief caufe of fluidity feems to be a contrary motion, im-
preffed on the particles of fluids; by which they avoid and
fly one another, as foon as they come at, and ‘as long as
they keep at fuch a diftance from each other,

4R it

FLU

It is obferved alfo in all fluids, that the dire&tion of their
preflure againft the veflels which contain them is in lines,
perpendicular to the fides of fuch veffels 3 which property,
being the neceffary refult of the particles of any fiuid’s
being f{pherical, fhews that the parts of all fluids are fo, or
of afigure ‘very nearly approaching to it. See Fuuips,

Pruipity of the Earth, in Geology. It has been a favour-
ite topic with many of the writers on the theory of the earth,
to enlarge on a fuppofed fluidity of the materials of which
the folid matters of the globe are now compofed, not only
progreflively at the fucceflive periods of their organic forma-
tion, but fince, ia confequence of the fudden and violent
difintegration or demolition of the ancient mountains and
ftrata, at the period when the organic remains of animals
and plants were lodged in the prefent ftrata; and which
took place, according to molt of the favourers of this
hypothefis, at the time of the Mofaic deluge: it is faid,
however, by fome late writers, that the relation of that
event, as given in the facred writings, (and whence elle
ean we gain any certain knowledge of fuch an event?) gives
us no ground for admitting this difintegration or total de-
ftru€tion of the antediluvian earth, or the opinion of its
having been at that time reduced toa {tate of fluidity. In
the article Exvuipsoip Figure of the earth, the writer
of that article has endeavoured to fhew, that fuch fluidity
of the materials of which the globe is at prefent conttituted,
is not any way neceflary towards accounting fully for
the prefent form and dimenfions of the earth, as refulting
from its gravitation and rotation on its axis. ‘Thofe who
have contended for an entire fluidity of the earth, or at leait
of fo much of its materials as compofe the cruft thereof,
with which alone we are acquainted, furely never turned
their attention to the vait depth and quantity of water or
ether fluid which would be necefflary for its folution, or
even fufpenfion, at one time, as feems neceflary, or to the
circumftances under which fo perfetly heterogeneous a
fluid could be fuppofed to depofit diftin@ fubftances, with
the furprifing regularity in which the {trata are difpofed, in
orders totally diftin& from.that of their fpecific gravitics.
See Order of the Strata.

FLUIDS are bodies, whofe particles are but weakly
gonneéted, their mutual cohefion being ma great meafure
prevented by fome interfering caufe. In this feufe a fluid
ftands oppofed to a folid.

Sir I. Newton defines a fluid body, to be that whofe
parts yield to the {malleit force imprefled, and by yielding
are ealily moved among cach other.

That the particles whereof fluids confift are of the fame
nature, and have the fame properties, with the particles of
folids, is evident, from the converfion of liquids and folids
into each other, e. gr. of water into ice, of metals into
fluors; &e. Nor can it be reafonably doubted, that the
component parts of all bodies are the fame, viz. hard, folid,
impenetrable, moveable corpulcles.

We obferve, therefore, with Dr. Clarke, that if the. parts
ef-a body either do not touch each other, or eafily flide
over one another; and are of fuch a magnitude, as that
they may be eafily agitated by heat, and the heat ke
fufficiently great to agitate them, though it may perhaps
be lefs than funffices to prevent water from freezing, or,
even, though the parts be not a¢tually moved, yet, if they
be {mall, fmooth, fiippery, and of fuch a figure and
magnitude as difpefe them to move, and give way, that
body is fluid.

find yet the particles of fuch fluid bodies do, in fome
meafure, cohere; as is evident hence, that merenry, when
well purged of air, will be fuftained in the baremeter to

FLU

the height of.60 or 70 inches; that water will afcend
in capillary tubes even in vacuo; and that the drops of
liquor in vacuo run into a {pherical form ; as adhering by
fome mutual cohefion like that between polifhed marble
planes. Add,-that thefe Auid bodies, if they confift of
particles that are eafily entangled within each other, as
oil, or if they be capable of being ftiffened by cold, and
joined by the interpofition of little cunei or wedges, as
water; they are eafily rendered hard: but if their particles
be fuch as can neither be entangled, as air; nor ltiffened
by cold, which was fuppofed to be the cafe with regard
to quicklilver; then they would never grow hard and
fixed. It is more. probable that the primary caufe of
fluidity fhould confitt in the imperfe& cohefion of the con-
{tituent parts of fluids rather than in their figure. For if
the particles of a body cohere flrongly together, they
cannot eafily move amongit each other. It is alfo evident
that the fmalluefs of the particles of fluids will contribute
to their imperfect cohefion, becaufe the furface of a body
compofed of {mall particles muft be more fmooth and even,
than the furface of a body compofed of large particles,
and two flat bodies may be conceived to confill of particles
fo {mall that their furtaces fhall differ infenfibly from per-
fect planes, fo that if thefe bodies were placed upon
one another, they would flide without the leaft fenfible
friction. Moreover, if the particles of thefe bodies, thus
placed on each other, be by any means deprived of the
whole, or the greateft part of their cohefion, the bodies
will not only flide om each other in the fore-mentioned plane,
but the parts of the mafs would alfo flide on each ether in
any other direction whatfoever. Confequently they would
readily yield to any impreffed force, and in yielding be
eafily moved amongit each other, and thus conttitute,
agreeably to the definition, a fluid mafs. But a perfect
fluid, or that whofe parts. may be moved from each other
by the leait force, exilts only in the imagination: for in-
dependently of its gravity or weight, or tendency towards
the centre of the earth, every non-elattic fluid poffeffes the
attraction of aggregation (wz. of the mutual attraction of
its parts) 1m a particular degree; of the attraction of co-
hefion, which is likewife, in a particular degree, towards
other bodies; and of the attraction of affinity. Befides,
all fluids manifeft more or lefs a fort of obftruétion,
or refiftance to a perfeétly free motion. See AFFinity;
AGGREGATION, ATTRACTION, CoHESION, Friction and
Resistance.

Fluids are called cither satura/, as water and mercury; or.
animal, as blood, milk, bile, lymph, urine, &c., or faditious,
as wines, {pivits, oils, &c. See each under its proper article.

Fluids are more commonly diftributed by the philo-
fopher into e/a/ic and non-elaftic. An elaflic fluid is that
the dimenlions of which are leffere] by augmenting the
preffure, and evlarged by diminifhing the preffare upon it :
of which kind are the different forts of airsor gafes. (See
Gas.) A nos-ela/lic fluid is that, whofe-dimenfions are
not, at leait as to fenfe, affeGted by the increafe of preffure,
as mercury, water, &c. Thefe latter are faid to be non-
elaftic, or iwwcompreffible, not becaufe they are abfolutely fo;
but becaufe their compreflibility is fo very fmall, as-to
make no fentible difference in our calculations relative to
the preffures, movements, and other properties of thefe fluids.
See Compression.

The dogtrine and laws of fluids are of the greateft extent
in plilofophy. The preffure and gravitation of bodies in
fluics, and the ation of the fluids immerged in them, make
the fubject of Hydrofatics, which fee.

Fiuins, Hydroflatical laws of. 1. The upper parts of

all

ey

eet

= aller Sat

FLU UDS:

all fluids, as water, &c. do prefs upon the lower; or, as
fome philofophers ftate it, all fluids do gravitate in
proprio loco.

The contrary of this was a principle in the fchool-
philofophy; and two ia&ts have been commonly urged in
fapport of it. A bucket full of water is lighter in the
water than out of it, nor does it weigh more when full in
the water, than when empty out of it ; therefore, it has
been concluded, that the water in the bucket, becaufe it
is within water, its own element, does not gravitate:
and divers, who defcend to. confiderable depths, it has been
faid, feel no fenfible preffure under water; though at the
depth of thirty-two feet, the additional preflure they
futtain is not lefs than twenty thoufand avoirdupois pounds:
for, fuppofing the furface of the body to contain only
ten fquare feet, and a cubic foot of water to weigh one
thoufand avoirdupois ounces, 32. x 10 feet, or 16 X 20
feet of water will weigh 16 x 20,000 avoirdupois ounces,
or twenty thoufand pounds. However, in this cafe the
uniformity of the preffure, the increafed elafticity and
refiftance of the compreffed internal air, and the firm
texture of the membranes, &c. may prevent their com-
plaining of any fenfible pain: though there have been
many inftances to the contrary, in which the difference
of the preffure has produced very injurious effeéts. See
Divina.

As to the former fat, it is eafily explained by the theory
of /pecific Gravity, (which fee). The bucket of water
weighs in water, but does not overweigh; becaufe the fur-
rounding parts of water endeavour to defcend as well as the
bucket, and with equal force, and therefore do not permit
it te defcend. Thus, according to an obfervation of Dr.
Defaguliers, if two pound weights were hung at the two
arms of a balance, no one will fay, that neither weighs,
becaufe it does not outweigh the other. Defag. Exp.
Phil. vol. ii. p. 96.

Befides, it is evident, that, in ary fluid, the weight of
the whole is equal to the weight of all its parts; and if
any part be taken from the whole, the weight of the whole
will be diminifhed by the weight of that part; and if any
part be added to the whole, the weight of the whole will
be increafed by the weight of the part which was added ;
and, therefore, it is reafonable to conclude, that the weight
of the whole is compofed of the weights of the feveral
parts, and that the parts do, therefore, gravitate in the
whole, or in proprio loco. (Cotes’s Hyd. and Pneum.
Le@ures, p.7.) But the certainty of fuch preflure isnow
demonttrated by a thoufand experiments ; it will be fuffict-
ent to inftance one or two.

Immerge atube, open at both ends, and half filled with
oil of turpentine, in a veffel of water, the upper end of the
tube being ftopped with the finger: if now the upper
furfice of the oil lie as low as that of the water, the oil,
upon removing the finger, will not run out at the lower
end of the tube; nay, and if the tube be thruft a little
lower, the water will rife up in it, and bear the oi! above
it : but if the upper furface of the oil be confiderably higher
than that of the water, the oil will drop out of the tube.
Whence it follows, that the column of oil in one cafe preffes
or gravitates lefs on the plane imagined to pafs.uhder its
lower furface than a colamn of water; and in the other cafe
more.

Or thus: a phial, with as much fhot in it as will make it
fink, clofe fhut, being immerged in water, and fufpended by
a horfe-hair to the beam of a balance, with a weight at the
other end exactly counterpoifing it; upon unftopping the
plnal, and filling 1 with water, it will: preponderate, and

bear down the end of the balance, without having any
commuiication with the external air. And if the phial
had been firft weighed in air, it will be found, that the
weights necefflary for reftoring its equilibrium in water
anfwer exaétly to the additional weight of the phial, when it
is again weighed in air with the water in it: fo that water
weighs in water juft as much as in air.

Thefe two experiments abundantly prove the propofition,
that the upper parts of fluids do really prefs or gravitate oa
the lower. See Specific Gravity.

Irom this gravity it follows, that the furfaces of ftagnant
fluids are plain and parallel to the horizon; or rather, that
they are fegments of a {phere or fpheroid concentrical with
the earth, becaufe they all gravitate towards the centre of
the earth.

For, as the particles are {uppofed to yield to any force
impreffed, they will be moved by the aétion of gravity, till
fuch time as none of them can defcend any lower. And in
this fituation, once attained, the Auid mu remain at reft,
unlefs put in motion by fome foreign caufe; inafmuch as
none of the particles can now move without afcending,
contrary to their natural tendency. 7

In this cafe the centre of gravity of the fluid, contained
ina veflel open at top, will lie as low as it poflibly can,
Thus, let A BDC (Aydranlics, Plate V. fig. 1.) reprefent
one fide of a rectangular veffel, containing water as high as
E F, whole ceatre of gravity is G; it is eafy to prove that
when the furface of the water is flat and horizontal, as
EF, then the centre of gravity of the water lies loweft;
but that if the water be elevated on any part of that fur-
face, and of courfe lowered on any other part, then the
centre of gravity will be removed to fome place higher than
G._ Imagine that the water be difpofed into the fituation
DKEBC, vz. that the portion K EH be removed to the
place BHT’; and in this cafe the centre of gravity L of
the quantity of water K D HFC remains in its original
fituation, whillt the centre of gravity of the quantity of
water K E H has been removed higher, viz. from I to S.
Now, fince the common centre of gravity of two bodies
is ina ftraight line between the refpective centres of gravity
of thofe bodies; therefore, the common centre of gravity of
both the quantities of water formerly ftood at G, in the line
IS; whereas it now ftands at O in the line LS, wiz.
evidently higher than the level of G, which is the line =r.
This reafoning, applied to one fide of the veffel, may be
eafily adapted to any fection of the water and veflel, as
alfo to veflels of any fhape, and to any irregularity which
the furface of the water may be fuppofed to acquire ; for
in any cafe the -conclufion is exaétly the fame, namely,
that the centre of gravity of a given quantity of fome
uniform fluid, like water, which is contained in an open
veffel of any fhape, ftands at the loweft peffible fituation,
when the whole furface of the fluid is in the fame hori-
zo~tal line.

2. If a nody be immerged in a fluid, cither wholly, o:
in part, its loweit Surface will be prefled upwards by the
water underneath it: and the preffure of fluids upwards
is equal to the preflure downwards at the fame depth.

The truth of this_propofition is evident from the experi-
ment above mentioned ; where the oil of turpentine was
fufpended and made to mount up in the tube, by the preffure
of the water upwurds on its jower parts. Thus alfo, if the
upper end of a narrow-bored tube be dipped into quickfilver,
whillt the other end is ftopped with the finger and the
tube be lifted up, a fhort column of quick filyer will be
fufpended in the lower end, which column, when dipped
into water decper rhan about fourteen times its awn lensth,

«R2

wil

FLU

will be preffed upwards, after the finger is removed from
the orifice.

This upward preffure of fluids may be evinced by caufing
a piece of lead, &c. to {wim in water; which may be
done by immerging it to 4 proper depth, and keeping the
water from getting above it. Let CD, Plate V. Hydraulics,
Jig. 2. be aglafs tube open at both ends, and EFG a
flat piece of lead, half an inch thick, exaétly fitted ta the
lower end of the tube, having its upper furface covered
with wet leather, fo as to hinder the entrance of the wa-
ter contained in the outer veffel. Let this leaden plate
be held clofe to the tube, by pulling the ftring or wire
TH L upward at I, with one hand, whillt the tube is held
in the other by the upper end C. In this fituation, let
the tube be immerfed in water in the glafs-veflel A B, to
the depth of fix inches below the furface of the water at
K 3 and then the leaden plate E F G will be plunged to
the depth of fomewhat more than eleven times its own
thicknefs: holding the tube at that depth, you may let
go the wire or thread at L; and the lead will not fall
from the tube, but will be kept to it by the upward pref-
fure of the water below it, occafioned by the height of
the water at K above the level of the lead. For, as lead
is 11.33 times as heavy as its bulk of water, and in this
experiment is immerfed to a depth fomewhat more than
11.33 times its thicknefs, and no water getting into the
tube between it and the lead, the column of water
E ab cG, below the lead, is prefled upwards againft it by
the water K DEGL, all round the tube; which water,
being a little more than 11.33 times as high as the lead
is thick, is fufficient to balance and fupport the lead at
the depth KE. If a little water be poured into the tube
upon the lead, it will increafe the weight upon the co-
lumn.of water under the lead, and caufe the lead to fall
from the tube to the-bottom of the glafs veffel, where it
will lie in .the fituation bd: or if the tube be railed
a little in the water, the lead will fall by its own weight,
which will then be too great for the preflure of the water
round -the tube on the column of water below it. If
the plate were brafs inftead of lead, it ought to be im-
merfed under water at leaft eight times’ its thicknefs, in
order to be fupported by the water; becaufe brafs is
about eight times fpecifically heavier than water. A plate
of pure gold would require near twenty times its thick-
nefs of water: and this led Mr. Boyle to propofe one of
his hydroftatical paradoxes in thefe words, via. That a
folid body; as ponderous as any yet known, though near
the top of.the water it will fink by its own weight, yet
immerfed in water at a greater depth than that of twenty
times its thicknefs, will: not fink, if its defcent be not
affited by the weight of the incumbent water. (Paradox
11. Statics. Boyle’s Works, abr. by Shaw, vol. 1. p. 311.)
As we have now feen that the heaviett body may be made
to fivim in water, the lighteft wood may be made to lie
at the bottom of water or mercury. Thus, let two
pieces of wood be planed quite flat, fo that no water may
get between'them when they are put together; let one
of them, bd, be cemented to the bottom of the veffel
AB, fig. 2. and the other be laid flat and clofe upon it,
and held down with a ftick, whilft water is poured into
the veffel, then remove the ftick, and the upper piece
of wood will not rife from the lower one, for as the
upper one is preffed down both by its owa weight and
the weight of water over it, whilft the contrary preffure
of the water is kept off by the wood under it, it will le
as {till as the heavielt body: but if it be raifed at the
edge; fo that the water may get under it, it will imaie-

4

IDS.

diately be preffed upwards; and as it is lighter than its bulle
of water, it will rife and float on the furface of the water.
See Fergufon’s Leétures, gto. p. 68. and Cotes’s Hyd. °
Leé&.2. See Hyprosraric Bellows, and Art. 11. in the”
fequel. : ‘

The law or quantity of this preffure in this; that a body
tmmerged in a fluid lofes juft fo much of the weight it.
would have inair,as fo much of the fluid as is equal to it im
bulk, if weighed in the air, would amount to. :

This preflure of fluids on the lower parts of an immerfed:
body is farther confirmed, by attending to the reafon
why bodies, {pecifically lighter than fluids, afcend therein,
The effect is owing to this, that there is a greater pref-
fure or weight on every other part of the plane or fur=
face of the fluid imagined to pafs under the lower furs
face of the body, than there is on that whereon the
emerging body infilts. Confequently, to produce an
equilibrium in the fluid, the parts immediately under the
rifing body being prefled by the reft every way, do con-
tinually foree it upwards. °

In effect, the emerging body is continually prefled on by
two columns of water, one bearing againft its upper and
the other againft its lower parts: the length of both whicly
columns being to be eftimated from the top of the water,
that which prefles on the lower part will be the longer, by
the thicknefs of the afcending body, and confeguently will
overbalance it by the weight of as much water as will fill
the {pace that body takes up. :

Hence, 1, Weare fursithed with one reafon, why very
minute corpufcles, either heayier or lighter than the liquor
they are mingled with, will be fuftained therein a good
while, without either emerging to the top, or precipitating
to the bottom; the difference between the two columns of
the fluid being here inconfiderable.

Hence, 2. If a body A. be {pecifically lighter than B,
an equal portion of the fluid in which it is'immerged,it will
rife with a force proportionable to the excels of gravity of
B above A: and if A be {pecifically heavier than B, it gra-
vitates and defcends with the excefs only of its weight above
that of B.

Hence, 3. We have, as fome fay, a folution of the phe-
nomenon of two polifhed marbles or other planes adhering fo
ftrongly together ; becaufe the atmofphere preffes or gravi-
tates with its whole weight on the under furface and fides of
the lower marble, but cannot do fo at all on its upper fur-
face, which is clofely contiguous to the upper and fufpended
marble. See CoHEsION,. :

3. The preflure of the upper parts of a fluid on the
lower exerts itfelf every way, and every way equally,
laterally, horizontally, and obliquely, as well as perpendi-
cularly. i,

For, as the parts of a fluid yield to any impreffion, and
are eafily moved, it is impoffible any drop fhould remain in
its place, if, while it is preffed by the fuperincumbent fluid,
it be not equally prefied on every fide.

The fame is confirmed from experiments: for feveral
tubes of divers forms, ftraight, curved, angular, &c. being
immerfed in the fame fluid, though the apertures through
which the fluid enters be differently pofited to the. furface
or plane, fome being perpendicular. others parallel, and
others varioufly declined ; yet will the fluid rife to an equal
height in them all. See SyrpuHon. ~

Hence, 1. All the particles of fluids being thus equally
preiied on all fides, it is argued, that they mutt be at reit,.
and not in continual motion, as has been ufually fuppofed.

Hence, 2. Alfo, a body being immerfed in a fluid, futtains
a lateral preflure from the fluid; which is alfo increafed as

‘ t

.

FLUIDS.

the.body is placed deeper beneath the furface of the
fluid. ,

4. Intubes that have a communication with each other,
whatever their magnitude be, whether equal or unequal ;
and whatever their form, whether ftraight, angular, or
crooked; {till fluids rife in them tothe fame height.

5. If a fluid rife to the fame altitude in two tubes that
communicate with each other, the fluid in one tube isa
balance, or equal in weight to that in the other,

If the tubes be of equal diameters, the columns of
the fluid, having the fame bafe and altitude, are equal, and
confequently their gravities equal; fo that they prefs and
gravitate againft each other with equal force.

This is demonftrated from mechanics. Z. gr. Let the
bafe of GI, Plate V. Hydraulics, fig. 3. be f{uppofed
quadruple the bafe of 1 K ; and let the fluid defcend in
the greater tube the fpace of an inch, as from [L, to O; it
will then rife in the other the fpace of four inches, as from
Mto N. Wherefore the velocity with which the fluid
moves inthe tube H K, isto that with which it moves in

G1 asthe bafe of the tube GI to the bale of the other,

HK. But the altitude of the fluid being fuppofed the
fame in both tubes, the quantity of the fluid in the tube
GI will be to that in the other tube H K, as the bafe of
the tube GI to the bafe ofthe other HK? —

Confequently, the momentum of the fluid in the tube
GlJis to that in the tube HK, as the produ& of the
bafe of the tube GI into the bafe of the other H K, to
the fa&tum of thetube H K into the bafe of the other G1.
Wherefore, the products being equal, the momenta mult
be equal. © one'te :

The fame is eafily demonftrated where one of the tubes t
inclined, and the other perpendicular, Xc. }

Hence in tubes that communicate, the fluid will pre-
ponderate in that where its altitude is the greatett.

6. In communicating tubes, fluids of different fpecific
gravities will equiponderate, if their altitudes be in the ratio
of their fpecific gravities. ;

Hence we have a way of finding the fpecific gravities of
fluids, viz. by pouring one fluid into one of the commu-
nicating tubes, as A B (fg. 4.) and another into the other
tube C D ; and meafuring the altitudes G B and HD, at
which they fland when balanced.

For the fpecific gravity of the fluidin A B is to that in
DC, asDHto BG. If the fluids employed: in this ex-
periment be apt to mix, 1t may be proper to fill the hori-
zontal tube BD with mercury to prevent the mixture.
Hence, fince the denficies of fluids are as their fpeci*c gra-
yities, the denfities will likewife be as the altitudes of the
fluids D Hand BG; fo that we have hence likewife a me-
thod of determining the denfities of fiuids.

y- The’ bettoms and fides of veflels are preffed in tlie
fame manner, and by the fame laws, as the liquids contained
in them.

And hence, as aGtion and re-aétion are equal, the fluds-

themfelves fuftain an equal preffure from the bottoms and
fides. And as the preflure of fluids is equal every way,
the bottoms and fides are prefitd as much as the neigh-
bouring parts of the fluids; and confequently this action
increafes jn proportion to the height of the fluid, and is
equal every way at the fame depth ; as depending altogether
<n the height, and not at all on the quaxtity of the fluid.
» $8ein i veffels of equal bafes, the pref-
fure of fluids-on the bottoms isin the ratio of their alti-
tudes. This is evident, becaufe, the veflels being perpen-
dicular, the bottoms are horizontal; confequently the ten-
dency of fluids by the ation of gravity will be in lines per-

pendicular to the bottoms, fo that they will prefs with all
their weight ; the bottoms therefore are preffed in the ratio
of the gravities, But the gravities are as the bulks, and
the bulks here are as the altitudes ; therefore the preffure on
the bottoms areas the altitudes.

9. In perpendicular veffels of unequal bafes, the pref-
fure on the bottoms is in a ratio compounded of bafes and
altitudes.

From the preceding demonftration it appears, that the
bottoms are prefled in the ratio of the gravities: and the
gravities of fluids are as their bulks; asd their bulks ina
ratio compounded of the bafes and altitudes. Confequently,
&e.

ro. If an inclined veffel ABCD, fg. 5. have the fame’
bafe and altitude with a perpendicular one, BE F G, the
bottoms of the one and the other will be equally prefled.

For, in the inclined veel A BCD, the bottom C D is:
preffed in the direGtion BD. But the force of gravity in
the dire@ion BD isto the abfolute gravity, as BE to
BD. Confequently, the bottom C D 1s preffed in the fame
manner, as if it had heen prefled perpendicularly by
the fluid under the altitude BE. Therefore, the bot-
toms of the perpendicular and inclined veffels are equally
preffed.

tr. Fluids prefs upon fubje& bodies, according to their
perpendicular altitude, and not according to their latitude,
or breadth.

Or, as others ftate it, thus: If a veffel be taper, or un-
equally big at top and bottom, yet the bottom. will be
prefled after the fame manner as if the veflel were cylindri-
‘cal, and the top and bottom equal.

Or thus: The preffure fuftained. by the bottom of a vef-
fel, whatever the figure of the veflel be, is ever equal to the
weight of a column of the fluid, whofe bafe is the bottom
itfelf, and height, the vertical diftance of the upper furface
of the water from the bottom. é

Or, yet more explicitly, thus: If there be two tubes or
veffels, having the fame heights, and bafes, both filled with
water; bat one of them made fo tapering upwards that it
fhall contain but twenty ounces of water; whereas the other,
widening upwards, holds two hundred‘ounces ;-yet the bot-
toms of the two tubes fhall fuftain an equal’ preffure of
water, viz. each of them that of the weight of two hun-
dred ounces.

This is a noble paradox in hydroftatics, firft*difcovered
by M. Paichal, and which it is wellavorth the cleari ig and
infifting on, It is foundunexceptionably true from abundant
experiments ; and it may even be demonitrated and. 2é-
counted for on principles of mechanics.

Suppofe, ¢. g. the bottom of a veffel C D-(jiz. 6) lefs
than its top AB; fince the fitid prefles the bottom C Dy
which we fuppofe horizontal, in a perpendicular direGion
EC; none but that part within the cylinder EC D F can
prefs upon it,. the‘natural.tendeney and preffure of the rei:
being taken off by tle lides:

Again, fuppofing the bottom C D+ jig. 7:) much bigger

“than the top’ F G5 or even, for the eaiier demonftration,

fuppofe a tube F E fixed in a cylinder A-B CD; and fup-
pofe ‘the bottom CD raifed to L, that the fluid may be:
moved through the interval DL; then will it have rifen
through the altitude GL, which is to DL as the bafe
CDtothatof GF. The velocity, therefore, of the floid
I E is to ite velocity in the veflel A D as the bale CD to
the bafe F G.

Hence we have the momentum wherewith the fluid in
the tube tends downwards, by multiplying tke bale of the
cylinder C D into its altitude C H.

Con-

FEU

Confequently the bottom C D is preffed with the fame
force, as 1t would be prefled by the cylinder HC D 1.

To confirm and illuftrate this doétrine of the preflure of
fluids in the ratio of the bafe and altitude, provide a me-
tallic vefiel A.C D B (fg. 7.) fo contrived, as that the bot-
tom C D may be moveable, and to that end fitted in the
cavity of the veffel with a rim of wet leather, to flide freely
without letting any water pafs, For this purpofe it would
be moft advileable, that the moveable bottom {hould have
a groove round. its edge, and that it be put into a bladder,
tied clofe round it in the groove by a ftrong waxen thread ;
and the Lladder may be made to come up like a purfe within
the veffel, and put over the top of it at A and B all round,
and they the lid of the veffel prefled on it: fo that when
water 1s poured through a hole in the lid, it would he upon
the bottom C D, and be contained within the bladder.
Then, through holes in. the top A B, apply fucceffively
feveral tubes of equal altitudes, but of different diameters.
Laltly, fattening a ttring or wire to the beam of a balance,
and fixing the other end by a little ring K to the moveable
bottom, put weights in the other fcale, till they be fufh-
cient to raife the bottom C D: then will you not only find,
that the fame weight is required, what diameter or magai-
tude foever the tube be of ; but even, that the weight which
will raife the bottom when prefled by the {mallet tube, will
raife it when preffed by the whole cylinder HC DI.

Suppofe the veffel. A BCD to hold about a pound of
water, and that the moveable bottom, wire, and hook, are
of equal weight with an empty fcale M. When this fcale
is pulled down, the bottom.C D will be drawn up within
the box, and that motion will-caufe the water to rife in the
glafs tube EL FG. If one pound be put into the feale,
the bottom will be moved a little, and the water will juft
appear at the lower end of the tube at a. Another pound
will caufe it to rife from a to d, juft twice as high aboye
the bottom as it was when at a; the preffure on the bottom
being equal to two pounds, the counterbalancing weight in
the feale M. A third pound will raife 1t to c, a fourth to
d, &c. the diltances ab, bc, cd, &c. being taken equal to
each other and, to the depth of the veflel. 1f anothertube,
as f, be put into a hole made in the top of the veffel, and
the veflel be filled with water; and, then, if water be poured
in atthe top of the tube FG E L, it will rife in the tube
f to the lame height as it does in the other tube: from hence
it is evident, that the upward preffure of the water, riffing
in-the tube f, 1s equal to the downward preflure in the other
tube F GEL: the cafe would be the fame, whatever be
the number of tubes; and the moveable bottom would {uf-
tain the weight of the water in all the tubes, bedides the
weight of all the water in the veflel: and if all the holes
to which thefe tubes (F GE L excepted) were fixed be
{topped up, each part, thus ftopped, will be prefled upward
with a force equal to the weight of water in each tube:
and confequently, the whole upward pvreffure againft the
top of the veffel, arifing from the weight or downward
preflure of the water in the tube F G EL, will be equal to
the weight of a column of water of the fame height with
that in the tube, and of the fame thicknefs as the width of
the infide of the box or of the moveable bottom ; and this
upward preflure againit the top will reach downwards with

- equal force againit the bottom.

{f the diameter of the moveable bottom be three iuches,
therefore, and the diameter of the bore of the tube a quar-
ter of an inch, their fquares will be nine inches and one fix-
teenth of an inch : and therefore the whole area of the bot-
tom will be a hundred and forty-four times as great as that
of the area of the bottom or top of the tube: fo that if the

I Ds.

moveable bottom be raifed one inch, the water would be
raifed to the top of a tube a hundred and forty-four inches,
or twelve feet in height. The veffel muft be open below
the moveable bottom to let in the air; otherwife the preffure
of the atmofphere upon it, fuppofing its diameter three
inches, would require a counterbalance of a hundred and
eight pounds in the feale M before the bottom would begin
to move. See Hyprostaric Bellows.

12, From the preceding articles, we may eafily deduce
a method of eftimating the quantity of preffure of fluids
on any given furface. Let abcd (jig. 8.) reprefent a
cubical veffel full of water; the fide ac will therefore,
reprefent a fquare; and the meafure of the preflure on
every phylical point of ac will be the altitude of the
water above that point; thus, the preffure on / is mea-
fured by a/, onm by am, &c. and the preffure on the
whole line will be meafured by the fum of as many al-
titudes a/, am, &c. as there are points in the line ae.
Eve€t perpendiculars /0, mp, &c. refpectively equal to
a/, am, &c. and the fum of thefe perpendiculars wilt
be the meafure of the whole preffure on the line ae:
but the fum of thefe is equal to the area of the triangle
acd; and this is as the fquare of its altitude ac. When
ac reprefents a fquare, the triangle a ¢ d muft reprefent a
prifm, having the faid triangle for its bafe, and the fide
of the {quare for its altitude: the weight of that prifm
of water is, therefore, equal to the preflure made againft
the fquare, or fide of the cube; which, as the prifm is
half the cube, is equal to half the weight of the whole
water contained in the veffel; and as each fide bears the

fame degree of preflure, all the four fides fuftain four

times half the weight, or twice the whole weight of the
water: and becaufe the bottom fuftains a preffure equal
to the whole weight of the water, the bottom and fides
of a cubical veffel taken together fultain a preffure from
the water contained in it equal to thrice its weight. The
fame obfervations may be eafily applied to planes that
are oblique to the horizon; and we may conclude uni-
verfally, that the preffure upon any plane, of whatever
figure and fituation, is equivalent te the weight of a
folid of water, formed by ere€ting perpendiculars upon
every point of the plane propofed, equal to the refpec-
tive diftances of thofe points from the upper furface of
the water: or, the preffure on any furface 1s equal to the
fum of all the. produéts which are made by multiplying
every indefinitely {mall part of the furface into its di-
{tance from the top. of the water. To find the fum of all
thefe produéts, or a body of water equal to that fum, is,
in moft cafes, a difficult problem: Stevinus. has attempt-
ed the folution of it in few inftances, confining himfelf
to regular plain furfaces. Mr. Cotes has laid down the
following univerfal and expeditious rule: the preffure on
any furface is equal to the weight*of a body of water
whofe magnitude is found by multtplying the furface
propofed into the depth of its centre of gravity under
water; and the preflure on any number of furfaces of
different bodies, however differently fituated, is equal to
the weight of a body of water whofe magnitude is found
by multiplying the fum of all thofe furfaces into the depth
of their common centre of gravity under water. he
demonttration of. this rule depends on the following

theorem, viz. that the fum of the produéts, arifing from

multiplying every. indefinitely {mall part of any~ furface,
or number of furfaces, refpeétively, into its perpendi-
cular diftance from any propofed plane, will be equal to
the product of the whole furface or number of furfaces
multiplied into the perpendicular diftance of the centre

of

FLUIDS.

ef gravity of any fingle furface, or of the common cen-
tre of gravity of the whole number of furfaces from the
fame plane. Thus, let a, 3, c, d, (fig: g-) reprefent
weights, hanging at their centres of gravity a, 4, c, d, by
the lines @ 0, 4 0, c 0, do, fixed to a horizontal. plane
0, 0; 0, 0; and let z be the common centre of gravity
of all the weights, and zo its perpendicular diftance from
the faid plane. Let « be the common centre of gravity
of a and 4, and to x o, drawn parallel to the rett, let
am and in be perpendicular. In the fimilar triangles
mxaandnxh, mxinx::(xa:ixb::)b:a. (See Cen-
TER of Gravity.) ‘Thereforea x mx =b x nx,i. e. a X

mo—xo=bx xo —no, and, confequently,a x mo+bx

no=a+b6x xo. Inthe common centre of gravity of
aand 4 fufpenda weight x = 4 + 4, andaweight y = x + ¢
in the common centre of gravity of x and c, and a weight
‘z= = y +d, inthe common centre of gravity of y and d.
Then x is the common centre of gravity of a, J, ¢, d.
And we have (as above) a x ao +4 x bo =x xX xo, and
xXxotcxco=yxyo,andyxyotd x do=z X zo: con-
fequently a x ao+bx bot+cxco+dxdo=zxx0=
a+b+c+dx20. Aad this will be the cale, if the fuf-
pended lines ac, &c. be perpendicular to any plane, though
not parallel to the horizon. Now taking the upper furface
of water for that plane to which we refer the indefinitely
{mall parts of the furface which is expofed to the preffure
wwe are concerned with ; fince it has been already fhewn, that
the preffure upon the whole is equivalent to the weight of
a body of water which is equak in magnitude to the fum of
vall the produéts, made by multiplying every little part by its
diftance from the upper plane of the water; and that this
fum of produéts is exa€tly equal to the produé of the whole
furface or number of furfaces multiplied into the diftance of
the centre of gravity from the upper plane of the water ; it
will follow, that the fame produd is the meafure of a mag-
nitude of water, whofe weight is equivalent to the preflure
required, Cotes’s Hydroft. Le&. 3. See Cenrer of
Preffure. "

For the laws of the preflure and gravitation in fluids fpe-
cifically heavier, or lighter, than the bodies immerged, fee
Gravity, Specific.

For the laws of the refiftance of fluids, or the retardation
of folid bodies moving in fluids, fee Resistance.

For the afcent of fluids in capillary tubes, or between glafs
planes, fee Ascent and Capitiary Tubes.

The motions of fluids, and particularly water, do alfo
make the fubjeé&t of Hydraulics, which fee.

Fouws, Hydraulic Laws of. 1. The velocity of a
fluid, as water, moved by the preflure of a fuperincumbent
fluid, asair, is equal at equal depths, and unequal at un-
equal ones.

‘For the preflure being equal at equal depths, the velo-
city arifing thence mutt be fo too; and wice verfz: yet the
yelocity does not follow the fame proportion as the depth;
notwithitanding that the preffure, whence the velocity
varifes, does increafe in the proportion of the depth. But
“here the quantity of the matter is concerned: and the
quantity of motion, which is compounded of the ratio
of the velocity and quantity of matter, is increafed in equal
times asthe fquares of the velocities.

2. The velocity of a fuid arifing fromthe preflure of a
fuperincumbent fluid, at any depth, is the fame as that
“which a body would acquire in falling froma height equal
sto the depth; asis demonttrated both from mechanics and ex-
periments. See Descent. See alfoDiscuarce of Muids.

3. If two tubes of equal diameters, full of any fuid,
be placed in any pofition, either ere&, orinclined ; provided
they be of the fame altitude, they will difcharge equal
quantities of the fiuid in equal times.

That tubes, every way equal, fhould, under the fame
circumitances, empty themfelves equally, is evident; and
that the bottom of a perpendicular tube is preffed with
the fume force as that of an inclined one, when their alt-
tudes are equal, has already been fhewn. Whence it
eafily follows, that they mutt yield equal quantities of water,
&c.

4. If two tubes of equal altitudes, but of unequal
apertures, be kept conftantly full of water, the quantities
of water they yield in the fame time will be as the dia-
meters; and this, whether they be ereét, or any way in-
clined.

Hence, if the apertures be circular, the quantities of
water emptied inthe fame time, ought to be in a duplicate
ratio of the diameters.

But this law, Mariotte obferves, is not perfe€tly agree-
able to experiment. If one diameter be double the other,
the water flowing out of the lefs is found more than a fourth
of what flows out of tle greater. But this may have been
owing to fome accidental irregularities in making the ex-
periments.

Wolfius however afcribes it principally to this, that the
column of water directly over the aperture is fhorter than
that next the fides or parietes of the veffel: for the water,
in its eflux, formsa kind of cavity over the aperture ; that
part immediately over it being evacuated firft, and the other
water not rimning fat enough from the fides to-fupply it.
Now, this cavity, or diminution of altitude, being greater
in the greater tube than in the lefs; hence the preffure, or
endeavour to pafs out becomes preportionably lefs in the
greater tube than in the lefs.

gs. If the apertures E and F
CD (Aydraulics, Plate V1. figs.
quantities of water difcharged in
the velocities.

6. 1f two tubes have eqnal apertures E and F, and
unequal altitudes A B and CD, the quantity of water dif-
charged from the greater A B, will be to that difcharged
from C D, in the fame time, in a fubduplicate ratio of the
altitudes A B and CD.

Hence, 1. The altitudes of water, A B and CD, dif-
charged through equal apertures E and F, will be in a du-
plicate ratio of the water difcharged in the fame time.
And asthe quantities of water are as the velocities, the
velocities are likewife in a tubduplicate ratio of their alti-
tudes.

Hence, 2. The ratio of the water difcharged by two
tubes A B and CD, together with the altitude of one of
them, being given, we have a method of finding the altitude
of the other, wiz. by finding a fourth proportional to tke
three given quantities ; which proportional, multiplied by
itfelf, gives the altitudes of CD, required. :

Hence, alfo, 3. The ratio of the altitudes of two tubes
of equal apertures being given, as alfo the quantity of
water difcharged by oneof them, we have a method of de-
termining the quantity the other fhould difcharge in the
{ame time.

Thus, to the given altitudes, and the fquare of the quan-
tity of water difcharged at one aperture, find a fourth
proportional. The fquare root of this will be the quan-
tity of water required.

i Suppofe,

of two tubes AB and
1 and 2.) be-equal, the
the fame time will be as

“FLUIDS.

Suppofe, ¢, or, the height of the tubes as 9 to 25, and

the quantity of water difcharged at one of them, three
inches; that difcharged by the other will be= mee
=",/25 = 5-
7. 1f the altitude of two tubes A B and CD be u-
equal, aud the apertures E and F be likewife unequal,
the quantities of water difcharged in the fame -time,
will be in a ratio compounded of the fimple ratio of the
apertures, and the fubduplicate one of the altitudes.

And hence, if the quantities of water difcharged in.the
fame time by two tubes, whofe apertures and altitudes are
unequal, be equal, the apertures are reciprocally as the
roots of the altitudes, and the altitudes in a reciprocal ratio
of the fquares of the apertures.

8. If the altitudes of two tubes be equal, the water
will flow out with equal velocity, however unequal the
apertures be.

g. If the altitudes of two tubes, A B and CD, as alfo
their apertures, E and F, be unequal, the velocities of
the waters difcharged are in a fubduplicate ratio of their
altitudes.

And hence, 1. As the velocities of waters flowing out
at equal apertures, when the altitudes are unequal, are alfo
in a fubduplicate ratio of the altitudes, and as this ratio is
equal if the altitudes be equal, it appears in the general, that
the velocities of water Howing out of tubes, are in a fub-
duplicate ratio of their altitudes.

Hence alfo, 2. The {quares of the velocities areas the al-
titudes.

Mariotte found, from repeated experiments, that if a
veflel ABCD have a tube EG fitted to it, there wil
more water be evacuated through the tube, than there
could have been, in the fame time, through. the aperture
of the veffel E without the tube; and that the motion
of the fluid is accelerated fa much the more, as the tube
E G is the longer.

E. gr. The altitude of a veffel A C being one foot, that
of the tube EG three feet, and the diameter of the apet-
ture three lines, no lefs than 6} feptiers of water were
difcharged in the {pace of one minute; whereas, upon
taking off the tube, only four feptiers were difcharged.
Again, when the length of the tube EG was fix feet,
and the diameter of the aperture G an inch, the whole
quantity of water run 6ut in thirty-feven feconds ; but
cutting off half the tube, the veffel was not evacuated in
lefs than forty-five feconds ; and taking it quite away in lefs
than ninety five feconds.

1o. The’ altitudes and apertures of two cylinders full of
water being the fame, one of them will difcharge double
the quantity of water difcharged in the fame time by the
other, if the firflt be kept continually full, while the
other runs itfelf empty; for the velocity of the full vef-
fel will be equable, and that of the other will be conti-

iily retarded. Now it is demonftrated, that, if two
bodies be impelled by the fame force, and the one pro-
eceds equally, and the fecond is equably retarded, by
t time they have loft all their motion, the one has moved
ruble the fpace of the other.

If two tubes have the fame altitudes, and egual
the times wherein they will empty themfelves
vf be in the ratio of their bafes,
lindric and prifmatic veffels, as ABCD (fs: 3-)
mielves by this law, that the quantities of water
in equal times decreafe, according to the un-
even numbers, 1; 3; 59 7:9. &c. taken: backwards.

For the velocity of the defcending level F G is continual
decreafing: in the fubduplicate ratio of the decreafing al-
titudes ; but the velocity af a heavy body defcending, in-
creafes in the fubduplicate ratio of the increafing alti-
tudes. The motion, therefore, of the level F G, in its
defcent from G to B, is the {ame as if it were to defcend
in the inverfe ratio from: B to G; but if it defcend from
Bto G, the {paces, in equal times, would increafe, ac-
cording to the progrefiion of the uneyen numbers; con-
fequently the altitudes of the level F G, in equal times,
would decreafe, according to the fame progreffion in-
verfely taken.

Hence, therefore, the level of water F G defcends by
the fame law, as, by an equal force imprefled, it would
afcend through an altitude equal to BG.

From this principle, many other particular laws of the
motion of fluids might be demonftrated, which, for bree
vity fake, we here omit. See Discuarce of Fluids.

To divide a cvlindrical veffel into part-, which fhall be eva-
cuated in certain parts or divifions of time, fee CLepsyDRA.

13. If water, defcending through a tube H E (fig. 4.)
fpout up at the aperture G, whofe dire€tion is vertical,
it will rife to the fame altitude GI, at which the level of
the water L M, in the veffel A B C D, does ftand. ©

For fince the water is driven through the aperture G by
the force of gravity of the column E K, its velocity will
be the fame as that with which a body, by the fame force
impreffed, would rife to the altitude F I: wherefore, fince
the direétion of the aperture is vertical, the dire€tion of
the water fpouting through it will be fo too; confe-
quently the water mutt rife to the height of the level of
the water LM in the veilel. :

Indeed, by the experiment, it appears, that the water
does not rife quite fo high as 1; befides the aperture
G fhould be fmaller, as the height of the level of the
water is lefs; and even fmaller when mercury is to be
fpouted than when water. But this is no objection to
the truth of the theorem; it only fhews that there are
certain external impediments, which diminifh the afcent.
Such are, the refiftance of air, and the fri€tion of the
tube, &c. See Jet a’ Eau.

14. Water, defcending threugh an inclined tube, or
a tube bent in any manner, will {pout up, through a’ per-
pendicular aperture, to the height at which the level of the
water in the veffel ftands.

15. The lengths or diftances D E and D F, or 1 H and
IG,’ (fg. 5-) to which water will fpout either through an
inclined, or an horizontal aperture D, are in a fub-d\:plicate
ratio of the altitudes in the veflel or tube A B and AC,

For fince water, fpouted out through the aperture D,
endeavours to proceed in the horizontal line DF, and,
at the fame time, by the power of gravity, tends down-
wards in lines perpendicilar to the fame; nor can the
one power hinder the other, inafmuch as the directions
are not contrary; it follows, that the water, by the’ di-
reGtion BA, will arrive at: the line 1G in the fame time
wherein it would have arrived at it, had there been ro
horizontal impulie at all. Now, the right lines TH and
IG are the {paces which the fame water would have de-
{cribed in the mean time by the horizontal impetus; but
the fpaces I H and 1G, inafmuch as the motion is uni-
form, are as the velocities; confequently the velocities
are in a fubduplicate ratio of the altitudes A B and AC;
and therefore the lengths or diftances, to which the water
will {pout in apertures either horizontal or inclined, are in
a fubduplicate ratio of the altitudes. - <2! 4,

“That

FLUIDS.

That the velocities are in the fubduplicate ratio of the
altitudes may be fhewn by experiment: for, let two
pipes, as C and g, of equa! fized bores, be fixed into the
fide of the veflel AB, (jg. 6.) and kt the pipe g be
four times as deep below the furface of the water at 4,
in the veffel, as the pipe C is; and whilit thefe pipes
run, let the water be con{tantly poured into the veffel, to

' keep the furface at the fame height. Then a veffel, hold-
ing a pint, applied to the fpout C, arid another contain-
ing a quart at the fpout ¢, will be filled at the fame
time. The horizontal diftance, to which a fluid will
{pout frome an horizontal pipe, in any part of the fide
6f an upright veffel, below the furface of the fluid, is equal
to twice the length of a perpendicular to the fide of the
veffel, drawn from the mouth of the pipe to a femicircle
deferibed upon the altitude of the fluid; and, therefore,
the fluid will fpout to the greateft diftance poflible from a
pipe whofe mouth is at the centre of the femicircle ; becaufe
a perpendicular to its diameter (fuppofed parallel to the
fide of the veffel) drawn from that point, is the longett
that can poffibly be drawn from any part of the diameter to
the circumference of the femi-circle. Thus, if the veil
AB, (fg.-6.) be full of water, the herizontal pipe D be in
the middle of its fide, and the femicircle Nedcd be
deferibed on D as acentre, with the radius D¢N, or
Df, the perpendicular Dd to the diameter D N 4 is the
longeft that can be drawn from any part of the diameter to
the circumference Nedcb. And if the veffel be kept fell,
the jet G will {pout from the pipe D to the horizontal
diftance NM, which is double the length of the perpendi-
cular Dd. If two other pipes, as C and E, be fixed into
the fide of the veffel at equal diftances above and below the
pipe D, the perpendiculars Cc and Ee, from thefe pipes to
the femicircle, will be equal; and the jets F and H, {pout-
ing from them, will each go to the horizontal diitance
NK, which is double the length of either of the equal
perpendiculars Cc or Ee.

Hence, as every body, projected cither horizontally or
obliquely, ia an unrefifting medium, defcribes a parabola:
water projected either through a vertical or inclined fpout,
will defcribe a parabola.

# Hence we have a way of making a delightful kind of
water arbours, or arches, viz. by placing fiver inclined
tubes in the fame right line.

On thefe principles are formed various hydraulic engines
for the railing, &c. of fluids, as pumps, fyphons, fountains,
or jets deau, &c. which fee defcribed under their proper
articles Pump, Sypnon, Fountain, Spirar, Screw,
&c. For other particulars relating to this fubjeét, and the
difference between the deduétions of theory and the refult
of experiments; fee Discuarce of Fluids. See alfo
Conrracren Vein and Jer.

For the laws of the motion of fluids, by their own gra-
vity, along open channels, &c. fee River and Wave,
and Motion of Water. ;

For the laws of preffure and motion of air, confidered
as a fluid, fee Arr and Winp.

Frurins. Animalcules obferved in fluids are of. divers
kinds; fome are flat, others eel-like, but the greater part
of an oval figure. Leewenhoeck gives a defeription of a
-very unufual fhaped creature, fixed in a little feabbard or
fheath, which was faftened tu fume of the {mall green weeds
found in ditches full of water. Phil. Tranf. N° 337,

. 160.
‘ Waters of all kinds, that have ftood a while expofed to
the air, till they have grown a little putrid, or where putre-

Vor. XLV.

faétion has been promoted by the admixture of other mat-
ters, abound in variety of animalcules, having each their
peculiar charaéters, fizes, figures, economy, and method
of life, not to fay ufes. In afmall drop of the difcoloured
furface of rain-water, which had ftood two morths in a win-
daw, Dr. Harris obferved four forts of animalcules: the
clear part of the drep prefented two kinds, both very {mall ;
the firlt of the- figure of ants-eggs: thefe were in a continual
brifk motion. ‘The fecond more oblong, three times as long
as bread, were exceedingly numerous, but their motion
flow.

In the thick part of the drep there were alfo two forts
of animalcules. The firit of the eei-kind, refernbling thefe in
vinegar, but much fmaller, and wih their extremes more
fharp. Thefe would wriggle cut into the clear part, and
then fuddenly betake themfelves back again, and hide in the
thick and muddy part of the drop, much like common eels
in the water. ‘The fecond fort refembled a large maggot,
which would contract tiiemfelves into-a {pherical figure, and
then ftretch out again. The end of the tail appeared with
a forceps, like that of an ear-wig. They might be plainly
perceived to openand fhut their mouths, from whence air-
bubbles were frequently difcharged. ‘The number of thefe
was not above four or five. The fame four kinds of am
maleules he alfo found in many cther drops of the fame cor-
rupted water. _ Animalcules in fluids are generally found at
the top. In the lower parts of the water, Dr. Harris
affures us he could never find any, unlefs when the liquor
had keen difturbed, and the furface fhaken down, and
mingled with the lower parts. Dr. Harris examined fome
rain-water- that had ftood uncovered a little while;
but had not contra&ted any thick or difcoloured’feum.
And here, where the water was clear, he could net find
any animals at all: but a little thin white fcum, that, like
greafe, began to appear in its furface, he found to bea con-
geries of exceeding {mall animals of different fhapes and
fizes, much like thofe produced by fteeping barley in water.
Viewing a fmall drop of the green furface of ieme puddle
water, he found it altogether compofed of animnaleules of
feveral fhapes and magnitudes ; the moit remarkable were
thofe which gave the water that green colour, and were
oval creatures, whofe middle part were’ of a grats-green,
but each end clear and tranfparent. They could contra&
and dilate themfelves, tumble over and over many times
together, and then fhoot away like fifhes. Phil. Trant.
N* 220, p. 255. :

Dr. Harris looked on the furface of fome mineral chalys
beate water, which ftood in a viol unftopt for about three
wecks. In it he faw two kinds of animals, one exceeding
{mall, and the other very large, which latter fort had on
the tail fomething that looked like fins. There were but
very few of either fort. Phil. Tranf. N° 220, ps 257.
feq.

Tadbnaticiiles in fluids are eafily deftroyed by only fepa-
rating them a while from their element. Naturalifts have
even Rian fhorter ways. A needle-point dipped in fpirit
of vitriol, and then immerfed into a drop of pepper-water,
readily kills all the animalcules, which, though before
frifking about with great livelinefs and a@ivity, no fooner
come within the influence of the acid particles, than’ thep
{pread themfelves, and tumble down to all appearance
dead. The like may be done by a folution of falt, only
with this difference ; that by the application of this lattery
they feem to grow vertiginous, turning round and rouad
till they fall down. Tinture of falt of tartar ufed in the
fame manner kills them {till more readily; -yet not. foes

45 but

WNL!

Hut there will be apparent marks of their being fick firf
and. convulfed. . luks deftroy them as falt as f{pirit of
vitriol, and human blood, by virtue of the {alt contained in
it, produces the fame effeét. Urine, fack, and fugar, do
all deftroy them, though not fo faft ; befides, that there
is fome diverfity in their. figures and appearances, as they
receive their deaths from this peifon or that. The point
of a pin dipped in fpittle prefently killed all the kinds of
animalcules in puddle-water, as Dr. Harris fuppofes it
will other animalcules of this kind. Phil. Tranf. N° 203.
p- 836, feq. and N° 220, p. 256.

We find in the waters of our ditches many f{pecies of
{mall animalcules, both of the cruftaceous and teftaceous
kinds. he legs of the creatures are fhort, they refemble
thofe ef crabs and lobfters, but are of a much more-curious
ftru€ture ; they are lefs than a {mall flea, but they feem all
breeders, carrying {pawn at their tails, or in two {mall
bags, one hanging from each fide. Thefe bags are often
feen broken, and the fpawn is then found to confift of
globules very large in proportion to the fize of the crea-
ture. There is another fort befides thefe, as beautiful,
Bat much fmaller than they ; this in fhape more refembles
the fhrimp, and carries its {pawn as the fhrimp does.
Thefe kinds both feem only to have one eye, and that placed
exaétly in the middle of the fore-head, without the
leaft trace of a dividing line; and they are often fo
tranfparent, that the motion of their bowels, and pulfation
oftheir heart, may be feen. Baker’s Microfcope, p. 93.

All who are acquainted with the microfcope, know very
well that in water, in which the bet glaffes can difcover
no animated particle of matter, after a few grains of pepper,
or a {mall fragment of a plant of almoft any kind, has
been fome time in it, animals full of life and motion are
produced; and thofe fo numerous as to equal the fluid itfelf
in quantity.

A {mall quantity of water taken from any ditch in the
fammer months, is found to be full of little worms, feeming
in nothing fo much as fize to differ from thefe microfeopic
animalcules. Nay, water, without thefe, expofed in open:
veflels in the fummer months, will be always found, after
a few days, to alsound with multitudes of them, vilible to
the naked eye, and full of life and motion.

Thefe, we know, by their future changes, are the fly-
worms of the different {pecies of gnats, tipule, and multi-
tudes of the other fly-{pecies, and we can eafily detsrmine,
that they have owed their origin only to the eggs of the
parent fly there depofited. Nay, a clofer obfervation will
at any time give ocular proof of this ; as the flies may be
feen laying their eggs there, aud thofe eggs may be followed
in all their changes to the fly again.

Why then are we to doubt but that the air abounds
with other flies and animalcules, as minute as the worms in
thefe fluids? and that thefe laft are only the fly-worms of
the former, which, after a proper time fpent in that flate,
will fuffer changes like thofe of the larger kinds, and he-
come flies like thofe to whofe eggs they owed their origin?
Vide Reaunwr, Hitt. Infe&. vol. iv. p.43r.

The differently medicated liquors, made by the infulions
of different plants, afford a proper matter for the worms
of different fpecies of thefe {mall flies; and there is uo
reafon to. doubt but among thefe fome are viviparous,
others oviparous, and to this may be in a great meafure
owing the different time taken wp for the produétion of
the mfeAs in different fluids. Thofe which are a proper
matter for the worms of the viviparetts fly, may be fooneft
feund full of them, as_probably the liquor is no fooner ina.

FLU

flate to aiford them a proper nourifhment than their parents
place them there: whereas thofe produced from the eggs of
the little oviparous flies mutt, after the liquor is in a pro-
per ftate, and they are depofited in it, in form of eggsy
fave a proper time to be hatched before they can appear
ailve.

It is eafy to prove that the animals we find in thefe
vegetable infufions were brought thither from fome other
place. It is not lefs ealy to prove that they could not be
in the matter infufed, any more than in the fluid it is in=
fufed in.

Notwithftanding the fabulous accounts of falamanders, it
it is now well known, that no animal, large or fmall, can
bear the force of fire for any confiderable time; and by
parity of reafon we are not to believe that any infeét, or
embryo infeét, in any ftate, can bear the heat of boiling
water for many minutes. To proceed to enquiries on this
toundation, if feveral tubes filled with water with a {mall
quantity of vegetable matter, fuch as pepper, oak-bark,
truffles, &c. in which, after a time, nfeéts will be difcovered
by the microfcope ; and other like tubes be filled with.
fimple water boiled, with water and pepper boiled together,
and with water with the two other ingredients, all fepa-
rately boiled in it; when all thefe liquors come to a proper
time for the obfervation of the microfcope, all, as well
thofe which have been boiled as thofe which have not,
will be found equally to abound with infects, and thofe of
the fame kind in the infufions of the fame kind, whether
boiled or not boiled.

Thofe in the infufiens which had fuftained a heat capable
of deftroying animal life, muft therefore not have fubfifted
either in the water, or in the matters put into it, but muft
have been brought thither, after boiling, and it feems by
no way fo probable, as by means of fome little winged
inhabitants of the air depofiting their eggs er worms in
thofe fluids.

It is a natural queftion on this to afk, why it is, that
whil& we fee myriads of the progeny of thefe winged
infeéts in water, we feldom fee the infe&ts themfelves 2
The anfwer is equally eafy, viz. becaufe we can always place
a drop of this water immediately before the focus of the
microfcope, and keep it there while we at leifure examine
its contents; but that is not the cafe with regard to the
air inhabited by the parent flies of thefe our worms, which
is of immenfe extent in proportion to the water proper to
nourith thefe worms, and confequently, while the latter
are cluttered together in heaps, the former may be dif-
perfed and fcattered. Nor do we want inftances of this
even in the infeéts of a larger kind. In many of our
gardens we frequently find vefiels of water filled with
the grat-worms, as plentifully in proportion to their-fize,
as thefe our fluids with animalcules. Every cubic inch
of water in thefe veflels contains many hundreds of thefe
animals; yet we fee many cubic inches of the air in the
garden not affording any one of the parent flies. Id.
ibid. See Animatcuces, Eex, Vinecar, and Perper
water.

Fiuip, Cauflic.

See Caustic-fluid.
Fruip, Senfitive.

See Sensi rive-faid.

FLUKE, in Jchihyology, a word-ufed in fome parts of
England as a name for the flounder.

Fruxe of an Anchor, that part of it which faftensin the
ground. See AncHor.
_ Fruxe-worm, afort of {mall flat worm, often found inthe
livers of iheep which have died ef the,rot. See Ror.

FLU-

LE Oe 6

FLUMARI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prine

-eipato Ultra; 9 miles 8. E, of Aviano.

FLUMET, a town of France, in the department of Mont
-Blane, feated on the Arly; 31 miles S. E. of Geneva.

PLUMMERY,a wholefome fort of vegetable jelly made
of oatmeal.

The manner of preparing it is as follows : put in the pro-
portion of three large handfuls of tinely ground oat-neal,
to fleep for twenty-four hours or more, in twe quarts of
fair water; then pour off the clear water, and put two
quarts of frefh water to it; {train it through a flac haiy-
Jieve, and boil it till it is as thick as a hafty-pudding,
ftirring it continually while it is boiling that it may be
very fmooth; fome iweeten it with fugar, and add rofe or
orange-flower-water; and then eat it with white or Rhenifh
Wine, cream, er milk.

FLUMS, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
eounty of Sergans, fituated on the Mat; 5 miles W. of
“Sergans.

FLUOR, in PAyfics, &c. denotes a fluid ; or, more pro-
perly, the {tate of a body, which was before hard and folid,
hut is now reduced, by fulion of fire, into a flate ef
fluidity.

Gold and filver will remain a long time in fluor, main-
tained by the intenfelt heat, without lofing any thing of their
weight. See Goin, Tixery, &c.

The word fluor is applied to fignify the habitual fluidity
of any fubftance, or that property by which a fubftance
eannot be rendered folid, and is employed as an epithet to
diftinguith fuch fubftances from others of the fame kind,
a which are habitually folid, or which may be rendered
folid. >
~°¥Fivor, in Mineralogy, a {pecies of the calcareous
‘genus, being a combination of lime and fluoric acid, and
known by the chemical appellation of flyate of lime. The
more familiar names under which it pafles in mott countries
-are flufs and fluor, denoting the ufe to which it is fre-
quently applied as a flux of various ores, Befide thefe,
there are a variety of other names that have originated in the
fimilarity of its colours, (particularly thofe of the fluor-
fpar,) to the beautiful tints of feveral of the ftones called
precious; fuch are fal/e emerald, hyacinth, topazxes, beryl,
thryfolite, Sc. Indeed there is no mineral that, may equal
fluor in the varied beauty of its hues; the fuite of its co-
Jonrs is almoft fufficiently comprehentive to be formed into
achromatic fcale. It is referved for nicer chemical obferva-
tion to difcover the nature of this varioufly modified co-
Jouring principle, which is more fugacious in fluor than in
mott other minerals, but probably always correfponding
with the nature of the metallic fubftances that accompany
fluor in the bowels of the earth.

Fluor has been divided by Werner into three fub-f{pecies,
namely, earthy, compaét, and Spathofe fluor. The firlt, alfo

known by the name of the phofphoretcent earth of Marma-.

rofh, was clafled with the fluates of lime on the authority
of Pelletier ; but the late analytical experiments of Klaproth,
who found 32 parts of phofphoric to two of fluoric acid,
fhesv the neceflity of reftoring it to the phofphates of limes,
to which it was firft referred! Mr. Jamefon appears to
have had his doubts refpecting this fubitance ; he does not
defcribe it as a fub-fpecies of fluor, nor does he enn-
merate it among the phofphates of hme, See Pxos-
PHORITE,

1. Compaa fluor. This is rather better underftood ; but it
‘appears that mineralogilts are very apt to confound the terms

FLU

compact” and “ maffive’’ alfo in {peaking of fluor: whenee
raaflive fluar {par has been defenibed 2s Werner's compact
flaor. Lhia latter eceurs but rarely, having hitherto beea
found only at Stollberg and Strastberg in the Hartz, aod
at Yxlo and Nerbergia Sweden, ta which habitats we
may perhaps add Schlackeawalde and Kriman in the Saata
circle of Bohemia, and Schwarzleagang in Salzburg.
The following esterual charaGters appeds the mott im-
port nt.

its colour is generally light greyith-greea, paffing fome-
times into greevifli-white, tometimes into klseifh-grey, ap-
proachiag to verdigris greea, and it is allo found reddish.
Not feldom feveral of thefe fhades are mixed im fpots in one
aid the fame fragment, wow and then with the addition of
aecidenital ycHowith and brownith {pots.

Lt eccurs maffive only. Fra€ture more or lefs even, ap-
proaching fometimes to flat conchoidal, fometimes to fplin-
tery, even to foliated. The fragments are indeterminately an-
gular with pretty fharp edges, and more or lefs tranflucent
1n the dame piece.

It is feebly glimmering, almoft dull. Half-hard, fcarcely
f{cratched by fluor fpar, brictle, eafily frangible. Its {pecific
gravity, 1f Kirwan’s compact fluor be the fame as the one
here defcribed, is 3.120 to 3.165. :

This fub-fpecies, to a fuperficial cbferver, appears fome-
times like horn-ftone, fometimes like sompaé& lime-itone ; but
the above external characters (to which may be added the
phyfical one of its fhewing a weak phofphorefcence when
laid on ignited coal} keep it fufficiently diftiné. Its geo-

raphic fituation has been given aboye. Its geognaitic
fituation at Stollberg is in a vein, in greywacke; it is
found with fluor fpar (its conflant companion), fome
copper pyrites and barytes, At Kriman in Bohemia it was
found by Dr. Reufs in gneifs, in which it is fometimes
feen as thin lamine between the layers of quartz aad
feld{par.

It is, together with fluor fpar, made ufe of as a
flux. .

on The fparryfiaer or fluor /par, which, befides the above-
mentioned general names, is allo known under thoie of cubis
fluor, glafs fluor, phofphorefcent /par, [path vitreuxy [path
fufible, &e. :

Its principal colours are, 1. White, fuch as greyifh,
greenifh, yellowifh, and reddifh-white, pafling into 2. Red,
particularly rofe red of various intenfity, carmine. 3. Grey,
greenifh, yellowifh, {moke, and pearl-grey. 4. Blue,
lavender, azure, fmalt, fky-bluc, Pruifian and violet-lue,
the two latter appearing fometimes nearly black. 5. Greeny
verdigris, feladon, mountain, emerald, grafs-apple, leek,
piltachio, and olive green, 6. Yellow, wine, wax, honey yels
low. 7. Brown, yellowith, and clove-brown. All thefe co-
Jours will frequently pafsinto each other, and even thofe leaft
related to each other are fometimes feen together in the
fame {pecimens in fpotsand flakes, and in itripes that often
appear like fome kinds of alabaiter, whence Romé de l’Tfle
called a variety of flor, alabdaire vitreux. The colouring
matter of fome of them is very fugacious, efpecially that ef
the fky-blue variety, which is often feen to fade merely
by being expofed to the atmofpheric air. Of the
above colours, the white and violet blue are the more
convmon.

Fluor fpar is found maffive and diffeminated, and mo
commonly eryftallized, but it has not been obferved,
except in one inftance to be mentioned hereafter, ia thofe
intitative fiapes, (fuch as dentiform, branched, falactitic,

3 & S 2 &e.}

FLUOR.

&e.)in which the carbonates and fulphates of. lime,
aud other cryitallizable earthy fubftances fo frequently
occur, 5 ‘

Its primitive form is the oGaedron.. As to the determi-
nation of the integrant molecule fome difficulty has arifen.
The: o¢taedron, we know, cannot be fub-divided into folids
ofthe fame form; the laft term of mechanical divifion we
arrive at is that into otherodiaedrons accompanied by tetrae-
drons; fix of the former and eight of the latter being dif-
pofed in fuch a manner as to form in all directions acute
rhomboids. If we imagine either all the o€taedral or all the
tetraedral particles removed, thofe of the fame kind that
remain will {till be in exa& conneGion by means of their
edges. Of the latter circumftance Haily has ingenioufly
availed himfelf to reconcile this refolution of the oftaedral
ery{tal into two kinds of folids, with that principle according
to. which all the integrant molecules of a cryttal muft be
neceffarily fimilar. He fuppofes that, could we caft a look
into the primary conftruction of the oétaedral cry ital, and
faub-divide it to the utmott limits, we fhould find the whole
fubitance pervaded either by tetraedral or oétaedral vacni-
ties; if the former, the whole would be compofed of
odtaedral elementary particles, ifthe latter, the tetraedron
would exclufively conftitute the integrant molecule.
Now as, according to Haiiy’s do¢trine, this molecule is
conftantly either the parallclopiped, or the triangular prifm,
or the tetraedron, analogy has in this cafe decided in favour
of the tetraedron, which 1s now confidered as the integrant
molecule of fluor, inftead of the otaedron. It was
Werner who firft obferved the tetraedral and o@aedral frag-
ments which refult (according to his terminology) from
the fourfold cleavage prefented by the foliated fracture of
fluor.

The principal forms of the cryftals of fluor-{par, with
their modifications, confidered, not according to their
origin, but to the manner in which they prefeut themfelves
to the eye, are the following :

1. The perfed cube (chaux fluatée cubique, Hatiy.) It is
fometimes elongated ; paffing from the cubic form into that
of a reétangular four-lided prifm, generally with two of its
lateral planes narrower. We have feen fpecimens of the latter
variety from Cumberland ; it is alfo found at Schemnitz and
Nertfhinik.

2. Cube with all the edges truncated (chaux fluatée cubo-
dodécaedre, Haiiy).

3. The preceding with planes of truncation fo much
increafed that the rhomboidal or gaynet-dodecaedron is
formed (chaux fuatée dodécaéedre, Haiy.)

4. Cube with all its edges bevilled (chaux fluatée bordée,
Fiauy ).

5. The preceding, with bevilling edges fo much enlarged
as to convert each plane of the cube into four triangular
planes (chaux fluatée hexatétracdre, Haiiy). What kas been
deferibed as perfe&t cube with convex planes, we fuppofe t
be this modification indiftin@ly formed. ;

6. Cube with all its folid angles flatly acuminated by three
planes, placed on the lateral planes of the cube.

7. Cube having its angles acuminated by fix planes,
placed on the lateral planes. We do not know where the
preceding and this variety occur; Emmerling informs us,
that in the latter the fix acuminating planes fometimes com-
pletely engrofs the planes of the cube.

8. The cube truncated at all its folid angles (chaux
fluatée cubo-odaedre, Hay.) If the triangular truncating

planes do not meet, the planes of the cubes are octagonss
if they meet exa@tly, thofe planes are {quares ; if all the
truncating planes encroach on each other thefe become
hexagons, while the planes of the cubes remain fquares ;
when they encreafe flill more the ia

9. Odaedron, with fix truncated angles, is formed; in
which the truncating planes are the fix planes of the cube;
in the fame manner as the truncations at the eight angles of
the cube N° 8. are the eight plaues of the o€taedron,
When the truncating planes of the modification N° 8. enlar
fo much as to caufe the faces of the cube entirely to dif-
appear, bey

10. The perfeé oétaedron, or double four-fided pyramid,
is formed (chaux fluatée primitive, Haiiy.) '

11. Oétaedron with truncated edges (chaux fluatéc
emarginée, Haiiy.

12, Odtaedron with both angles and edges truncated.

13. The elongated oftaedron with four broader and four
narrower planes, terminating ina ridge.

No. t. is by far the moft common of all the modifications
of cryftallized fluor fpar. No. 3. is very rarely met with ;
it was found by M. Subrin between Breuil and Charecey
on the way to Chalons. Of No. 4. the moft interefting
varieties occur in Cornwall. From the geometrical figure
in plate 73, of that ufeful work “ Britifh Mineralogy,” it
appears, that Hatiy’s chaux fl. bordée occurs in Cornwall,
with the eight angles truncated, parallel to the o€taedron,
by which a cryftal of 38 faces is formed. Of No. 10, the
perfect oGaedron, the moft beautiful variety is the rofe-
coloured one, found in the neighbourhood of Mont-Blanc.
It alfo occurs in beautiful cryftals in England, on Mount
St. Gothard &c. and Mr. Sowerby is, we fuppofe, the
firft who has noticed the {mall violet variety of this.-modifi-
cation found in Aberdeenshire.

To the above may perhaps in future be added the follow-
ing unufual modifications, 1. The tetraedron with faintly
truncated edges, mentioned by Mr. Mohs as exifting ia
the colleétion of Mr. Vonder Null: the truncating planes
are {tated to correfpond to thofe of the cube. 2 The
thomboid (one of the forms which fraginents of fluor-fpar
frequently exhibit, and which may be confidered as an
ogaedron, with two tetraedrons applied to two of its
oppolite planes) is faid to have been found as cryftal.
The third, mentioned by Emmerling, is the double eight-
fided pyramid, acuminated at both extremities by three
planes placed on the alternate lateral edges. It is faid to

have been found in Saxony, and is in the colle&tion of Count
Wrbna at Vienna.

The cryttals of fluor fpar are of various fize; the
perfect cubic is feen from five inches fquare ta extremely
minute, and fearcely diflinguifhable. “They are found diftiné&t
ana aggregated in various directions ; fometimes globularl
aggregated. Their furface is generally fmooth and fplen-
dent ; but fometimes perfe&ly dull. They are not feldom
covered by an opaque cruft of various colours, particularly
blueifh-green ; ofcen they are drufy, and fometimes orna-
mented with a beautiful golden and pavonine tarnifh; of
which latter we have a fine {pecimen before us. Internal
luftve fplendent, fometimes fimply fhining, according te
the various degrees of perfeétion of the foliated fraGture ;
it is vitreous, rather inclining to pearly ; in fome varieties
even an adamantine luftre has been obferved.

FraGure more or lefs perfeétly foliated, almoft always
ftraight, feldom curved-foliated, fometimes approaching *
to vitreous; it prefents a four-fold equiangular cleavage.

“he

FLUOR.

The form of the fragments has been mentioned in {peaking
of the integrant molecules. The maffive is generally feen
in granular diftiné concretions of various bignefs; and
fometimes it appears in columnar concretions, and radiated,
interfeéted by curved lamellar diftin@ concretions.

Degree of tranfparency according to the differences in the
colour and fradture; fome varieties, particularly the white
or colourlefs, perfectly tranfparent ; others entirely opaque ;
moft aan ie is ee oe

Its hardnefs is greater than that of calcareous {par ; but
it is fcratched by iron; it is biittle, eafily frangible, and
not very heavy ; its f{pecific gravity is,

3.092 (from Stollberg} Gellert
3-148 (from Freiberg ) :
3-456 to 3.184. Mufchenbroeck.
3.175 {the green var.) Blumenbach.
3-200 to 3.700. Gerhard.

Other phyfical characters are its phofphorefcence when
Jaid on ignited coal; the fky and violet blue and green
varieties have been obferved £9, a the moft vivid phof-
phoric light. The variety from Siberia, called chlorophane,
when put on ignited coal, does not decrepitate, but emits
a beautiful emerald green light, w ich has procured it its
name. A flight phofphorefcence is likewife obferved when
two fragments are rubbed againft each other in the dark.

As chemical characters of fluor-fpar, we have to mention
its decrepitation before the blow-pipe, (which, however,
is not the cafe with the Siberian chlorophane,) and fub-
fequent lofs of colour, and its melting, (particularly with
addition of borax or phofphoric acid,} into a greyifh white
enamel; as alfo its emitting fuffocating white vapours
(fluoric acid} when aéted upon by fulphuric acid.

The conftituert part of fluor-fpar, according to Scheele,
the celebrated difcoverer of a peculiar acid in this mineral,
were ftated to be,

; Lime 57
ts ‘ons Fluoric acid 16
Shea Water 29

After him, Wenzel, Richter, and but lately Klaproth,
have analyfed this fubftance, and obtained the following
refults.

Fluoric acid 323
Calcar. earth 562

Jron and alum earth 10%

100 - Wenzel, 1783
Fluoricacid =~ 35
Calcar. earth 65
100 Richter, 1785.
Calcar. earth 67.75
Fluoric acid 32.25
100 Klaproth, 1807.

With regard to the geogno/fic ftwation of fluor fpar much
is left to future obfervatiou. We know, however, that it
does not only oceur in veins, but likewife as beds principally
in mountains of older formation. In Derbythire it appears

“to form large irregular depofitions in fletz lime-itone, and
alfo in Thuringia and at Zinnwald in Bohemia it occurs in
beds. frequently it is met with in veins of different
relative ages, accompanied with feveral important metallic
formations. The oldeit, confifting principally of tin ftone,

occurs at Zinnwald, and in other parts of the Bohemian and
Saxon Ertzgebirge ; and a vein formation, equally old, is
found in Switzerland, where the veins confift of fluor fpar
feld{par, rock cryftal, kc. The fecond in antiquity appears
to be that which, accompanied with lead and filver ores, and
fometimes with barytes, forms the fubftance of veins at
Freiberg and other parts of the Saxon Erzgebirge, and alfo
partly in Derbyfhire. A third vein formation, found in the
lower parts of the Hartz, confifts chiefly of fluor fpar with
copper and iron pyrites, galena, fpathofe iron, &c. The
different ages Sf the venigenous fluor {par have firft been
examined into by Werner. We fhould alfe mention here
that the variety of fluor called chlorophane is found ina
granitic rock in Siberia; and Andrada fpeaks of a va-
riety he faw in Sweden (in the diftrict of Norberg) mixed
in large maffes with mica flate.

A lift of localities of fluor fpar may be found in all books
on mineralogy ; indeed, it is met with in moft parts of
Europe, though in fome it is found in no confiderable
quantity. England and Saxony are the principal native
places of this interefting mineral fubftance. In Scotland it
is very fcarce; the only localities known to Mr. Jamefon are
Aberdeenfhire and the Shetland iflands. We know of no
Specimens from any part of America or Africa; in the
northern parts of Afia, Patrin found it in {mall quantities in
two mines, vz. in the filver mine of Zmeof, in the Aitsic
mountains, where it occurs mixed with the other vein ma-
terials ; and in a lead mine in Dauria, near the river Amur,
where, if Patrin’s obfervation be corre&t, it coats the {mall
cavities of the vein ftone, in the fhape of a thick botroidal
cruft.

The ufes to which fluor fpar is applied, though not ma-
nifold, are not unimportant. The coarfer kinds are ufed
as fluxes to metallic ores, particularly copper, iron, and
filver. Chemifts obtain fluoric acid from it. The ufe
made of it in this country, (particularly of the variety called
blue jack by the Derby thire miners,) for ornamental vafes,
columns, &c. is generally known. Mr. Mawe, in his-“ Mine-
ralogy of Derbythire,” has given an account of the mede
of working it. Several attempts have been made in France
to manufacture the fluor {par of Auvergne into fimilar ar-
ticles of ornament ; but it appears as if the nature of its
fracture renders it lefs fit for the lathe. ‘

Fluor fpar is feldom feen to conflitute the fubfance of
organic remains. We find inftances of this converfion men-
tioned in Mr. Martin’s * Outlines:”? the remains are chiefly
thofe of entrochite. Alfo Dr. Kidd, in his « Outlines,
&c.”” deferibes a bivalve fhell in the Oxford colleétion,
converted into fluor fpar with imperteé eryitals of nearly
colourlefs fluor in the interior.

We fhould not omit mentioning in this place thofe cor-
roded cubic cryitals of fluor fpar, of a yellowiih-gréy colour,
found near the furface of the earth in fome parts of Der-
byfhire : their texture is more or lefs porous throughout.
Haily, who calls this variety chaux fuatée aluminifere,
thinks that the ferruginous clay-which it is {aid to contain
has the fame relation to the fluor {par which the quartz
grains have to the carbonate of lime in the cryttallized
fanditone of Fontainebleau. But this analogy does not
appearto be founded in reality. (See Sanpstons.) Dr.
Kidd conje@ures that the corroded appearance of thefe
crydtals may have been produced by fome form of zinc,

Fluor {par fometimes exhibits traces of deeompofition.
The fingular variety from Beeralfton, Devonthire, in.
ogtaedral cryftals of a pale feladon green colour, and cafed,
as it were, in one another, is éncrulted with a white earthy
fubitance; which, if we may judge from the gradual

tranfition

ELV

tranfition into the perfect fubftance obfervable ina fpeci-
men before us, can only be the refult of a dilintegration of
the conftituent parts, Mr. Sowerby has given a good
figure of this variety. It is probable that much of the
fubftance defcribed 23 earthy fluor is nothing but fluor ina
decompofed itate.

Fivor Albus, in Mecicine, a colourlefs difcharge from
tle female vagina, popularly termed the whites, aud-by the
nofologifts leucorrhaa, 20 appellation of the fame fig-
nification, derived from the Greck. See Leucorru#a,

FLUORIC Acip, in Chemiffry, This acid was dif{-
covered by Scheele more than thirty years ago, and the
ifubjeé&t, foon after excited the diligent attention of Dr.

Prieftley, whofe experiments and obfervations are detailed
at large in the fecond volume of his experiments me-
thodized, p. 339, 367- For many years it was fuppofed
to cxift in the fluor fpar only, but later procefles have
Mewn that it isa conftituent of fome of the topazcs,
and of the wavellite. a newly difcovered foffil. Jt has
_alfo ‘been found in the animal kingdom, viz. in the enamel
of the petrified teeth of an elephant; alfo in the enamel
of the human. teeth, and in ivory. d

We have feen that the conftituent parts of fluor fpar, in-
dependently of the water im combination, are fluoric acid
and lime. ‘To obtain this acid we mnft put one part by
weight of the {par coarfely pulverized into a leaden retort,

and pour over it three parts of concentrated fulphuric acid.
An effervefcence is immediately excited; the fulphuric
acid exerting a ftronger attraction for the lime of the fpar,
unites with it, and the fluoricacid goes off in the form of
gas, which may be collefed in receivers over mercury. ley
water had been preyioufly introduced into the receiver, the
gas would have been abforbed, and the acid would, in that
cafe, be exhibited in tke liquid ftate. Hence fluoric acid
can fubfift in the liquid form, and likewife under that of gas,
which gas has the common properties of the atmofpheric
air, being elaftic and invifible. But it is fomewhat heavier
than common air; it extinguifhes Lea en, and is utterly
incapable of fupporting animal life. Expofed to the at-
mofphere it combines very greedily with its moifture, and
‘appears in the form of vapour or white fumes. Ir hasa
penetrating pungent finell reddens vegetable blues, and
corrodes the fkin. If alighted candle be introduced into
it, the fame becomes green, and then is extinguifhed. The
moft remarkable property-of the fluoric acid gas is that of
corroding glafs im confequence of its ftrong affinity for
filex. This property has rendered it extremely ufeful in
étching or engraving on glafs veffels, which operation is
performed by a very fimple and eafy procefs: the glafs is
covered with wax, or a ftrong Paine of Se ae the
figures are then traced with a common graver, or {teel point,
- and then the veffel isexpofed to the action of the fluoric acid
in a flate of gas ; thofe parts that are expofed are foon cor-
roded, and the impreffion is more or lefs deep, according to
the time employed. This art, though adopted as new at
the time of Scheele’s and Prieftley’s difcoveries, was, ac-
cording to the account given by Beckmann in the fecond
volume of his Hiftory of Inventions, known and praétifed
a century before.

Light and caloric have no effect on fuoric acid ; its pro-
perties are not the-leaft altered by being paffed through a
red-hot porcelain tube. It will not unite with oxygen,
which is the great difference that exifts between this and
the muviatic acid ; nor has it any aétion on azote, hydrogen,
¢arbon, phofphorus, or fulphur. By thefe, er by fome of
them, alinott all the other acids have been decompofed, and
their conttituents detected, and hence its bafe was, till very:

PG 0

lately, wholly unknown ; and it was, from analagy only,
that chemifts affumed that it muft contain oxygen in combi-
nation with an unknown bafe. Mr. Davy has, however,
thrown fome light on this fubje&t, by fubjeéting the fluoric
acid-gas to the action of potalfium, one of his newly difeo-
vered metals, In this gas potafflzm, wheit heated, burns,
and there is a great ablorption of the gas. “ Either the
whole, or part of the acid, according to the quantity of the
potaffium ufed, is deftroyed or abforbed, and the refidual
elaftic fluid is found to be hydrogen, which is in lefs pro-
portion as the fluoric acid gas has been more perfectly freed
from water. After the combuftion, a chocolate coloured
ma{s remains at the bottom of the retort, and® alfo 2 fubli-
mate, partly chocolate coloured, and partly yellow, is found
about the fides, and at the top of the retort. This fub-
Rance, when examined by a magnifier, appeared to confift of
different kinds of matter ; and when thrown into water it
effervefced very violently, and the gas evolved was inflam.
mable. When heated in contaét with air it burnt flowly,
loft its brown colour, and became a white faline fubftance,

The water which had aéted on this fubitance was exa-
mined, the folid particles feparated by a filtre, and the
fiuid was found to contain fluate of pot-afh, and pot-ath.
The folid refiduum was heated in oxygen gaa, it burnt be-
fore it came to ared heat, the brown colour was changed to
white ; oxygen was abforbed, and acid matter was pro-
duced. The inflammable fubftance thus produced from the
action of potaffium on the fluoric acid is fuppofed to be
the bafe of the acid. Perhaps the decompofition of the
fluoric acid by potaflium is analogous to that of the fulphu-
ric and phofphoric acids ; in which the pare bales are not
evolved, noreven the bafes in their common form, but new
compounds formed of the bafe with potaflium, with a
{maller proportion of oxygen. This fubject has engaged
alfo the attention of deeb chemilts, M.M. Gay
Luffac and Thenard, who employed the agency of potafli-
um, and the refults of their inveftigation were very fimilar
to thofe of Mr. Davy. From which they infer that fince
little or no hydrogen gas is evolved in the combuttion of
potaffium, the effect cannot be afcribed to the agency of
water. The acid mutt therefore be decompofed, or it mnit
combine undecompofed with the metallic bafe, which is
not even oxydated. It is probable, therefore, that the acid
is deeompofed, and the pradaé is a combination of the flu.
oric bafe with pot-afh, analogous in conititution to a phof-
phuret. ;

Fluoric acid combines with alkalies and earths, ard the
falts fo formed are named fluates. They are generally deli-
quefcent, and can be cryttallized with difficulty. They
are decompofed by the fulphuric or muriatic acid, whi¢h,
as we have feen, difengages the fluoric. The alkaline fluates
are decompofed alfo by lime, as is evident by the follow-
ing

Table of Affinities.
Lime,
Barytes,
Strontites,
Magnefia,
Pot-ath,

Soda,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Alumine,
Ziccon,
Silica.
‘The faturating power of this acid exceeds

4 all the

others,

ee oe

ethers, a given quantity of it faturating a larger quantity of
any bafe. On this account, it is regarded as the moft
powerful of the acids, and its lefs energetic ation mutt be
a{cribed partly to the weak ftate of concentration in which
it can be obtained, and partly to its not affording oxygen in
a dire& way.

There are eight fluates known, viz. of pot-afh, foda,
ammonia, lime, barytes, maguefia, alumine, and filica. Some
of thefe we fhall briefly notice. The fuate of pat-a/h is ob-
tained by fufing, in a platina crucible, a mixture of fluor
f{par, and carbonate of pot-afh. The mafs, digefted in wa-
ter, yields a folution, which, filtered and evaporated, leaves
a fiuate of pot-afh. It does not cryflallize, but forms a
gelatinous mafs with fcarcely any taite, that attraéts moif-
ture from the air. It readily diffolvesin water. F. of /oda
is formed like the lait; if the folution is evaporated till a
pellicle rifes on its furface, it yields on cooling {mall cubical
cryitals of fluate of foda, Thefe are bitter and aftringent ;
they do not deliquefce in the air, and are but little foluble
in water. They decrepitate and melt into a tranfparent glo-
bule when expofed to the aétion of the blow-pipe. F. of
ammonia is obtained by the application of heat to a mix-
ture of fulphate of ammonia and fluor fpar. The fluate
fublimes ; but if it is prepared by Ee the acid with
ammonia, the folution, by evaporation, yields {mall cryftals
ef fluate of ammonia. F-. of lime, is the fluor {par on which
we have already treated, as it is found in nature; this falt
may be artificially prepared by adding fluate of ammonia to
nitrate of lime; the fluate of lime falls to the bottom, and
when properly treated is very pure, It is infoluble in water,
phofphorefcent when laid on a hot iron, it is infipid, unal-
terable by expofure to the air, and at aheat equal to 51° of
Wedgwood, it melts into a colourleis tranfparent glafs.
Fluoric acid obtained in glafs veffels always contains a por-
tion of filica; if this folution be allowed to remain a confi-
derable time in a veffel not quite clofed, it depofits {mall
brilliant tranfparent cryftals, which have been afcertained
to be the fluate of filica. This falt is foluble in alkalies,
and gives out fluoric acid by mere heat, or by the action of
any of the ftrong mineral acids, Felfpar, and all minerals
that contain filica, are probably aéted on without difficulty
by the fluoric acid in a ftate of gas, but thofe that contain
no alkali are lefs liable to its aGtion. The following table,
taken from Dr. Thomfon’s chemittry, vol. ii. exhibits the
refults of the experiments and calculations of Richter
on the feveral fluates.

Table of the Compofition of the Fluates.

Fluates of Acid, Bafe.
Alumine - - 100 - - 13
Magnefia - 100 - 144
Ammonia - 100 = = 157
Lime +) Eee - 186
Soda - - 100 - = 201
“Strontian -.- 100 - 311
Pot-afh - Ioo - = 276
Barytes - - 100 - 520

FLURRY-Baiocs, in Geography, a {mall poft-town of
Ireland, in the county of Louth, on the borders, of Ar-
magh. * ¥

, FLUSH, fignifies to draw off, or let go a flream of
water from any pound.

Fiusu Deck. See Decx.

FLUSHER, in Ornithology, the common name of the
}effer butcher-bird, called by authors the lanius minor, and
the. lanius tertius of Aldrovand.. See Lanius Collu-
rid.

FLU

FLUSHING, Vuissencen, or Fressincur, in Geo-
graphy, a fea-port town of the Dutch ftate ot Zealand, in the
ifle of Walcheren, on the north fide ofan arm of the Scheldt.
It defends the paflage not only of that river, but of ali the
iflands of Zealand, of which it is one of the moft important
keys: and on this account Charles V. when he abdicated
his grown, enjoined his fon Philip te preferve it fafe ; and
that prince, when he left the port in 1559, in order to take
poffeffion of the kingdom of Spain, commanded a caftle to
be built for the defence of the town; Sut the order was
prevented from being executed by fubtequent troubles.
The port lies between two moles that break the waves of
the fea, which enters the town by means of two canals,
forming two bafons, fo that loaded veffels may fail into the
town, tothe great convenience of the merchants. It was
but afmall place before the 15th century, when Adolphus
de Bourgogne, the lord of the place, furrounded it with
walls, fince which time it has become a celebrated port;
and has been reckoned next to Middleburg, the richeft
town ia the province of Zealand. The emperor Charles V.
erected it into a marquifate in 1551, which the prince of
Orange purchafed, together with the marquifate of Ter-
Vere, for 146,000 fiorins. The ftadt-honfe, built according
to the model of that at Amfterdam, is a fuperb building.
The States-General feized this town on the 27th of Apni
1573, by means of feven boats filled with foldiers fent by
the prince of Orange from the Brill. When they landed,
they hanged the Spanifh commander, Francis Paciotti, one
of the greateft engineers of his time, andthe friend of the
duke of Alva: they pillaged the churches and cloifters,
and took alfo the town of Vere, defeating a fleet of Spanith
fhips commanded by the duke of Medina Celi. The duke
of Alva and the prince of Parma endeavoured in vain to re-
take it. This town was pledged with fome others by the
{tates to queen Elizabeth, as a fecurity for her afliftance,
aud furrendered to the earl of Leiceiter, who was made
governor in October 1585, and arrived the fame year with
6-00 foldiers, and more than 500 gentlemen. In 1616 it
was reftored, with the other towns, to the ftates, by the ne-
gociation of John Olden Burnevelt, ambaffador to James 1.
In January 1795, Flufhing was taken bythe French; and
united by a decree of the confervatory fenate in r808 to the
French empire and the department of the Scheldt or
Efcaut. In 1809 it was captured by the Englith, and foon
after evacuated, N. lat. 51° 26 37". E. bong. 3° 33!

"

Friusuinc, atown of América, in Qneen’s county, New
York, on the N.W. part of Long ifland, and on the 8.
fide of Hell-gate; feven miles E. by N. of New York city.
It contains 1818 inhabitants.

FLUSTRA, in-Zoelogy, a genus of Zoophytes. The
animal is a polype proceeding from porous cells; ftem fixed,
foliaceous, membranaceots, ‘and confifting of numerous
rows of cells uaited together and waven, or matted tegether.
Ovaries bulbiform ?

Two or more diftin& genera of zoophytes have been con-
founded by fome naturalifls under the general name of
flutva. ‘The true fluftra may be readily diftinguithed how-
ever by the above character, It is not of a ilony nature
like the millepora, with which it has been fometimes
arranged: neither is it fo calcareous as thé «madrepora,
though more fo than the gorgonia, and by this méans-con-
ftitutes an intermediate link between thofe analogous tribes.
The cells of the fluftra are dilpofed with regularity, add
always incline to the plane of their bate. "The acimals
which inhabit the cells are palypes, furniflied with from
fix to twelve tentacula of moderate length. The colour of

2 thele

FLU

thefe creatures is in general white, andin the night-time,
or when placed in the dark, they occafionally emit a phof-
phorefeent light.

Species.

Truncata. Foliaceous, fub-divided, with linear trun-
cated fub-divifions. Mull.

Native of the European feas, and five inches in length ;
cells oblong-fquare, and pale yellowifh-brown.

Foxracea. Foliaceous, branched, with round cuneate
fub-divifions. Fabr. Fn. Groenl. &c. Portis cervinus
mperati, C. Bauh.

Inhabits European and Mediterranean
long ; colour yellowifh-brown,

Pitosa. Yoliaceous, varioufly branched, with a feta-
ceous denticle on the lower part of each pore. Muill.—
Millepora membranacea plana, punédtis quincuncialibus,
Amoen. Acad.

Whitifh, porous, incrufting marine plants; and inhabits
European feas.

CarBAsEA.
of cells. Ellis.

Yellowifh-brown. Inhabits the coaft of Scotland.

Cuartacea. Papyraceous, with cells on both fides, the
tops of the branches truncated, like the edge of an axe.
Ellis.

Adheres to fhells, and of a pale ftraw colour; native of
Europe.

Bomsycina. Frondefcent, with obtufe branches,
divided into two or three parts, growing together in tufts,
fending forth {mall radical tubes, and having a fingle layer
of cells. Soland.

Inhabits the Bahama iflands.

VERTICILLATA. Paratitical, with flattith linear
branches, narrower at the bafe, and rows of top-fhaped
ciliated cells difpofed in whorls one above another. So-
land.

Native of the Mediterranean.

. Denrara,. Parafitical, foliaceous, with fhining oval
cells in a fingle layer, the mouth furrounded by fharp in-
fleSted teeth. . Ellis.

On fuci, and inhabits the European feas.

Burtvata. Parafitical, with ovate projecting white
cells, the mouths of which are round, and armed with {mall
fpines. Elhs. :

Found in the European feas adhering to fuci.

-Tomentosa. fParalitical, foft, woolly, with invifible
cells. Mull.

Inhabits the North and Baltic feas.

ENTICULATA. ~Paralitical, with oval diftin& cells,
_three-toothed at the oppofite margins, and the mouth mar-
gined. Mull.

Inhabits the North feas, on fuci and fhells.

‘Tusutosa. Parafitical, membranaceous, with fingle
oblong-ovate cells, and tubular erect mouths. Soland.

Deep yellowifh, femi-tranfparent, and adheres to fuci;
found in the feas of St. Domingo.

Hispripa. Frondefcent, fpongy, the fronds branched
and muricated on the upper fide with very rough belts.
Pallas.

About an inch long, of a pale grey colour, and extremely
rare. ‘I'he fpecies inhabits the Mediterranean fea.

-Fronpicutosa. Frondefcent, with obtufe crowded
branches thrice divided, and a fingle layer of cells. Seba,
Pallas, &c.

Native of the Indian ocean.

feas, fix inches

Foliaceous, fub-divided, with a fingle layer

FLU

- Paryracra, -Ciulaceans, frondefeent, with a cuneate
many-cleft fingly lamellate frond ; cells oblong-rhombic, aud
ringent at the top. Pallag.
Yellowifh and rough oa the furface.
terranean, , .
Miara. © Parafitical,’ flat, coriaceous, with contra&ted
diftant cells. Plu/tra hifpida, Fabr. Yn. Groenl.
~ Fylvous with narrow cells, adhering to fuci, in the
Greenland feas. :
_ MemsranacEa.

Inhabits the Medi-

Paratitical, membranaceous, with ob-

‘long-quadrangular cells pointed at the upper projecting

angles. Soland.
Inhabits the Britifh and North feas. at
Lingata. Parafitical, flat, foliaceous, undivided,

with oval cells in tranfverfe rows. Fabr. Pn. Groent.

Found on fuci in the North feas. ;

The fluftra arenofa of Gmelin is excluded, as it cannot
be confidered of this genus; it is an efchara of Pallas, and
millepora of Ellis.

FLUT, in Geography, a river of Bohemia, which runs
into the Egra, oppofite to Elabogen.

FLUTA, in Jchibyology, aname given by Gaza and fome
authors to the common {parus, diftinguifhed by Artedi by
the name of the plain yellow fparus, with a large annular
black fpot near the tail. See Sparus Annularis.

Fxura is alfo a name given by Columella to the murxna
of Ariltotle and the ancient authors in general, as well
Greek as Roman. It makes only one {pecies of the murana,
according to Artedi; but being with hima generical name
which comprehends all the eel-kind, the ferpens marinus
and the like, among thefe. “This, which was anciently
called fimply the murzna, is diftinguifhed by that author
under the name of the murena having no pedtoral fins;
whicn being peculiar to this fpecies, evidently and ob-
vioufly diftinguifhes it at firtt fight from all the reft. See
Murana.

FLUTE, an inftrument of mufic, the fimpleft of all
thofe of the wind-kind; played, by blowing it with the
mouth ; and the tones or notes formed and changed by
{topping or opening holes difpofed for that purpofe all
along it. Thote in common ufe are eitherthe fute abec, i. e.
a beaked or common Englith flute, and the traverfe, Helve-
tian, or German flute, the invention of which is afcribed by
Galileo aud Merfenne to the Helvetians; but the antique
ftatue of the piping faun, and a_ teflelated pavement of
Fortuna Virilis, erected by Sylla at Rome, in which is a
reprefentation of a young: man playing on a traverfe pipe,
with an aperture to receive his breath, fhew that it is of
more ancient original. ¥

The Latins call it f/ula, and fometimes ¢ibia, pipe; from
the former of which fome derive the word flute; though
Borel will have it derived from fluta, alamprey, thus called
a fluitando in fluviis, in regard the flute is long, like the
lamprey, and has feven holes all along it, like that fifh.
Graflineau,

The ancient fiftule, or flutes, were made of reeds ;
afterwards they were of wood; and at length of metal.
But how they were blown, whether as our flutes, or haut-
boys, does not appear. ;

Monf. Caftillon apprehends that they were founded by
means of a rced ; and that there were two forts of them, in
one of which the reed was vifible, as in our hautboy, but
concealed in the other. (Berlin Mem, 1774. vol. vy.) It is
plain fome had holes, which at firft were but few; but
afterwards were increafed toa greater number; and fome
had none. Some were fingle pipes, and fome a combination

4 ef

EEU T ¥.

ef feveral, particularly Pan’s fyringa, which confifted of
feven reeds, joined together fideways.

Thefe feven reeds had no holes, each giving but one
note, in all feven diftiné&t notes; but at what intervals is not
known ; perhaps they were the notes of the natural, or
diatonic {cale.

The German flute is different from the common one; it
is not put into the mouth, by the end, as ¢he ordinary
ones are; the end is ftopped up witha plug or tampion,
but the lower lip is applied to a hole a little way diftant
from it.

It is made equally big every where, and perforated
with fix holes, befides that of the mouth, and that opened
by the key.

The flute was of fuch importance in antiquity, that

among the Dii majorum gentium, fome of the female’

divinities laid claim to a thare in mufical difcoveries. Of
this number was Minerva, or Pallas, the daughter of
Jupiter, who is femetimes called Mufica, or the mufician, a
name fhe acquired from a Ratue made by Demetrius, in
which, when the ferpents of the Gorgon were ftruck, they
refounded like a lute. She is glfo honoured with the in-
vention of chariots, together with having firft ufed trumpets,
and invented the flute. The vouchers for her mutical
talents are Paufanias, Plutarch, and Fulgentius, among
the profe writers; and Pindar, Nonnus, Ovid, Hyginus,
Propertius, and Clawdian, among the poets. The flute that
fhe invented is faid by Ovid to have been made of box,
and by Hyginus of bone. Foramina rara, with few holes,
it is natural to fuppofé.

Indeed the Syrinx, fee plate IV. N° 6, faid to have been
javented by Pan, was found inconvenient. It confifted of a
number of pipes of difftrent lengths, tied together, or

{tened by wax, which were played on, according to

ucretius, by blowing in them one after the other, moving
the inftrument fideways, for the admiffion of wind into the
feveral tubes ; and it was by the fagacity and penetration of
Minerva, that it was found practicable to produce the fame
variety of tones witha fingle pipe, by means of ventiges or
holes, which had the effeet of lengthening or fhortenin
the tube, by a quick alteration of the column of air which
was forced through it. ,

. Two other circumitances are related of Minerva with
re{pect to the flute ; fhe is faid by Hyginus to have found
herfelf laughed at by her mother and fifter, Juno and
Venus, whenever fhe played the flute in their prefence:
this fuggeited to her the thought of examining herfelf in a
fountain, which ferving as 2 mirror, convinced her that
fhe tad been juttly derided tor the diftortion of her counte-
nance, occafioned by {welling her cheeks in the act of
‘blowing the flute. Thisis one reafon given for her throwing
afide that initrument, and adopting the lyre.. However, a
better caufe, and one more worthy of her wifdom, is afligned
for her throwing afide the flute, upon feeing Apollo per-
form on the lyre; for by having his mouth at liberty, fhe
found that it enabled him to fing at the fame time as he’
played, which afforded an opportunity of joining inftruction
to pleafure.

; The invention of the flute having. been given by the
poets to Apollo, Mercury, Minerva, and Pan, is a proof of
its high antiquity as well as importance. There are nominal
flutes reprefented in fculpture of all forms : curved, ftraight,
{mall, middle-fized, fingle, double, right, left, equal, un-
equal, &c.; thefe inftruments were made of all kinds of
wood and metal. They had differeat names ailigned them,
according to the country where they were invented, or
were chiefly in ufe ; as Lhe curved Auge was called Phrygian,

Vor. XIV.

or Tyrian, its name in Magna Grecia, or the Pheution of
the Egyptians, which was termed Monaulos. The finte
had, indeed, fo many different names in the Claffics, and
is applied to fo many different purpofes, that M. le Fevre,
who had undertaken their explanation, ended his fruitlefs
labours by acopy of Latin verfes in praife of Minerva, for
throwing the flute into the fea, and anathematizing thofe
who fhould take it out. But far from imitating M. le
Fevre, and without having the fear of Minerva before our
eyes, we fhall try if we cannot give fome fatisfaGtory ex-
planation of the terms equal and unequal flutes, right and
left flutes, Sarrana flutes, Phrygian, Lydian, or Tibiz pares,
Tibie impares, Tibiz farrane, Phrygie, Lydiz, &c., of
which mention is often made in comedies performed at
Rome; we fhall give what has been faid, which feems moft
probable and ingenious on this curious fubjeé of an-
tiquity.

In the comedies of Terence the flute-players played on
double flutes, or two flutes at the fame time; thar which
they held in the right hand was called the right flute, and
that with the left, for the fame reafon, the deff. The fart
had but few holes, and produced the grave or lowett
founds ; the left had many holes, and produced the acute
or high notes. When the mufician played the two Gutes
of different founds, it was faid that the piece was accom-
panied tibiis imparibus, with unequal flutes; or tibiis
dextris et finiftris, with right and left flutes; and when
they played ontwo flutes of equal found (or io unifon)
either right or left, as often happened, it was {aid ‘at
the piece was played tibiis paribus dextris, with rie-loud
equal flutes, producing two founds; or tibiis paribus
finiftris, equal left-handed flutes, producing acute or hizh
notes.

Donat pretends, that when the fubjeét of apiece was
grave and ferious, the right-hand or bafe flutes only were
ufed, which were called Lydian; that when the drama
was gay and playful, the left-hand or high flutes were
ufed, which were called Tyrian-or Sarrane, which having
high founds were more proper for joy ; and finally, when
the f{ubje& was mixed, or as we fhould fay, tragi-comedy,
unequal flutes were employed, that is to fay, right and
left, which were called Phrygian.

At the Panatherezan games, inftituted at Athens in
honour of Minerva, the patronefs of that city, premiums
were given to players on the flute, an inftrument then
in the higheft eftimation throughout all Greece, but in
particular requeft at Athens; perhaps from the legendary
account of its invention by Minerva, the prote¢trefs of that
city.

Ariftotle tells us, (de Laud. Sui.) that the flute, after its
firft invention, was uied by mean people, and thought ar
ignoble inftrumeat, unworthy of a freeman, till after the
invafion and defeat of the Perfians, when eafe, affluence,
and luxury, foon rendered its ufe fo gommon, that it wasa
difgrace to a perfon of birth not to know how to play upon
it. _Callias and Critias, celebrated Athenians, Archytas
of Tarentum, Philolaus and Epaminondas, were able
performers on the flute.

The Thebans in general piqued themfelves much on
being great performers on the flute. This is manifeft
from a paflage in Dion Chryfoftom. “ The pre-eminence,”
fays he, ** which all Greece unanimonfly allows to the
Thebans, in. this particular, has been conitantly regarded
by them as a point of great importance, of which I fhall
give an iaftance. After the total ruin of their city, which
has never yet been rebuilt, no part of it being now igha-
bited but the imall quarter, called. Cedmga, they gave

£r thems

FLU T #.

themfelves but little trouble in reftoring any of the public
monuments that had been thrown down or deftroyed, one
ftatue only of Mercury excepted, which they took great
pains to dig out from among the rubbith, and to ereét
again, on account of the following infeription ; “Eaazs pry
Orbas WKY TWesKeney avaorw.— ** Greece has declared that
Thebes wins the prize upon the flute.’? So that this
ftatue is ftill ftanding in the old public fquare, among the
yuins.”’

Pronomus, a Theban, according to Paufanias, in-
vented a flute, upon which he could play in three dif-
ferent modes. Before his time, there was a particular
flute for every mode or key: and fo out of tune are the
generality of modern flutes, it were almoft to be wifhed
that the cuftom had flill continued. ‘The words and
mulic ofa hymn, compofed by Pronomus for the inhabitants
of Chalcis, when they went to Delos, were fubfilting in
the time of Paufanias, as was likewife the ftatue of this
mufician, ereéted by the citizens of Thebes, near that of
Epaminondas.

Pericles, who had invited Antigenides to Athens, and
who had undertaken the fuperintendance of the education
of Alcibiades, his nephew, appointed Antigenides for
his flute mafter. But Aulus Gellius relates, from the
Hiftory of Mufic, in thirty books by Pamphila, that his
{cholar Alcibiades, fetting up for a fine gentleman, and
taking the utmoft care of his perfon, was foon difgutted
with his inftrument, as Minerva herfelf had been before ;
for happening to fee himfelf in a mirror, while he was
playing, he was fo fhocked at the diftortion of his {weet
countenance, that he broke his flute ina tranfport of paflion,
and threw it away, which brought this inftrument into
great difgrace among’ the young people of rank at Athens.
However, this difguft did not extend to the found of the
flute itfelf, fince we find by Plutarch, that the great per-
formers upon it centinued long after to be much followed
and admired.

Horace fpeaks of bands of female flute players, which
he calls “ Ambubaiarum Collegia,”? and of whom there
were {till colleges in his time. But the followers of this
profeffion became fo numerous and licentious, that we find
their occupation prohibited in the Theodofian code ; how-
ever, with little fuccefs : for Procopius tells us that in the
time of Juftinian, the fifter of the emprefs Theodora, who
was a Tibicina, appeared.on the ftage without any other
drefs than a flight fcarf thrown loofely over her. And
thefe performers were become fo common in all private
entertaiaments, as well as at public feats, obtruding their
company, and placing themfelves at the table, frequently
unafked, that, at the latter end of this reign, their pro-
feffion was regarded as infamous, and utterly abolifhed.

Dorion is mentioned by Plutarch as a flute player who
had made feveral changes in the mufic of his time, and who
was head of a {eG of performers, opponents to another
fe&t of practical muficians, of which Antigenides was the
chief; a proof that thefe two matters were cotemporaries
and rivals. Dorion, though much celebrated as a great
mufician and poet, by Athenzus, is better known to potte-
rity asa voluptuary. Both his mufic and poetry are loft ;
however, many of his pleafantries are preferved. Being at
Milo, a city of Egypt, and not able to procure a lodging,
he enquired of a prieft_who was facrificing in a chapel, to
what divinity it was dedicated, who anfwered, to Jupiter
and to Neptune. How fhould I be able, fays Dorion, to
get a lodging in a place where the gods are forced to lie
double? Supping one night with Nicocreon, in the ifland
of Cyprus, and admiring a rich gold cup that was placed

on the fide-board, the gold-fmith will make you juft fuch
another, fays the prince, wheneyer you pleafe; * he’ll obey
your orders much better than mine, fir, {ays Dorion; fo
let me have that, and do you befpeak another.”? The
remark of Athenzus upon this reply is, that Dorion aéted
againit the proverb, which fays, that

« To flute-players, nature gave brains there is no doubt,
But alas ! ’tis in vain, for they foon blow them out.”?

Upon hearing the defcription of a tempeft, in the Naup-
lius of Timotheus, Dorion faid, he had feen a better in a
boiling cauldron.

Having loft a large fhoe at a banquet, which he wore on
account of his foot being violently {welled by the gout,
*¢ the only harm I with the thief, faid he, is, that my fhoe
may fit him.’?

His wit and talents made amends for his gluttony, and
he was a welcome gucit wherever he went. Philip of
Macedon, in order to enliven his parties of pleafure, ufed
frequently to invite him with Ariftonicus the cithareedift.

‘The importance of the flute is manifefled in immumerable
paflages in ancient authors ; among which there is one in
Pliny that is diverting and curious. In {peaking of comets,
he fays that there were fome in the fhape of flutes, which
were imagined to forebode fome ill to mufic and muficians :
(Tibiarum fpecie, mufice arti portendere), and Mont-
faucon proves by teveral infcriptions from ancient marbles,
that the facrificial Tibicea at Athens was always chofen,
and his name recorded with the officers of ftate, (Supple.
tom. ii. cap. 25.)

After {peaking of fo many flute players of the male
fex, it is but juftice to fay that they did not monopo-
lize the whole glory arifing from the cultivation of that
initrument ; as the performing upon it was ranked, in high
antiquity, among female accomplifhments. Its invention
was afcribed by the poets to a goddefs ; it was the fymbol
of one of the Mufes; and it was never omitted in the
reprefentation of the Sirens. However, the fame reafon
which provoked Minerva to throw it afide, has luckily
inclined modern ladies to cultivate inftruments, ia perform-
ing upon which, their natural charms, inftead of being
diminithed, are but rendered {lill more irrefiftible.

The moft celebrated female flute-player in antiquity
was Lamia ; her beauty, wit, and abilities in her profeffion,
made her regarded as a prodigy. The honours fhe received,
which are recorded by feveral authors, particularly by
Plutarch and Athenzus, are fufficient teftimonies of her great
power over the paffions of her hearers. Her claim to admira-
tion from her perfonal allurements does not entirely depend,

at prefent, upon the fidelity of hiftorians ; fince an exquifite.

engraving of her head, upon an amethyft, with the veil
and bandage of her profeflion, is preferved in the king of
France’s collection, which, in fome meafure, authenticates
the accounts of her beauty.

As fhe was a great traveller, her reputation foon becama
very extenlive. Her firfl journey from Athens, the place
of her birth, was into Egypt, whither fhe was drawn by
the fame of the flute-players of that country. Her per-
fon and performance were not long unnoticed at the court
of Alexandria; however, in the confli&t between Ptolemy
Soter, and Demetrius, for the ifland of Cyprus, about 3i2
years B.C. Ptolemy being defeated in a fea engagement,
his wives, domettics, and military ftores fell into the hands
of Demetrius.

Plutarch, in his life of this prince, tells us, that “ the
celebrated Lamia was among the female captives taken in
this victory. She had been univerfally admired, at firit,

on

FLIpU TE.

on account of her talents, for fhe was a wonderful performer
on the flute; but afterwards her fortune became more
fplendid by the charms of her perfon, which procured her
many admirers of great rank.” The prince, whofe cap-
tive fhe became, and who, though a fuccefsful warrior,
was faid to have vanquifhed as many hearts as cities, con-
ceived fo violent a paffion for Lamia, that, from a fovereign
and a conqueror, he was inftantly transformed into a flave ;
though her beauty was now on the decline, and Demetrius,
Hes handfomelt prince of his time, was much younger than
erfelf,

At her inftigation, he conferred fuch extraordinary benefits
upon the Athenians, that they rendered him divine honours;
and as an acknowledgment of the influence which fhe had
exercifed in their favour, they dedicated a temple to her,
under the name of “* Venus Lamia. ”’

The flutes of the ancients alone have furnifhed Bartholi-
nus with materials for a very learned and inftruétive work
(De Tibiis Veterum), in which he has colleéted all the claffic
defcriptions of the different inftruments included in the clafs
of flutes, and pointed out all the allufions to them in Greek
and Roman authors, furnifhing -fubfequent modern writers
with a body of information on the fubje¢t, which has enabled
them to appear very learned with very little trouble. So
many different kinds of ancient wind inflruments under the
denomination of fiutes are repredented in fculpture, fome plain
without holes, fome with two, fome with three, and fome
with five holes, others with plugs, ftopples, or, as Merfennus
calls them, fetines (nipples) at the fides, fome double, and
fome fo large, that they muft have been an o¢tave below the
others, Horace {peaks of flutes with few holes, as well as
lyres with few itrings :

*¢ Tibia non ut nunc orichales vinéta tubeque
ZEmula, fed tenuis, fimplexque foramine pauco.”

Ovid has the fame remark :
¢ Prima terebrato per rara foramina buxo,
Ut daret effici, tibia longa fonos.””
Sidonius gives the flute feven holes; but Avienus gives it
a thoufand.

*

*¢ Foraminibus tibia mille fonat.’’

The learned are very difcordant in their opinions and ex
planations of the flutes ufed in the comedies of Terences
nor does any one difcover the leaft knowledge of modern
practical mufic, fufficient to lead them to intelligible difco-
veries on the fubjeét. Bianchini ‘* De tribus gencribus in-
ftrumentorum mufice veterum organice,’’? and Bonanni,
in his “*Gabinetto Armonice,”’ have copied the antique repre-
feutations of ancient mufical inftruments, but we have long
feen that there is no dependance to be placed on their fidelity,
Sometimes ignorance, andfometimes picturefque convenience,
have occafioned blunders and deviations from truth in the
original {culptors. In the fupplement to the folio edit. of
the Fr. Encyclopédie, it is fuppofed that all the ancient
flutes had reeds ; but of two kinds: one vifible and the other
invifible, like thofe in childrens’ trumpets ; the oblique flute,
or flauto traverfiere, commonly called the German flute, was
mnknown to the ancients. According to the author of ttis
article, the ancients had no real flute a bec, or traverfiere ;
but all-were played with reeds, like the modern hautbois.
The plugs, or ftopples at the fides of ancient flutes, which
ferved inftead of keys, are imagined to have been ufed occa-
fionally to ftop certain holes which, in changing the mode,
would not be wanted.

In this long article concerning flutes, or rather the haut-
bois, not a word is faid of double flutes. Our belief how-

ever is, that the tibie pares were two tubes in unifon with
each other; and that the tibie impares were tuned all ’otta~
va. We can conceive no other harmonical ufe that could be
made of them, as it is now generally believed that the an-
cients had never cultivated counterpoint, or figurative har-
mony. But fomething mutt ftill be faid in this article, long
as it is already, concerning modern flutes.

‘The common flute, or flute a bec, from the upper end, or
mouth-piece, refembling the beak of a bird, at the beginning
of the laft century, till the works of Corelli came over, was
in far more general ufe as a concert inftrument than the violin.
Sonatas for two flutes, and a thorough bafe, violone or the-
orbo, were innumerable; with folos, duets, and concertgs
for the fame inftrument ; nor was there a ballad then printed
which was not tran{pofed for the flute at the bottom of the
page; as in the middle of the fame century, almoft every
fong and tune was fet for the guitar. The concert flutes
for which this mufic was compofed were generally F and C.
Tliere is an imitative {top in the organ, called the flute, com-
pofed of open wooden pipes in unifon with the principal ;
but much more foft and tender. This ftop is always in the
choir organ. ‘The flute is fhewn by Mr. Maxwell, in his
«« Effay on ‘Tune,’’ p. 17. to belong to the clafs of imper-
fe&t iuitruments, fee Perrect in/ruments.

Fuute Zraverfere, Fr. Flauto traverfiere, Ital. hori-
zontal,

Fiure Allemande, or German flute, a wind inftrument of
wood or ivory, confifting of four pieces, or joints, inferted
one in the other. In the Fr. Encyclopédie fo minute a de-
{cription is given of the feveral parts of this inftrument, its
joints, holes, or perforations, keys, tampion, or bung at the
top of the mouth-piece, that an ingenious turner who never
faw a German flute would find little difficulty in making one;
but we fhall fay no more on the mechanifm of the inftrument,
but confine our inftruGions to its ufe.

To become a good performer on this inftrament, the ftu-
dent muft begin by acquiring a good embeucheure, or by
procuring a clear, full, and {weet tone; a tafk far more dif-
ficult than is generally imagined. very one can produce a
tone on a common flute, but few are able, without teaching,
to make the German flute fpeak. The inftrument being
blown at the fide, whence it has its name of traverfiere, muft
be held parallel to the fhape of the mouth, that the ftream
of air ifluing from the breath of the performer may enter in
part at the fingle orifice in the upper piece. Whoever can
whillle in the pipe of a key, will foon produce a tone in the
German flute, which will be harfh at firft, but muft be
{moothed and refined by degrees, never forgetting in every
day’s praétice to make that a principal confideration. Whe-
ther fitting or ftanding, the performer mult be ere& in his
catriage, the head rather above than below its ufual pofition,
and a little inclining to the left fhoulder; the hands high,
without raifing the elbows or the fhoulders ; the left hand
Dent out, and the fame arm near the body. If the player is
itanding, the attitude fhould be firm, the left foot advanced,
the body refting on the right hip, and the whole perfon free
from conftraint. The greateft care fhould be taken not to
move the head or body, as many do, in order to mark the
time. The attitude fhould have no fingularities, nothing
aukward or affe&ed to attra& the attention, or prejudice the
audience againit the performer. With regard to the pofition
of the hands, the left is to be at the top of the flute, which
is held between the thumb of that hand, and the fore finger,
which ought to ftop the upper hole, marked 1 in the figure,
the fecond hole with the middle finger, and the third by the
ring finger. The right hand is to hold the lower part of the
inftrument ; the thumb of this hand, which muff be a little

4 T2 bent

| es Of

bent inwards, fupports the flute below, and the thyce fingers
of this hand, the fore finger, the middle fingér, and ring
finger, {top the holes marked 4, 5, 63 the little finger ferves
to prefs down the key at the tail piece, or loweit joint, which
key opens a hole out of the reach of the fingers, The flute
mult be held horizontally. No inftructions for the lips in
blowing the flute can fuit the form cf all mouths ; but when
the ftudent can make the inftrument {peak eafily and freely,
he mutt turn it in and out, by {mall degrees, till he gets the
beft tone poffible; and then, beginning with the cheft well
filled with wind, as foft as poflible to {well by minute degrees
any note to its utmoft power, and then to diminifh it by the
fame degrees toa thread. We fhall give among the plates
a complete feale of every found that can be produced on the
inftrument. Having worked upon one and the fame note
till a full and clear tone can be produced on a fhort notice,
begin on the loweft found D, to fwell and diminifh each
note in the fame manner as the firft, and let alone rapid paf-
fages and execution, till certain of the tone of the inftru-
ment: as fingers are obliged to /olfeggiar, going no further
than a hexachord for a long time ; {welling each note to the
utmoft power of the breath and lungs, afcending and defcend-
ing, to acquire fteadinefs in fultaining a note perfeétly in tune,
and free from all tremulous uncertainry during themoft crude
and violent accompaniment. See Mufical Plate.

The tablature contains feven ranges of black and white
indications of. the feven holes that are to be occafionally
ftopped and opened on the flute. The black reprefent the
fingers, and the white or open circles the holes unitopped.
The compafs of the German flute at prefent extends to
three o€taves, from the loweft D in the treble, to the o€tave
above what ufed to be the higheft D. [A C * or D b below
the D natural, has lately been acquired by blowing very
foftly and turning the inftrument inward.] It is to be ob-
ferved that the higher the notes on this inftrument are, the
wind muit be encreafed, and the orifice of the lips fomewhat
more clofed. Moft of the notes are broken into o€taves by
a little additional force in blowing, The B, C, D, of the
third oGtave cannot be produced upon all flutes ; with middle
pieces which lower the tone of the whole inftrument, they
are eafier to be produced ; the lower the better. ‘There are
fometimes feven middle pieces in ufe for flattening the pitch.
Thefe amount to about a tone ; fo that by their affiftance
a flute may accommodate itfelf to any pitch. Not only all
the femitones are given in the general fcale on the firft plate,
but the fhakes on a fecond plate, which are indicated by the
black and white ciphers. ‘The finger over the white open
cipher is to be fhook; tones, femitones, fhakes, beats, coup
de langue, accents, flurs, &c. muft be praétifed feparately.

Fiure flop onan Organ, is a range of pipes, conftruéted
to imitate the notes of the common flute or flageolet : it is
fofter than the principal in its tone: its pitch is an octave
above the notes.of the diapafons, or in unifon with the
principal ftop.

Fiure, or F/uys, is alfo a kind of long veffel, with flat
ribs, or floor timbers, round behind, and {welled in the
middle; ferving chiefly for the carrying of provifions in
fleets, or fquadrons of fhips: though it is often ufed in
merchandize.

The word flute, taken for a fort of boat, or veflel, is de-
rived, aceording to Borel, from the ancient foéte; a little
‘boat. Inthe verbal procefs of the miracles of St. Cathe-
rine of Sweden, in the 12th century, we read, “ us
equum fuum una cum mercibus magni ponderis introduxit
fuper inftrumentum de lignis fabricatum, vulgariter dictum
fluta.”? Upon which the Bollandifts obferve, that in fome
eopies it is read flofta, an inflrument called by the Latins

FL

ratis; and that the word /lutia, or flotta; arofe from flotten
or vlolien, to float. ;

Fiure, in weaving tapefiry. See TapesTRY.

Fuivures, or Flutings, are longitudinal cencavities de-
preffed in the furface of a piece of architecture, generally of
a circular or elliptic fection, meeting each other in lines, or
feparated with a part of the furface from which the excava-
tion is made left flanding between. The furface feparating
every two flutes is called a fillet: if the flutes are parallel
or diminifh according to any law, the fillets are alfo made

arallel or to diminish in the fame law.

And if the flutes run in a ftraight line, orin a curve at
right angles to the fection, the fillets follow the fame di-
rection. When fillets feparate the flutes from each other,
each fillet is in breadth from one-third to one-fifth of the
bréadth of the flute. That fpecies of fluting where the
flutes meet each other without the intervention of fillets, is
generally applied to the fhaft of the Doric order, and the
other with fillets to the fhafts of Ionie and Corinthian.
Flutes frequently terminate femicircularly on the face or
with fpheric heads, and fometimes their terminations are
planes at right angles to their longitudinal direCtion. The
Greeks never applied fluting to any member of the Doric
order, except to the fhaft, which was almoft a univerfal prac-
tice, there only being two known examples to the contrary,
nor even to the Ionic. ‘The Romans frequently overcharged
all the plain and cylindric members, For a more particular
defeription of fluting, fee Doric and onie Orders.

Fiures, or FYatings, ave alfo ufed, in Botany, to denote
the {tems and fruits of certain plants, which have furrows.
analogous to thofe of thefe columns.

FLUTTER, in AZujic, is a term applied by Dr. Robert
Smith (Harmonics, p. 97.) to the fluttering roughnefs in
the found of two notes which are difcords to each other: a
phenomenon very diftin& from the deats of imperfe& con-
fonances; the latter beating, becaufe the fucceffion of
their fhort cycles are periodically confufed and interrupted,
whereas difcords have this charaGteriftic fluttering, when
their ratios are quite perfeét, and when concords, under the
fame circumitances, ceafe to have any beats, but produce.
a perfeét confonance, or uniformity of found. See Con-
CORD.

FLUVANNA, in Geography, a county of Virginia,
bounded N. by Albemarle, N. E. by Louifa, E. by Gooch-
land, W. by Amherit, and S. by Fluvanna or James river, :
which divides it from Buckingham. It is about 22 miles
long and 20 broad, and contains 2703 free inhabitants,
and 1920 flaves. There is great plenty of marble, both white
and variegated with blue, red, and purple veins found in
this county, on James river at the mouth of Rockfith ;
where it forms a large precipice overhanging a nayigable

art of the river. r

FLUVIALIS, in Botany, Vaill. Mem. de Acad.
des Sciences for 1719. See Najas.

FLUVIANA, in Geography, a river of Spain, in Cata-
lonia, which runs into the Mediterranean, in the gulf of
Rofes. N. lat. 42° ro!. E. long. 2° 56’. :

FLUVIATILES Cocutea, frefh-water fhell-fifh, a
term ufed by naturalifts to exprefs thofe kinds of fhell-fith
whichnever inhabit the fea, but are found inour ponds, rivers,
and ditches. Thefe, though much lefs numerous than
the {pecies of fea fhells, are yet of a greater variety and
beauty than is ufually fuppofed. See Concuorocy.

FLUX, in Enamel, is that glafly body that forms the
bafis of all enamels, whether tran{parent, femi-tranfparent, or
opaque. Now asthe painting on enamel is performed with
vitreous colours, which to {peak truly can be nothing more

or

Pou +0. ‘xX:

er lefs than coloured enamels, it muft be evident that
flux likewife forms a principal part in the compofition of
enamel colours.

Fiux, Enameller’s, is a fort of enamel principally ufed
for the upper furfaces of plates intended for enamel painting.
It differs from the common enamels, in being of a more idl.
low and rich quality, whilft its properties facilitate the
fufion of thofe colours which are employed in painting on
it. The beft kinds having been generally brought from
Venice, have acquired the name of Venetian flux, and are
commonly imported in the form of fmall beads, hence
called dead-flux, or fhort pipes about three-eighths of an inch

-in diameter, and from three quarters of an inch to an inch
in length: the latter is called pipe-flux. The fluxed plates,
when prepared as defcribed under Enametuine, have
a rich yellow hue, or cream colour; by which they are
rendered of particular utility in paintings where much of
the naked figure is expofed. The flux muft always be laid
upon hard enamel; as the properties of glafs enamel are
inimical to effective cohefion, the flux cracking in circles, or
flying off in pieces as the plates cool.

In order to give a cles rie eeu nature of fluxes, it
will not be improper previoufly to inquire more particularly
into the nature of the ingredients, their operations on each
other in a ftate of compofition, as well as the power which
each exerts in producing a proper effect; fince by this
means fuch an initiative knowledge may be obtained, as will

-enable perfons unacquainted with the art to condué& their
experiments with more certainty, than they poflibly
could by any particular recipes, however good they might
be.

There are two kinds of fubftances which enter into the
compofition of enamel fluxes; the one, the proper matter

-of the flux, being principally fuch bodies as are by their
Ea endued with a ftrong propenfity to run into the

vitreous fufion, and be converted into glafs, at the fame
time that they affimilate and change other bodies in com-

. bination with them into their own vitreous nature. This
kind confifts principally of falts,lead, and arfenic. The
other kind confifts of the correétives of thefe proper flux-
ings, which without their admixture would be found to
have qualities that would deprave them for enamels or the
fluxes for paintings. For all kinds of falts, when vitrified
by themfelves, or with a {mall proportion of other bodies,

_are {till liable to be diffolved by aqueous moifture; and flux,
made of fuch ingredients only, would be corroded even by
the comiion air, and turn black and dull on its furface ;
hence it becomes neceflary to ada fome other bodies as cor-
reétives to prevent thefe bad tendencies, and render the flux
more durable. Lead and arfenic, when formed into ¢glafs,

-of which they compofe the principal ingredients, are par-
ticularly liable to be thus corroded; to prevent which, when
ufing thefe fabflances,. it is neceflary to add confiderable
proportions of the corrective matter.. The truth of thefe

_remarks may be readily afcertained by the appearance of.

the enamel door-plates about this town, in many of which
the lead, having been ufed in too great a proportion as a flux
for the black colour, has been fo far corroded as to have
admitted the air to come in contac with the colouring
matter, in which cafe the whole writing is almoft oblite-
rated. ~* mm
The moft common of thefe correGive bodies of the pro-
er ter of the flux, and which therefore make the
4) pie nd of fub&ances of which enamel fluxes are
“com are calcined flints, and Lynn fand, or what is
‘generally known by the name of filver fand, which being
perfectly white, and refifting when vitrified the carrefive and

decompofing aétion of all menftrua, give body and hard-
nefs to the fluxes, without any other difadvantage than
that of. diminifhing, in a certain degree, their inclination to
vitrify, and on that account rendering them fomewhat
weaker as fluxes than they would be if ufed alone.

The moft aétive kind of falt as a general flux is borax,
which poffeffes the greateft power of any fimple body
hitherto known. Lead, which is the next, vitrifies with a very
flight heat, and at the fame time affimilates other bodies to
its own nature, fuch as earths, ftones, the oxyds of metals,
&e. Arfenic is likewife a powerful fluxipg fubftance ;
but whenever this is ufed it fhould be with bodies that have
been previoufly vitritied and ground tolerably fine, other-
wife it is apt to fublime and fly off from the compofition
with which it is mixed, and which of courfe muft renderany
recipe, where a certain proportion of this isto be ufed, very
liable to error without fuch precautions. Several kinds of
falts poffefs the next degree of fluxing power, the principal of
which is fea falt ; but it muft be evident from what has
been mentioned, that they are not fufliciently ftrong to
form an enamel flux by themfelves, yet as they are per+
feétly colourlefs when vitrified, which is not the cafe with
lead, they will be found very ufeful in compofition with
lead, or when ufed in place of that fubftance, affifted by
borax, efpecially where any tinge of yellow would be de-

-trimental to the colouring matter that is to be ufed with

the flux.

Having endeavoured to give the reader an idea of the
nature of the fubftances that are ufed.in the formation of
fluxes, we fhall next endeavour to explain the method of
compounding them before they are fufed, and alfo fome
obfervations upon that part of the procefs,

When the materials are procured, taking care that they
are of the beft quality, each fhould be feparately levi-
gated either in an agate mortar, or one made of the fame
kind of glafs as the common wine bottles are made of : the
peftle in either cafe fhould be of flint or agate. The pro-
portions of each fubftance, having firft been thoroughly
mixed, the whole muit be put into crucibles of a proper fize,
and placed in an air furnace, or what is more commonly
called a wind hole, where the heat fhould be increafed till
the matter is perfectly vitrified, which may be known by
its becoming clear andtranfparent. The heat muft be fuf-
ficiently powerful, yet not too violent, for though a great
heat may accelerate the vitrification, yet it. at all times
hardens the compofition, and greatly reduces the fluxing
power. The fimple method of dipping the end of atebacco
pipe in the flux while in a ftate of fufion, and examining the
{mall quantity that adheres to it, will enable a perfon to
form an accurate judgment of the whole ; -for if it appears
clear and traniparent it may be concluded that the vitri-
fication is complete,but if any cloudy parts appear inclofing
opaque fpecks, iteis evident that.a longer continuation of
heat is neceflary. When the quantity is {mall it becomes
very difficult to get the whole out of the pot; the beft
method perhaps is to hold the edge of the pot with a con-
venient pair of tongs, andat the fametime fcrape the matter
out witha fmall pieceofiren, the edge of which fhould be pre-
vioufly made to fit the bottom of the crucible. Whoever
would have flux in the greateit degree of purity, mult pre-
vioufly prepare the glafs of lead to. be ready at all times for
ufe, for although lead might be mixed with the other in-
gredients for common purpofes, yet it will be better in all
cafes to prepare it previoufly by the following means.

Takeof the belt minium, or, as it is commonly called, .
red lead, four pounds ;.of Lynn fand, or .calcined Aints,
two.poudds and a quarter: thefe two fubitances fhould be

: thoroughly

FL

thoroughly mixed, and be put into a very found crucible.
One that has had flux or a little flint glafs melted in it be-
fore would be preferable, for when a new pot is ufed, the
lead is very liable to ftrain through the pores, and thus
occafion an uncertain refult, although the quantities fhould
have been ever fo nicely adjufted. ‘This is to be vitrified in
the fame manner as direéted for flux, and when perfe& will
be of a beautiful topaz or tranfparent gold colour. When
the matter is cold, it fhould be ground in the mortar before
defcribed, and then kept perfeétly free from duft.

In moft large concerns in the glafs bufinefs fand is greatly
preferable to flints, as the trouble of calcining and grind-
ing the latter, where large quantities are wanted, is a ferious
objection to their ufe. But in the cafe of flux, where
quality is of more confequence than quantity, flints are
certainly preferable.

The method of preparing the fliints for ufe, is to place
them in a clear fire, in which they fhould continue two or
three hours; the fire fhould be then increafed till they at-
tain a white heat, at which time they fhould be taken very
quickly from the five and plunged into cold water, which
will caufe them to crack and flaw in innumerable parts ;
they muft then be broken into pieces, and if they are of an
uniform whitenefs throughout, they may ke confidered as
§t for grinding ; but if any black and difcoloured places
appear, they mult be again fubmitted to the fire, and the
immerfion in water repeated ; the calcination being then
completed, they muft be broken as {mall as poffible with a
iteel-faced hammer, and ground very fine in the glafs or
agate mortar.

A very important advantage attending this preparation
of the glafs of lead, is the eafe with which a very perfect
vitrification of the fand or flints is effe€ted without the aid
of intenfe heat; at the fame time the mixture is rendered
more capable of affimilating with a larger proportion of
falts, which will in all cafes add greatly to the foftnefs of
the flux.

Very iittle hope is entertained that any more of the Ve-
netian hard enamel or flux for grounds will be imported
into this courtry, as we are aflured that Bertolini, the ce-
lebrated maker of thofe fubftances, perifhed in the hands of
the French at Naples, on account of his political opinions.
We feel much pleafure in being able to ftate, however,
that Mr. Griffiths of Broad Court, Long Acre, London,
after many years {pent i making enamel colours, has fuc-
ceeded in making flux for grounds equal to any of the Ve-
netian, which he has conftantly for fale. He has likewife,
within the laft three years, brought to perfe@ion a beautiful
white, hard enamel, which is fo nearly equal to the Vene-
tian, that the one might be miftaken for the other, the co-
Jour and fra€ture being fo much alike.

The firft recipe for the formation of a flux, and which
we fhall call N° 1, is the white glafs enamel, which, con-
taining a large proportion of arfenic in a femi-vitrified fate,
requires to be broken into {mall pieces, and fufed till the
matter becomes quite clear and tranfparent; the arfenic
will by this means be completely vitrified, and convert the
glafs into a foft and vfeful flux, fit to be mixed with mot
of the earths that may be ufed as colours, and likewife with
the oxyds of all the metals, gold and filver excepted; for
it muft be remembered, that lead and arfenic are both apt
to injure the beauty of the colours that cre produced by
gold and filver: therefore, whenever thefe are ufed, it muit
be with a fiux that is compofed without either of thefe in-
gredients ; or if they do enter the compofition, it muft be
in very {mall proportions.

Compofition of a fofter flux for common purpofes, where

U X.
the glafs may be found too hard, N° 2.—Take of the glafs

of lead one pound; of pearl afhes, five ounces; of borax,
five ounces; and of arfenic, half an ounce. This flux is
fuited, by its foftnefs, to be mixed with colours that are to
be ufed in glazing over others, where a harder flux has
been ufed, and in moft cafes, where burning the colours
with a flight heat is advantageous.

Compofition of a flux perfectly pellucid and very foft,
N° 3.—Take of common flint glafs, powdered very fine,
feven ounces; of borax, one ounce and a half; of pearl
afhes, two ounces; and of fea-falt, one ounce. This flux,
by its foftnefs and clearnefs, will be found very ufeful for
the oxyds of gold and filver; likewife in all cafes where a
tinge in the flux might be detrimental to the colouring fub-
{tance that is to be ufed.

Thefe fluxes, in the proportion here given, have been
found to anfwer the purpofes for which they are intended
extremely well ; but as the ingredients fometimes vary in
their quality, it is evident that much muit at all times he
left for the ingenuity of the operator to fupply. Indeed,
when the difficulties that every perfon muft meet with in
attempts of this nature, without a previous knowledge of
chemiftry, are confidered, we cannot do better than ad-
vife a ftudy of that {cience as an introduétion to the art of
enamelling and enamel painting, by which means a com-
plete theory of the various fubftances may be obtained,
which, in the courfe of pra¢tice, may lead to ufeful dif-
coveries ; or, to fay the leaft, will many times prevent ufe-
lefs experiments being made.

We mutt not omit noticing in this place, that dial-plate
enamellers found great inconvenience in the lofs of the Ve-
netian white hard enamel, as that fubflance was principally
ufed for the bottoms or backs of dial-plates manufactured of
the Englifh glafs enamel; for the expanfion of thefe two fub-
ftances fo exaétly fuited each other, that it was very rare that
any of them cracked in the fire. This, however, was not the
cafe with all the kinds that were brought from Venice, and
particularly a blue fort, ftamped on the cakes with the
figure of a monkey, and commonly called monkey-enamel.
This fort was very apt to crack the plates in circles, after
they had been made a few weeks, unlefs it was ufed in
compofition with other fubftances, whofe fluxes, being
fofter, contributed to counteraé this difagreeable property.

Thefe obfervations tend to confirm what we have before
ftated refpeGting the neceflity of laying flux for grounds on
hard enamel, becaufe the Englith glafs enamel, being much
harder from the nature of its compofition, does not run
into fufion with the fame heat as the flux ; confequently a
perfe& adhefion cannot take place between thefe two fub-
ttances. Fora further account of the proportions of flux
ufed in enamel colours, fee Parntinc on Enamel. Hand-
maid to the Arts, vol. i. and 11.

Frivux, in Hydrography, a regular, periodical motion of
the fea, happening twice in twenty-four hours; wherein
the water is raifed, and driven violently againft the fhores.

The flux, or flow, is one of the motions of the tide, (fee
Tive): the other, whereby the water finks and retires, is
called the reflux, or ebb.

There is alfo a kind of reft, or ceflation of about half an
hour, between the flux and reflux ; during which time the
water is at its greateft height, called high-water. :

The flux is made by the motion of the water of the fea,
from the equator towards the poles ; which, in it refs,
ftriking againft tke coafts in its way, and m ith
oppofition from them, fwells, and where it can fine flage,
as in flats, rivers, &c. rifes up, and runs into the land.

This metion follows, in fome meafure, the courle of

7 the

FLUX,

the moon; as it Iofes or comes later every day by about
three quarters of an hour; or, more precifely, by forty-eight
minutes: and by fo much is the motion of the moon flower
than that of thefun. It is always highett and greateft in
full moons, particularly thofe of the equinoxes. In fome
parts, as at mount St. Michael, it rifes eighty or ninety
feet, though in the open fea it never rifes above a foot or
two; and in fome places, as about the Morea, there is no
flux at all. It runs up fome rivers above a hundred and
twenty miles. Up the river Thames it only goes eighty,
viz. near to Kingtton in Surry,

Above London-bridge, the water flows four hours, and
ebbs eight ; and below the bridge, flows five hours, and
ebbs feven. See Tipes.

Frux, in Medicine, often called alfo bloody flux, the
popular appellation of Dj/entery, which fee.

Froux, in Metallurgy. All thofe fubftances which have
been employed to facilitate the feparation of metals from
their ores, or to give greater fluidity in the fufing or folder-
ing of metals, have by manufacturers been denominated
fluxes. ;

Fluxes employed in feparating metals from their ores
have the effect of rendering the fubftances with which the
metal is combined, capable of fufion. The whole is, by
this addition of the flux, rendered fluid; the metal, being
the heavieft fluid, finks to the bottom; while the fluid
mafs, arifing from the earthy matters of the ore, combined
with the flux, floats on the furface: the latter, on cooling,

uts on a vitreous appearance, ard is, by manufacturers,
called feoria. Hence it will appear, that the flux employed
muft be fuch a fubftance as may be beft calculated to ren-
der thofe fubftances more fufible with which the metal is
combined.
' If the ore abounds with filex, potafh or foda is beft cal-
culated to feparate it from the metal. Tartar, which con-
fifts of the tartaric acid united with the potafh, and fre-
quently abounds with much vegetable matter, is employed
to great advantage in the fmall way. The hydrogen and
carbon prefent, take the oxygen from the metal ; while the
potafh combines with the filex, forming a fluid vitreous
mafs, more or le{s coloured by the oxyd of the metal.

The fubftances known by the names of black flux
and white flux are generally ufed in the fmaller experi-
ments. The former is made by detonating one part of
nitre with three of tartar, fo that it contains at leaft an ex-
cefs of carbonaceous matter, which is fitted for the reduc-
tion of the metallic oxyd, while the potafh, derived from
the nitre and tartar, combines with the earthy products.

That called white flux, is formed by detonating equal
parts of nitre and tartar, by projecting the mixture, by a
fmall quantity at a time, into a red-hot crucible. In thefe
proportions the whole of the carbonaceous matter of the
tartar is deftroyed by the oxygen of the nitre, and nothing
more is obtained than a fub-carbonat of potath.

_ It will appear evident to every chemift, that common
tartar, or for nice experiments, that fuper-tartaret of pot-
afh, will anfwer all the purpofe of the black flux, and the
fub-carbonat of potafh be equally well taken for the latter.
Some have recommended the nitre and tartar to be ufed to-
gether; but this will always be improper where the, oxyda-
tion of a-fubftance is intended. Nuitre poffeffes a power fo
much the contrary, that it is capable of oxydating gold.

_ Inthe large way, on account of cheapnefs, lime is em-
ployed to feparate the filex. Barytes, if it could be found
more plentifully, might be ufed to more advantage for fe-
parating filex, particularly from iron ore.

Lime is found to be the beft Aux for {melting the alumi-

nous iron ores, from the great fufibility of due proportions
of thofe two earths. Should the ore abound with filex, its
reduction is found more difficult. It might be an advantage,
where ores of this kind occur, to ufe fome cheap compound
of barytes, fuch as the fulphat of that earth,

From what has been obferved, it will appear that it is of
the greateft importance to be acquainted with the nature of
the earthy matter in the different ores. Whether the ore
contain alumine, lime, or both thefe fubftances, fuch a
quantity of one of them fhould be added, as will make the
mott fufible compound of the two. Ifthe alumine be in
excefs, lime muft be added, but if the ore be calcareous,
which is fometiaes the cafe, it is found neceflary to add
clay. In the {melting of irun ores, however, the fufibility
of the earths is much increafed by the oxyd of iron, which
always, more or lefs, colours the {coria. The oxyd of iron
is found to exert a much ftronger affinity upon filex than
upon any of the other earths, and hence thofe iron ores
abounding with filex, when fmelted, afford more coloured
feoria, and in confequence are lefs productive.

In the fmelting of copper ores, which contain filex, it is
ccmmon to add fome fubitance which contains oxyd of iron;
pyrites is generally ufed to afford this fubftance. But
many copper ores contain iron, and reed not the addition
of this fubftance as a flux. The oxyd of iron combines with
the filex, forming a dark coloured fufible compound, which
floats on the furface, leaving the copper free from both
thofe fubftances.

Mott of the fluxes ufed in fufing or foldering thofe metals
liable to oxydate by the prefence of the oxygen of the
atmofphere are fuch, as by fufing, when the metal would
begin to oxydate, envelope the metallic furface, and prevent
the combination of the oxygen. Of this clafs are many
faline bodies, fuch as borax, pot-afh, foda, tartar, muriat
of foda, &c. In fhort it fhould be fucha fubftance as may
fufe before the body becomes very hot. It fhould have no
action upon the metal itfelf, and it fhould poffefs fo much
fixity as not to be volatilized by the heat required for the
fufion of the metal. If the flux be at all liable to fly off, a
frefh quantity fhould be frequently added.

Another fpecies of fluxes a& by reducing the oxyd as
faft asit may be formed. The fufible metals are generally
treated with thofe inflammable bodies, which combine with
oxygen, with great facility, and at the fame time-involve
the metallic furface. Rofin and fatty fubflances are moftly
employed for lead, tin, antimony, and’ bifmuth, or their
alloys. Zinc requires to be treated ina clofe veflel with
charcoal powder, or pounded pit-coal.

The vitreous and faline fluxes which a@ by preventing
oxydation, are employed for caft iron, copper, brafs,
&e.

Pounded glafs, or a mixture of lime and clay, may be
employed for caft iron; pot-afh or tartar for copper aad
brafs.

The fcoria of bla furnaces is generally ufed in the fufion
of fteel which is to be caft into ingots. If too much of
thefe fluxes be ufed, the firmnefs of the crucible will be en-
dangered. Muriat of ammonia hasa very peculiar pro-

erty of freeing the furfaces of metals from oxygen. This
Fan been explained, by fuppofing that the ammonia is decom-
ofed ; the hydrogen of which combines with the oxygen.
his does not, however, clearly explain the fa&, for the
muriat of ammonia is not decompofed by this procefs, and
much lefs by the ammonia. It is well known to thofe who
manufadture this muriat, that if any metallic oxyd be pre-
fent when this falt is fublimed, the oxyd rifes with it, form-
ing a triple falt, Indeed the fubftance, known in medi-
are

ds OA

cine by the name of floria martialis, is formed in this
way, and is a triple muriat of iron and ammonia.

The great utility of this falt in the foldering of metals,
therefore, confifts in carrying off the oxyd from the furface,
at the time it fublimes.

Rofin and fat fubftances ufed in folderings give great
fluidity and brightnefs to the folder, and clear the furtaces
to be united, by their carbon and hydrogen taking the
oxygen which may be prefent. ;

The flux employed for foldering iron, brafs, and copper,
are generally horax, (fub-borat ot foda.) After the folder
and the turfaces are once made clean, this borax atts, by
preventing oxydation, till the folder fufes, and unites the
two furfaces,

That this is the true explanation of the aGtion of a flux,
in foldering, we have abundant proof, in foldering one
noble metal with another. When fine gold is employed for
foldering platina, the gold is obferved at the time of fufion
to aflume a degree of fluidity far fuperior to any folder made
of oxydable metals, although the latter be aflilted with the
bet flux.

In the fufion of thofe metals liable to oxydate, whether
the fufion may be for the purpofe of foldering or cafting,
certain fluxes are found to be indifpenfable. The fluidity
is fo much improved, that in the latter procefs, without a
’ flux, the folder would not be able to run between the fur-
faces to be united, independent of its action in preventing
the oxydation of the furfaces. In the cafting of metals, the
fluidity. would fometimes be fo imperfect, without the
prefence of the flux, that imprefiions taken from the mould
would be exceedingly defetive, and {mall articles, fuch as
needles and fifh hooks, could not be caf at all.

We fhall conclude this article by giving a fhort explana-
tion of the caufe of increafe of fluidity by the agency of
fluxes. :

Although an idea is entertained by chemifts, that there
‘is no medium between that pulverulent ftate called the oxy-
dated and the metallic flates, it will be found that the oxy-
dable metals combine with oxygen when expofed to the
air in a ftate of fufion, without lofing their metallic form.
They however, lofe much of their luftre and fluidity. OF
‘this fa&t we have a ftriking proof in filver, which in the
at of refining has been long expofed to a current of oxygen
for the purpofe of freeing it from the bafer metals. At
the time:the filver affumes the folid form, the oxygen is
given out in the form of gas. Mr. Lucas, a refiner of Shief-
tield, by throwing the liquid filver into water, collected an
abundance of pure oxygen gas.

The partial lofs of luttre and fluidity from the combined
oxygen, is{oon very apparent in melted zinc, both of which
may. be completely reftored, by treating it in a clofe veffel
with charcoal powder. All the oxydable metals are more
or lefs fufceptiblé of this change, proportionate to their
affinity for that {ubftance.

From what has been obferved we may infer, that it is
highly injudicious to expofe much of the melted furface of
metals to the air. Hence the iron ladles ufed for the fufible
metals, as well as crucibles, ought to be as narrow as pofli-
ble at the top, at the fame time that fame fubitance fhould
be employed, which will either prevent the oxydation, or
reduce the oxyd as it is formed.

Fruxes, in the Manufadure of Glafs, are red-lead,
pearl-afhes, nitre, fea-falt, borax, arfenic, the fcoriz of
forges, commonly called clinkers, and wood-afhes, See
Guass.

FLUXION, was a term, in Surgery, much employed
by the ancient writers and practitioners to fignify the motion

BL

by which, according to theories now exploded, the hu-
mours were {pontaneoufly determined, with a certain velo-
city, towards any particular part of the body, fo as to oc-
cafion there a tumour, -attended with heat. When the
humours were depofited in a flower and more gradual way,
the old medical writers ufed to fay, that the tumour was
produced by congejlion.

Fiuxion, in the Newsonian Analyfis, denotes the velo-
city with which a flowing quantity is increafed by its gene-
rative motion: by which it ftands contradiftinguifhed from
fluent or the flowing quantity, which is gradually, and
indefinitely increafing, after the manner of a {pace which a
body in motion defcribes,

Or, a fluxion may be more accurately defined, as the
magnitude by which any flowing quantity would be uni-
formly increafed in a given portion of time, with the gene-
rating celerity at any propofed pofition, or inflant, fuppof-
ing it from thence to continue invariable.

Thus, if the point m move from A, and generate the
right line Ava, (Plate VIL. Analy/is, fig. 1.) andthe celerity at
R be fuch as would be fufficient, {uppofing it to continue
uniform from that point, to deferibe the line Rr in the
given time ; then Rr reprefents the fluxion of the variable
line A m in that potition. The re&tangle A'S, fig.2. may be
conceived to be generated by the parallel motion of the
invariable line ma between A F and BG; and fince Rr is
the fluxion of A m, the reGtangle Rs S will be the fpace
which would be uniformly defcribed by ma, whilft A m
would be uniformly increafed by mr, and it is, therefore,
the fluxion of the generated rectangle ABS R. Farther,
if the curvilineal {pace Amn, jig. 3. be generated by the
parallel motion of mn, confidered as variable, and Rr be
the fluxion of Am, the rectangle R rs S would be uni-
formly generated with the celerity, with which it begins
to be generated, and with which the fpace A mn is in-
creafed in the pofition Rs, when the length and velocity
of m nare fuppofed to continue invariable from that pofition,
and, therefore, agreeably to the definition, will be the
fluxion of the generated fpace A mn.

From this definition it appears, that the fluxions of quan-
tities are, always, as the celerities by which the quantities
themfelves increafe in magnitude. ,

Mr. Simpfon obferves, that there is an advantage in con-
fidering fluxions, not as mere velocities, but as the magni-
tudes which thefe velocities would, uniformly, generate in
a given finite time : the imagination is not here confined to
a fingle point, aud the higher order of fluxions are rendered
much more eafy and intelligible. And though fir Ifaac
Newton defines fluxions to be the velocities of motions,
yet he hath recourfe to the increments or moments gene-
rated in equal particles of time, in order to determine thofe
velocities, which he afterwards teaches us to expound by
finite magnitudes of other kinds, Simpfon’s Fluxions, yel.1.
pref. p.6. and p.2, &c.

Fiuxions, Method of, is the arithmetic and analyfis of

fluxions and fluents, or flowing quantities.
’ Foreigners ufually define the method of fluxions as the
arithmetic, or analyfis, of infinitely, or rather indefinitely,
{mall variable quantities; or the method of finding an in-
finitefimal, or infinitely fmall quantity, which, being taken
an infinite number of times, becomes equal to a given
quantity.

Sir I. Newton, and after him, the Englifh authors, call
thefe infinitely {mall quantities moments; confidering them
as the momentary increments, or decrements, of variable
quantities, ¢. gr. of a line confidered as generated by the

flux

a]

FLUXIONS.

flux of a point, or of a furface generated by the flux of a
line.

Accordingly, the variable quantities are called fluent, or
flowing quantities ; and the method of finding either the
fluxion, or the fuent, the method of fluxions.

M. Leibnitz confiders the fame infinitely {mall quantities
as the differences, or differentials, of two quantities; and
calls the method of finding thofe differences the differential
calculus. (See Carcutus.) Each of thefe ways of con-
fidering and denominating, has its advantages, which the
retainers to this or that method flrenuoufly affert.

Flowing quantities, i.e. fuch as, in the genefis of figures
by local motion are continually increafing and diminifhing,
are certainly very properly denominated fluents: and as all
figures may be conceived as fo generated, the infinitely
{mall increments or decrements of {uch quantities are very
naturally denominated fluxions.

Befide this difference in the name, there is another in
the notation.

Sir I. Newton expreffes the fluxion of a quantity, as x,
by a dot placed over it, as x; and M. Leibnitz exprefles
his differential of the fame x, by prefixing ad, as dx;
each of which methods of notation has lkewife its ad-
vantage.

' Setting afide thefe circumfiances, the two methods are
the fame.

The method of fluxions is one of the greateft, moft fub-
tle, and fublime difcoveries of this, or, perhaps, of any
age: it opens a new world to us, and extends our know-
ledge, as it were, to infinity; it carries us beyond the
bounds that feemed to have been prefcribed to the human
mind, at leait infinitely beyond thofe to which the ancient
geometry was confined.

The hiftory of this important difcovery, as frefh as it is,
is a little dark and embroiled. Two of the greateft men of
this age do both of them claim the invention, fir I. Newtos,
and M. Leibnitz ; and nothing can be more glorious for the
method: itfelf, than the zeal wherewith the partifans of
either fide have afferted their refpeétive title.

To give the reader a juft view of this noble difpute, and
of the preterfions of each party, we fhall lay before him the
origin of the difcovery, and mark where each claim com-
menced, and how it was fupported.

The firft time the method made its appearance in public,
was in 1684, when M. Leibnitz gave the rules thereof in
the Leipfic Ags of that year; but the demonttrations he
kept to himfelf. The two brothers, the Bernouillis, were
prefently ftruck with it, and found out the demonttrations,
though very difficult ; and practifed the calculus with fur-
prifing fuccefs.

However, M. Leibnitz began to propofe his differential
method in aletter, dated 21 Jun. 1677, in which he exadly

urfues Dr. Barvrow’s method of tangents, publifhed in
Pp o » Pp

1670, and fir I. Newton communicated his method cf.

drawing tangents to Mr. Collins, in a letter dated-io Dec.
£672: which letter, together with avother dated 13 June,
1676, were fent to M. Leibnitz by Mr. Oldenburgh,, ia
1676. So that there is a tlrone prefumption that he n ialit
avail himfelf of the infermation contained in thefe letters,
and other papers tranfmitted with them, and alfoin 16; :
before the publication of his own letter, containing the {irl
hint of his differential method. it fulficiently appears,
‘that fir I. Newton had invented |

method before the year
1669, and that he aQually made ule of it in his Comp:
dium of Analyfis and Quadrature of Curves before that
time. Hie attention feems to have been dire@ed this wav,
eyen before the plague which happened in London in 1

VouoXIV,
*

and 1666, when he was about twenty-three years of age:
and, therefore, there is no foundation for the hint fug-
gefted by the authors of the Encyclopedie Art. Differen-
#elle, that fir Ifaac borrowed the differential method from
Dr. Barrow.

This is all we hear of it, till the year 1687, when fir
Ifaac Newton’s admirable Principia came forth, which is
almoft wholly founded on the fame calculus.

The common opinion, at that time, was, that fir Ifaac,
and M. Leibnitz, had each invented it about the fame time :
and what corficmed it was, that neither of them made any
mention of the other ; and that, though they agreed in the
fubftance of the thing, yet they differed in their ways of
conceiving ; called it by different names, and ufed different
charaGters.

In effect, M. Leibnitz’s charaCter was fuppofed, by fo-
reigners, to be fomewhat more commodious than that of
fir Ifaac Newton: accordingly, the method foon f{preading
itfelf, throughout Europe, M. Leibnitz’s charaéter went
with it ; by which means the geometricians were infenfibly
accuftomed to look on him as the fole, or principal in-
ventor.

The two great authors themfelves, without any feeming
concern, or difpute, as to the property of the invention,
enjoyed the glorious profpect of the progreffes continually
making under their aulpices, till the year 1699, when the
peace began to be difturbed.

M. Fatio, ina treatife «Of the Line of fiwwifteft D>-
f{cent,’? declared, that he was obliged to own fir Ifaac New-
ton as the firit inventor of the differential calculus, and the
fir by many years; and that he left the world to judge
whether M, Leibnitz, the fecond mventor, had taken any
thing from him. This precife diftin€tion between firit and
fecond inventor, with the fufpicion it infinuated, raifed a
controverfy between M. Leibnitz, fupported by the editors
of the Leipfic Ads, and the Englifh geometricians, who
declared for fir Ifaac Newton. Sir Ifaac himfelf never ap-
peared on the fcene; his glory was become that of the ra-
tion ; and his adherents, warm ia the caufe of their country,
needed not him to aaimate them.

Writings fucceeded cach other but flowly on either fide ;
probably on account of the diftance of places; but the
coutroverfy grew {till hotter and hotter; till, at length, it
came to fuch pafs, that in the year 1711, M. Leibnitz com-
plained to the Royal Society, that Dr. Keill had accufed
him of publifhing the method of fluxions invented by fir
\faac Newton, under other names and chara@ers. He
infifted, that nobody knew better than fir Ilaac himfelf, that
he had fiolen nothing from him; and reqnired, that Dr.
Keill fhould publicly difavow the ill conitru@ion which
night be put on his words,

The fociety, here appealed to asa judge, appointed a
committee to examine all the old letters, papers, &c. that
had pafied among the f thematicians relati
the port; and, after a all the

that could be procured, gave in their report t

pole: * Phat M. Leibnitz was in Londen in 1672, and
kept a correfpondence with Mr. Collins by means of Mr
Oldenburgh, tll Sept. 1676, when he returned from Paris
to Lanever, by way of London and Amfterdam: that
did not appear that M. Leibnitz knew any thing of the dif-
ferential calculus before his letter of the 21 June, 2677,
hich was a. year after a y of a letter, wrote by fir I,
Newton, in the year 1672, had been { to Paris to be com-
municated to him, and above four years after Mr, Collins be-
tanto communicate that fetter to hiscorrefpondents: wv
method of Auxions was fufix lently ex; laincd, to let amar

, {

FLUXTYTON'S:

of his fagacity into the whole matter: and that fir I. New-
on had even invented his method before the year 1669, and,
of confequence, fifteen years before M. Leibnitz had given
any thing on the fubje¢t in the Leipfic Acts.” And thence
they concluded, that Dr. Keill had not at all injured M.
Leibnitz in what he had faid.

The fociety printed this cenfure of theirs, together with
all the pieces and materials relating thereto, under the title
of Commercium Epiltolicum de Analyfi Promota,”
Lond. 1712. This book was carefully diftributed through
Europe, to vindicate the title of the Englifh nation to the
difcovery ; for fir Ifaac, as already hinted, never appeared
in it: whether it were that he trufted his honour with his
compatriots, who were zealous enough in the caufe; or
whether it were that he was even fuperior to the glory
thereof.

M. Leibnitz and his friends, however, could not fhew the
fame indifference: he was accufed of a theft ; and the whole
Commercium Epiftolicum either expreffes it in terms, or in-
finuates it. Soon after its publication, a loofe fheet was
printed, at Paris, in behalf of M. Leibnitz, then at Vienna.
It is written with great zeal and fpirit; and maintains,
boldly, that the method of fluxions had not preceded that
of differences: and even infinuates, that it might have
arifen from it. The detail of the proofs, on each fide,
would be too long, and could not be underftood without a
large comment, which mult enter into the deepelt geo-
metry.

M. Leibnitz had begun to work upon a Commercium
Epiftolicum, in oppofition to that of the Royal Society ;
but he died before it was completed.

A fecond edition of the Commercium Epiftolicum was
printed at London in 1722; where fir Ifaac Newton, in the
preface, account, and annotations, which were added to
that edition, particularly anfwered all the objections which
M. Leibnitz and M. Bernouilli were able to make fince the
Commercium firft appeared im 1712. See alfo Raphfon’s
Hift. Fluxion. From the laft edition of the Commercium,
and the various original papers contained in it, it evidently
appears that fir Lfaac Newton had difcovered his method of
fluxions many years before M. Leibnitz’s pretenfions.

It muit be owned, that there are ftrong prefumptions in
favour of M. Leibnitz; prefumptions, we mean, that he
was no plagiary: for that fir Ifaac Newton was the firtt
inventor, is paft all difpute; his glory is fecure; the rea-
fonable part, even among the foreigners, allow it: and
the queftion is only, whether M. Leibnitz took it from
him, or fell upon the fame thing with him; for, in his
«« Theory of Abitraét Notions,’? which he dedicated to the
Royal Academy, 167:, before he had {een any thing of fir
Ifaac Newton’s, he already fuppofed infinitely {mall quan-
tities, fome greater thanothers; which is one of the great
principles of the fyftem.

The do&rine confifts ef two parts, viz. the Dired me-
thod of fluxions, called alfo Calculus differentialis ; and
the fnverfe method of jluxions, or Calculus intezralis.

The latter is directly oppofite to the former, and isa fequel
of it: beth of them are adopted into the new geometry, and
make reigning methods therein.

The firft: dsfcends from finite, to infinite; the latter af-
cends from infinitely fmall, to finite : the one de-compounds
aimagnitude; the other re-eftablifhes it.

The foundation of the dire& method of flsxions amounts
to this problem: the length of the {pace defcribed ‘being
continually (that is, at all times) given, to find the velocity
at any time propofed.

Phe foundation of the inverfe method of fluxions amounts

to this problem; the velocity of the motion being con-
tinually given, to find tue {pace defcribed by it at any time
propofed. -

Dire method of fluxions—All finite magnitudes are
here conceived to be refolved into infinitely fmall ones, fup-
pofed to be generated by motion, as a line by the motion
of a point, a fuperficies by a line, anda folid by a fuperficies ;
and they are the elements, moments, or differences thereof.

The art of finding thefe infinitely {mall quantities, or the
velocities by which they are generated, and of working on
them, and difcovering other infinite quantities, by their
meaus, makes the dire&t method of fluxions.

What renders the knowledge of infinitely {mall quantities
of fuch fignal ufe and extent is, that they have relations to
each other, which the finite magnitudes, whereof they are
the infinitefimals, have not.

Thus, e.g. in acurve, of any kind whatever, the infinitely
fmall differences of the ordinate and abfcifs have the ratio
to each other, not of the ordinate and abfcifs, but of the
ordinate and fubtangent; and, of confequence, the abfcifs
aud ordinate alone being known, give the fubtangeut un-
known; or, which amounts to the fame, the tangent itfelf.
See the Jnverfe method of fluxions.

The method of notation in fluxions, introduced by the in-
ventor, fir 1. Newton, is thus:

The variable, or flowing quantity, to be uniformly aug-
mented, as fuppofe the abfciis of a curve, he denotes by
the final letters v, x, y, z, and their fluxions by the fame

letters with dots placed over them, thus,vx yz. And
the initial letters a, 4, c,d, &c. are ufed to expiels invariable
quantities.

Again, if the fluxions themfelves are alfo variable quan«
tities; and are continually increafing, or decreafing, he
confiders the velocities with which they increafe, or de-
creafe, as the fluxions of the former fluxions or fecond
fluxions ; which are denoted by two dots over them, thus,
After the fame manner one may confider the augments,
and diminations of thefe, as their fluxions, alfo ; and thus
proceed to the third, fourth, fifth, &c. fiuxions which
will be noted thus,y xz: yx a: yxa, &. We
may obferve, in general, that the fluxions of all kinds
and orders whatever, are contemporaneous, or fuch as
may be generated together, with their refpective celerities,
in one and the fame time.

Laftly, if the flowing quantity be a furd, as | /a—b;

eee x
its fluxion\~ g —3; if a fra&tion F a he

he notes

notes it, ei Vide Wallis’s Algebra, p. 392, apud
=
Oper. vs). 11. See Fruent.

The chief feope and bufinefs of fluxions is, from the
flowing quantity given, to find the fluxion; for this we
fhall lay down one general rule, as ftated by Dr. Wallis,
and afterwards apply and exemplify it in the feveral cafes.

“Multiply each term of the equation feparately by the”

feveral indices of the powers of all the flowing quantities
contained in that term; and in each multiplication change
one root or letter of the power into its proper fluxion :
the aggrecate of all the produéts conneéted together by
their proper figns, will be the fluxion of the equation
defired.”’

The application of this rule will be contained in the
following

%

FLUXIONS.

following cafes. 1. To exprefs the fluxions of fimple
variable quantities, as already mentioned, you need only
put the letter, or letters, which exprefs them, with a dot

“over them: thus, the fluxion of x is x, and the fluxion

ofyis j, and the fluxion ofx + y+u+z, ise ty+v

the Ry &e.

Note, For the flusion of permanent quantities, when
any fuch are in the equation, you muft imagine 0, or a
cypher; for fuch quautities can have no fluxion, properly

‘peaking, becaufe they are without motion, or invariable.

_ Again, the flusion of a quantity, which decreafes, inftead
of increaiing, is to be confidered as negative.

2. Io find the fluxions of the produdés of two or more
variable or flowing quantities. — Multiply the fluxion of
each fimple quanticy- by tke factors of the products, or the
produ@ of all the reit; ard conneé the lait products by

’ their proper figns; then the fum, or aggregate, is the

‘fluxion fought.

Thus, the fluxion of yy, isxy +xj7. For let tworight
lines, D E and F G, move parallel to themfelves from two
otker right tines, BA and BC, (Plate VII. Analyfis, fig.
4.) and generate the reCtangle DF. Let them always
interfe& each other in the curve BHR, and let D d(x)
and F f (j) be the fluxions of the fides BD (x) and
BF (y)$ and draw dm and /x parallel to D H and FH.
The fluxion of the area BD H (fee the beginning of this
article) is Dm or y x, and that of the area BF H is Fn
or xj, and therefore the fluxion of the whole reétangle
EF=xy=BDH+ BFG will be xy + xy. The
fluxion of pzuisyzu+ysut+ yuu; for ifxbe put =
z u, theny zu willbe = yx, and its fuxion = y x + x jt
but x being = zu, and x= 2z2u+uz, yx + xj, by
fobftitution, will be =jzu+yuz+yx2u. And the
fluxion ofxuyz,isxuyz+xujyz2+xriyrtiuys;
and the fluxion ofa + x x 6—y (the common produ being
ab + bx—ya—xy) will be bx—ja—xy—x}.

43. To find the fluxion of a fraéion.—Multiply the
fluxion of the numerator by the denominator, and from
this produ& fubtraé the fluxion of the denominator drawn
into the numerator; this will be the numerator, and the
{quare of the denominator will be the denominator of the
fraction expreffing the fluxion of the given fraction.

Thus, the fluxion of zt is aati.

For fappofe — =z, then willx=yx, which equal

quantities muft have equal fluxions; therefore += j z + &y

x—2

and + —2 j= 2y; and dividing all by y, ae
as oe xy - ‘ os ‘
(becaufe == x) ——* Sede Mert) (acs iat Pah
J J a) ay

>

wherefore this laft is the fluxion of the fra@ion—-= ¢ ;
A

becaufe x being = a & will be equal to the fluxion

~Ofew:t.

.
_

xa
Tee for the permanent
x

And the fluxion of * will be
. my

quantity a having no fluxion, there can be no produ& of
the fluxion of the numerator into the denominator, as there
would have been, had a been x, z, or any other variable
quantity.

_”

4. To find the fluxion of a power.—Multiply the fluxion
of the root by the exponent of the power, and the produé
by that’ power of the fame root, whofe exponent is lefs by
unit than the given exponent ; and likewife by the invariable
quantity and co-efficient, if there be any.

Thus, the flusion of x x willbe 2 xx; forxx = x x x3
but the fluxion of x x x = xx + x x =2xx, && andthe
fluxion of x} will be 3 x x x. That of x* willbe 8 x’ z, &c.
that of 5 x’ will be 25 xix; that of 3a x*+will be 124
onto

Or, if mexprefs the index of any power, as fuppofe x”;
its fluxion will be mx™~'x. P

If the power be produced from a binomial, &c. as
fuppofe x + y)’,orx «+ 2xy +yy, its fuxion will be
2Xxe+)XxXf 5,012 4% -2xzpe2zyt+zyy-
If the exponent be negative, as fuppofe x — ” or = its

xa

fluxion will be — m 4x77".

: ; : A) oe mx
Or, if you would do it by way of fraction, ~
a

(for! the fquare.of x” is 2°”) = —mx™ —7'> 7?" F= —

mx” ™~'x as before; =, removing x-”~' to the deno-
mM x

7d

minator, by changing the fign of the exponent, ——s
=
If the power be imperfeGt, i. ¢. if its exponent be a
-) f. tome . a 774
fraStion, as fuppofe Vx™, or in the other notation x — 5
4
m
fuppofe x —
n

the power of a, it will ftand thus, x" = 2": the fluxion of
which will be, by this general rule, mx™-'%=n2"—' =.

=2: then if you_raife up each member to

m-t
i, Pa mx x Ae
Wherefore z will be = ———— (by dividing both parts
nz
m x a” 2 m m-=~t n Gs
- ant +s ms fe ow
by 2 ) and Bigtete lt) BAe Te AI BOE AY.
a Ra anges mn—m
x™-™; putting, inftead of z*~', its value x 5 and
; wr 6 5°
the above expreffion will become Sees. poet eae Sid x
n mnui—m Rn
Py shes eE
n
gm mnt mm sy mn—n—mntm ro
: = iE aS alee a
n n n n
m—n 778) % — a .
i va™-". Or, more briefly, according to

< — Mus. m
the rule, the fluxion of */x" or x — will be—x % x
n n
m m.m—n
x —— I => —xx —-, &c.
n n n

5. To find the fluxions of furd quantities.—Suppofe it
required to find the fluxion of 2 rx —*x,or2 rx—axa)>

Suppofe 27x —xx) d=2;thenis2rvy—xx=e2;
and confequently rz —x i= 223 and by divifion,
rx—xx : al % o :

&= (by fub{itution) ———_ ~~ =to the

z
fluxion of 4/2 rx—x-x.
Or, by the preceding rule, the fluxion of 2rx—xx) 4,

willbe 3 x 2rx—2xx% X 2rx—xxl''=riexsy
rx—xex
2rx—xx|—f= %. See Power.
2rx—xx)
4U2 If

FLUXIONS.

If it be required to find the fluxion ef a y — x x \3 ; for

ay—xx \3 put z;thenay—xx= 2}, anda jy —2%*

= 127%; and multiplying by 3, gay—6xi=xz mit
and, confequently, 3424) — Oziagux ne = 35 equal
(fubftituting a y — x nV = 24) 3a3y*s — 6 ax yy
4 3axt3 —6a xx +12 ayxix— 6 x° x =-to the
fluxion of ay — x x\t ‘

6. To find the fluxion of quantities compounded of rational

ae ee

caxtea =p,andVxx + aa =. Then the given

quantity is pg = %5 and the fluxion thereof is pg + 9p
x

=: but g is = Vv xx + aa; and ? jis = 2hbxx+

cax; therefore, in the equation p q + gp = x, if in the

place of f, 9, p) gy we reltore the quantities they reprefent,

x? a ax x x i

we fhall have, b xP eganed 60 Rete 4 ar Bue
4x + aa

x VR? + eee ca niX Mist + at = Which being

5 ie : : =
reduced to one denomination, gives 36x’ + 2acm

Vwx + aa
the given quantity.
7. To find the fluxion of a logarithm —The fluxion of the
hyperbolic logarithm of any quantity is equal to the fluxion
of that quantity divided by the quantity itfelf: e. gr. the

fluxion of the hyperbolic logarithm of » is = =: for let

x

L Q, Plate VII. Analy/is, fig. 5. be aa hyperbola, whofe
afymptotes are O R and OS, and whofe parameter is A L =
AO = 1: draw an ordinate P M parallel to A L, and the
{pace A PM L will be the hyperbolic logarithm of the
line O P; and, therefore, the fluxion of the fpace A P ML
will be equal to the fluxion of the hyperbolic logarithm of
the line O P. But the fluxion of this {pace, O P being = x,
and PM = y, is=y x, and OP: AO:: LA: MP
the nature of the curve; f#eoxiri:1: y ues

he

by

~

therefore y # Then, from the nature of logarithms,
the hyperbolic logarithm of 10 (viz. 2.30258, &c.) is to
the common logarithm of 10 (viz. 1) as the hyperbolic
logarithm of any number x to the common logarithm of the
fame number x; 1.c. L being made = 2.30258, &c. L:
1:: the hyperbolie logarithm of x : common logarithm of
x; and therefore L:1:: the fluxion of the hyperbolic
logarithm of x : the fluxion of the common logarithm of x :

NE Uae

— :+—, which is the fluxion of the com-

De ola pe

; I
mon logarithm of x; or becaufe —- = 0:43420, &c. the

i.e.

modulus of the Brigean or common form of logarithms, if
r : :

— be = M, the fluxion of the common. logarithm @f x
iL

Lx

hyperbolic logarithm of any number multiplied by M or
X

(viz. ) wall Gets a M,; or, the fluxion of the
x

0.43429, &c. is = the fluxion of the common logarithm
of the faid number.

8. To jind the fluxion of an exponential or percurrent guan-
tity, i.e. of a quantity having a variable exponent as y*.
Suppofe y* = w; then by the properties of logarithms, x
x log. y = log. u. And finding the fluxions of thefe

terms, x x log. y + —2 x x , es

va M being as in
the preceding article: confequently, the fluxion of y* or

fi Bid gilda Bait As yore

w= ® loge 9 7 Mm Xx OX loge y +
xy*—'$. Hence, if y be conftant, then y = 0, and u
=i * y" x log. y. Ifx be conftant, * = 0, andu =

x »
9: Lo find the fluxion of a rectangle, when one Side x in-
creafes, and the other y deerea/es.—In this cafe the fluxion
of the decreafing quantity is negative with refpe& to that of
the increafing quantity (fee the beginning of this article),
and therefore the fign of the term affected with it ought
to be changed; ec. gr. the fluxion of the re€tangle xy in
thefe circumftances will be exprefled by + y — x 5.

10. To find the fecond, third, Sc. fluxion of a flowing
quantity.—TVhefe fluxions differ in nothing, except their
order and notation, from firft fluxions, being aétually fuch
to the quantities from which they are immediately derived ;
and therefore they may be found, in the fame manner, by
the general rules already delivered.

Thus, by the 4th rule, the firft fluxion of x? is 3 x7 2;
and if x be fuppofed conftant, or if the root x be generated
with an equable celerity, the fluxion of 3 x* x, or 3.x x x’,
will be 3 + X 2% = 6x x", which is the fecond fluxion
of x?; and 6 x? will be its third fluxion: but if the celerity
with which « is generated be variable, either increafing or
decreafing, then x, being variable, will have its fluxion
denoted by #, &c. In this cafe, the fluxion of 3x7 x z
will be, by the 2d and 4th rules, 6%% x ¥ + 3x7 x #
= 6x xX + 3x74, the fecond fluxion of x3. And the
third fluxion of x‘, obtained in like manner from the laf,
will be 6% xX <7 + 6x X 24% + 6xX XX 43x78
= 6x +538 x8 + 3x78. Thusalfo, if » = nx"-'x,
then ¥ =a Xn — 1X x"~2 87-4 no x"-"3 and if =*
=*)j, thn222 = xy +5 X, &e.

Fiuxions, inverse method of, or calculus integralis, con-
fifts in finding: finite magnitudes frora the infinitely fmall
parts thereof, and in determining the variable quantity or
fluent from the velocity with which it fows.at any point or
term afligned, or the given fluxion.

It proceeds, as already obferved, from infinitely {mall
qe to finite ; and recompounds and fums up what
the other has refolved; whence it is alfo called, by fome,
the fummatory calculus.

But what that has decompounded, this does not always
re-eftablith ; fo that the inverfe method is limited and im-
perfect, at leaft hitherto ; if it were once complete, geome-
try would be arrived at its laft perfe@tion.

To give an idea of its nature and office, take the inftance
already propofed in the dire€&t method: in that the infi-
nitely finall quantities of the ordinates and abfcifs, being
known, give the fubtangent required; in this, on the con-
trary, the fubtangent of an unknown curve being had, gives
the infinitely {mall quantities of the abfeifs and ordinate
which produced it, and, of confequence, the abfecifs and
ordinate themfelves ; which are finite magnitudes, in whofe
relation the whole effence of the curve is founded,

But the diftinguifhing ufe of this method is in meafuring.

The
iy

FLUXIONS.

The bafe of a parallelogram multiplied by the infinitely
{mall element of its altitude, gives an infinitely {mall pa-
rallelogram ; which is the element of the finite parallelo-
gram, and is repeated an infinity of times therein, #.¢. 2s
many times as there are points in the height of the parallelo-
ram.

; To have the finite parallelogram, therefore, by means of
its element, the element mutt be multiplied by the altitude ;
which is the inverfe method of @uxions, re-af{cending from
the infinitely {mall quantity to the finite.

Such a circuit of infinitefimals, it is true, would be im-
pertinent, in fo fimple a cafe ; but when we have to do with
furfaces terminated by curves, the me-hod then becomes
neceflary, or at leaft fuperior to any other.

Suppofe, ¢. gr. in a parabola, the {pace included between
two infinitely near ordinates, en infinitely {mall portion of
the axis, and an infinitely little arc of the curve ; it is cer-
tain, this infinitely fmall furface is no parallelogram ; fince
the two parallel ordinates which terminate it on one fide are
not equal; and the arc of the curve, oppofite to the little
portion of the axis, is frequently neither equal nor parallel
thereto ; and yet this furface, which is no parallelogram,
may be confidered, in the ftrifeft geometry, as if it really
were one, becaufe it is infinitely {mall ; and the error, of
confequence, infinitely little, i.e. none.

So that, to meafure it, there needs nothing but to mul-
tiply an ordinate of the parabola by the infinitely {mall por-
tion of the axis correfponding thereto. Thus we have the
element of the whole parabola; which element being raifed,
by the inverfe method, to a finite magnitude, is the whole
furface of the parabola.

This advantage, fo peculiar to the geometry of infinites,
of being able, without any error, to treat little arcs of
curyes as if they were right lines ; curvilinear fpaces, as if
reGtilinear ones, &c. enables it not only to go with more
eafe and readinefs than the ancient geometry te the fame
truths, but to reach a great number of truths which were
inacceflible to the other.

Its operations, in effet, are more eafy, and its difcoveries
more extenfive ; and fimplicity and univerfality are its dif-
tinguifhing characters.

The preceding obfervations are more properly applicable
to the method of infinites and indivifibles than to the New-
tonian method of fluxions, in which magnitudes of various
kinds are capable of increafe, not by a repeated acceffion of
parts, but by a continued motion or flux. See the fequel
of this article.

Fluxion given, to find the flowing quantity belonging to
any.—To have the doétrine of the inverfe method correfpond
and keep pace with that of the direét, we will apply it in
the fame cafes.

1. Inthe general, to exprefs the variable hae ofa
fluxion, there reeds nothing but to write the letters with-
out the dots, or to fubftitute the variable or flowing letter
for its fuxion. Thus, the flowing quantities of x, j, =, are
Jo -

Zs To find the fluent of a compound fluxional expreffion
confifting of the produéts of two or more flowing quan-
tities drawn into their fluxions; or which confifts of the
fluxion of each quantity drawn into the other, or produ&

of the reft of the quantities.

Multiply the flowing quantities together; and the pro-
du& is uent required. LZ. gr. the fluent of ty + x
is =xy; Of xyz + xpstoypris=xye, Ke.

3. To find the fluent ofa fra&tion. The following rule
will ferve in many cafes. Divide the laft term in the nu-
merator by the fuxion of the negative fquare root of the

denominator; then divide this quotient by the affirmative
{quare root of the denominator for the required fluent.

Thus, the fluent of ah Dames “4

—is=-.
¥ J
4. To find the fluent of an expreffion compounded of
different fluxionary terms conneéted together by the figns
+ and —.
Find the feparate fluents of the different terme, and con-
neét them together by the figus of their refpeCtive fuxions.

xy— xy

ist—— as

Thus, the fluent of 2% +2%y +x) —

ys
y

2 J
Gs) fee

5. To find the fowing quantity belonging to the fluxion

of any power, either perfect or imperfect. Take the
fluxionary letter, or letters, out of the equation; then
augment the index of che fluxion by 1, or unity: lalvy,

divide the fuxion by the index of its power fo incrcafed
: y P
by unity.

Thus, fuppofe 3 x x * propofed; by
will be 3x5 and by increafing its ind
be 3x xx; thea dividing it by 3, it
index, the quotient will be «xx; th
required.

S$ nc

Again, the fluent of fle yesh ai ope

m m mM
compound fluxionary expreffions, if the fluxionary part is
equal, or in an invariable ratio to the fluxion of the quantity
under the vinculum, the fluent may be had by adding 1 to the
index of the power, and dividing by the fluxion of the quan-
tity under the vinculum drawn into the index of the power

thusincreafed. £.gr.the fluent of « + x7)? x 3x +6s¢e

wees wl! x SO x oy
——— = * + #7]: the fluent
3X * +2xx
tee"\stt ar
afaREe se, % dicts sis. = a x dz"7 ts
TE i= ee IEG ee, Se ee
PE ee gla
— ——; and the fluent of a™ + ="|" x
Cl ae Sy tees ll |
n ~mia$et
2"—' sig = — Ls :
mxna-—- i!

By thefe methods the fluent is found when the fluxion is
given; and the rules are derived from thofe of the direé&
method; as the rules in divifion and evolution in algebra
are deduced trom thofe of multiplication and involution.
As when a fluent confifts of a variable and invariable part,
the latter does not appear in the fluxion; fo. when any
fluxion is propofed, it is only the variable part of the fluent
that.can be derived from it. 1f + reprefent any fluxion

_that may be propofed, the variable part of the fueat will

be equal to x ; for fuppofing y to be any variable quantity,
if x + y could reprefent the fuent of =, then + + 5 would
be equal to x, and j =e, or y would be invariable, againift
the {uppofition. But fuppefing K to reprefent avy inva-
riable quantity, then x + K may generally reprefent the
fluent of #. [fit be required to find fuch a fluent of % as
fhall vanifh when x is fuppofed to vanith, it can be no other
than. x; and if it be required that the fluent fhould vanith
when x is equal to any given quantity a, then by fup-
pofing x + K\ to vanifh when x becomes equal to a; we
fhall have a -+ K =o, or K = — a; whence the fluent is
In the fame manner, ‘the fluent of — # may be
When a fluxion that is

propofed

x—~ a.
generally reprefented by K — x.

FLUXTONS. n

propofed coincides with any of thofe which were deduced
from their fluents in the preceding articles, the variable
part of the fluent required muft coincide with that which
was there propofed. As divifion in algebra leads us to
fractions, and evolutions to furds; fo the inverfe method
of fuxions leads us often to quantities that are not known
in common algebra, and that cannot be expreffed by com-
monalgebraic fymbols. Maclaurin’s Flux. art. 735.

We cannot here pretend to enter into a detail of the
rules of the inverfe method of fluxions. We fhall only ob-
ferve in general, that a fluxion being propofed, its fluent
may fometimes be found accurately in alzebraic terms ; but
this is far from being always poffible ; and recourfe mutt
fometimes be had to a converging feries. Thus, if nx” ~'
x were propofed, the variable part of the fluent is found
by adding unity to the exponent of the power, dividing
by the exponent thus increafed, and by the fuxion of the
root ; that is, the variable part ef the fluent of x x"~—' x

~an—!I+- tl 4
will be ig a. ete
m—I+iXxXs
fluent requires the addition or fubtration of fome conftant
quantity to render it complete, which can only be known
from the nature of the problem under confideration: e. gr.
the fluent of ‘x ~' x may be either reprefented by x” or
by a” + a, becaufe a being conftant, the fluxion of x" + a,
as well as of x" isax” —'x. To find this invariable quan-
tity that mu{t be added or fubtra&ted, is to corre&t the
fluent. In order to do this, the beft way is to confider how
much the variable part of the fluent, firft found, differs
from the truth, in that particular circumftance when the
required quantity which the whole fluent ought to exprefs,
is equal to nothing 3 then, that difference added to or fub-
tracted from the variable part, as occafion requires, will
give the fluent truly correGted. For, fince the difference of
two quantitics flowing with the fame celerity, or having
equal fluxions, is either nothing at all, or conftantly the
fame, the difference in that circumftance will likewife be
the difference in all other circumftances; and therefore,
being added to the lefler quantity, or fubtraéted from the
greater, both become equal. Let the variable quantities
x and y be tirft fuppofed to begin their exiltence together,
or to be generated at the fame time: e.gr. 1. Let j = a?
2 2 2

Ge. er ax
3; hy =a,

But in many cafes. this

xx, the fluent will be — vanifhes,

becaufe x is alfo = 0, and the fluent needs no correction,

a+x)!

2. Let } = a@ + x\3 x %5 and y will be equal

a+ xlt

a’
—— becomes= —;

;
but when y = o and x =o, and,

; 4 ’
therefore, ae always exceeds y by “, and the fluent
4

@+ xi*'— at

properly correéted will be y = — qr mr ax +

4
+ax + *_. Bur this fluent may be found with-

3a x

out correction, by expanding a + x°)in the original equa-

tion, which will become» = a3%+ 3a 4% 4+ 342° x +

Sia ocr
2

x? x, whence y = a? x +

3 xt 5
tax + z 3. Let 5

7 alt
a? — xt

pial RT 3 /
sca’ — x°|? x xz; theay = — , and y being

='9;

a’
becomes = — —; therefore —
3

3
is too little by 3 and the fluent corre€ted will be y=

pieces

In the folution of ether problems, the value of y will be
equal to nothing, when that of « is equal to any given

‘ x : : bee
quantity a. 2. gr. Let j= &, and pis = zee

ne

y=0,—i8 = s by fuppofition; therefore the correéted

x

fluent will be y = as Let += = x" a, then y= —

nett qQitt aytts
» which corrected becomes y = -———, ke. But

(Jae oe | ; n+.

if the propofed fluxion” were

45 yy we cannot find
a—x

its fluent by the rule above given; however, we may throw
the fluxion into an infinite feries (fee Series) by dividing a .
by a—x in the ufual method, and we fhall tind the quoticut

a x x? x3 ax a
or =1+—-+—+—, &c.. Hence =s4+
a—x a an aw ax
Be TREES ns
ea fr ra = - +, &c. Now the fluent of each term
a a a
of this feries may be found by the foregoing rule; and

ax

therefore the fluent of will be expreiied by the fe-

x3

3a’
determining the fluent when x is very fmall in refpect of
a; becaufe in that cafe, a few terms at the begiiming of
the feries will be nearly equal to the value of the whole.
But it often happens that the feries deduced in this me-
thod converges fo flowly, as to be of little or no ufe.
Or, becaufe the fluxion of the hyperbolic logarithm of
any quantity is equal to the fluxion of that quantity di-
x

ries x + sf = + ag &c. which may be of ufe for
2a 4@. an

will be =

vided by the quantity itfelf, the fluent of a
x x hyp. log. of a—x. For the fluxion of a—x is—z,
See Maclaurin’s Tr. of

a-x

Fluxions, art. 737. 744. 827. Stirling, De Summat.
Serier. p. 28. and Simpfon’s Fluxions, vol. i. p. 87. &a.

Mathematicians do not always immediately recur to in-
finite feries, when it does not appear that a fluent can
be afligned in a finite number of algebraic terms. The
ares of a circle, and hyperbolic areas or logarithms can-
not be afligned in algebraic terms, but have been com-
puted with great exa¢tnefs by feveral methods. By thefe
with algebraic quantities, any fesments of conic feétions,
and the arcs of a parabola, are eafily meafured ; and when
a fluent can be afligned by them, this is confidered as the
fecond degree of refolution, When it does not appear that
a fluent can be meafured by the areas of conic EDions, it
may however be meafured in fome cafes by their ares, and
this may be confidered as the third degree of refolution. If it

which divided by a—x is

does not appear that a fluent can be affigned are of
any conic feétions (the circle included), it ma ever be
of fome ufe to affign the fluent by an area or arc of fome

other figure, that is eafily conftruéted or defcribed; and it
3 is

FLUXIONS.

is often important, that the propofed fluxion be reduced to
a proper form, in order that the feries for the fluent may not
be too complex, and that it may not converge at too flow a
rate.

We may, therefore, conftitute three orders or claffes of
fluents. Firft, fuch as can be accurately affigned in finite
terms by common algebraic expreffions. Secondly, thofe
which can be reduced to circular ares and logarithms.
Thirdly, fuch as can be affigned by hyperbolic or elliptic
arcs. The firft two clafles (confidering triangles and cir-
eles as conic fections) may therefore be meafured by the
areas of conic feétions; and the third clafs by their pe-
rimeters, or lines that bound them.

The Tiga a is of the firft clafs; that of

Vitex
— z ——, or of — of the fecond; but the
Vx xX VI+% Ig oe
XS x “3 x
fluents of = Sap a —1, and
lLaxwax Vv x xX VItExK T= xa} *
Ey

3 are of the third clafs, and as far as has ap-
I ae xa] *

peared hitherto, cannot be reduced to the former. See
Maclaurin’s Flux. book ii, chap. ii. art. 755. 798, &c.

x

It is to be obferved, as to the fluent of

xX i baxx

= F
=— 3, that it does not appear poflible to re-
ite2s if
refent them by any hyperbolic and algebraic quantities.
Ba by afluming an elliptic arc likewife, they may be con-
ftruéte?. See Maclaurin, lib. cit. art. 802.

er of

x

VRE zez— Bz

Solikewifeto reprefent the fluent of ——
fe 3K

or of

= S| we mult have recourfe to both
V ab +2 aep*— pt
the hyperbolic and elliptic ares. Maclaurin, lib. cit. art 805.
rn

2— —1z

The fluent of 4+ is affignable by the ares of conic
Mel -fss"
feGtions, when r is an integer number; that is, by right
lines, when r is equal to four, or to any multiple of 4; by
circular and parabolic arcs (reducible to logarithms) with
right lines, when ris any other even number; by ares of
van equilateral hyperbola with right lines, when + is any
‘number of the feries 3, 7, 11, 15, &c. and by ares of the
fame hyperbola and right lines, with ares of an ellipfis,
that has its excentricity equel to the fecond axis, when 7 is
any of the numbers 1; 5, 9; 13, &c. See Maclaurin, ibid.
art. 809. See Fuuent and) Funcrions
We prefume, upon the whole, that few will be fo feru-
ulous as to deny the Newtonian dodtrine of fluxions to
intelligible; and accurately demonitrated. But on the
other hand it mult be confefled, that the introduction of
the notions of motion and velocity, which are mechani-
cal, feems not’ to have thrown any light on this part of
geometry. The confideration of the limiting atios of
variable quantities, and that of the limiting polygons of
curves, xs it requires no other knowledge but what de-
pends.on the common properties of number and magni-
tude, fo it feems, in all refpects, the moit clear and un-
exceptionable manner of confidering the fubje&ts treated

of in the higher geometry. An eminent mathematician
feems to declare him{clf of this opinion, when he fays,
that quadrature by limiting polygons is one of that kind
which requires no other knowledge but what depends on
the common properties of number and magnitude; and
fo may ferve as an inftance to fhew, that no other is re-
quifite for the ,eftablifhment of principles for arithmetic
and geometry; a truth which, though certain in itfelf,
may perhaps feem doubtful from the nature and tendency
of the prefent inquiries in mathematics. For among the
moderns fone have thought it neceflary, for the inveftiga-
tion of the relations of quantities, to have recourfe to very
hard hypothefes ; fuch as that of numbers infinite and in-
determinate; and that of magnitudes in (atu fieri, exifting
in a potential manner, which are actually of no bignefs.
And others, whofe names are truly to be reverenced, on ac-
count of their great and fingular inventions, have thought
it requifite to have recourfe even to principles foreign to ma-
thematics, and have introduced the confideration of efficient
caufes and phytical powers, for the produ¢tion of mathema-

. tical quantities ; and have {poken of them, and ufed them,

as if they were a {pecies of quantities by themfelves.
Machin, in Phil. ‘Pranf. N° 447.

The elements of the do&rine of fluxions have been deli-
vered by its great author in fo concife a manner, as to give
occafion to one of the molt ingenions writers of the laft age
to reprefent it as founded on inconceivable principles, and
full of falfe reafonings. This author in a letter, under the
title of the “ Analyt,” publithed in the year 1734, has been
at — pains to convince his readers that the objeéts, prin-
ciples, and inferences of the modern analyfis by flusions, are
not more diitin€tly conceived, or more evidently deduced,
than religious mytteries and points of faith. He fays he
does not controvert the truth of the conclufions, but only
the logic and method of mathematicians. He afks how they
demonftrate, what obje&s they are converfant with, and whe--
ther they conceive them clearly ; what principles they pro-
ceed upon, how found they may be, ard how they apply
them ; declaring himfelf not concerned about the truth of
the theorems, but only about the way of coming at them,
whether it be legitimate or illegitimate, clear or ob{cure,
fcientific or tentative. He confiders the conclufions not in
themfelves, but in their premifes ; not as true or falfe, ufeful
or infignificant, but as derived from fuch principles, and by
fuch inferences. And for as much as it may feem a» unac-
countable paradox, that mathematicians fhould deduce true
propofitions from falfe principles, be right in the conclufion,
and yet err in the premifes, he endeavours particularly to ex-
plain how this may come to pafs, and fhew how error may
bring forth truth, though it cannot bring forth f{cience.
His folution of the paradox is, that in the application of the
method of infinitefimals and fluxions, two errors are com-
mitted, which being equal and contrary, deftroy each other.
We cannot enter into a detail of all he fays on thefe and
many other heads, nor of all that: has been faid on the other
fide, in defence of the method of fluxions, and of its inven-
tor, fir [faac Newton. An anfwer to the “ Analyit,” under
the title of ** Geometry no Friend to Infidelity,” appeared
very early under the name of Philalethes Cantabrigienfis, -
{uppofed to be Dr. Jurin; a fecond, by the fame hand, in
defence of the firit, intitled, «* The Minute Mathematician,
or the Free-thinker no juit Thinker,” publithed in 1735 ;
a Difcourfe af Fluxions, by Mr. Robins, firft publifhed in
1735 (fee his ColleGtion of Traéts, by Wilfon, vol. ii.); a
Treatife of fir [faze Newton’s, with a commentary by Mr.
Colfon ; and feveral other pieces were publifhed on this fub-
jet; particularly a very full and excellent treatife of Auxions,

by

Vide

FLUXIONS.

by Mr. Maclaurin, late profeffor of mathematics in the uni-
verfity of Edinburgh, containing not only a moft diftiné& ac-
count of the principles of fluxiors, but alfo of the chief dif-
coveries in geometry, and mathematical philofophy of this
age. The curious may find an elegant account of this trea-
tife in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, N° 4%8, 469.

We pre(ume that Mr. Maclaurin’s demonftrations are fuf-
ficient to fatisfy the moft ferupulous; it would exceed the
bounds of our defign to infert them at length here; but we
cannot omit mentioning what feems neceflary to explain and
illuftrate the notion of fluxions ; and the principles on which
this method of computation is founded. In the do€trine of
fluxions, magnitudes are conceived to be generated by mo-
tien ; aud the velocity of the generating motion is the fluxion
of the magnitude. Lines are fuppofed to be generated by
the motion of points: the velocity of the point that defcribes
the line, is its fuxion, and meafures the rate of its increafe
or decreafe. When the motion of a point is uniform, its
velocity is confkant, and is meafured by the {pace deferibed
by it in a given time: whea the motion varies, the velocity
at any term of the time ia meafured by the {pace which would
be deicribed in a given time, if the motion was to be conti~
nued uniformly, from that term, without any variation. And
this is analogous to the general do¢trine of powers, or may
be confidered as a particular application of it. As a power
which aéts continually and uniformly is meafured by the ef-
fect that is produced by it in a given time, fo the velocity
of an uniform motion is meafured by the fpace that is de-
fertbed in a given time. If the action of the power vary,
then its exertion at any rate of the time is not meafured by
the effe&t that is produced after that term in a given time,
but by the effe& that would have been produced if its a€tioa
had continued uniform from that term ; and in the fame man-
ner, the velocity of a variable motion at any given term of
time is not. to be meafured by the {pace that ts actually de-
{cribed after that term ina given time, but by the {pace that
would have been defcribed, if the motion had continued uni-
formly from that term. If the aétion of a variable power,
or the velocity of a variable motion, may not be meafured
in this manner, they muft not be fufceptible of any menfu-
vation at all. When it is fuppofed that a body has fome
velocity or other at any term of the time, during which it
moves, it is not therefore fuppofed, that there can be any
motion in a term, limit, or moment of time, or in an indi-
vilible point of fpace ; and as velocity is always meafured by
the fpace that would be deferibed by it, continued uniformly
for fome given finite time, it cannot furely be faid, that
geometers pretend to conceive motion or velocity without
regard to {pace or time, as the author of the Analyit often
{uggefts. This is a fhort view of. the nature and tendency
of the doétrine of fluxions, which we fhall now proceed to
explain more particularly.

We have already faid that lines may be conceived as gene-
rated by the motion of points; in like manner furfaces may
be conceived as generated by the motion of lines ; folids, by
the motion of furfaces; angles, by the rotation of their fides;
the flux of time being fuppofed to be always uniform. The
velocity with which a line flows, is the fame as that of the
point which is fuppofed te deferibe or generate it. The
velocity with which a furface flows, is the fame as the velo-
city of a given right line; that, by moving parallel to itfelf,
is {uppofed to generate a reCtangle which 1s always equal to
the furface. The velocity with which a folid flows, is the
fame.as the velocity of a given plain furface, that, by moving
parallel to itfelf, is fuppofed to generate an erect prifm or
cylinder that is always equal to the folid. The velocity
with. which an angle flows, is meafured by the velocity of a

point, that is fuppofed to defcribe the arch of a given circle,
which always fubtends the angle, and meafures it. In gene-
ral, all quantities of the fame kind (when we confider their
magnitude only and abftra&t from their pofition, figure, and
other affe€tions) may be reprefented by right lines, that are
fuppofed to be always in the fame proportion to each other
as thefe quantities. They are reprefented by right lines in
this manner in Euclid’s Elements, in the general dodtrine of
proportion, and by right lines and figures in the data of
that accurate geometer. In this method likewife, quantities
of the fame kind may be reprefented by right lines, and the
velocities of the motions by which they are fuppofed to be
generated, by the velocities of points moving in right lines.
All the velocities we have mentioned are meafured, at any
term of the time of the motion, by the {paces which would
be defcribed in a given time, by thefe points, lines, or
furfaces, with their motions continued uniformly from that
term.

A fluxion being the velocity with which a quantity flows
at any term of the time while it is fuppofed to be generated,
is therefore always meafured by the increment or decrement
that would be generated in a given time by this motion, if
it was continued uniformly from that term without any ac-
celeration or retardation; or it may be meafured by the
quantity that is generated in a given time by an uniform
motion, which is equal to the generating motion at that
term.

Time is reprefented by a right line that flows uniformly,
or is defcribed by an uniform motion ; and a moment or ter-
mination of time is reprefented by a point or termination
of that line. A given velocity is reprefented by a given
line, the fame which would be deferibed by it in a given
time. A velocity that is accelerated or retarded, is repre-
{ented by a line that increafes or decreafes in the fame pro-
portion. The time of any motion being reprefented by the
bafe of a figure, and any part of the time by the correfpond-
ing part of the bafe; if the ordinate at any point of the
bafe be equal to the {pace that would be defcribed, in a
given time, by the velocity at the correfponding term of the
time continued uniformly, then any velocity will be repre-
fented by the corre{ponding ordinate. The fluxions of quan-
tities are reprefented by the increments or decrements, de-
{cribed in the foregoing paragraph, which meafure them ;
and inftead of the proportion of the fluxions themfelves,
we may always fubftitute the proportion of their meafures.

When a motion is uniform, the {paces that are defcribed
by it in any equal times are always equal. When a motion
is perpetually accelerated, the {paces deferibed by it in any
equal times that fucceed after one another, perpetually in-
creafe. When a motion is perpetually retarded, the fpaces
that are defcribed by it in any equal times that fucceed after
one another, perpetually decreafe,

It is manifelt, converfely, that if the {paces defcribed in
any equal times are always equal, then the motion is uni-
form. If the fpaces defcribed in any equal times that
fucceed after one another perpetually increafe, the mo-
tion is perpetually accelerated ; for it is plain, that if
motion was uniform for any time, the {paces defcribed in
any equal parts of this time would be equal; and if it
was retarded for any time, the fpaces defcribed in equal
parts of this time that fucceed after one another would
decreafe ; both of which are again{t the fuppofition. In
like manner it is evident, that a motion is perpetually re-
tarded, when the fpaces that are defcribed in any equal
times that fucceed after one another, perpetually decreafe,
The following axioms are as evident as that a greater or

lefler

FLUXIONS.

Jeffer {pace is deferibed in a given time,
velocity of the motion is greater or lefs.
_ Axiom 1. The {pace defcribed by an accelerated motion
Is greater than the {pace which would have been defcribed
in the fame time, if the motion had not been accele-
rated, but had continued uniform from the beginning of
the time.

Axiom 2. The fpace defcribed by a motion while. it is
accelerated, is lefs than the {pace which is defcribed in an
equal time by the motion that is acquired by that accelera-
tion continued uniformly. ;

Axiom 3. The {pace defcribed by a retarded motion is
lefs than the fpace which would have been defcribed in the
fame time if the motion had not been retarded, but had
continued uniform from the beginning of the time.

Axiom 4. The {pace defcribed by a motion while it is
retarded is greater than the {pace which is defcribed in an
equal time by the motion that remains after that retarda-
tion, coutinued uniformly.

From thefe axioms, general theorems concerning motion,
of ufe in the dorine of fluxions, may be demonttrated.

Thus, when the {paces defcribed by two variable motions
are always equal, or in a given ratio, the velocities are al-
ways equal, or in the fame given ratio; and converfely,
when the velocities of two motions are always equal to
each other, or in a given ratio, the fpaces defcribed by
thofe motions in the fame time are always equal, or in that
given ratio; that whena {pace is always equal to the fum
or difference of the {paces defcribed by two other motions,
the velocity of the firft motion is always equal to the fum or
difference of the velocities of the other motions; and con-
verfely, that when a velocity is always equal to the fum or
difference of two other Tissues the {pace defcribed by
the firft motion is always equal to the fum or difference of
the {paces defcribed by thefe two other motions. See Mr.
Maclayrin’s Treatife of Fluxions, book i. chap. 1.

The main point, in the method of fluxions, is to obtain
the fluxion of the rectangle, or produ of two indetermi-
nate quantities, fince from thence may be derived rules for
all other produéts and powers, be the co-efficients, or the
indices, what they will, integers, or fractions, rational or
furd ; according to the manner of fir Ifaac Newton, in the
fecond lemma of his fecond book of Principles.

Mr. Maclaurin has therefore been very full in eftablifhing
this point ; and after what he has faid, we prefume that no
-reafonable objeGtion can lie either againft the clearnefe and
diftin@tnefs of the notion of fluxions, or againft the truth
of the principles, or accuracy of the demonttrations by
which their meafures are determined. We cannot here
infert his demonftrations at length ; but as many readers
may, perhaps, be defirous of feeing the argument con-
tracted into a narrow compafs, we fhall here givea fummary
of it, fromthe Philofophical TranfaGtions, N’ 468, P- 331s
or Martyn’s Abridg. vol. viii. p. 31, &c.

A triangle that has two of its fides given in pofition, is
fuppofed to be generated by an ordinate moving parallel to
itfelf along the Bate. When the bafe increafes uniformly,
the triangle increafes with an accelerated motion, becaufe
its fucceflive increments are trapezia, that continually in-
‘creafe ; therefore if the motion with which the triangle
flows, was continued uniformly from any term for a given
time, a lefs fpace would be deferibed by it than the incre-
ment of the triangle, which is a€tually generated in that
time by axiom 1; but a greater {pace than the increment
which was aétually generated in an equal time preceding
that term, by axiom 2. And hence it is demonttrated,
that the fluxion of the triangle is accurately meafured by the

Vou. XIV. .

according as the

rectangle contained by the correfponding ordinate of the
triangle, and the right lice which meafures the fluxion of
the bafe. The increment which the triangle acquires in any
time, is refolved into two parts; that which is generated in
confequence of the motion with which the triangle flows at
the beginning of the time, and that which is generated in
confequence of the acceleration of this motion for the fame
time. The latter is juftly negleSed in meafuring that
motion (or the fluxion of the triangle at that term), but
may ferve for meafuring its acceleration, or the fecond
fluxion of the triangle. The motion with which the
triangle flows, is finular to that of a body defcending in
free {paces by an uniform gravity, the velocity of which,
at any term of the time, is not to be meafured by the {pace
deferibed by the body ina given time, cither before or after
that term, becaufe the motion continually increafes, but by
a mean between thefe f{paces.

When the fides of a retangle increafe or decreafe with
uniform motions, it may be always confidered as the fum
or difference of a triangle and trapezium ; and this fluxion
is derived from the laft propofition. If the fides increafe
with uniform motions, the reGangle increafes with an ac-
celerated motion ; and in meafuring this motion at any term
of the time, a part of the increment of the rectangle that
may be determined, is rejected, as generated in confequence
of the acceleration of that motion.

Thofe who have well underftood what precedes will not
be at a lofs to conceive, that the fluxions of a curvilinea]
area, whether generated by an ordinate moving parallel to
itfelf, or by a radius revolving round a given centre, may
be determined by demonftrations of the fame kind. When
the ordinates of the figure increafe, the increment of the
area may be refolved in like manner into two parts, one of
which only is to be retained in meafuring the fluxion of the
area, the other being rejeéted as generated in confequence
of the acceleration of the motion with which the figure flows.

What has been hitherto faid will fet the difference betweer
the notion of fluxions and that of infinitefimals in a clear
light. Fluxions may always be reprefented by finite quan-
tities. The fuppofition of an infinitely little magnitude is
too bold a poftulatum for fuch a feience as geometry. Nor
have authors accounted explicitly for the truth and perfeét
accuracy of the conclufions derived from this confideration.
When they determine what is called the diffrence, but
more accurately the fluxion of a quantity, they tell us,
they reje& certain parts of the element, becaufe they be=
come infinitely lefs than the other parts. But this is no
proper reafon, not only becaufe a proof of this nature may
leave fome doubt as to the accuracy of the conclufion, but
becaufe it may be demonftrated that thefe parts ought to be
neglected by them at any rate, or that it would be an error
toretain them. If an accountant, that pretends to a feru-
pulous exaétnefs, fhould tell us, he had negle&ted certain
articles, becaufe he found them to be of {mall 4 ahs :
and it fhould appear that they ought not to have been taken
into confideration by him on that occafion, but belong to
a different account, we fhould approve his conclufions as
accurate, but not his reafons. See Maclaurin’s Treatife of
Fluxions in the preface, and book i. chap. 12. where the
method of infinitefimals is expel treated of. Mr. Mace
laurin, in the firft part of his treatife, corfiders fuxions in a
merely geometrical form, and has demontftrated the rules of
the method with all poffible accuracy and rigour; but as the
great improvements made by this doétrine are chiefly to be
afcribed to the facility, concifenefs, and great extent of the
methods of computation, or the algebraic part, it is neceflary
to add fome account of thefe methods alfo.

4X Any

FLUXIONS.

Any quantities produced from*each other by an algebraic
operation, or whofe relation is expreffled by any algebraic
form, being fuppofed to increafe or decreafe together, fome
will be found to increafe or decreafe by greater differences,
or at a greater rate, others by-lefs differences, or at a lefs
rate: and while fome are fuppofed to imcreafe or decreafe
at one conttant rate by equal fucceffive differences, others
increafe or decreafe by differences that are always varying,
Thefe rates of increafe or decreafe may be determined by
comparing the velocities of points that always defcribe
lines proportional to the quantities as before mentioned, but
they may alfo be determined without having recourfe to
fuch fuppofition, by a juft reafowing from the fimultaneous
increments or decrements themfelves.

When a quantity A increafes by differences equal to a,
2 A increafes by differences equal to 2 a, and manifeitly
increafes or decreafes at a greater rate than A im the
proportion of 2 4 to aor 2 to1; and if mand n be inva-

riable;) — fe

increafes or decreafes by differences equal to

ma ;
—, and therefore at a greater or lefs rate than A in
n 3

‘ ma. ;
proportion as — is greater or Jefs than a, or m is greater
7

orlefs thann. This feems tobe eafily conceived, without
having recourfe to any other confiderations than the relation
of the differences by which the quantities increafe or de-
creafe. In order therefore to avoid figurative expreffions
in the algebraic part, it will be proper to fubftitute in the
place of the definition and axioms* before mentioned, others
that are rather of a more general import, but are perfeétly
confiftent with them: Thus,

Fluxions of quantities are any meafures of their refpedtive
rates of increafe, or decreafe, while they vary or flow to-
gether.

There can be no difficulty in determining thofe meafures
when the quantities increafe or decreafe by fucceffive
differences, that are always in the fame invariable pro-
portion to each other. While A by increafing becomes
equal to A + a, or by decreafing equal to A—a,2A
becomes equal to 2A +2 a, ortozA—2a;andas2A
increafes or decreafes at a greater rate than A in the pro-
portion of 2ato a; fo the fluxion of A being fuppofed
equal to a, the fluxion of 2 A mutt be equal to 2 a.

; m m
In the fame manner the fluxion of — x A, orof — X
4 n a

A ¥ e, (fuppofing m, n, and ¢ to be invariable) is Te or ;
n

and fince m may be to n in any affignable ratio, a quantity
may be always affigned that fhall increafe or decreafe-at a
greater or lefs rate than A in any proportion, or that fhall
haye its Auxion greater or lefs than the fluxion of A in any
ratio. In fuch cafes, the ratio of the fluxions and that of
the differences, by which the quantities increafe or decreafe,
‘are the fame.

But while A is fuppofed to increafe at a conftant rate by
any equal fuccefliye differences, if B increafe or decreale by
differences that are always varying, B cannot be faid to
increafe or decreafe at any one conftant rate; and it is
pot fo obvious how the fluxion of A being fuppofed
equal to its increment a, the yariable fluxion of B is to
he determined. -It cannot be fuppofed that the fluxions
and differences are always in the fame proportion in this

. gale; but it is evident that if B increafe by differences,

that are always greater than’ the equal fucceflive dif-

Prt: oe : :
ferences by which — x A increafes, it cannot increafe
n
¢. m - .
at a lefs rate than— x A; and it cannot increafe at a
n ’

m * . . ’
greater rate than — x A, while its fucceffive differences
a

are always lefs than thofe of “x A. The fluxion of
. = “ 2
A being {till reprefented by a, the fluxion of B therefore

m >
cannot be lefs than —= x ain the former cafe, or greater
a

than = Xx ain the latter. The following propofitions

are confequences of this, and will enable us to deter-
mine at what rate B increafes, when its relation to A is
known.

The fucceflive values of the root A being reprefented
by A —a,A, A + a, &c. which increafe by any conftant
difference a, let the correfponding values of any gnantity
produced from A, by any algebraic operation (or that has a
dependence upon it fo as to vary with it) be B—b, B, B+ 4,
&c. Then if the fucceflive differences b, 4, &c. of the
latter quantity always increafe, how {mall foever g may
be, then B cannot be faid to increafe at fo great a rate as
a quantity that increafes uniformly by equal fucceflive
differences greater than b, or at fo fmall a rate as any
quantity that increafes uniformly by equal fucceflive
differences lefs than 4. In like manner, if the relation of
the quantities is fuch, that the fucceffive differences b, ,
&c. continually decreafe ; then B cannot be faid to in-
creafe at the fame rate as a quantity that increafes uni-
ply by equal fucceflive differences greater than k, or lefg
than 0.

Therefore the fluxion of A being fuppofed equal to the
increment 4, the fluxion of B cannot 3 greater than b
or lefs than 4, when the fucceffive differences b, 2, &c.
continually increafe; and cannet be greater than b or
lefs than 4, when thefe fucceflive differences always
decreafe.

In the fame manner, if the latter quantity decreafe while
the former inereafes, and its fucceflive values be B+ 4,
B — b, &c. then if the decrements 4, b, &c. continually
increafe, B cannot be faid to decreafe at fo great arate asa
quantity that decreafes uniformly by equal fucceflixe differ-
ences greater than b, or at fo fmalla rate asa qwantity that
decreafes uniformly by equal fucceffive differences lefs than
é. Therefore in this cafe the fluxion of A being fuppofed
equal to a, the fluxion of B cannot be greater than b or
lels than 2. And in the fame manner if the. fuccefliye
decrements 2, b, &c. always decreafe, the fuxion of B
cannot be greater than 4, or lefsthan b. Vide Maclaurin’s
Flux. book ii. chap. ;. tom. ii. p. 579, feq.

As the fluxions of quantities are any meafures of the*

refpective rates, according to which they increafe or
decreafe ; fo it is of no importance how great or {mall thofe
meafures are, if they be in the juft proportion or relation
to each other. Therefore if the fluxions of A and B
may be fuppofed equal to @ and J refpedtively, they

may be likewife fuppofed equal to 2 a and J 4, or to

n a ‘

Prop.1. The fluxion of the root A being fuppofed equal to
4, the fluxion of the fquare A A will be equal to yi ¥ a.

To demonttrate this, Jet the fucceflive values of the root

5 be

ee

FLUXIONS.

be A~ u, AJA + u, and the corre(ponding values of the
fquare willbe A A—zAu+2un,AA,AA +2Au4+ uz,
which increafe by the differences 2 Au —am2Au+um,
&c, and becaufe thofe differences increafe, it follows from
what has been faid, that if the flucion of A be reprefented
by. x, the fluxion of A A cannot be reprefented by a quantity
that is greater than2 Au + « uv, or lefsthan2 Au un.
‘This being premifed, fuppofe, asin the propofition, that the
fluxion of Ais equal to a; and if the fluxion of AA
be not equal to 2 A a, let it fir be greatet than 2 A ain
any ratio, as that of 2 A +o to2 A, and confequently
equal to2 Aa-+oa. Suppofe now that wis any incte-
meht of Alefs than o; and becaufe a is touas2 Aa+ oa
istozAu+tou, it follows, that if the fluxion of A fhould
be reprefented by wu, the fluxion of A A would be reprefented
by 2A uv +04, which is greater thanz2 Au + uu. But
it has been fhewn, that if the fluxion of A be reprefented
by u, the fluxion of A A cannot be reprefented by a quan-
tity greater thanz2Au+uu. And thefe being contra-
diétory, it follows, that the fluxion of A being equal to a,
the fluxion of A A canuot be greater than 2 Aa. If the
fluxion of A A can be lefsthan z A a, when the fluxion of
A is fuppofed equal to a, let it be lefs in any ratio of
2A —otoz A, and therefere equal toz2 Aa — oa.
Then becaufe ais tovasz2 Aa—oais to2 Ay — Oily
which is lefs than2Au—auu, (w being fuppofed lefs
than 9, as before) it follows, that if the fluxion of A was
reprefented by x, the fluxion of A.A would be repre-
fented by a quautity lefs than 2 Au — uu, againtt
what has been fhewn. Therefore the fluxion of A being
fuppofed equal to a, the fluxion of AA mutt be equal
to2 Aa. ‘

The fluxion of A and B being fuppofed equal to a and
5 refpetively, the fluxion of A + Bwill bea + 4, the
fluxion of A +B',orof AA +2AB+BB, willbe 2 x
A+tBxa+t,or2Aa+2Bh+ 2Ba+2A4, by
the laft article. The fluxion o09p AA +BB is 2Aa +2Bé4,
by the fame ; confequently the fluxion of 2 A B is2 Ba +
2A4; and the flusion of AB is Ba + Ab. Hence if
P be equal to A B, and the fluxion of P be p, then will
be equal toBa + A 4, and dividing by P, or A B, we
find £ = ud + = If Q uaeoe and g be the fluxion

A B

OQ» then QB = Ascot = Zook = F~ a:
Ur OS ft oda alld

and confequently g = kes A chs aes

aB—Adb

B Box, |

When any one of the quantities decreafes, its duxion is to
be confidered as negative.
’ The rule for finding the fluxion of a power is ufually de-

duced from the binomial theorem of fir Ifaac Newton.’

But as this theorem, though eaiily found by induion, is
not fo eafy to demonftrate, it is proper to proceed upon a
principle, the truth of which may be fhewn from the firit
algebraic elements, with more facility and perfpicuity.
This principle is, that if » be any integer number, and the
fum of the terms E”~', Ex -* F, E*—1 F}, Er—s EF’, &e.
continued till their number be equal to n, be multiplied
by E —F, the product will be E"~F". For the terms
being formed by fubduSting continually unity from the
index of EB, and adding it to the index of F, the lalt term
willbe F"—', The produé of the fum of the terms mul-
tiplied by KE will-be E*+ E*-' Fp Re-2 pr

+ EF*~*; their fum multiplied by — F gives — E*-7F
— Eb’? F?.... — EF*—' — F’; and the fum of thefe
two produttsis E"— ¥*. Suppofing E to be greater than
F, E* — [* w'il be lefethan 2 E*-' x E— ¥F, but
greater thana F7~* x E—F. For each of the terms
| ieee ae) cad Ol Oi laa Oa greater than the fubfequent
term in the fame ratio that E is greater than B, and E*—'*
is the greatelt term; confequently the number of terms
being equal to n, n E’+' is greater than ¢heir {um ; and
n E"~‘ x E — Fis greater than their fam multiplied by
E —'F, or (by the laft paragraph) greater than E” — F*.
Becaufe the lait term F"~ is lefs than any preceding term,
n¥"—* x» E — Fis lefs than the fum of the terms multi
plied by E — Fy or lefs than E* — F*.

When x is any integer pofitive number, the root A be.
ing fuppofed to increafe by any equal fucceflive differences,
the fucceffive differences of the power A” will continually
increafe. For let A — a, A, A + a be any fucceflive
values of the root, and A — a, A”, A + a will be the
correfponding values of the power. But A + a” — Avis
greater than n A”— ‘a; as appears by fubitituting in the
lat paragraph A + @ for E, A for F, and @ for E— F.
In like manner, n A” ~'! g is greater than A* — A—a,
Therefore A +a — Ais greater than A” — A — as
and the fuceeflive differences of the power continually
increafe.

Prop. II. The fluxion of the root A being fuppofed equal ta
a, the fluxion of the power A” will ben a A*—*.

For if the fluxion of A” can be greater than na A"—*,
let the excefs be equal to any quantity r; fuppofe o equal

—-

to the excefs of Ja st — above A, and confe-

— — +:

———ava 1 re 3
quently A + 0 = A"~'+ —. Thennax A+o

will be equal ton a A*—* + r, the fluxionof A*. Let
# be any increment of A lefs than o; and becaufe a is to #
asnaxA+o ‘tonux A+ 0. ,it follows (from
what has been faid) that if the fluxion of A be now repre-
fented by the increment zu, the fluxion of A” will be repre-

fented by nu x A +0 | ‘, which is greater than ni mx

ye aie < a and this lait is itfelf greater than A + u
— A. But when the fucceffive values of the root dare

~ = eee
A —u, A, A+ uv, thofe of the power are A —u, A*,
A + un", the fucceflive differences of which continually
increafe : confequently if the fluxion of A be reprefented
by u, the fluxion of A” cannot be reprefented by a quantity
an - Fs eo
greater than A + 2° — A”, or lefs thanA* + A GP.
And thefe being contradictory, it follows, that when the
fluxion of A is fuppofed equal to a, the fluxion of A” can-
not be greater thaan a A"~*. Tf it can be lefs thaw n @
A*~', let it be equal to na A"~", or (by fuppofing e

n—t

Am J a {209 tonax A—a . Then

u being fuppofed lefs than 9, if the fluxion of A was repre=
dented by u, the fluxion of A™ would be reprefented by

el m—t . . - [a =—
nua xXx A —o — , which is lefs thaoonu x A 2 ,"~%
(becaufe we fuppofe u to be lefs than 9) and therefore lef&

en » 5 ye

than A"— A —u. But this is repugnant to whet has
been demonttrated. Therefore the duxion of A being

4X2 “poted

iup-

FLUXIONS.

pofed equal to a, the fluxion of A” muft be equal ton a

Prop. III. The fluxion of A being fuppofed equal
mt ™m

to a, the fluxion of A” will be “2 x 1: alti
a
Firft, let the exponent = be any pofitive fraétion what-

foever, fuppofe AM = GH confequently A";= KK"; and
the fluxion of K being fuppofed equal to £, ma A”™—'

= nk K*~', and é,or the fluxion of A”, willbe equal to

ma A mak mn a m
eS x a A.” Ww — is ne-
ae nA Hy hen n

gative, let it be equal to — r; and fuppofe A~” = K, or
i = A’K, then taking the fluxions, r A7~'a K +2

A’ = 0, andé = — De

SCM fe Be

m
BT

Fs .
Prop. IV. Suppofing P to be the produ& of any faéors
A, B,C, D, E, Sc. and the fluxions of P, 4, B, C, Se.

5 . b
refpeclively equal to p, a, b, (Fc. then will & = < a z
c d
Bh ty

Let Q be equal to the produ& of all the fadtors of P,
the firft A excepted, that is, fuppofe P = AQ. Suppole
R equal to the produé of all the faétors, the firft two,
A and B, excepted; that is, lt P= ABR,orQ=BR.
In the fame manner let R = CS, S = DT, and fo on.
Then the fluxions of Q, R, S, T, &c. being fuppofed
refpeGtively equal to g, r, s, t, &c. it follows that

futyt= A A ak On a
Faq toate b= t+ Rata
r c 6\ a 4 c s
= (becaule = F+5) f+ 5+ Gt+5= (be-
isp ama re Wete, beksi ie d t
aue cat a)atytetopta and fo

uP
18) :
when the fiuxion of each fafior is divided by the fator
itfelf.

If the factors be fuppofed equal to each other, and their

number be equal to 2, then P = A’, and by the lait

on. Therefore is equal to the fum of the quotients

‘ le
propofition = a confequently » = — SSE Ss
as was before demonflrated.
ABC, &c i
Prop. V. if P =r i he. and the fluxions of the re-

Sfpetive quantities be expreffed by the fmall letters by Gy by Cy
c

i} A cali va 13 m
dc. as fore, then == At+ate ea
Ke. .
= LP 2 gin 0 alge
For PKLM, &c.= ABC, &c. and 55 ae x + L ak we
scopes) 1 b € Ph ape
xc. = ah + B + re &c. whence by tranfpofition P=
a é ¢ b ti bec
- = 2p + Gin ete &c. Maclaurin, ibid.

The notation we have hitherto nfed is the fame as fir

Ifaac Newton's, in the fecond lemma of the fecond book of
his Principles. But it is generally more convenient to
diftinguifh fluxions from other algebraic expreffions, and.
in fuch manner, that the fecond and higher fluxions may
be reprefented fo as to preferve the original fluent in view..
Hence fir Ifaac Newton, in his laft method, reprefented
variable or flowing quantities by the final letters of the
alphabet, as x, y, x; their firft, fecond, &c. fluxions, refpec-
tively, by x, 7,5 and x, ¥,%, &c. But as this doétrine has
been contefted and reprefented by the author of the
Analyft, as inconceivable and fophiftical, we thought it
proper more fully to explain and demonftrate the principles
thereof, from Mr. Maclaurin’s excellent treatife on this
fubject.

It is to be obferved, that the fluxions of powers are
commonly delivered in an algebraic form; but this is not
neceflary. The fame may be done geometrically, by fup-
pofing a feries of lines in geometric progreffion, the firft
term of which is invariable. Then if the fecond term be
fuppofed to increafe uniformly, all the fubfequent terms
will increafe with an accelerated motion. The velocities of
the points that defcribe thofe lines being compared, it may
be demonftrated from common geometry, that the fluxions
of any two terms, are in a ratio compounded of the ratio
of thofe terms, and of the ratio of the numbers that ex-
prefs how many terms precede them refpectively in the
progreflion. Thus, if, A, B,C, D,E, &e. eerctent any
lines in geometric progreflion, the firft term (A) of which
is invariable, then will the fluxion, for inftance, of E be to
the fluxion of D as 4 Eis to 3 D, and the fluxion of E
will be to the fluxion of B,as4Eto B. The analogy
between powers in algebra and lines in geometric pro-
greffion is fufficiently known, Thus, A being invariable
may be called unity, or 13 let B= x, then will C = xx,
D=~x', E= x‘, &c. and confequently the fluxion of E,
or x‘, will be to the fluxion of B or x, as 4 x* is to x, or
as4x° is tor. Therefore if the fluxion of x be exprefleé
by x, the fluxion of x* will be expreffed by 4.x? x, agreeably
to the common algebraic method of expreffion, Vide
Mr. Maclaurin’s Flux. book i, chap. 6. See alfo the
Prefent State of the Rep. of Let. O&. 1735, p. 2485:
249, &c. .

If the fluxion of B, or the fecond term of the progreffion
be invariable, every term of the progreffion will have fluxions
of as many degrees as there are terms that precede it in the’
progreflion. And the increment of any term, generated in
a given time, may be refolved into as many parts as it hae
fluxions of different orders ; and each part may be conceived
to be generated in confequence of its refpective fluxion.
Hence fluxiens of all orders may be illuftrated and mea-
fured.

As tothe higher order of fluxions, it is to be obferved,
that when a mation is accelerated or retarded continually,
the velocity may itfelf be coufidered as a variable or flowing
quantity, and may be reprefented as a line that increafes
or decreafes continually. When a velocity increafes
uniformly, fo as to acquire equal increments in equal. times
its fluxion is meafured by the increment which is generated
in any given time. In this cafe the velocity is reprefented
by a line that is defcribed by an uniform motion ; and its
fluxions by the conftant velocity of the point that defcribes
the line, or by the fpace which this point defcribes in a
given time. When a velocity is not accelerated uniformly,
but acquires increments in equal times, that continually
increafe or cecreafe, then its fluxion at any term of the
time is not meafured by the increment which it aétually

acquires

FLUXIONS.

acquires, but by that which it would have acquired, if its
acceleration had been continued uniformly from that term
for a given time. And in the fame manner, when a motion
is retarded continually, the quantity by which it would be
diminifhed in a given time, if its retardation was continued
uniformly for any term, meafures its fluxion at that term.
While the point M defcribes the line E e, let the point Q
defcribe the line Ii, fo that I Q may be always equal to
the fpace that would be defcribed by the motion of M, if
it was continued uniformly for a given time. Then I Q
fhall always reprefent the velocity of M, and the velocity
of the

i M e

ug Q i
point Q fhall reprefent the fluxion of the velocity of M ;
which therefore is meafured, at any term of the time, by
the {pace which would be defcribed by Q, with its motion
at that term continued uniformly fora given time. The
velocity of M is the fluxion of E M; and therefore the
velocity of Q reprefents the fluxion of the fluxion of E M.
(See the beginning of this article.) Thus, whena fluxion
of a quantity is variable, it may be confidered itfelf as a
fluent, and may have its fluxion which is called the fecond
fluxion of that quantity. This may alfo have its fluxion,
which is called the third fluxica of the firft fuent ; and
motions may be eafily conceived to vary in fuch a manrer,
as to give ground for admitting fecond fluxions, and thofe
of any higher order. And as the firft fluxion of a variable
quantity, at any term of the time, is meafured by the
increment or decrement, which would be produced, if the
geertog motion was continued uniformly from that term,
‘or a given time; fo its fecond fluxion may be meafured by
twice the difference betwixt this increment, or decrement,
and that which would be produced, if the acceleration, or
retardation, of the generating motion was continued uni-
formly from that term for the fame time. Maclaurin, lib.
cit. book i. chap. 1. § 70. 75. and chap. 5, 6.

See a farther illuftration of fecond and third fluxions, in
the fame author (chap. 3, and 4.) deduced from the confi-
deration of the fluxions of folids.

The author of the Analyft has reprefented the notions of
fecond and third fluxions as inextricable mytteries ; and,
indeed, when fome {peak of the velocities of velocities, &c.
it is not ealy to fay what they mean. But it is to be
obferved, that the firft fluxion of any fluent is not the velo-
city of that fluent, but the velocity of the motion by which
the fluent is conceived to be generated. And in like
manner, the fecond fluxion of that fluent is not the velocity
of the velocity of this fluent, but the velocity of the motion
by which the quantity is generated that always reprefents
its firft fluxion ; and fo of the reft.

When the fluxion of a quantity is variable, it may be
confidered as a fluent; and its fluxion, which is the fecond

fluxion of the propofed quantity, may be determined by.

the preceding propotitions. Thus the fluxion of A beiag
fixppofed equal to a, the fluxion of A A is2 Aa; and if A
be fuppofed to increafe at an uniform rate, or its fluxion a
to be invariable, z A a will increafe by equal fucceflive
differences ; confequently its fluxion, or the fecond fluxion
of A A,-will be equal to any of thefe differences, as to

2axA+a—2Aa, or2aa. If a be variable, let its

fluxion be equal to z, and the fluxion of 2 A a (or fecond
jon of AA) will be 2aa+2Az. In the fame

m rthe fluxion of A being conftant, the fluxion of n
A"~"a, or the fecond fluxion of A”, is na X n= 4 X

A"-*a,orn Xn —1%XaaA"—7; the fluxion of this,
or third fluxion of A", isn xX n—1X n—2 x a@A"~3.
And the fluxion of A” of any order denoted by m, is 2 x
nm—IXn—-2x2— 3> &c. x a™ A”—™, where the
faétors in the coefficient are to be continued till their
number be equal to m. When a is in any integer pofitive
number, the fluxion A*, of the order n, is invariable and
equal ton xX 7 —1 xn—2X2—3, &c. x a”. The
quantities that reprefent thefe fuxions of A* depend on a,
which reprefents the fluxion of A. When A remains of
the fame value, the firft fluxion of A” is greater or lefs in
the fame proportion, as a is {uppofed to be greater or lefs ;
the fecond fluxion of A”, isin the duplicate ratio of a; and
its fluxion of the order m, is asa”. If a be variable, but
z the fluxion of a, or the fecond fluxion of A, be conitant,
then the fourth fluxion of A A will be conftant and equal
to6 z2; for we found that the fecond fluxion of AA
was 2aa + 2 Az; the fluxion of this isg¢az + 242%,
or 6a2%3 and the flusion of this is6zz. Inlike manner,
the fisth flusion of A} will be conftant in this cafe, and
equal to 90 x.

The fecond differences of any quantity B are the fuccef-
five differences of its firft differences; and as the fluxion B
increaies when its fucceflive differences ingreafe 5 fo its fe-
cond fluxion, or its fluxions of any higher order increafe
when its fecond or higher differences increafe. If we arrive
at differences of any order that are conftant, the fluxion of
the fame order is conftant, and is expreffled by that differ-
ence. Thus, when A is fuppofed to increafe by conftant
differences equal to a, and its fuxion is fuppofed equal to a,
the fecond difference of A A (or A+ 2° —z2AA+4
A — a’) is 2 aa, which is likewife its fecond fluxion ; and
the third difference of A? is 6 a’, which is its third fluxion.
When x is any integer and pofitive number, the fluxion of
A” of the order is equal to the fluxion of any of its firft
differences of the order n — 2, and foon. For the fluxion
of A + a” — A” (one of the firft differences of A”) of the

ordern — lisn xn—1xXn—2,&.xA+a —A
x a t=nxn—I X n— 2, Ke. X a”, where the coef-
ficients are fuppofed to be continued till their number be
n — 1, fo that the laft muft be 2. And this we found to
be the fluxion of A” of the order n, in the preceding para-

graph. In the fame manner the fluxion of A + a°— 2 A*+
A — a" (the fecond difference of A”) of the order n — 2,
is equal to the fluxion of A + a” — A of the order n —1;
and confequently equal to-the fluxion of A” of the order n,
Thefe fluxions are invariable and equal to the laft or inyari-
able differences. But in other cafes the fluxions of A” of
any order are lefs than its fubfequent differences of the fame
order, but greater than the preceding differences, as before
mentioned. Maclaurin’s Flux. art.

By fuppofing one of the variable quantities to flow uni-
formly, it will have no fecond or higher fluxions, and the
higher fluxions depending on it will be exprefled in a more
fimple manner. “Thus the fluxion of x being {uppofed con-
ftant, the firft fluxion of x" being n x"-' x, its fecond fluxion
will be n xX n — t X X* x"~°, and its fluxion of any order m
will ben xX n— 3 X n—2 X n— 3, Xe. X X™X™™

720, leq.

xx » where
the faGors in the coefficient are to be continued till their
number be equal to m.

The fecond or higher fluxions of quantities may be found
by particular theorems (without computing thofe of the
preceding orders) ay may be feen by the lait example. “ti
farther

BLY.

farther in Maclaurin’s Fluxions, art. 734. See rule 10, in
the beginning of this article, :

The ufe of the direct method of fluxions, fee {pecified
under the articles Evorute, Inrieerion, Maximrs and
Minimis, and TANGENTS.

Thofe of the inverfe method, fee under OuapRaTURE
and RecriricaTIon of Curves.
FLY, in Natural Hiflory.

TOMOLOGY.

Fiy, Fire. See Fireflies.

Fry, Fifbing. See Fisuinefy.

Fiy, Flower, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a {mall
but very beautiful fly, deferibed by Clufius. It is-black,
and has two filvery wings, two white eyes, feven yellow
fpots on the back, and a black one in the middle.

Fry, Harve. See Harvest.

’ Fry, Humble bee. See Humare-bes-fy.

Fry, Lantern. See Lanrern-fy.

Fry, Roe. See Rose.

Fy, Scorpion. See Scorrion fy.

Fries, Eggs of. See Ecas.

Friis, Lyes of. See Eve.

Fries, Legs of. See Lee.

Fritrs, Rings of. See Rincs.

- Fry, St. Mark, the name of a fpecies of fly, which
makes its firt appearance every year about St. Mark’s day,
and is then feen in valt numbers; it is fomewhat f{maller
than the large blue flefh-fly, and has no trunk, but a mevth
without teeth: notwithftanding this feemingly innocent or-
ganization, the creature does great mifchief, and every gar-
dener knows the effects of it at one time or other.

Puy, in Mechanics, is an apparatus employed to equalize
and regulate the velocity and power of many machines
which require fuch regulation from the inequality either of
the ‘moving power, or of the refiltance it has to overcome.
A fly a&ts upon the principle that any body, being put in
wotion with a certain velocity at a certain expence of power,
will continue to move until its motion is {topped bya refitt-
ance equal to its momentum or {um of the power aud velo-
city which firft caufed its motion. This principle is carried
into effeét by various forms of the apparatus; the mals being
generally made to revolve upon a centre, and the parts on
the oppofite fides of the centre being balanced. Two, four,
or any other number of equal weights, placed on the oppo-
fite ends of arms or radii which are affixed to an axis, con-
ftitute a fly. 1f the weights be fuppofed to touch each other,
or a hoop or ring of one piece be fubftituted, its form will
be much improved; and it is now termed-a fly-wheel, and is
the manner in which the fly is moft generally ufed.

The frition or refiftance which the air oppofes to any
body im motion, and the friction of the pivots which fup-
port the axis of a fly-wheel, are confiderable deduétions
from the power communicated to it ; fo that inftead of a fly-
wheel gaining power, as fome imagine, it requires a conftant”
exertion of power to keep it in motion, even when no other
refiftance is applied to prevent it. For this reafon a mechanic
fhould never introduce a fly-wheel into a machine, unlefs
the advantages to be derived from its aétion are greater than
the aétual lofs of power it occafions. As an inftance, we will
fuppofe a heavy ftamper or hammer to be raifed by a water-
wheel; the action of the water upon the wheel is conflant
and uniform, and whilft the machine is lifting the hammer,
this ation is nearly balanced ; but the inftant the hammer
falls, the principal refiflance or load to the water-wheel is
removed, and the water unges it rapidly forwards, until it
mects the hammer again, when it is fuddenly checked, and
moves with diminifhed velocity, until it again lofes its load.

See Musca; fee alfo En-

*

In fuch a cafe as this the fly-wheel is of great fervice, for ih
the interval while the refiftance to the water-wheel is not in
action, it prevents its acceleration, the power of the water-
wheel being employed to give a momentum'to the fly-wheel;
and as foon as the velocity of the water-wheel is at all dimi-
nifhed, by the return of its load, the momentum of the fl
aéts to carry it forwards, and continue the motion with the
fame velocity until the momentum is expended in affifti
the water-wheel. By this time the hammer has fallen, At
the water-wheel left at liberty to communicate a new impulfé
to the fly. 1) ac

In this, and many other fimilar cafes, the power expended
in giving motion to the fly is trifling, compared with what
it preferves from complete lofs during the interval in which
the refiftance of the water-whee! is inaGive. If the water-
wheel had been applied to raifing a ftamper, the equaliza-
tion might have been made by ufing three or four ftampers
in place of one, and adapting the machine to raife them fué-
ceffively: by this means, the luad being divided aud applied
continually, the motion would be rendered nearly as uniform
as by a fly-wheel, and without its incouventeices.

In this manner in many machines where fly-wheels are in-
troduced, they are not abfolutely neceflary, faw mills, pump
mills, &c., where a fingle machine which only a&ts in one
dire€tion is to be moved, all thefe might be improved by
dividing the load, and caufing its parts to act in ucceffion ;
and for pump mills the double a€ting pumps may be ufed to
greac advantage, in lieu of a fingle one with a fly-wheel.

It is a great objeé& in conftructing flies to form them fo as
to prefent the {malleft refiftance to the air. For this purpofe
a wheel fhould always be ufed; the ring fhould be fmooth
and truly circular without any projeéting nuts, &c.; the radii
fhould be made to prefent a thin edge to’the air, and the
whole fhould be made of metal, that the greateft weight may
be contained under the {malleft furface ; and forthis purpofe,
if the fe€tion of the ring is a cirele, the fmalleft furfaee will
be expofed to form a refiftance to the air, the radii fhould
be of an elliptic figure, the narroweft edge meeting the air.
This form of a fly-wheel is ufed by Meffrs. Murray and
Wood of Leeds in the fteam engines which they ereé&t, and’
is included in a patent they have for fteam engines, and
though they may have been the firft who applied it to fteam
engines, the idea is not original, as Mr. Sully gave that
form to his watch-balances many years ago. * :

A fly-wheel fhould be caft in one piece of metal, if it is
not too weighty ; in which cafe, the pieces of which it is
compofed fhould be melted together in the moft folid man-’
ner imaginable, left the centrifugal force of fuch a large’
mafs, moving witha confiderable velocity, fhould endanger
the feparation ofits pieces. If by any accident the bolts con-
neing them become loofe, or are weakened by rufting, (this
failure, which has fome times happened, is truly dreadful,)
the force with which a fragment of the wheel is projected
is irrefiftible ; and if it fhould chance to ftrike the walls of
the buildi:g, it would be in danger of total deftru&ion. “A
method has been lately introduced of putting fly-wheels to-
gether, by dove-tailinginflead offcrew-bolts. Thearmsare faf-
tened into the ring, and the fegmentsof the ring faftened toge-
ther by a fyftem of dove-tails, which only admit of being put ©
together in one dire€tion, which is contrary to that in which
the centrifugal force a@s. Precaution on this head will not
appear ufelefs, when it is confidered that fy-wheels of 8 and
10 tons in weight in the ring and arms are common i
machinery ufed for the manufa@uring of iron, and the
cumference moving at the rate of 300 feet per minute. We
have feen one applied to a fteam engine of 16 tonsin weight,
and moving much quicker. The ring is ufually in fix pieces, of

about

mY,

about a ton each, and conneéted only by a few wrought iron
bolts as it revolves. The weight of thefe pieces, conftantly
-adting in new direétions, independent of the centrifugal
force, is a fevere {train upon the bolts and parts forming
the connection.

The mode of calculating the fize, weight, and velocity
-of a fly-wheel, proper to regulate the motion of any given
- Piece of machinery, muft be very intricate ; though it is not
aifual for practical mechanics to employ calculation, their
-fly-wheels being adopted from the proportion of forne other

‘dimilar machine, which is found to anfwer its purpofe. This

dubjeét has not been inveitigated in the elementary works
on mechanics that we have feen; though, from its great
practical utility, it would well repay the labour of any com-
ypetent analy{t, who would turn his thoughts to the fub-
ject.
: ‘The fly-wheel only a&ts when the velocity of the machine
.is variable : for having naturally a tendency to preferve an
uniform velocity in itfelf, it will tend to move the machine
‘connected with it in the fame manner, On this account, it
would be abfurd to employ a fly-wheel in any machine
_whete the power and refiitance are always uniform, or bear
-the fame proportion to each other: hence the motion of any
machine, deriving affiftance from a fly-wheel, cannot be per-
sfectly regular, as it is ovly when a change in the velocity
‘of the machine takes place that the fly-wheel has any
aétion, and the power it exerts to continue the motion is
greater or lefs, as the change in velocity of the machine is
more fudden or dlow.
In rolling mills, where the power which will be required

“is not to be eftimated, and at the fame time the refiftance to

the mill is not in aétion, a great proportion of the time, a
Jarge and heavy fly-wheel is neceflary; in this cale it acts
-as a colleGtor of power. If the workman has an extraordi-
nary large piece of metal to be rolled, he fuffers the mill to
‘work without obftru&ion a few revolutions of the water-
-wheel, that the fly-wheel may acquire fuch a velocity as
will overcome the refiftance to be oppofed to it, which is
perhaps far beyond the power of the mill to accomplifh
without fuch aid.

The coining prefs, or fly-prefs, is another example of the
fame fort. The momentum of a fly, put in motion by a’con-
tinued ation of feveral feconds, is expended in an inftan-

“taneous ftroke upon a piece of metal, afting with aftonith-
ing power. The fledge hammer may be inftanced as a
fimilar cafe. The power given to the hammer im a certain
{pace of time, is exerted in an infinitely fhort time, and with
proportional power,
. Tall cafes where the moving force is variable, a fly-
wheel muft be added, unlefs the refiftance can be adapted to
‘vary in the fame degree, A man, turning a winch by hishand,
-or a crank by his foot, can exert three times the power in
many pofitions which he can in others, particularly in the
datter cafe 1 a fly-wheel is, therefore, of effeatial fervice, and

ithe rotative motion obtained from the fteam engine is

«wholly dependent on the afliftance of the fly-wheel.

» Whe fly may be applied to feveral forts ofengines, whether
smoved by men, horfes, wind, or water; and is of great ule
dn thofe parts of an engine which have a quick circular mo-
‘tion, and: where the power or refiftance aéts urequally in
‘the different parts ofa revolution. In this cafe the fly,
without sadding: any new force,. becomes a moderator,
making: the motion of revolution almoit every where equal
and uniform ::thus the engine becomes more eafily and con-
veniently ated upon and moved by the impelling force 5
wind this isthe only advantage obtained by the fly.+ The
bett farm ofthis appendage to machines is that of a wheel
eugs a. ¥

or circle, of a proper fize, as this will not only be lefs
refitted by the air, but by being continuous, and the weight
every where equally diftributed through the perimeter of
the wheel, the motion will be more eafy, uniform, and re-
gular. In this form, the fly is moft aptly applied to the
perpendicular drill, which it likewife ferves to keep upright
by its centrifugal force; as alfo to a windlafs or common
winch, where the motion is quick ; for in pulling upwards
from the lower part, a perfon can exercife a greater power
than in thrufting forward in the upper quarter; when, of
courfe, part of his ferce would be loft, if it were not accu-
mulated and maintained in the equable motion of the fly.
Hence, by this application of force, a man may work all
day in drawing up a weight of 40 lbs. whereas 30 Ibs.
would occafion to him greater labour in a day without the
fly.
The force of a fly, when joined with the ferew, for
ftamping the image upon coins, may be calculated thus;
{uppofe its two arms to be each fifteen inches long, meafuring
from the centre of the weights to the axis of the motion,
and the weights to be fifty pounds each, and the diameter
of the axis prefling upon the dye to be one inch; if every
ftroke be' made in half a fecond, and the weights deferibe
an half circumference, which will in this cafe be of four
feet, the velocity will at the inftant of the ftroke be at the
rate of eight feet ina fecond, and, therefore, the momentum
eight hundred; but the arms of the fy being as levers, one
brachium of which is fifteen inches long, whilft the other,
viz. the femi-axis, is but half an inch, we muft increafe this
force chirty times, which will give twenty-four thoufand;
an immenfe force, equal to that of a hundred pound
weight falling a hundred and twenty feet, or near two fe-
conds in time; orto that of a body of feven hundred
and fifty pounds, falling 16 ,'; feet, or one fecond in
time.

Some of thefe engines for coining crown-pieces have the
arms of the flies five times as long, and the weights twice
as heavy as thofe here mentioned, fo that the effect is ten
times greater. Defaguliers? Exper. Philofoph. vol. i.
Pr 245+ 339: 4

Belides the utility of fly-wheels, as regulators of machi-
nery, they have been employed for accumulating or col-
le&ting power. If motion be communicated to a fly-wheel
by means of a fmall force, and if this force be continued
till the wheel has acquired a great velocity, fuch a quantity
of motion will be accumulated in its circumference as to
overcome refiftances, and produce effeéts, which could
never have been accomplifhed by the original force. So
great is this accumulation of power, that a force equivalent
to 20 pounds, applied for the {pace of 37 feconds to the
circumference of a cylinder, 20 feet diameter, which
weighs 4713 pounds, would, at the diftance of one foot
from the centre, give an impulfe to a mufket-ball equal to
that which it receives from a full charge of gun-powder.
In the fpace of fix minutes ten feconds, the fame effe@
would be produced, if the cylinder were driven by a man
who conttantly exerted a force of 20 pounds at a winch
one foot leng. This hasbeen demonftrated by Mr. At-
wood in hig * Treatife on Reétilineal and Rotatory Mo-
tion.” This accumulation of power is exemplified in the
Sling; and alfo in the méehine for contfing, as already ftated.
Meflis. Watt and Boulton have employed a new kind of ay,
called the *©Conical Pendulum,” for regulating the ad-
miffian of fteam ito the cylinder of the SreAm-engine, which
fees * : Y

‘Notwithttanding the great advantages of fly-wheels, both
as regulators of thachines, and collectors of power,their

6 atility

BLY.

utility wholly depends upon the pofition which is afligned
them, with refpe& to the impelled aud working points of
the engine. This pofition depends altogether on the ftruc-
ture of the machinery. It may be obferved, however, in
general, that where fly-wheels are employed to regulai: ma-
chinery, they fhould be near the impelling power. And,
when ufed to accumulate force in the working point, they
fhould not be far diftant from it. In hand-mills for grindiag
corn, the fly is for the moft part very injudicioufly fixed on
the axis to which the winch is attached. . It fhould always
be faftened to the upper mill-itone, fo as to revolve with the
fame rapidity. In the firft pofition, indeed, it muft equalize
the varying efforts of the power which moves the winch, but
when it is attached to the turning mill-ttone, it not only
does this, but contributes very effectually to the grinding
of corn, Fergufon’s Mechanics, by Brewtter, vol. i.

Fry-pre/s, an inftrument of mott extenfive ufe in many
manufactures for ftamping or ‘cutting {mall articles in
metal. It confilts of achiflel, punch, or cutting-tool, moved
by a fcrew, which is furnifhed with weights acting as a fly.
When thefe are turned rapidly round, the tool exerts an
immenfe power on eny fubftance fubjected to its aétion.
The prefs is often ufed without the fly, and is full called,
though improperly, a fly-prefs.

Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, of Plate XXVII. (Mechanics) repre-
{ent a fly-prefs with its minor parts, fuch as is in common ule
in Sheffield in a variety of manufactures, which we fhall enu-
merate in their proper heads. A AA, jigs. 1 and 2, isamaffive
frame of caft-iron, of the dimenfions expreffed by the drawing
and fcale annexed. In the upper part of this frame a female
{crew, or fcrew-box is fitted, and the {crew B pafles through
it. The top of the fcrew_is fixed to a curved handle a 4 c,
furnifhed with a heavy weight c, which aéts as a fly, when
tthe handle is turned round by a workman fitting before
a bench or table, on which the prefs is faftened by two bolts
pafling through projeéting pieces, d, d, of the iron frame.
At e a piece of iron is faftened, projecting from the iron

frame, and fupporting a focket for the fquare iron flider f

to flide up and down through, and to avoid any fhake in
its motion. The focket can be at any time made to fit the
flider by the four fcrews (feen in both figures) which
draw the two halves of the focket together. The upper
end of the flider f is connected with the fcrew B, by a joint
which allows the {crew to turn round independent of the
flider, but obliges the latter to accompany the fcrew in
its vertical motion, either afcending or defcending. At the
lower end of the flider f, the punch or tool, g, is faftened
by a clamp-fcrew : it aéts in combination with another tool,
A, called the die, fixed below it in the frame by four ferews
i, as fhewn in fig. 3, which allow of its adjuftment in the
true pofition beneath the tool. The lower tool, or die, i, is
fitted into a block, which is held by the four fcrews, and
by this means the die can be quickly changed without
difturbing the prefs. The upper tool can be removed in the
fame manner by releafing the clamp-ferew which holdsit in
the flider f.

Thefe, asthe effential parts of the fly-prefs and its opera-
tion, are too fimple to require mveh explanation. The work-
man, being feated before the prefs, holds the piece of metal
to be aéted upon in his left-hand, and draws the handle @
towards him with the other: this, by turning the {crews,
forces the punch down upon the metal, and the momentum
of the weight c caufes it to a&t with fuch force, that the
refiftance of punching through a thick piece of metal is
fcarcely perceptible upon the handle. The principal part
of this power is gained by the fcrew as well as by the
accymulated vis imertie of the fly. For many perpoles

7

where the refiftance is but flight, the weight ¢ is removed :
the prefs acts fimply by the lever and fcrew. It {till retains,
though improperly, the name of the fly-prefs. This alter-
ation is intended to give the workman fuch a command of
the machine, that he can more quickly reverfe the motion
than will be the cafe when the fly is in aétion. This can be
only done where the refiitance is very flight. Nails, the
teeth of faws, open-work of fenders, and fimilar articles,
are cut with appropriate tools in this manner. Figs. 4.
and 5. reprefent fome of the tools to be ufed in the prefs ;
a isapunch, and 4 the focket, or die, for perforating a
circular hole, either with the view of forming a hole in a
metallic plate for rivetting, &c. or to preferve the piece
flruck out for boat-builders rivets, wafhers, or collets,
buttons, ornamental ftuds for fenders, and a vatt variety of
other purpofes in which {mall circles of metal are ufeful.
Thefe pieces are forced through the die, and fall through a
hole made in the frame A, into a {mall drawer placed
beneath the bench for their reception.

C, D, are another pair of tools, in which the die D
is emboffed to the fhape intended to. be impreffed on the
ornamental fluds cut by the former punch. Thefe are forced
into it by the flat furface of the upper tool C, In fome
cafes this tool at the fame time punches afmall hole by
which the ftud is to be rivetted to the article it is intended
to ornament, and the die muft then be perforated witha
{mall hole to convey away the fragment of metal forced
out by the punch. In many cafes thefe ftuds are intended
to be faitened on by a {mall pin projecting from their
lower furface ; in this cafe they are forged or caft in the
manner of a nail, and the point or fhank of a ftud being
inferted into a hole. In the lower die the upper tool is
forced down upon it, and imprints its figure upon its head :
it is plain that here the upper tool muit be embofled in-
ftead of the lower. A concave or convex figure is given
to the fmall circles before-mentioned, by making the end
of the punch a, fig. 4. concave or convex, and the preffure
it exerts to force out a piece of plate is fufficient to impofe
upon the fragment the figure of the punch. In fig. 5. E, F
are another {mall pair of dies for punching {mall circular
holes, and G Has a fimilar pair of tools for fquare
holes.

The manner of punching out the concave fhells for
{mall buttons, which are termed _/Ze// buttons, is deferving of
notice. Firft, {mall circles, (one of which is feen in the feétion
at r, fig. 6.) are cut out from plate-brafs, by a plain round
punch and die, fimilar to a, Ar. 43 the dies, (fig. 6.) are
now ufed. The circle of brafs, being placed over the hole of
the die L, is forced through it by the end of the other tool,
K, which being fmooth and of a fphericak figure, caufes
the plate of metal to aflume the fame form, and fall into
the drawer beneath in the ftate of s, when it is fit for ufe.
It muft be obferved, that the aperture through the die,
L, is as much larger than the tool K, as to admit the
thicknefs of the metal all round it, and the upper fide of
the whole muft not be left fharp, but rounded off, fo as
not to cut, but only bend the piece of metal in paffing
through it: alfo the circle of metal muft be larger than
the hole, that there may be a fufficiency to form the cup
or hemifphere s. The fize of this circle is fhewn by the
dotted circle r, in the plan fg. 6, which likewife fhews a
piece of brafs ¢, in the form of a fquare; it is faftened
upon the die, to guide and ftop the circle in the point
where it is concentric with the hole over which it is
placed.

The open-work in fenders, and ornamental fire-grates, is
ftamped out by the fly-prefs. Forthis purpofe the pattera

ante!

FL Y.

intended to be cut out is defcribed upon the-plate of caft-
fleel intended to form the fender, and by appropriate
punches the holes are fucceffively cut out. In this manner
the diamonds, lozenges, triangles, and other figures, we
obferve in thefe articles are removed with great facility.
This operation has lately received great improvement from
Mr. Proctor of Sheffield. By this new method a great num-
ber of punches, and of different figures, are moved at the
fame time, and the neceflity of defcribing the pattern upon
the plate is obviated ; whereas in the common method the
fenders mult pafs through the prefs as many times as there
are figures in the pattern, and it requires fome {kill and
judgment in placing the fender fo correéily in its true
pofition beneath the tool of the prefs, as to have no in-
accuracies in the pattern difcernible to the eye.

Fig. 7. is the prefs ufed for the purpofe, though not
exclufively, all heavy articles being ttamped in a prefs of
this kind. The improved apparatus is feen on the ground
by the fide of the prefs, where A A is the piece of tteel
plate, inclofed between two leaves of a frame B, fimilar to
book-lids. The leaves are two plates of fteel, hardened and
tempered ; the figure of D (fg. 8.) cut out in exactly the
fame pattern as the fender is intended to be. Thefe plates
are attached, by four ferews in each, to an iron frame B,
connefted by hinges E ; when fhut together, asat A A, the
apertures in the upper and lower leaves correfpond, and
the plate A is interpofed between them, A number of tteel
punchesof the proper figure,as'l’, are placed inthe holesof the
upper leaf, fo as to fillthem allup,and the whole is placed upon
the lower bed H of the prefs, and the flat iron bed [ being
forced down upon the punches by the fcrew, drives them all
through at once, and removes correfponding pieces from the
fteel plate A A. The punches fall through the plate, and are
received in a {mali drawer, beneath the bed of the prefs.
The {crew being turned back, the tools and plate are
temoved to the table K before the prefs, the book opened,
and the plate is put forwards through the leaves, fo as to
cut out another length. To enfure the parallelifm and proper
diftance from the former pattern, the Icaves have one
more hule in them than is intended to be cut out at the
operation. In fig. 8. a reprefents this hole, which is brought
to coincide with the hole cut by 4 at the former operation.
By this means, it is certain to be ina ftraight line, and to
keep it fo. A punch is put through the plate in this hole @
before it is placed under the prefs a fecond time, The
workman is feated upon the beam L, before the table K,
and finds the punches, which had fallen through into the
drawer, ftanding up in it in the true pofition; and he has
only to Hatter them to the leaves for the next ftamp.
At N is fhewn another pair of leaves ; and at fr. g. a picce
of the plate cut between them: n, are two of the punches;
the leaves are reprefented as opened to admit the plate,
and its pofition is adjufted by paffing two of the puaches
through the holes ftamped in the plate by the former
ftroke. ; ;

The prefs (fig. 7.) is of large dimenfions ; its frame P
double to give greater flrength; the lever R loaded at
each end with heavy weights. It is many feet in length,
though itis feen endways, and confequently forefhortened in
the drawing. The frame S S Lis placed beneath the furface
of the ground, and a circular walk is made for the two men
who run round with the end of the lever R, to give it as
great a velocity as poffible, that its momentum may give a
great energy to the action of the ferew. ‘The workman feated
upon L, is low enough to be beneath the lever as it moves
over his head. The ferew is pointed at the lower end, and
aéts in a focket on the top of the flider M; to the lower
~ Vou. XIV.

end of which the moving bed I of the prefs is faftened ; to
balance the weight of the flider.and bed, a lever X, aud a
heavy weight Y, are applied, which raifes them up when the
{crew is turned back, fo as to admit the work being placed
beneath the prefs.

Fry, in Rural Economy, a difeafe incident to facep, in con-
fequence of their being f{tricken by a fly, which produces 2
fort of maggot that eats into, and remainsin the flefh. The
fheep that are in a poor weakly itate, and in the wool of which
there isa deficiency of what is denominated the yoke, are the
molt expofed to fuch attacks, as the molt fuitable midus is, in
fuch cafes, afforded for the fly to depofit its ova in. After
the eggs are thus depofited, they are quickly hatched by the
warmth of the animal, directly eating into, and feeding
upon it when not guarded againft. Its attacks are the molt
frequent in hot funny feafons. In order to the removal of
the maggots, fome have recourfe to the cutting or clipping
away the wool about the parts affected, and afterwards to
the application of tar, or a mixture of train oi! and fulphur
upon them. When, however, the maggots are not com-
pletely formed, the parts are often only dufted with white
lead in the ftate of fine powder. Where precautions of
thefe kinde are negleéted, the fheep are {peedily deitroyed
by the difeafe. In fituations where the inclofures are
{mall and much furrounded with woods, it is effentially ne-
ceffary to keep aconitant attention to fheep, to fee that they
are not ftruck by the fly, as a few hours may often prove
of the utmoft confequence ia the removal of the difeaie, and
the fafety of the animals. ,

It has been fuggelted that the fhepherds in the midland
diftri&ts of the kingdom employ a variety of applications as
preventatives of the fly, efpecially with lambs. They find
train oil efficacious, but it fouls the wool, and makes the
fheep unpleafant to touch. An ointment, compofed of but-
ter, and the flower of fulphur, is in the higheit efteem,
In preparing it the butter is firlt melted over a fow firey
and then a proper quantity of fulphur ftirred into it, until
it becomes of a pretty thick confiftence, and rather firm.
In applying it, a piece about the fize of a {mall walnut is
rubbed between the hands, which ave then drawn along the
backs or other parts of the fheep. As infe&ts have certainly
their antipathies, it is ufeful and interelting to ind out
thofe of the fheep-fly. The manner of deltroying

g the mag-
gots juft noticed is both effectual, and when reforted to in
time, fimple and eafy. In tke part of the country mentioned
above, inftead of clipping the wool from the part which is
affected, and forcing out the maggots with the points of
the fhears, the wool is parted by the fingers, and the mag-
gots removed by the point of a knife, or diflodged in fome
other manner, without breaking the coat; and ther a {mall
quantity of white lead, finely {craped from a lump, is mixed
in the wool, which, by being agitated with it, is carried
down in an even mabner upon the part which had been af-
fected. It is found that a large quantity difcelours the wool,
while a little prevents any further .hacm from the maggots
that may have been left among it, drivinje them away trom
the wound ; and at the fame time promotesits healing. It
is {tated that in well thepherded flocks, that are feen regu-
larly twice in the courfe of the day, thére is no futch thing
as a broken coat. But though the practice that bas beeh
jaft laid down may be extremely proper ia many ales, it
does not always prove fuccefsful. The oxyds or calees of
mercury are found far more efie€tual in fome cafes of this
troublefome difeafe.

Fry, a difeafe in turnips, which is fuppofed to be
produced by a fly that eats the leaves. It has been obs
ferved by the author of the ‘ Philolophy of Agriculture

PD and

oy img

and Gardening,” that if this deftru@tive infe& be of the
fcarabeus or beetle kind, which arifes out of the earth,
‘it may be deftroyed by rolling. He remarks, that the
Chinefe are faid by fir George Staunton to fteep all
their feeds in liquid manure until they fwell, and their ger-
mination begins to appear, which they believe not only
haftens the growth of the plants, but aifo defends them
againttinfe&ts beneath the foil; and that to this, fir George
obferves, it may be owing that the Chinefe turnips efcape
the fly, fo injurious to them inthis country. An obferva-
tion of Mr. Guillet, in the Bath Agricultural Papers, feems,
he fays, alfo to confirm this idea. He afferts, that when
turnip feed is fown during rain, or has rain immediately
afterwards, the firft leaves are fo vigorous that the fly never
attacks them; or that the rain itfelf is fo inconvenient
to the #y as to prevent its appearance. It is likewife fup-
poled by the Rev. Mr. Stacy, in his ** Obfervations on the
Failere of Furnip Crops,’ that the drynefs of the foil at
the time the feed is put into the ground, and the great heat
of the feafon, by not fuffering the feed to vegetate quickly,
is a principal caufe of the deftruétion that fo frequently
takes place in crops of this kind. It is alfo afferted by
Mr. Exeter, in the Tranfaétions of the London Society of
Arts, that the fowing turnips in drills deeper than by broad-
caft, accelerates the growth of the plant, by giving it more
moifture ; whence it fooner puts forth its rough leaves, and
efcapes the depredations of the fly. He fpeaks highly of
the ufe of the drill, advifes the rows to be one foot diftant,
ufes three quarters of a pound of feed to an acre, and fows
them from one inch and a half to two inches deep. As it
is probable that injury may be done by fowing too deep,
as well as by the contrary, in either cafe it will be the moft
proper practice to conftantly choofe as moift a feafon as
poflible for fowing the fummer crops of this fort of plants.
And whenever the feafon is very dry, to have recourfe to
the fteeping of the feed for afew hours, but not more than
that, before it is put into the ground. It is hkewife fup-
pofed by fome, that by fowing raddifh, muttard, or fome
other fort of feed that this infe€’ may prefer when in the
ftate of young plants, at the fame time with the turnip
feed, the difeafe may be much leffened, if not wholly
prevented.

But another, and probably a better mode of guarding
againft and preventing the difeafe, is that of having the
Jand well evriched with manure before the crop is put in,
as by that means the young’ plants are rapidly pufhed for-
ward into broad leaf, when they become fecure from the
ravages of the tly: The footing the rows of the young
turnips juft as they appear, by {prinkling the foot along them
in a fort of ftream, froma feed lip, has alfo been advifed as a
fuccefsful practice, which was long ago known to Ellis.
Several other methods have been recommended at different
times, but nocertain mode of removing or preventing the
effeGs of this infeét on young turnip plants has hitherto
been difcovered. See Turnirs. .

Fry, in the Sea Language, that part of the mariner’s
compafs on which the thirty-two winds are drawn, and to
which the needle is faftened underneath. See Compass.

Fuy of an Enfign, is the breadth or extent from the ftaff
to the extremity or edge that flutters loofe in the wind.

Let Fuy the fheets, at Sea, a word of command, in cafe
of a guft of wind, left the fhip fhould overfet, or {pend her
top-fails and maits, to have the fheet go-amain, and then
the fail will hold no wind.

Fry the Heels, inthe Manege. A horfe'is faid to fly the
heels when he obeys the fpurs. See Hzets and Srurs.

° . = ¢ =:

ay

To Fry grofs, in Falconry, is faid of a hawk, when fhe
flies at the great birds; as cranes, gecfe, herons, &c,

Fry on Head, is when the hawk, miffing her quarry;
betakes herfelf to the next check, as crows, &c. See
Hawk.

Fuy-boat, or Flight, a large flat-bottomed Dutch veflel,
whofe burthen.is generally from four to fix hundred tons.
It is diftinguifhed by a remarkably high ftern, refembling a
Gothic turret, and by very broad buttocks below,

Fry-tool, isa very light narrow wooden fpade fhed with
iron, which the navigators of a canal ufe for cutting or
throwing out any foft clay, peat, or the like, and which
they do fo quickly and dextroufly as to keep two fuccef=
five pieces flying in the air together. ote.

Fry-catcher, in Ornithology. See MuscicaPa. ,

Fiy-catcher of Edwards, grey and yellow. See Topus
cinereus.

Fry-catcher of Latham, paradife. See Topus pa-

radifeus. .
Fry-caicher, green black-cap, and blue-headed green, Va-
rieties of the Certuta Spiza. ‘

Fry-catcher, yellaw tad. See Moraciira flavicauda, |

Fry-bane, in Botany. See SILeNE.

Fry-honey/uckle. See Lonicrra,

Fry-honey/uckle, African. See HAvceria.

Fy-tree, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by the com:
mon people in America to a tree, whofe leaves, they fay,
at a certain time of the year, produce flies. On examinin
thefe leaves about the middle of fummer, the time at whic
the flies ufed to be produced, there are found on them a
fort of bags of a tough matter, of about the fize of a fil-
bert, and of a dufky greenifh colour; on opening one of
thefe bags with a knife, there is ufually found a fingle full-
grown fly of the gnat kind, and a number of worms,
which, in a day or two more have wings, and fly away in
the form of their parent. The tree is of the mulberry kind,
and its leaves are ufually very largely ftecked with thefe in-
fe&t bags, and the generality of them are found to contain
the infects in the worm ftate ; when they become winged, -
they toon make their way out. The bags begin to appear
when the leaves are young, and afterwards grow with them ;
but they never rumple the leaf, or injure its fhape. They
are of the kind of leaf-galls, and partake in all refpeéts, ex-
cept fize, of afpecies we have frequent on the large maple,
or, as it is called, the fycamore. Philof. Tranf. N° 431.
See farther, Reaumur’s Hitt. vol. vi. p.34. See Puceron.

Fiy-wort. See SILENE.

Fiy-ifland, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, difcovered by Le Maine and Schouten in the year
1616, fo called from the number of flies found there. It
is covered with trees, but within overflowed at high water.
Some inhabitants were feen naked. S. lat. 15°. W. long.
150° 20'. , .

FLYERS, in 4rchite@ure, are the feries of fteps, which
taken altogether conftitute a flight, and any fin le ftep is
called a flyer, the treads of which are of equal breadth
throughout, and thus flyers differ from winders ; the treads
of the latter diminifh continually from the wall of the ftair-
cafe to the well-hole. yt

FLYING, the progreffive motion of a bird, or other
winged animal, in the liquid air. .

Flying is either natxral or artificial. ‘

Fryinc Army. See ARMY. , wi

Fryinc Gridge. See BrinGe. ,

Frying Camp. See Came.

~ Fiyinc, watural, is (aat performed by an apparatus, ep
ici ftr

t ov

FLYING.

ftructute of parts, concerted for that end by nature herfelf.
Such is that of moft birds and infeéts, and of fome fithes.

. The parts of birds, &c. ciiefly concerned in flying, are
the wings and tajl: by the firft, the bird futtains and wafts
himfelf along ; and by the fecond, he isaflitted in afcending
and defcending,.to keep his body poiied and upright, and
to obviate the vacillations thereof.

Tt is by the largenefs and. ftrength of the pectoral
mufcle, that birds are fo well difpofed for quick, ftrong,
and continued flying. Thefe mufcles which, in men, -are
{carcely a feventieth part of the mufcles of the body, in birds
exceed and outweigh all the other mufcles taken together ;
upon which Mr. Willughby makes this reilection, that if
it be poflible for man to fly, his wings mult be fo contrived
snd adapted, that he may make ufe of his legs, and not his
arms, in managing them.

The flying of birds is thus effected :

The bird firft bends his legs, and {prings with a violent
leap from the ground; then opens, or expands the jointures
of lis wings, fo as to make a right line, perpendicular to
the fides of his body: thus, as the wings with the feathers
therein, conftitute one continued lamina, being now raifed a
little, and vibrating the wings, with great force and velo-
city, perpendicularly againit the air; the air, though a

fee refills thofe fuccuffions, both from its natural inac-

ivity, and from its elafticity, which makes it reftore itfelf
after it has been comprefled, and re-aét as much as it has
been aed naghy fuch means is the whole body of the
bird protruded. The fagacity of nature is very remarkable
in| the opening and recovering of the wing for freth ttrokes.

To do itdirely, avd perpendicularly, it mutt needs have
a great refiftance to overcome; to avoid which, the bony
part, or bend of the wing, into which the feathers are in-
ferted, moyes fideways with its fharp end foremott, the
feathers following it like a flag.

, The-.refiftance the air makes to the withdrawing of the
wings, and confequently, the progrefs of the bird will be
fo much the greater, as the waft, or ftroke, of the fan of
the wing is the longer: but as the force of the wing is con-
tinually diminifhed by this refiltance, when the two forces are
come to be in equilibrio, the bird will remain fufpended in the
fame place; for the bird only afcends fo long as the arch of
air the wing deferibes makes a refiflance equal to the excefs
of the {pecilic gravity of the bird above the air: if the air,
therefore, be fo rare as to give way, with the fame velo-
city as it is ftruck withal, there will be no refiftance, and,
confequently, the bird can never mount.

_ Mr. Ray, Willughby, &c. have fuppofed the tail to do
the office of a rudder, in ftecring and turning the body
this way or that; but Borelli has {hewn it to be unfit for
any fuch office. The flying of a bird, in effet, is quite a
different motion from the failing of a fhip: birds do not
vibrate their wings towards the tail as oars are {truck towards
the ftern, but waft them downwards; nor does the tail of
the bird cut the airat right angles, as the rudder does the
water, but is difpofed horizontally, and preferves tle fame
fituation what way foever the bird turns.

In effe&, as a veffebin the water is turned about on its
centre of gravity to the right, by a brifk application of
the oars-to the left, fo a bird, in beating the air with its
right wing alone, towards its tail, its fore part will be turned
to the left; as when in fwimming, by only tlriking out with
the right arm and leg, we are driven to the left.

‘Add, that birds with long necks have another way of
altering their courfe ; for, by only inet the head and
neck towards this or that fide, the centre of gravity of the

whole being changed, the bird will proceed according te
this new direction,

Birds never fly upwards ina perpendicular line, but always
ina parabola, the line defcribed by projectiles. Ina direct
afcent, the natural and artificial tendency would oppofe and
deltroy each other; fo that the progrefs would ‘be ‘very
flow. Ina direét defeent, they would aid one another, fo
that the fall would be too precipitate. Indeed the hawk
we frequently find t.ke that advantage in feizing of the
partridge ; but oidinarily birdsykeep their wings expanded,
aud at reit, to retard their defcert; and at the fame- time
tlretch out their legs.

Iiyine, driifcial, is that attempted by men, by the
affiltance of mechanics.

The art of flying is one of the great defiderata of me-
chanics: it has been attempted in divers ages: the difco-
very of it might prove of great fervice, aud alfo of great
diflervice to mankind.

Nobody feems to have bid fo fair for that invention as
our famous friar Bacon, who lived near fix hundred years
ago. He not only affirms the art feafible, but affures us he
himfelf knew how to make an engine, in which a man
fitting might be able to carry himfelf through the air likea
bird ; and affirms, that there was another perfon who had
actually tried it with fuecefs. See the article Bacon.

The fecret confifted in a couple of large thin hollow cop-
per globes, exhaufted of air, which being much lighter
than aif, would fuftain a chair, whereon a perfon might
fit.

F. Francifeo Lana, in his Prodromo, propofes the fame
thing, as his own thought. He computes, that a round
veflel of plate-brafs, fourteen feet diameter, weighing three
ounces the fquare foot, will only weigh 1848 ounces;
whereas a quantity of air of the fame bulk will weigh 21555
ounces; fothat the globe will not only be fuftained in the
air, but will carry with it a weight of 373% ounces; and by
increafing the bulk of the globe, without increaling the
thicknefs of the metal, he adds, a veffel might be made to
carry a much greater weight.

But the fallacy is obvious: a globe of the dimenfions he
defcribes, Dr. Hook fhews, would not fultain the preffure
of the air, but would be crufhed inwards. ‘Therefore, in
whatever ratio the bulk of the globe were increafed, in the
fame muft the thicknefs of the metal be alfo, and confe-
quently the weight increafed: fo that there weuld be no
advantage in fuch augmentation.

The fame author defcribes an engine for flying, invented
by the Sieur Befuier, a fmith of Sable, in the county of
Maine. Vide Philofoph. Colle&. N° 1.

The famous bifhop Wilkins was fo confident of fuccefs
in this art, that he feems to intimate, that, ia future ages,
it will be as ufual to hear a man call for his wings when he
is going a journey, as it is now to call for his boots. See
Math. Magic, b. ii. ch. 7. Difcovery of a new World,
prob. xiv. p.135. Secretand Swift Meffenger, ch.iv. See
AEROSTATION. -

Frrinc Butire/s, in Pointed Archite@ure. This is one of
the boldett and moft ftriking features of the ftyle of build-
ing in queftion; being a prop of mafonry work, raifed in
the air to fupport fome elevated part of a building which
cannot be propped immediately from the ground. Fis ing
buttrefles are generally feen on the outfide of our ancieat
cathedrals, and other large magnificent churches, ftretehing
over the fide aifles from the main exterior buttrefles to the
upper walls of the nave, to prevent them from f{pread-

ing.
The

4Y2

FO

The geometrical principle on which they fupport the
walls and the buttreffes, by means of the ftraight floping
line of their upper part, and are fupported by them, by
means of the arches beneath, is one proof, among{t many
others, of the ingenuity and f{cientific flill of the architects
of the middle ages.

Fryinc of Colours, is ufed by painters to denote their
want of durablenefs, which they exprefs by their /fand-
ing.
Roane in Ichthyology, a name given by the Englifh
writers to feveral {pecies of fifh, which by means of their
long fins have a method of keeping themfelves out of
water for fome time. ‘Che flying-fith, molt properly fo
called, is the exoceetus of the ancient authors, and of Ar-
tedi. (See ExocortTus.) Seea minute and accurate
defeription of the exocetus volitans, or flying-fith, in the
Phil. Vranf. vol. Ixviii. part ii. p. 791.

Fryine-/i/d is alfo a name of a fifh of the gurnard kind,
See Cattyonimus Lyra.

Fryine Pinion, is a part of a clock, having a fly or fan,
whereby to gather air, and fo bridle the rapidity of the
clock’s motion, when the weight defcends in the flriking
part. See Crock.

FO, or For, in AZythology, the obje& of religious vene-
yation and worfhip in China, and alfo, under various other
appellations, in different parts of India. Fo is fuppofed by
fir William Jones to be the Buddha of the Hindeos (fee
Boonu); and it hasbeen generally fuppofed that the wor-
fhip of this deity was introduced into China, together with
a few of his votaries and fragments of the canonical books
of the Indians, about the 65th year of the Chriftian era;
though fome have referred this event to fo late a period as
the year 630. See under the article Cuina, the account
of the Religion of the Chinefe. ‘The native place of this
pretended god is unknown ; nor can his origin and the ety-
mology of his name be fatisfa€torily afcertained. Some
fuppofe that he lived about 609 years before Chrift; and
that he firft appeared in the fouthern part of India, among
the nations fituated on the borders of the Indian ocean, and
thence difleminated his philofophy, by means of his difci-
ples, to all India. It is related by his followers, that at
the age of 19 he retired to a defert accompanied by fome
philofophers, to whofe tuition he committed himfelf. - At
the age of 30, it is faid, he felt himfelf fuddenly infpired,
and that he attained to the intnitive knowledge of the firlt
principles of all things, from which time he took the name
of Foe, which fignifies *fomething more than human.’
His myftical philofophy he is faid to have delivered to innu-
merable difciples, under the veil of allegory; and the Ja-
panefe add, that in his contemplations, during which his
body remained unmoyed, and his fenfes unaffected by any
external objeé, he received divine revelations, which he
communicated to his difciples. As foonas he became a god,
he thought of eftablifhing his doGtrine, and of proving his
celeftial miffion by performing miracles. The number of
his difciples was immenfe, and they foon {pread his opinions
through every part of India, and the higher extremities of
Afia. His priefts are generally known by Europeans under
the appellation of Bonzes. For an account of their charac-
ter and office, we refer to that article. ‘

Buddha, Xekias, or FGe, for by thefe and other names
he is called, is faid to have had both an exoteric and efoteric
dogtrine; in the former he taught the difference between
good and evil; the immortality of the fouls of men and
brutes; different degrees of reward or punifhment ina fu-

i

FOA

ture world; and the final advancement of the wicked, after
various tran{migrations, to the habitations of the bleffed,
This doétrine of the tranfmigration of fouls has given rife.
to that multitude of idols, which are reverenced in every
place, where the worfhip of Fo is eftablifhed. Quadrupeds,
birds, reptiles, andthe vileft animals had temples, and bee
came objects of public veneration, becaufe the foul of the
god in his tranfmigrations and metamorphofes might have
tnhabited their bedies. His followers alfo fay, that the
ged Io came upon earth to fave mankind; that by him
their fins are expiated; ard that ke alone can procure for
them happinefs in the hfe to come. They enjoin the
ftriG obfervance of five precepts 5 the firft forbids the killing
of any living creature; the fecoad, the taking away of the
goods of another; the third forbids men to pollute them-
{elves by uncleannefs ; the fourth, to lie; and the fifth, to
drink wine. They, above all, recommend the praétice of
certain aéts of mercy ; fuch as, tu treat their bonzes well, to
build monafteries aud temples for them, and to fupply them
with every thing neceffary, inorder that they may be able,
by the affiiltance of their prayers, and the penance which
they impofe, to merit forgivenefs, and the remiffion of all
their fins. The Bonzes pretend, that when Fo had at-
tained to the age of 79, he perceived that his borrowed di-
vinity could not prevent his paying the debt of nature like
other men; and, therefore, he would not leave his difciples
without revealing to. them the whole fecret and hidden
mytteries of his doétrine. Having called them together he
declared that till that moment he had always thought pro-
per to {peak to them in parables, and that for 40 years he
had difyuifed the truth under figurativeand metaphorical
expreflions ; but being about finally to leave them, he
would unveil the whole myftery of his wifdom. * Learn
then,’? faid he, ‘that there is no other principle of all
things, buta vacuum and nothing ; from nothing all things
have {fprung, to nothing they muit again return, and then
all our hopes end.” This is the fum of his efoteric or ine
ternal doctrine. T'o one of his favourite difciples he com-
mitted his molt fecret thoughts, and him he entrufted with
the charge of propagating his doétrine. He defired him
never to attempt to fupport his tenets by proofs and long
reafoning, and commanded him to put only at the beginning:
of the books which he publifhed ; “* Thus have I learned.’
In one of his works the fame Fo mentioned another matter
more ancient than himfelf, whom the Chinefe name ‘* O-mi-
to,’? and the Japanefe ** Amida.”? The bonzes affure us,
that the latter became fo eminently holy, that it is at pre-
fent fufficient only to invoke him, inorder to obtain imme-
diate pardon for the greateft crimes’ The Chinefe, thiere-
fore, on almott every occafion, have continually in their
mouth thefe two names, ** O-mi-to, Fo !”?

FO-HI, one of the tirft and moft celebrated legiflators of
China, and faid to be the founder of the Chinefe monarchy,
(See Cutna.) Little is known of the methods which this
legiflator adopted for civilizing the country: and the pre-
cife era of ‘his eftablifhment is fo ancient, that it cannot be
afcertained. An ancient book, called “* Yekin,”? which is:
ftill pyeferved in China, is aferibed to Fo-hi; but it is written
in hieroglyphics ; and no one has been able to give a {atis-
factory explanation of its contents. The nih robable
conjecture is that of Leibnitz, that it was intended to teach
the art of numeration. Fo-hi was fucceeded by feveral em-
perors, who carried forward the work of civilization, parti-'
cularly by means of moral allegories, fables, and poems.

FOA, in Geography, one of the Hapaee iflands, in the
S. Pacific ocean, between Haano and Lefooga, to both

4 which

FOC

Po it is joined by a reef, hardly half a mile from ei-
er.

‘FOAL, in Rural Economy, is the common name of the
young of the horfe kind. ‘The male is termed a colt foal,
and the female a filly foal. Foals, when they are of the
valuable kind, fhould always be kept as well as poffible
while they are growing, as without attention in this refpe&

they feldom make good hories. See Hoxsr.

- . It is contended by fome experienced horfe breeders, that
it is not by any means difficult to afcertain in the foal, what
the form of it will be when grown to the full fize, as it
will carry the fame fhape at fix years old that it carried
during the firft month, if it be not improperly managed
in the keeping afterwards. And it will have the good or
defective form accordingly. In judging of the height, the
fhin-bone fhou!d be particularly regarded ; where that is
large, and long from the knee to the pattern, it indicates a
tall or full fized horfe. And another method of judging is
that of examining the fpace between the knee and withers,
which being doubled will moftly give the height of the ani-
mal when full grown. The means of afcertaining their pro-
bable goodnefs at this early period is more difficult, but it
is commonly fuppofed that where they are attive, ftirring,
not eafily frightened, and anxtoufly ftriving for matlery,
they will prove well mettled horfes in their full grown
fate.

Foau-foot, a common name applied fometimes to the
troublefome weed termed colt’s foot. See Corr’s-faot.

Foat-teeth, thofe which are put forth curing the firft
year of the animal’s age. See dye of the Horse, and
Horssz. '

FOALING, a term fignifying the a& of parturition or
bringing forth inthe mare. Great attention fhould be paid
to the animals about this period, as it not unfrequently
happens that mares deftrey their foals by becoming en-
tangled in the ftables or other places, by means of their
halters, &c. or by the difficulty of bringing them forth. Ic
is the beft way to look to them frequently at fuch times.

FOCA, in Geography, an ifland in the Atlantic, near
the coaft of Guinea, and the mouth of the Calbari, with a
town of the fame name, called by the Dutch Wyndorp.

FOCAGE, or Fuace, fire-money, hearth-money, or
chimney-moncy. See Fuace.

FOCAT, in Geography, 2 town of Egypt; 20 miles N.
of Abu-Girgé. ;

FOCARO, a mountain of Naples, in Otranto ; 20 miles
NE. of Tarento.

FOCAS, atown of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon; 145
miles N.W. of Jedo.

FOCHABERS, a market:town of Scotland, in Banff-
fhire, confifting of one ftreet, on the right hand of the
Spey; 12 miles W. of Cullen and 9 E. of Elgin. Near it
ftands Gordon caftle, a magnificent feat, ina very exteufive

ark, founded by George, fecond earl of Huntley ; origi-
nally called the caftle of the Bog of Gint. Ai little below
the common ferry acrofs the river is the ford, through
“which the duke of Cumberland marched his army in 1746,

in the face of the rebels, who were advantageoully potted
on a rifing ground. Thence to Elgin, the foil,.for moft
part, is licht, moorifh, and barren. At the mouth of the
Spey is Garmouth harbour, where great quantities of
falmon, preferved in ice, are fhipped for London. From
this port fir-timber of a good quality is exported. _N, lat.
57° 36. W. long. 3° 3’.
F JAN, a famous village of China, 4 leagues from
Can id to be the largeit and moft populous in the
world ; it is called a village, becaufe it is not inclofed by
‘

E-O°e

walls, and hasnot a particular governor, although it carrieg
on a great trade, and contains more houfes and inhabitants
than even Cantonitfelf. It is reckoned to be three leagues
in circumference ; and to contain a million of inhabitante.

FOCHEA, Foceia, or Puoceia, a fea-port of
Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, fituated at the mouth of the
Hermus, in the gulf of Smyrna, anciently called Phocza ;

28 miles N.W. of Smyrna. N. lat. 38° 44’. E. long. 267
39". j
FOCHIA, atown of Bofnia; 75 miles S.S.W. of Bel-

grade.

FOESANI, atown of European Turkey, in Moldavia,
on the Milcou ; 54 miles W.N.W. of Galacz. N. lat. 44°
42". E. long. 27° 13!

FOCUS, in Geometry, and the Conic Scions, is ap-
plied to certain points in the parabola, ellipfis, and hyperbo-
/a ; wherein the rays refle&ted from all parts of thefe curves
do concur or meet.

The foci of an ellipfe are two points in the axis, on which,
as centres, the figure is defcribed; or two points in the
longer axis, whence two right lines, being drawn to any
point in the circumference, fhall be together equal to the
axis itfelf. Thefe are alfo called umbilici. See Conic Sec-
tions and Eiipse.

Focus of the Hyperbola. See Conic Sedions aad Hy-
PERBOLA.

Focus of a Parabola, is a point in its axis, wherein the
femi-ordinate is equal to the femi-parameter: or, 2 point in
the axis diftant from the vertex, by a fourth part of the pa-
rameter, or latus rectum. See Conic Sefions and Para-
BOLA.

Focus, in Optics, isa point wherein feveral rays concur,
and are collected ; either after having undergone refration,
or refleGtion.

It is thus called, becaufe the rays being here brought to-
gether, and united, their force and effe& are increafed ; fo
that they become able to burn; accordingly, it is in this
point that bodies are placed to fuitain the force of bura-
ing-glafles, or mirrors,

It muft be obferved, that the focus is not, ftnGly
fpeaking, a point; the rays are not all accurately collected
into the fame place: Huygens demonftrates, that the focus
of alens, convex on both fides, is {ths of the thicknefs of
the lens.

Focus, in Dioptrics, is the point wherein refracted rays,
rendered convergent by refration, do concur or meet, and
crofs the axis,

The fame point is alfo called the potut of concour/e, or
concurrence.

Focus, Virtual, is the point from which refra&ted rays,
when by refra€tion they are rendered divergent, do begin
to diverge or recede from cach other.

The fame point is alfo called pun@um difperjus, or point
of divergency, in Oppofition to the focus, which ts. called
the point of concurrence. Suppofe, e. gr. the concavity of
a glafs ta bea 6 ¢, Plate V. Optics, fig. 1, and its axis
de; let f g bea ray of light falling on the glafs parallel to
the axis d ¢, and let d be the centre of the arch a Je.
This ray fg, after it has paffed the glafs, at its emerfion at
g, will not proceed dire@ly to 4, but will be refracted from
the perpendicular dg, and become the ray g &. Draw then
dire€tly ¢ &, fo that it may crofs the axis in e. The point ¢
fo found, is called by Mr. Molyneux the virtual focus, or
point of divergence.

The effe& of convex glaffes, or lenfes, is to render the
rays, tranfmitted through them, convergent, and to
bring themtogether into a focus, which will be nearer or

farther

Ore

- farther off, as.the lens is a portion of a greater or lefs
phere.

The effe@: of concaye lenfes is to render the rays tranf-

mitted through them divergent, or to difperfe them from a
virtual focus.
_-For the place, pofition, diftance, &c. of the foci of rays
tefrated through plain, concave, and convex mediums of
divers deufitics, as air, water, glafs, &c., fee REFRACTION,
Lins, &c.

The laws of the fociof glaffes,and the methods of find-
ing thé fame, being thofe of moft ufe and importance ;
we fhall here fubjom themapart, as delivered and demon-
ftrated by Mr. Molyneux, in his ‘* Dioptrica Nova.”’

*t. The focus of a convex glafs, 7. e. the point wherein

parallel rays tran{mitted through a convex glafs, whofe fur-
face is the fegment of a {phere, do unite, is diftant from the
pole, or vertex of the glafs, almoft a diameter and half of
the convexity. ‘

2. Ina plano-convex glafs the focus of parallel rays, or
the place where they unite with the axis, is diitant from the
pole of the glafs adiameter of the convexity, provided the
fegment do not exceed thirty degrees.

The rule or canon in plano-convex. glaffes is as 107:
193:: (0 isthe radius of the convexity : to the refracted
ray taken to its concourfe with the axis; which in glafles of
larger {pheres is‘almoft equal to the diftance of the focus
taken in the axis.

3. In double convex glaffes of the fame {phere, the
focus is diftant from the pole of the glafs about the
radius of the convexity, if the fegment be but thirty de-
grees.

But if the convexities be unequal, or if the two fides be
fegments of different {pheres, then the rule is,

As the fum of the radii of both convexities : to
the radius of either convexity alone :: fo is the dou-
ble radius of the other convexity: to the diflance of the
focus.

Here obferve that the rays which fall nearer the axis
of any glafs arenot united with it fo near the pole of the
glafs as thofe farther off: nor will the focal diftance be
fo great in a plano-convex glafs when the convex fide
is towards the objet, as whes the plain fide is towards
it. >

Hence it is truly concluded, that, in viewing any ob-
je&t by a plano-convex glafs, the convex fide fhould al-
ways be turned outward; as alfo in burning by fuch a
glafs.

Focus, for the virtual, obferve, 1. That in concave
glaffes, when a ray falls from air parallel to the axis, the
virtual focus, by its firft refraQtion, becomes at the diltance
of a diameter and a half of the concavity.

2. In plano-concave glaffes, when the rays fall parallel to
the axis, the virtual focus is diftant from the glafs the dia-
meter of the concavity.

3. In plano-concave glaffes, as 107: 193 :: fo is the
radius of the coneavity : to the diftance of the virtual
focus.

_ In double concaves of the fame fphere, the virtual
focus of parallel raysis at the diftance of the radius of the
foncavity.

But, whether the concavities be equal or unequal, the
virtual focus, cr point of divergency of the parallel rays, is
determined by this rule :

As the fum of the radii of both concavities ; is to
the radius of either concavity :: fo is the double radius
of the other concavity ; to the diftance of the virtual
focus.

U S.

5. Inconcave-glaffes, expofed to converging rays, if the
point to which the incident ray converges be diftang
from the glafs farther than the virtual focus of ‘parallel
rays, the rule for finding the virtual focus of ‘this ray is
this: shige Linen

Ass the difference between the diftance cf this point from
the glafs, and the diftance of the virtual focus from) the
glafs : is to the diftance of the virtual focus :: to, is
the diftance of this point Gi convergence from the glafs :
to the diftance of the virtual focus) of this. converging
ray. ;

6. In coneave glaffes, if the point to which the incident
ray converges, be nearer to the glafs than the virtual focus
of parallel rays; the rale to find where it crofles the/axis is
this:

As the excefs of the virtual focus, more than this point
of conyergency : is to the virtual focus :; fo the
diftance of this poiut of convergency from the glafs.:
is to the diltasce of the point where this ray crofies the
axis.

Rules for finding the foci of glaffes—To find the focus
of aconvex {pherical glals, being of a {mall {phere, apply
it to the end of a {caleof inches, and decimal parts,and e,-
pofe it before the fun; upon the fcale you will have the
bright interfeétion of the rays meafured out : or, expofe it
in the hole of a dark chamber ; and where a white paper
receives the diftin@t reprefentation of diftin& objects, there
is the focus of the glafs. :

Fora glafs of a pretty long focus, obferve fome diftant
object through it, and recede from the glals till the eye
perceives all in confufion, or the object begins to appear in-
verted ; here the eye is in the focus.

For a plano-convex glafs: make it reflec the fan againf
a wall; you will on the wall perceive two forts of light ;
one more bright within another more obfeure: withdraw
the glafs from the wall, till the bright image is in its leatt
dimenfions ; the glafsis then diftant from the wall about a
fourth part of its focal length. ,

Fora double convex : expofe each fide to the fun in like
manner ; and obferve both the diftances of the glafs from the
wall. The firft diftance is about half the radius of the con-
yvexity turned from the fun ; and the fecond, about half th
radius of the other convexity. f

Thus we have the radii of the two convesities; whence
the focus is found by this rule. ’ fk oy

As the fum of the radii of both convexities : is to the
radius of either convexity ::fo is the double radius of the
other convexity : to the diftance of the focus.

Focus, in Cafoptrics, is a point wherein the rays reflect-
ed from the furface of a mirror, or fpeculum, and by reflec-
tion rendered convergent, do concur, or meet. : 5

The effe& of concave mirrors is to colleét the rays falling
on the concave furface into a focus, ’ ‘thy

The effect of conves mirrors is to difperfe the rays falling
on them, or render them more divergent. :

For the laws of the foci of rays refleed from mirrors,
or fpecula, fee Mirgors. uae ;

The foci of concave glaffes are had by refleétion: for, as
a concave mirror burns at the diltance of about half
the radins of the concavity ; fo a concave glafs, being
fuppofed a reflecting {peculum, unites the rays of the
fun at the diltance of about half the radius of the con-
cavity.

To find the foci of all glaffes geometrically.—Dr,
Fe costes ae oh a oe reeblad fc : ing
the foci of {pherical glaffes of all kinds, bo neave
and convex; expoied to any kinds of rays, either pae

rallel,

¥OD

rallel, converging, or diverging ; under the following pro-
blem,

To find the focus of any parcel of rays diverging from,
or converging to, a given point in the axis of a {pherical
lens, and inclined thereto under the fame angle, the ratio
of the fines of refraction being given ;

Suppofe GL. (Plate V. Optics, fig. 2.) a lens; P a

int in its furface ; V its pole ; C the centre of the {phere
whereof it isa fegment ; O the objet, or point in the axis,
to or from which tlie rays-do proceed ; and-O Pa given
ray : and-fuppofe the ratio of refraétion to be as r-to s.
Then making C R to C O, as 5 tor for the immerfion of a
ray ; orasr tos for the emerfion (/.e.as the fines of the
angles in the medium which the ray enters, to the cor-
refponding fines in the medium out of which ic comes),
and laying CR, from C towards O, the point R will be
the fame for allthe rays of the point O. Laittly, drawing
the radius P C, if need be, continued ; with the centre R,
and diftance OP, ftrike a piece of an arc, interfeGin
PCinQ. Theline QR, being drawn, fhall be parallel
to the reflected ray; and P F, being made parallel
thereto, fhall interfeét the axis in the point F; the focus
fought. e
Gr, make! it, as C:Q)::. C P::,€ Ri: CF; ‘then’ will
CF be the diftance of the focus from the centre of the
{phere.

This author gives a demonftration of the method; and
adds various figures, exhibiting the various cafes of rays
either diverging or converging as they enter, or emerge
eut of, the furfate either of a convex or concave lens.

From this principle all the rules for the foci of rays
parallel to the axis, as likewife for the principal focus where
the rays neareft the axis do unite, are deduced. As,
_ Hence, 1. If OP be equal to C R ; the points O and
Care coincident, and the rays O P, after refraétion, run on
parallel to the axis. 2. If the point Q fall on the fame
fide of the axis, as is the point P; then the beams after
refraction do tend on, either diverging or converging, as
before ; but if Q fall on the other fide the axis, the diverg-
ing rays are made to converge by a convex, or the con-
verging to diverge by a concave glafs. 3. If O P do exceed
CR, the focus ts in all cafes on the fame fide of the glafs,
as is the centre of the {phere C. But contrariwife if O P
be lefs than C R, the focus falls on the other fide of the
glafs beyond the vertex V. 4. An object may be fo placed,
that the rays next the axis of a convex glafs fhall have
an imaginary focus tran{mitting diverging rays, when the
more remote parts thereof fhall make them converge to a
real focus. 5. If OV, the diftance of the object from
the pole or vertex of the glafs, be taken inftead of O P,
then will C Q be the difference of OV andC R; andas
that difference is to C R, fo is the radius CV to CF,
the diftance of the principal focus from the centre of the
{phere, whereof the glafs isafegment. Or elfe as CQ:
OP or RQ:: PC: to VF, the focal diftance from, the

ole of the glafs. Whence follows a acta rule for the
foci of all glaffes ; only according to Corol. 3. if OV do
exceed CR, the focus is on the fame fide of the glafs as
the centre of the fphere; but if CR be greater, then
the foctis is on the oppofite fide of the glafs: whence
it will be determined whether the focus be real or ima-

iary.
B What has been faid of one furface of the lens, is eafily
applicable to the other, taking F the focus for an objet.
. FODDER, in Agriculiures a term employed to fignify
all, fuch fubftances, as hay, straw, haulm, &e which are

OD

given to cattle with the view of feed’ng and keeping them,
Thefe fubftances, when blended together, are in iome
diftri@s particularly called fodder. In the giving of fodder
to all forts of animals, care fhould be taken! that walte is
not coinmitted by their having too much given at‘a time ;
and that it be well put into racks or cribs, which thould
be fufficiently numerous for the quantity of cattle. Where
thefe points are not properly attended to, there ‘mutt be
gieat lofs, net only by the fodder being littered about the
yard, but. from maty of the more weak cattle not getting
the quantity of food that may be neceflary for their fupport.
In ‘refpeét to racks, thofe of the ftaddling and bafket
kinds are beft for foddering, if made ftrong enough, that
is, fo as not to be overturned; for thefe racks may be
lifted up as the dung rifes in the yard, which thofe tixed
in the ground cannot be. ;

It may be obferved that opea winters make hay the
deareft, if a'hard froft and fnow happen to come at the
beginning of them, for if once cattle come to fodder they
muit be held to it, or they will receive great damage.
In wet or wafhy weather, all the hay that can be given to
cattle will not make them thrive fo well asin: fuch as is
dry and frofty. Hence fheds are highly ufeful, ia order to
fhelter them in fuch cafes.

At the beginning of winter, as the latter end of OGober
and great part of November, while cattle {till continue
out in the field at grafs, it is very neceflary to fodder them
early in the morning, while the hoar-froit hangs on the
grals, which they will not eat kindly off till the fun has
warmed it, and difflolved the hoary matter that hangs
upon it.

It is a pra‘tice in many places to tie cattle up to racks
to fodder. This may be done with great advantage with
cows, where the fodder is good as hay, or very good ftraw;.
but with young cattle, or fuch as have ftraw fodder only,
it is unneceflary. And as cattle eat their fodder when
frefh thrafhed much better than when it has been thrafhed
two or three days, efpecially if the {traw be but indifferent :
itis proper that this fhould be attended to by the careful
farmer,

As it is well known in general that little dependence
ean be placed on fending cattle out of the foddering yard
to grafs before the middle of May, the farmer ought always
to be well provided with winter-fodder, for his cows and
young ftocks, for this and the preceding months, as he
will otherwife be in great difficulty, and run much rifk in
his ftock,

In regard to the economy of cattle-huildings, it may be
obferyed, that to have feveral divifions over and above
what is conitantly ufed in the foddering-yards or back fheds,
or other out-houles, has great conveniencies in it; one of
which is, that.in.them the farmer can difpofe of and fepa-
rate his two-yearling cows, or other cattle, at the time of
bulling ; not only to keep -hem from the bull, but from the
other beats alfo, that would be leaping fuch cows, whereby
they may hurt each other, &c. efpecially as cows forward
with calf are apt to warp by leaping bulling cows. It
may therefore, in many cales, prevent much. injury te fuch
forts of live-ftock.

Fopper, Comprefed, a fort of fodder formed by cutting,
mixing together, and comprefling, by means of proper
machinery, various forts of coarfe fubitances, fuch as the
haulm of peas, beans, potatoes, and various other vegetables,
as well as clover, hay, {traw,, &c. fo as to make them
come into a narrow compafs.. The utility and advantages
of this fort of fodder have been thewn by Mo. Lawdon,

uh

FOG

a fudden cold is induced by a change of wind; the air then
is coldeit, next to it the land, and laft the water, which is
but flowly reduced in temperature, for the reafon juft men-
tioned. But the water being comparatively warm, will,
from that circumftance, be difpofed to give out a quantity
of fteam, which rifing into the cold air, is immediately
condenfed into fog, and wafted along the earth’s furface
by the ftream of air. Hence arife the fogs which mariners
often find in approaching land in frofly weather, and which
are fo common in London and other places where the tide
penetrates inland. The writer of this article lived fome
years near a river of go or 4 yards in breadth; on cer-
fain evenings in fummer, after fun-fet, a denfe fog was
found to accompany the courfe ef the river; it was ob-
ferved that this phenomenon never occurred but when
the temperature of the water was at leaft 10’ above that of
the air, and that it almoft always occurred when a differ-
ence of temperature to that amount took place; but it is
hikely that a lefs difference of temperature would have been
fufficient if the river had been broader. Some philofophers,
particularly Sauflure, maintain that fogs and clouds con-
fift of water ina veficnlar ftate ; or that the molecules are
furrounded with films of water: this opinion feems to re-
quire further confirmation, The effeét of fogs in appa-
rently magnifymg diftant objeis is notorious; it is an
optical deception: the fog diminifhes the brightnefs of ob-
jects, and confequently fuggefts a greater diftance ; but
when the vifual angle remains the fame, the greater the
diftance the greater is the magnitude: hence objeéts at a
moderate diftance appear to be magnified. See Croup,
Evaporation, &c.

Fo, or Fogg,in Rural Economy, isa term that properly
fignifies the fine foft grafs that immediately {prings‘up after
the hay crop has been taken from the ground; but which is
fometimes ufed for the long grafs remaining in the paftures
till the winter feafon. See Arrer-Grass.

TFOGARAS, in Geography, a town of Tranfilvania, on
the Alauta, the fee of a Greek bifhop; 28 miles W. of
Cronftadt. N. lat. 46°. E. long. 24° 34!.

FOGBARRY, atown of Bengal, on the borders of
Bootan.

FOGELN, a fmallifland on the W. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 38’. E. long. 17° 44.

FOGGAGE, a term applied to coarfe or rank grafs not
eaten down in the fummer or autumnal feafon by any fort
of live ftock. The praétice of fogging grafs lands for the
winter fupport of {tock has, it is faid, been found highly
afeful in different fituations. See Grass-Land.

FOGGI, in Geography, a town on the E, coaft of the
Wand of Bourro. N. lat. 3° 28/. E. long. 126° 24'.

FOGGIA, Francesco, in Biography, was a native of
Rome, a difciple of Paolo Agottini, and an eminent mufi-
cal compofer, who flourifhed from 1645 to 1681. In has
youth he was feveral years in the fervice of the court of Ba-
varia, and the arch-duke Leopold, afterwards emperor ;
but returning to Rome, he was appointed maettro di capella
tothe church of St. John Lateran, to Santa Maria Mag-
giere, to San Lorenzo in Damafo, and other great churches
in that city. Antimo Liberati calls him the prop and fa-
ther of mufic and true ecclefiaftical harmony: and fays,
that in his printed and manufeript productions he had mani-
fefted fuch a variety in his manner of writing as was feldom
found in the works of one man, being equally excellent in
the grand, the learned, the noble, the refined, the fimple,
and the pleafing ftyle. And in examining his works, this
-panegyric does not feem overcharged, as far as mufic then
went, which was nat arrived at melody, grace, or expreflion,

FOG

He lived to upwards of eighty, is celebrated by Kircher in
his ‘© Mufurgia ;’? and P. Martini has illuftrated his doc-
trine in the “ Saggio di Contrappunto,’’ with two admira-
ole motets from his eighth opera, in which there is much
ingenuity, and a greater variety of meafure than ufual in
church muiic of a century, where a movement in triple time
had feldom admiffion.

Foccia, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capi-
tanata, without walls, citadel, or gates ; though a principal
town of the province. It is neatly built of white ftone,
and has two or three good ftreets; the cuftom-honfe is a
handfome editice. The old town having been ruined by an
earthquake in 1732, its place was fupplied by the prefent
town, which was built with greater neatnefs and regu-
larity. In fummer the airis infalubrious ; and many of the
inhabitants remove during the hot months ; in winter it is
fuppofed to contain about 20,000 perfons, including ftran-
gers. Underneath all the large ftreets and fquares are gra-
naries, in which corn is preferved found from year to year ;
the orifices being clofed with boards and earth, and the
fides within faced with ftone. The importance of thistown,
both in ancient and modern times, has been owing to its be-
ing a {taple for corn and wool, and to a tax or regifter of-
fice, called «* Tribunale della dogana della mena della puore
di Puglia,” i. c. © The cuftom-houfe for the toll of fheep
that pafs toand from Puglia.”? It is under the management
of a governor, auditor, and two advocates, and has the
diftribution of a fixed affeflment upon all fheep that defcend
in autumn from the mountains of Abruzzo into the warm
plains of Puglia, where they yean, and in May they return
to the high country ; 16 miles S. W. of Manfredonia. N.
lat. 41° 25’. E. leng. r5° 38!.

Focoia. See Focuea.

FOGGING, aterm made ufe ef to fienify a particular
practice in the management of grafs-lands, which has been
chiefly confined to South Wales, and fome diflri€ts in its vi-
cinity. It is faid by Mr. Young to confilt in keeping the
whole growth of the grafs, in meadows of the upland kind,
free from both the fcythe and live ftock during the fum-
mer and autumn, and eating it off in the winter. It is ad-
ded that he many years ago knew a Suffolk clergyman whe
was in the regular habit of this fingular pra@ice, and who
fpoke of it as a moft profitable one. He farther ftates that
he has himfelf tried it three times, and conftantly with fuc-
cefs. Itis found that it thickens the herbage greatly, and
yields far more valuable winter and {pring food than any per-
fon would expect who never tried it. But it is fuggelted
that it fhould only be praétifed on dry land, or fuch as is
ina tolerably dry ftate.

The advantages of this fyftem of grafs hufbandry have
not however been fhewn by any correét ftatements ; and it
mutt be evident that conliderable lofs mu{t be fuftained in
fuch a full body of grafs remaining upon the ground for
fuch a great length of time.

FOGGY Isranp, in Geography, an ifland fo called by
Beering, in the N. Pacific ocean, near the weft coaft of
America, about nine leagues in compats. N. lat. 56° 10'.
E. long. 2027 45!.

Focey, Cape, the north-eaft extreme point of the above-
named ifland. N. lat. 56° 31’. E. long. 202° 46’.

FOGLIA, a river of Urbino, which runs into the
Adriatic, at Pefaro.

FOGLIANESE, a town of Naples, in Principato Ul-
tra ; 7 miles W. of Benevento.

FOGLIANO, a lake of the Campagna di Roma, near
the fea, with which it communicates. i

FOGLIETTA,

FOT
FOGLIETTA, Userto, in Biography, was defceud-

ed from an ancient and noble family in Genoa. He was
born in the year 1518, and was brought up for the profef-
fion of the law, which, however, he did not purfue, but
{pent much of his early life intravelling from place to place,
and at Rome, where he refided fome time, he made him-
felf known by feveral elegant treatifes and orations. rom
fome paffages in the latter, he is fuppofed to have been in
prieft’s orders, though there are no other faéts that go to
prove the circumftance. In 1559 he publifhed his work,
entitled ** Della Republica di Genova,’’ for which he was
profecuted, his property contfeated, and himfelf banithed.
The caufe of thefe harfh proceedings was the freedom which
he exercifed on the conduét of the nobles and great men of
the country. He had, however, the good fortune not to
bé wholly deferted ; he found a liberal patron in cardinal Hip-
polite d’Eite, who received him into bis houfe upon terms
of intimate friendfhip, and he was hkewife held in confider-
able eftimation by feveral other perfons of rank. To di-
vert his folitary hours in exile, he employed himfelf in writ-
ing a general hiltory of his own times, beginning from the
war of the emperor Charles V. again{t the proteftants. He
was the author of many other pieces of a mifccllaneous na-
ture: but the laft was the hiftory of his own country, of
which he lived to finifh twelve books, from the foundation
of Genoa to che year 1527. He died in the year £581 at
the age of fixty-three. ‘he hiftory of Genoa-was publifh-
ed by his brother Paul, who was himfelf a man of learn-
ing, and a good Italian poet.

YOGLOKE, or luexor, in Geography, the mott eafter-
ly of the Faroer iflands, towards the North, N. lat.
5 -lae ds

FOGO, a {mall ifland uear the eaft coalt of Newfound-
land: N. lat. 50” 2’. W. long. 54° 10’.

Foco. See Fueco.

FOHR, or Fora, an ifland of Denmark, near the coaft
of Slefwick, in the German ocean, about twelve miles in
circumference, with a {mall fea-port, and a fafe road for
fhips; the foil is fertile, and the ifland contains 3 parithes.
Ni lat. 54° 44’. E. long. 8° 31’.

FOHRAG, atown of Perfia, in Farfiftan; 18 miles S.
of Yefd.

Fourac. or Fohraj, atown of Perfia, inthe provinceof

Mecran; 260 miles W.N.W. of Kidge. N. lat. 23°.
W. long. 58° 20’.
FOHRN-Seg, a lake of Carinthia; 1o miles S.E. of

Saxenburg.

FOIANO, a town of Naples, in the Capitanata; 12
miles S.W. of Manfredonia.

FOIBLE, a French term, frequently ufed alfo in our
language. .

t literally fignifies weak ; and in that fenfe is applied to
the body of animals, and the parts thereot ; as foible reins,
foible fight, &c. being derived from the Italian fevole, of
the Latin fedilis, to be lamented, Aaa

But it is chiefly ufed with us fubftantively, to denote a
defe& or flaw in a perfon, or thing. Thus we fay, every

erfon has his foible ; and the great fecret confifts in hid-
ing it artfully ; princes are gained by flattery, that is their
foible: the foible of young people is pleafure; the foible
of old men is avarice ; the ible of the great and learned is
vanity ; the foible of women wd girls, coquetry, and an ate
fetation of having gallants.

Tt isaterm alfo ufed in Fencing, to denote the weakett
or third part of a blade, or that part of the farther extre-
mity next the point ; in eppofition to the fort which is the
flrongelt. .

ror

Yorure, Fr. feeble, as tems foible, the unaccented part
of abar. See Time, and Accent.

FOIL, in Fencing, denotes a blunt fword, or one that
has a button at the end covered with leather, ufed iu learn-
ing the art of fencing. The amateurs and teachers of fenc-
ing caution the learner never to fence in affaults with fhort
foils, but prefcribe them of a proper length, meafuring from
one extremity to the other three feet two inches ;. which
will enable him to keep a regular diftance, and execute hi
movements with a greater degree of juftuefs and dexter'ty :
and befides, this mode of praétice will preclude erroneous
habits which perfons are apt to contraé& by fencing with
fhort foils. See Sworn.

For, among Jewellers, a thin leaf of metai, placed
under a precious ftone, in order to make it look tranf{parent
to improve the colour, or to give it an agreeable different
colour, either deep or pale. Thus the effeG of giving
luftre is produced by the polifh of the furface of the foil,
which is colourlefs ; but if a ftone is wanted to be of a pale
colour, a foil of that colour muft be put under it. If deep,
a dark one mutt be laid under it.

Thete foils are made either of copper, tin, gold, or gold
and filver together : the copper foils are generally known by
the name -of Nuremberg or German foils. They are pre-
pared as follows :

Procure the thinneft copper-plates that canbe got ; beat
thefe plates gently upon a well-polifhed anvil, witha polifh-
ed hammer, as thin as writing paper; or pafs them between
a pair of fine {leel rollers, very clofe fet ; and placing them
between two iron plates, as thin as poffible, heat them in
the fire, then boil the foilsin a pipkin, with equal quantities
of tartar and falt, conftantly itirring them, until by boil-
ing they become white; after which, taking them out and
drying them, give them another hammering, until they are
fit for ufe. Care however mutt be taken not to give the
foils too much heat, for fear of melting ;. neither mutt
they be too long boiled for fear of attraGting too much
falt.

The manner of polifhing thefe foils is as follows ; take a
plate of the beft copper, one foot long, and about five or
{ix inches wide, polifhed to the greateft perfection : bend
this to a long convex, faften it upon half a roll, and
fix it toa benchor table: then take fome chalk, wafhed as
clean as poffible, and filtered through a fine linen cloth, un-
tilit be as fine as can be made ; having laid fome of this
upon the roll, and wetted the copper all over, lay the foils
upon it, and with a polifhed ftone and the chalk, polifh
them till they are as bright as a looking-glafs. After this
they muit be dried and laid up fecure from duft.

The beft method of preparing foils, fo as to give to co-
lourlefs ftones, as cryitals, pebbles or pafte, the luitre and

lay of diamonds, is as follows:

Take leaves of tin, prepared in the fame manner as for
filvering looking-glafles, and cut them into {mall pieces, of
fuch fize as to cover the furface of the focket of the ftores
that are to be fet ; lay three of thefe one upon another, and
having moiftened the infide of the focket with thin gum
water, and fuffered it to dry, that only a flight thicknefs
may remain, put the three pieces of leaves lying on each
other into it, and adapt them to the furface in as even a
manner as poffible. When this is done, heat the focket,
and fill it with warm qgnickfilver, which mutt be left in it for
three or four minutes, and then gently poured out. The
ftone muit then be thrult into the focket, and clofed with it ;
care having been previonfly taken that it may enter the
focket without flipping off the tin and quickfilver from any
part of the furface. The w oe fiould be well clofed ste

4 hee the

FOK

the ftone, to prevent the tin and quickfilver contained in the
focket from being fhaken out by any violence. The luftre
of ftones fet in this manner will continue longer than when
they are fet in the common way.

When colouring foils are wanted, thofe of copper, above
defcribed, may be either tinged with fmoke, or ftained, or

ainted with’ fome pigment or other colouring fubftance.
Fhe colours ufed for this purpofe may be tempered with
oil, gummed or fized water, or varnifh ; for red, in imita-
tion of ruby, carmine, with a little lake ufed in ifinglafs
fize, or fhell-lac varnifh, or bright lake in oil, fhould be em-
ployed: for the garnet-red, dragon’s blood, diffolved in
feed-lac varnifh, may be ufed; and for the vinegar garnet,
orange lake, tempered with fhell-lac varnifh, For the ame-
thyft, lake, with a little Pruffian blue, ufed with oil for
blue: where the effeét of fapphire is wanted, Pruflian blue
in oil, and fpread on the foil more or lefs thinly, according
to the liyhtnefs or deepnefs of the colour required ; for
the eagle marine, common verdigris with a little Pruffian
blue, tempered in fhell-lac varnifh, fhould be ufed ; for a
full yellow, yellow lacquer; and for the flighter colour of
topazes, the burnifh and foil itfelf will ferve, without any
addition. Fora deep green, the cryftal of verdigris, tem-
pered in fhell-lac varnifh ; but for the emerald, a little yel-
low lacquer fhould be added. See Dousters. Handmaid
to the Arts, vol. ii. p. 333, &c.

For, or Foyle, among Looking glafs Grinders, a fheet
of tin, with quickfilver, or the like, laid on the back-fide
of a looking-glafs, to make it reflect. See Forratinc. The
word ts formed of the Latin folium, leaf.

FOILING, among Hunters, the footing and tread-
ing of deer, which remains on the grafs, but fcarcely vi-
iible.

FOISSEN, in Rural Economy, is a term fometimes ufed
to fignify the natural juice or moilture of grafs, or other
herbage.

FOIST, a term ufed to fignify a mufty fort of {mell
among hay, ftraw, grain, axd other farm produéts.

FOISTY, having a multy difagreeable {mell.

FOIX, in Geography, a {mall province of France, before
the revolution, including Dounezan and the valley of An-
dérre, bounded on the N.. and E. by Languedoc, on the
S. by Ronfillon and the Pyrenées, and on the W. by Gaf-
cogne ; lying between 42° 25’ and 43° 20! N. lat., and be-
tween 1° 15/ and 2° go! E. long. ; fixty miles from N. to S.,
and towards the fouthern boundary thirty miles from W. to
E., but more northward its breadth is from 15 to 20 miles.
This province is travérfed by the river Arnége. It was
anciently governed by its own counts, and united to the
crown of France in the year 1607. It is divided into Up-
per and Lower ; the former, being mountainous and barren,
produces wood and pafturage; the latter, more level and
tolerably fertile, yields grains, fruits, and wine, and both
abound in mines, mineral waters, and natural curiofities.

Foix, a town of France, formerly the capital of the
above defcribed province, and now the principal place
of a diftri€, in the department of the Arriége, is an
ancient {mall town, at the foot of the Pyrenées, on the left
bank of the Arriége, with a caftle or a rock commanded
by two adjacent hills; 15 leagues S.S.E. of Touloufe.
he place contains 3,600, and the canton 13,322 inhabit-
ants, on a territory of 2924 kiliometres, in 24 communes,
N. lat. 42° 58'. E. long 1° go’.

FO-KIEN, a {mall but flourifhing province of China,
bounded on the N. by the province of Tche-kiang, on the
W. by that of Kiang-fi, on the S. by Quang-tong, and on
the E, by the Chinefe fea, It has few plains, but induftry

FOL

fertilizes even the mountains, which are difpofed in the
form of amphitheatres, and arranged in terraces one above
another. The valleys are watered by rivers and f{prings,
which defcend from the mountains, and which the Chinefe
hufbandman contrives to diftribute fo as to favour the cul-
ture and growth of his rice; he raifes the water even to
the fummits of the mountains, and conveys it in different
direGtions by means of bamboo pipes. ‘The mountains are
covered with trees nt for naval architeture, and the pro-
vince furnifhes mufk in abundance, precious ftones, quick-
filver, iron, and tin. Tools of fteel of various kinds, ftuffs
of filk, and cloths of furprifing finenefs and beauty are made
in this province. It is alfo faid to contain gold and filver
mines ; which the inhabitants are prohibited to open under
pain of death. In the bays, and on the coafts guarded by
fortrefles, great quantities of fifh are taken, which being:
dried and falted, are carried into the interior provinces of
the empire. This part of China acquires great opulence
from the trade which its inhabitants carry on with Japan,
the Philippines, Java, Camboya, Siam, and the-ifland of
Formola, and they alfo import from ether countries aloes,
cinnamon, pepper, fandal-wood, amber, coral, and other
fimilar commodities. Fo-kien contains nine fou, or cities of
the firlt clafs, and fixty Aien, or cities of the third clafs,
Its capital is Fou-tcheon-fou. ach city has its own pecu-
liar dialeét ; but the language of the Mandarins is fpoken
every where; few in this province underftand it; never--
thelefs, it produces a great number of literati. The climate
is hot, but the air is pure aud falubrious, The number of
inhabitants, according to the eftimate of fir George Stauuton,
is fifteen millions.

FOLARD, Cuartes, Chevalier de, in Biography, was,
born at Avignon in 1669. He received the rudiments of
claffical learning, and by reading Czfar’s Commentaries,.
became exceedingly defirous of entering the military
fervice of his country. His defigns were at firft thwarted
by his father, till at length, finding oppofition of no avail,
he allowed him to follow the bent of his inclination. He
ferved during the war of 1688, and was made aid-de-camp
to the duke de Vendome in 1702. In thefe campaigns he
not only diftinguifhed himfelf as a foldier, but acquir-
ed an exaét knowledge of the country in which the
battles. were fought, and drew maps and plans of every
thing which he faw, and which-was calculated to be fervice--
able to him in his future purfuits. At the battle of Caffano,
he was thrice wounded ; and afterwards, at the battle of
Malplaquet, he was wounded and taken prifoner. In 1714
he went to Malta, in order to affift in defending that ifland
againft the Turks. After this he vifited Sweden, and was.
entrufted by Charles XII. with negociating a plan, with.
the court of France, for a projeéted invation of Scotland:
for the reftoration of king James II. This {cheme having
failed he returned to Sweden, and followed the emperor to-
Fredericfhall, where that heroic prince was: killed by a
cannon fhot. (See Cnartes XII.) Folard ferved his laft,
campaign in 1719 under the duke of Berwick,. and from
this period he devoted himfelf to the ftudy of military.
tactics. In 1727 he publifhed his great work, entitled.
«¢ Commentaries on Polybius,’’? in fix volumes 4to. which
was, in fact, a depofitary of his military refleGtions and in-
ventions, and though it was not diltinguifhed for the neatnefs,
of its ftyle, and was moreover defeCtive in method and order,
yet it was highly efteemed as containing much ufeful matter,
Folard wrote a piece, entitled ** New difcoveries refpetin
War,” and fome other treatifes on military fubje€ts. In,
1749: he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of
London, and in 1752 he died at Avignon at the age of

FOL

eighty-three. He was a man of great worth and integrity,
and was entrulted during the laft forty years of his life with
the government of Bourbourg: he would probably have
rifen to much higher honours and more important duties in
the ftate, had he not been a zealous defender of the mira-
cles of the Abbé Paris, which gave offence to cardinal Fleury.
AA more elaborate account has been given of this diftin-
uifhed foldier in a work entitled “* Memoires pour fervir a
*Hiftoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard.’? Moreri.

FOLD, in Rural Economy, a {mall inclofed {pace formed
for-confining any fort of live flock, &c. Folds are of fe-
veral different kinds, according to the objeéts they have in
view ; and are effential in many cafes where a number of
animals aretobe kept. See Farm-yard.

Foxup Garth, the old term employed to fignify a farm-

rd or inclofed place in which cattle are confined. See

ARM-yard.

Foup-net, among Sport/men, a fort of net with which
{mall birds are taken in the night : there are two {izes of it ;
the leaft may be managed by one man, but the largeft mutt
be carried by two, and ufed thus: let the net be fixed on
both fides to two ftrong poles about twelve feet long, each
man holding one of them; let a third carry lights behind:
them, at the diftaace of two yards: the net fhould be
carried between the wind and the birds, which rooft on
their perches with their breafts againft the wind: another
perfon who beats the bufhes on the other fide of the hedge,
will drive out the birds towards the light.

Fo.p-/oca, in Law. See Faupace.

Fotp-yard, in Rural Economy, the yard where cattle of
different forts are confined and fed during the winter feafon,
Yards of this nature fhould be properly fitted up with con-
venient fheds and racks for the animals to eat their fodder
from, and have fuitable divifions forcontaining different de-
nominations of cattle, or other live ftock. See Farm-yard.

Forp, Sheep, the yard or inclofure in which fheep are
confined during the nights in the winter months. Yards of
this kind are not by any means fo common as their great ad-
vantages and utility would feem to demand. They are ca-
pable of being made the means of raifing great quantities
of excellent manure, at the fame time that they contribute
greatly to the health and prefervation of the fheep. Thefe
folds are of two kinds, as ereétions of the houfe or fhed
fort conitruéted for the purpofe adjoining to the farm-yards,
or fuch as are moveable and formed by art by means of
hurdles in the fields. In the former, which is {till the com-
mon practice in Fiance, Flanders, &c., the floors of the
fheds or houfes are occafionally covered with ftraw, fand,
or other light dry earthy matters, by which a large quan-
tity of valuable manure is obtained ; which, when applied
to cold wettifh foils, is highly advantageous in producing
abundant crops. It is obferved, however, by the author
of Modern Agriculture, that, fince a fpirit for inclofing,
planting, and improvements in general has been introduced,
the orginal breeds of fheep have been banifhed to the
mountainous diftriéts in the northern parts of the ifland,
where cultivation has hitherto been deemed impraéticable.
Within thefe few years, indeed, fome valuable breeds of
fheep have been brought from the fouthern parts of the
kingdom, but they are generally kept in gentlemens’ parks,
and are never penned or houfed; fo that he thinks the
quantity of fheep dung applied to tillage lands in the an-
cient ‘an er is very trifling compared to what it was for-
merly 5 ht practice exifting in thofe parts of the country
only which {feparate the lands that are generally or clofel
cultivated from the mountainous diftricts, where fheep-hul.

FOL

bandry, on a large fcale, and under a regular fyfiem, is
eftablithed and kept up.

Moveable houfes have been found in many diftri&s ex-
tremely beneficial in the management of fheep. See SHEep-
HOUSE.

The farmers of Hertfordfhire, as ftated in the agricultu-
ral account of that county, find much advantage from the
raifing of manure in thefe forts of folds. Atthe Grove the
earl of Clarendon is faid to have a yard that contains good
room for three hundred fheep, the number which is ufually
kept in it. It is furrounded by an open fhed, except on
one fide, where a barn is the tence; the outfide of the thed
is formed of wattled hurdle-work, without ftraw or other
materials, for coolnefs, left a greater clofenefs fhould make
the yard too hot. The ice is kept well littered with
ftubble, and yields from the above number of fheep eighty
large cart-loads of manure. And the fyftem is found to
agree perfectly well with the fheep, keeping them more
healthy than when they were left in the fields in the com-
mon manner. His lordfhip has likewife another yard for’
lambing, which has alfo a fhed conneéted with it. Mr.-
Bevan of Norfoll: is ftated by Mr. Young to have been
attentive to this ufeful praétice fo early as the year 1792,
having then a yard well fenced in for a itanding fold, in-
fight of the fhepherd’s windows, calculated for littering
and folding in bad weather. And that’ in 1852 he fourd
him continuing the praétice, and to be well perfiraded of
the great advantage of it; he indeed confiders it now as in-
difpenfable, and intends in future to have his flock-in for
yeaning, whether the feafon be good or bad ;- having con-
{tantly fifteen or twenty loads of hay ftacked up in it, for
the fheep to help themfelves at: he is faid to find this not
attended with any wafte. It is difficult, however, to con-
ceive that a number of fheep can continue pulling hay from
a large ftack daily, without trampling much of it under
their feet, and in that way caufing walte of the fodder. It
is a much better method to have the hay preffed tightly into
racks formed for the purpofe with the ftayes near together,-
and placed upon low wheels-fo as to be couveniently moved.

In various other diftriéts of the kingdom, the fyitem of
folding fheep in covered folds conitru€ted for the purpofe,-
has been fonnd a highly beneficial method by thole indivi-
duals who have had recourfe to it; and where it is well follow-
ed up during the months of November, December, January, -
February, March and April, with a fufficient fupply of litter,
a itn heats of at leait from fixty to feventy loads of very
good ituff, may be produced from not more than a hundred
fheep ; which will be capable of manuring two acres of land in
avery perfect manner. But the fame number of fheep, when
folded in the field, where the grafs land is even dry enough
for the purpofe, will not in the fame time manure in an
equal degree much more than one acre of ground. This
fully fhews the great fuperiority of the yard method over
that of the field.

The latter method, which is now the moft common, is to

en or fold the fheep themfelves upon the land, which on
dry friable foils in particular is found to produce beneficial
effe&ts. They are fometimes, however, folded ‘on old paf-
tures, but more frequently on lands in tillage, efpecially on
fallows, as a preparation for a fucceeding crop of wheat,
and on light foils, by way of top-drefling after the grain is
fown, or on fields of turnips. This lait method is moft
generally adopted in the inclofed and beft improved diftiGs
of the kingdom. The hurdles or rails which form the fold
are commonly about four feet fix inches long, and three
feet fix inches high, made for the moft part of either hazl>
or willow, About fourtcen or fifteen dozen of hurdles are
{ufficient*

FOL

fufficient to inclofe a ftatute acre. hey are ticd to ttakes
fixed in the ground at regular diftances, with {mall branches
of trees twilted when green for the purpofe. An acre is
conlidered as a {pace fufficient for folding from twelve to
thirteen hundred fheep. The fheep fhould mever be allowed
to lie above one night on the fame {pot of ground: and of
courfe twelve or thirteen hundred will manure an acre of
land daily. By thus connecting fheep-hufbandry with the
improvement of arable lard, much may in many cates be
effected, efpecially upon the more dry and light forts of
foil, where it is capable of being carried to the greateit ex-
tent, and where the quantity of grafs land either in common
or otherwife is alfo confiderable.
FOLDAC-E and Foux-Course. See Farpace.
FOLDEREID, in Ge ugraphy, a town of Norway, inthe
divcefe of Drontheim; 114 miles N.N.E. of Drontheim.
FOLDING Doors, in drchitedure, ave thofe that are
made in two parts, each part hung to each jamb, and their
other vertical edges meet each other, lapping the rebates
together when the door is fhut. See article Doors.
Forpinc Sheep, the practice of continmg them upon
arable or other lands, by hurdles or other means, fo as te
ameliorate and improve them. This is a method that is
much reforted to by all open-field farmers as a preparation
for wheat, and their chief dependance is upon this {pecies
of top-drefling, where the quantity of farm-yard dung is
infufficient for their purpofe. This mode of manuring is
peculiarly adapted to farms where there is a confiderable
extent of hill or common patture, or grafs lands that never
come under the plough. In fuch farms, by bringing the
fheep in the evening to the fold a confiderable quantity of
manure will be made that would otherwife be loft. If the
patture upon which the fheep feed through the day be good,
they may be folded without much detriment to the animal
for a great part of the year; but where the pafture 1s {canty
this cannot well be done, for the fheep will not be able to
pick up a fufficiency of food through the day to enable
them to bear the fatigue of travelling to and from the fold
and fafting all night; and unlefs the fheep have turnips or
hay during the winter their dung will be of fimall value.
It is a bad practice to crowd more fheep into a fold than
can lie down at their eafe, and it is equally bad to confine
young and old, ftreng and weak, in the fame fold. It is
far better to afford them room enough, and, in particular
cafes, to let them remain on the fame {pot two or three
nights till it is fufficiently manured. Feeding fheep in a
fold can only be praétifed upon light dry foils. Here it is
{till more neceflary neither to crowd the ftock nor to put
in the weak with the ftrong, for they will tread down and
watte the food, and in the contention for it the ftrong will
deprive the weak of their proper fhare. On fuch light dry
foils fheep will do good by giving it cohefion with much
treading ; but on clays or ttroag loams this does much in-
jury to the lasds; turnips or other green crops cannot
therefore be fed off in fuch foils, except in dry feafons, but
muft be puiled and eaten upon a dry ftubble or patture.
Upon farms entirely arable, where artificial grafles make a
imall part of the rotation, to bring the flock from the
pafture to fold it wpon a fallow, is fuppofed by fome to
be only enriching one part of the farm at the expence of
another: or, as Mr. Bakewell always called folding, robding
Peter to pay Paul. It is well known that heaths and fheep-
walks that have been fed time out of mind, but the fheep
conttantly folding on other lands, continue as miferably poor
ag they ever were at any former period. But befides this,
Jambs and ewes are damaged by folding, to the amount
probably of at leaft 15. a-head. Now the benefit arifing
6

FOL

from their dung is eftimated at about rs. 6d. a-head, which
leaves only 6d. each for the advantage of this practice. But
there is ftill another dedu€tion to be made on the number
kept, and loffes on flock. Divide one thoufand fheep into
ten flocks of one hundred each, by means of inclofures, and
twelve hundred would be kept eafier than a thoufand were
before ; and as to many of the diftempers and accidents to
which flocks are liable, fome of which are contagious, they
refult very much from this practice of folding the fheep.

It may be farther obferved, that if folding be fuppofed
neceflary on account of the manure, where farm-yard dung
is not made in fufficient quantity, and other manure is not
readily to bé obtained, a greater ftoék of muck might be
raifed by littering a dry part of the yard, or a warm corner
of fome paiture with leaves, ftraw, fern, or whatever litter
could be had in the greateft plenty, penning the fheep and’
feeding them there in hard weather, and letting them run
into the adjoining pafture only during the day im fine wea-
ther. A great quautity of manure might thus be raifed in
winter froma flock ; and provided they had ample room in
the pen, and were to be well fupplied with dry litter, the
fheep might fuitain lefs injury in thus lying warm and dry,
than from being folded on naked ground, often wet, and
in an open expoiure. However, where other good effe&ts:
are to be produced on land, befides thofe that arife from
the dung and urine of the fheep, fuch as their treading, and-
a certain warmth communicated to the foil by their breath,
their perfpiration, and the natural heat ob their bodies,
folding may be the moit advifeable means for obtaining
them that can be adopted.

Methods of folding—Mr. Young has obferved on this
practice, that a very great change has lately taken place
in it on inclofed farms, efpecially with the beft farmers in
the county of Norfolk. They are now, he afferts, fully
convinced that it is an unprofitable fyftem ef manage-
ment, except where the opennefs of down and common
fields renders it neceflary for the purpofe of confinement.
{t is contended, that the number of fheep that may be
kept on a farm without folding, is much greater than
that which can be fupported with it. This is a moft
eflential point ; and there is a deduétion from the farmer’s
profit in the injury done to both ewes and lambs by folding,
which is ftated to have been eftimated by the moft expe-
rienced judges, at from 2s. 6d. to 45. per ewe; fo that a
farmer fhould confider well before he determines to fol-
low a praétice, which, from a multitude of obfervations,
is pronounced unprotitable. Mr. Bakewell confidered it as
ftated above. And the arguments now urged in its de-

fence are not, it is contended, fatisfa&tory ; it is maintained,,

that if fheep be not folded they will draw under the hedges
and other places for fhelter in bad weather; if fo, the

ought to be allowed to do it, for more would be loft in
fuch cafes by forcing the fheep from fhelter, than the value
of their fold. Where this practice takes place, good thep-
herds will, in cafe of rain, get up in the night and let
their flocks out of the fold, knowing the confequence of
confinement on arable land in wet weather. The initinét
of thefe animals will, it is fuppofed, condu& them much
better than our reafon, not only where to fly for fhelter,
but alfo for choofing their own time to go to reft, and to
feed inthe morning. Thefe they vary according to feafons
and weather; but folding prevents it, and forces them to a,
regularity never called for by the weather, nor perhaps the
economy of the animals. It is added, that when egan
firft to entertain doubts of the propriety of folding fheep,,
onany farms, in which they can be kept to certain ‘ld
the night without that practice, he earneftly defired to

wry

FOLDING.

try fome experiments that might throw more light upon
the queftion than it was poffible for reafon to do; but to
effeét this comparatively was very difficult, as the trial
wifhed for’was fuch as fhould carry fome pofitive conviction
withit. But though he has not been able to effect this
fully, the trials which he has made may not be found detti-
tute of power to throw fome light on this interefting quef-
tion. The writeris perfecily perfuaded that it would have
been impoffible for him to have kept on the fame land
nearly fuch a tock in one parcel with folding. It is not
fuppofed that the fields would have carried three-fourths, fo
managed. Four drivings in a day make them trample
much food, difquiet the fheep, and transfer the choice of
their hours of feeding and re{t from themfelves to the fhep-
herd and his boy. While lambs are young they are injured
by this, and the ewes are liable to he hurried and heated ;
all which are objeéts that fhould weigh in the quettion.
When fheep are kept in numerous parcels, it is not only
driving to and from fold that affects them, but it is afferted,
that they are in fa& driving about in a fort of march all day
long, when the ftrongeft have too great an advantage, and
the flock divides into the head and the tail of it, by which
means one part of the fheep muft trample the food to be
eaten by the other. All this, it is conceived, points the
very reverfe of their remaining perfectly quiet in {mall
parcels.

It is, however, fuppofed, that the queftion chiefly turns
on the benefit to be reaped by the fold; forif that be great
enough to compenfate for the lofs by fuch circumi{tances,
the prattice may not be condemned. It is conceived that
the reafon why farmers are fuch warm advocates for folding,
arifes from the power it gives them of facrificing the grafs
lands of a farm to the arable part of it. heir object is
corn, by which they can carry off a farm whatever improve-
ment they bring to it. Grafs improved is profit to the
landlord in future, and tenants are too apt to think that this
is done at their expence. They do not at all regard im-
poverifhing a grafs field in order to improve a ploughed one ;
and it need not he obferved, that every fort of fheep-walk
is thus impoverifhed; fo that ancient walks which have
been fheep-paftured perhaps for five centuries, are no better
at prefent than they were before ; whereas mott fields fheep-
fed, without folding from them, are ina conitant ftate of
amelioration; this, it is faid, leads him to remark the
effeéts he obferved on feveral of his own fields. He care-
fully attended, during the courfe of a fummer, many gen-
tlemen over the fields, with a view to ex4mine whether the
sheep had feemed to have refted only on {pots to the too
great manuring of fuch, or on the contrary, to have dif-
tributed themfelves more equally : and it was’a pleafure’ to
find, that they feemed generally to have {pread in every
part, if not quite equally, at leaft nearly fo. The further
eircumftance of feveral old leys fed in the fame manner, when
‘examined in autnmn, convinced him, as well as his bailiff,
that the ground had been unquettionably contiderably im-
proved. hofe fields had carried a very bad appearance
for fome years, but they were, after fheep-feeding, of a

“rich verdure, and-as full of worm-cafts as if they had been
-dunged. They were heavily rolled ia November, but they
foon became rough again by worms, and demanded much
rolling in the {pring. And they had afterwards a greener
and more fertile appearance by far than ever they were
efore. It is added, that the whole of this circumftance,.
the value of which he fhall be able to appreciate in the trials
of future years, belongs to this method of dividing flocks,
»to the exclufion of folding. ‘The ‘fold is valuable, but fo
as the improvement of the grafs land, and may, for what he

(he

knows, nearly equal it when in addition however, the
greater number of fheep that can be kept is included, and
the favour done to them by letting them alone, there re-
mains in his mind no further doubt of the faét. It is re-
marked as common to hear ftock-farmers in open countries
fay, they have not thepower to manage fo. This maybe
very true, it is fuppofed, upon the major part of the farms,
but fuch have often many inclofures in which this manage-
ment might be applied without difficulty. But fuppofing
folding to be the fy{tem purfued, it may be remarked that
the farmers in thofe parts of the kingdom which under-
ftand it beft do not extend it fo far as they might: they
give over folding in November or December, whereas it
may certainly be carried on through the whole winter with
profit; even fuppofing that the practice is neceflary. Ox
thofe farms which have a perfectly dry gravelly paiture or
two, it is advifeable to fold all winter on fuch dry grafs
land. It muft not be attempted on moilt arable land, nor
on moift grafs land, but on dry paftures. The fafety to the
fheep is greater and the benefit to the grafs an object.
And it is {tated that there is another method of gaiving
all the benefit of folding quite through the winter, and en
all foils, which is that of contiving the fheep in the nigit in
proper yards, well and regiflarly littered with ftraw, ftubble,
or fern; by which means the flock is kept warm and healthy
in bad feafons, and, at the fame time, a furprifing quantity
of dung raifed: fo great a quantity, if there be plenty of
fitter, that the profit will be better than by folding on the
land. And a great improvement in this method would be
giving the fheep all their food, except their paiture, in fuctr
yards, as hay, turnips, &c.: for which purpofe they may

‘be brought up, not only at night, but alfo at nooa, to be

baited; but if their palture be ata diftance, they fhould
then, inftead of baiting at noon, come te the yards earlier
in the evening, and go out later in the morning. This is a
practice which cannot be too much commended; for fo
warm a lodging is a great matter to young lambs, and will
tend much to forward their growth ;. the fheep will alfo be
kept in good health ; and, what is a point of confequenee
to all farms, the quantity of dung-raifed wili be very great,
as has been already fhewn.

It has been remarked by the author of the Synopfis of
Husbandry, that the horned or wett-country fheep are to
be preferred by the farmer, whofe chief intention in. main-
taining a flock is to improve aud fertilize his arable land ;
and that in this refpeét the fheep forms a very material part
of the hufbandman’s riches: for to fo high a degree may
land be improved by a proper management of thefe animals,
that, with refpe& to light foils efpevially, it is, he con-
tends, fcarcely an hyperbole to atiirm, that wherever .a
fheep hath fet its foot, fome beucfit hath accrued to the
owner. The virtues of the fold are well known ;;belides
which, the keeping of corn clofe trodden in the ipring, and
thereby counteraGing the ill effe&s of the worm, is-a mat-
ter of fuch muterial import to the renterof thir foils, as to~
be a fufficient inducement to this-praGice.. Thefe fads are
fo univertally known and acknowledged, that in Hertford-
fhire, where every farmer is in a greater or lefs degree a
maintainer of fheep, its, he alerts, an?eftablifhed maxim
to date the good or ill fuccefs of a tenant from the extent
of his fold. Whilft the flock is kept up. to its orginal
number, and the fale of fat fheep repluced*by an equal tale
of lean itock, the owner is fuppofed to be in thriving and
profperous circumftances. On the contrary, when the
flock is fold off without being renovated by a freth fupply,
the fate of fuch a renter is anticipated by his neighbours, .
and.too often verifies the truth of their predi¢tiony-by a

rapid

FOLDING.

yapid declenfion towards bankruptcy and ruin. Such being
the ftate of the cafe, it may be no unprofitable inquiry, he
thinks, to trace out the feveral different modes of conduét-
ing this bufinefs. There are feveral ways of conducting
this economical plan on an arable farm: firft, by the main-
tenance of a folding flock; and this is either of ewes or
wetbers. In the former inftance, the lambs are bred on the
farm, and weaned for the purpofe of keeping up the flock,
as the old ewes become fit for the butcher. In the latter,
a proportionable number of ftone wethers’ mutt be yearly
purchafed, to make up the deficiency of thofe which are
fattened, or fold to the feeding grazier for that purpofe.
But if the farm is not fufficiently extenfive to admit of the
practice of folding, or the local fituation be fuch as to de-
cide in preference of a feeding flock, the turnips and fown
graffes may be appropriated towards the purpofe of fatten-
ing wethers, or the rating lambs for the butcher, either in
pens or in the field; the one diftinguifhed by the name of
houfe, and the other by that of grafs lambs. Whichever
of thefe methods is purfued, it is obvious that a propor-
tionable quantity of ground mutt be yearly allotted for tur-
nips, tares, rye, clover, &c.; without which it would be
a vain attempt to fet about the maintaining a flock of fheep.
But fince it 1s generally in the option of the farmer, with
proper management, to raife a quantity of food equal to the
fupport of his fheep, we will fuppofe that thefe matters
thave been properly attended to, and now proceed to enlarge
on each of the methods above enumerated. And firft, of
an ewe flock kept for the purpofe of folding. In order to
conduét this plan of hufbandry to advantage, a large tract
.of ground feems to be required. In farms where a due pro-
portion of pafture is united with the arable land, and thefe
paftures lie contiguous to the uplands, to wean lambs- for
the purpofe of folding is a very judicious method. But
where there is neither meadow nor patture land attached to
the farm, the bufinefs of an ewe-fold cannot be fo conveni-
ently practifed. On many farms in the neighbourhood of
‘Gravefend, in Kent, this plan is obferved to be very ad-
vantageoufly purfued, from the circnmftance of each of
thefe farms having a quantity of marfh land annexed to it,
at the rate of fifty acres of marfh to one hundred and fifty of
the arable. The method which thefe farmers purfue is to
buy in a number of ewes, equal to the fize of their farms.
If this purchafe is made at the Michaelmas fairs, the ewes
are then pregnant; if they-are bought at the {pring mar-
kets, they probably have lambs by their fides, which may
go to fold with their dams, and the ewes be turned to the
ram in the autumn. In order to obtain lambs at a proper
feafon, let the rams be turned among the flock in Odober,
at the rate of one ram to fifty ewes. Here they are to re-
main for a month, by which time the greateft part of the
flock will be im pre snated: and to afcertain this fact, it isa
cuftom with many people to befmear the fore bows of the
ram with tar and ochre, which eafily leads to a difcovery.
The breeding ewes may continue to go to fold every night,
till towards the third month of geitation. But it is to be
obferved, that in folding either ewes or wethers, but more
efpecially the former, a field of turnips fhould be provided
near the clofe where they are to lodge in the winter nights,
that the flock may not have too long a drift; for thefe ani-
mals are but forry travellers at beft: and in the winter time,
when the roads are become deep and miry, and the ewes
begin to be heavy in lamb, a long drift would be highly
prejudicial to them. Where fuch a turnip field does not
lie handy to the fallow, it will be improper to profecute
this bufinefs with an ewe flock, after the wheats have been

fown in November. When the folding is difcentinued, the

ewes fhould be driven into a pafture, where they may be
quiet and undifturbed, and be often vifited by the owner,
to watch with a careful eye any accident that may befall
them ; for fheep, at all times an helplefs race, are liable to
a variety of misfortunes in the time of geftation, peculiar to
that condition. Towards the latter end of February, the
ewes will be come near their time for lambing, and fhould
then be removed from the marfhes or low paflures, and
driven into the turnip field, or turned on a piece of dry up-
land pafture. If the farm hath produced a quantity of tur-
nips fufficient to fatten the wethers, a portion of which will
be yearly turned out of the fold, in this mode of conduéting
bulinefs, the ewes, for four or five weeks previous to the
time of lambing, may be lodged on that part which the
fattening fheep have gone over, where they will find an
ample fuftenance from the fhells which were left by their
predeceffors ; as thefe females do not require fo full an al-
lowance of meat as will be neceffary for them after they
fhall have yeaned; and too great a plenty would be very
detrimental to them. But this is to be obferved, that pro-
per care fhould be taken to prevent the wethers from break-
ing into the part deftined for the ewes, which at this period
require the moft diligent attendance from the fhepherd, not
only to watch the dijorders and accidents which may befall
them, but to maintain the feices in good repair, and to fee
that the hurdles are kept tight in the ground ; and to pre-
vent the inroads of {wine or dogs, both of which would be
apt to feize the lambs as they fall.

Summer folding.—This fhould commence early in the
fpring feafon, and as foon as the lambs are ina ftate fit for
it. ‘he lambing feafon generally commences about the
firft week in March, when the fhepherd will find ample
{cope to exert his fkill and diligence. As the weather at
this feafon of the year is generally unfettled, and the cold
often more fevere than in any former part of the winter, the
lambs, as well as ewes, frequently perifh through the in-
clemency of the feafon. As the ewes have lambed down, it
will be proper to remove them, with their lambs, into a
piece of turnips, fenced off for the purpofe, where they
may neither be annoyed by the lambing ewes, the fatting
wethers, or the {tore fheep, if there are any in the fame
field; and which, as has before been obferved, fhould be
kept feparate from the ewes. In this field, with the daily
allowance of a {mall portion of turnips, the ewes will con-
tinue to yield abundance of milk; and, in confequence
thereof, the lambs will grow fat, efpecially if the weather
fhall prove warm and iunny. When the lambs become
ten days or a fortnight old, the hurdles fhould be placed
in fuch a manner as to leave a vacancy at bottom, in dif-
ferent parts of the drift, where the lambs may creep through,
and take their range among the ftanding turnips. By this
management they will enjoy a free air, and a licerce to
nibble en the turnip tops; both which circumftances will
greatly contribute towards their future growth. ‘When
the fheep and lambs fhew by their bleating and uneafinefs
that they require a change of food, which they will pine
after when the turnips have advanced far in growth, and
the ftalks are become faplefs,. and the bottoms void of
nourifhment, they fhould no longer be confined on the tur-
nip field. In forward fprings, the turnips will be found to
be of little ufe for couples (fheep and-lambs) after the
middle of April, at which time the lambs will be fix weeks
old: let them, therefore, be removed out of the turnip
field, and driven on the rye, a few acres of which fhould,
in every autumn, be fown on farms where there is main-
tained a large flock of fheep. Indeed the rye often affords
a good bite carly in the month of February, in which cafe

the

FOLDING.

the blade fhould be eaten down, and a fecond crop will have
{prung up at the time he is now fpeaking of. Let this rye
be parted into divifions of two or three acres each; obferv-
ing the fame caution, with refpe& to the openings at the
foot of the hurdles, as was mentioned in the feeding of the
turnips. In very backward fprings, it frequently happens
that the turnips are all eaten off, as well as the firft bite of
tye, before the grafs has made an effort to fhoot, and the
farmer is under che neceffity of turning his.couples into the
marfhes by the latter end of March. In order to be pro-
vided with a remedy againft this untoward event, it is a
prudent meafure to lay in a piece of grafs in the autumn,
wherein there isa large quantity of old ¢are, and to fuffer it
to be flocked during the winter: by this regulation, the
young grafs will fhoot much earlier in the {pring among
this old rawett, than in thofe marfhes that have been taken
off more clofely by the feythe, or depafturing, and will in
all probability afford an early bite for the ewes and lambs,
when the winter feed of the uplands fhall be exhautted;
and as a fhift of wind and change of weather may fhortly be
expected, this will caufe the rye to fend forth a frefh thoot,
and furnifh a variety in the pafture, which, with occafional
fhiftings into the marfhes, and perhaps on a piece of for-
ward wheat, will generally lengthen out a fupply of food
for the couples, and maintain them in tolerably good heart,
even in thole fpriugs which are the moit backward, till the
winter tares become fit for their reception. In a kindly
time, the grafs in the marfhes will have attained toa decent
length, fo as to afford a good bite for the fheep by the tirit
week in April, te which time the turnips and rye will have
been competent to the maintenance of the ewes and lambs.
‘Towards the latter end of April, or beginning of May, or
perhaps the middle of that month, as the feafon has been
more or lefs favourable, the winter tares will have got to a
fufficient height for feeding. Thofe who have been accuf-
tomed to this mode of hufbandry will eafily conceive the
neceffity of fuffering the tares to grow to the period when
they fhall be nearly fit for the {cythe, before they be fed
off; namely, that at this time they yield the greateft and
moft lafting quantity of pafture. To this end, the field
fhould be parted with hurdles according to its fize, and the
number of fheep to be grazed thereon; and let the ewes and
lambs be brought out or the marfh when thcir bellies are
full, and driven into the tares; obferving that this be not
done at a time when there is any moifture hanging on the
haulm, either from dew or rain; for, as the paiture avifing
from thefe pulfe is exceedingly fucculent, the fheep would
run great hazard in feeding on it when replete with moif-
ture, as he has more than once experienced to his eo:
this animal, like all others of the ruminating tribe, being
very fubje@& to a diforder from repletion, termed Aoving :
and on this acoount, likewife, the folding flock, when firft
driven on the tares, ought to go thither with full bellies, to
prevent their feeding on them with too great cagernels and
avidity. At this time, the lambs will have gained fuflicient
ftrength to admit of their being folded with their dams, if
it fhould be found neceffary to the farmer’s occafions to
purfue this method. But in this cafe, it is to be fuppoted
that, the field which is to have this drefling be at no great
diftance ‘removed from the clofe of tares; otherwife the
drift will prove highly prejudicial both to the ewes and
lambs. The fummer fold is generally pitched on a fallow,
intended to be fown with turnips in the courfe of the fea-
fon ; and this bufinefs ufually commences in May. A fold
for three hundred ewes and lambs may be made to inclofe.
eight rods of ground ; and if the érundles fhall not feem to
be dropped fufficiently thick from one night’s dreffing, the
_ Vou. XIV.

fheep may lie a fecond night im the fame place, rather than
incur the hazard of injuring the. health of the couples by
confining them in too narrow a compafs. The time when
the fheep and lambs fhould go to fold is about eight o’clock
in the evening, and to be releafed at five in the morning.
Such wether lambs as are intended to be fattened, or double
couples, where the ewes do not give a quantity cf milk
equal to the demand of the lambs, or any othera which
may be obferyéd to fink in flefh, may, with their dams, be
taken out of the fold, aud maintained in a feparate pafiure,
where the grafs has attained a fufficient head: and fuch of
the folding ewes as appear to be weakly, or diftempered,
may, from time to time, be removed to the fame paftures
above mentioned, and fuffered to lie in quiet, till they are
judged able to return again to the fold.

It is added, that as it is likely that there will be fome
dry fheep in the farm, confilting of the two yearling we-
thers and tags, thefe are to be kept on more ordinary palf-
ture than the ewes and lambs; and as they have hitherto
followed them in the turnips, fo they muft likewife fucceed
them on the clover and tares. The couples are to be al-
lowed the firft bite, and the ftore fheep are then to be
turned into the field. In the marfhes likewife the fame me-
thod fhould be taken, of referving the moft forward growths
for this part of the felding-ftock: by fuch management
there will be two folds at work in the fame inftant, and the
fhepherd will find ample employment throughout the day.

After the tares are eaten off, the clovers and trefoil will
be ready to receive the flock, and here the fheep and lambs
are to precede the dry {tock and the fields, if extenfive,
fhould be parted with hurdles, that the fheep may not

fiaunch the whole piece before they have eaten half the

field, which would inevitably be the confequence if they
were permitted to range over a large cloie; for it is the
nature of this animal, when turned at firlt into a field, to
take a range over the whole fuperficies before it will fettle
on its feed. It follows, therefore, that a divifion of large
paftures will lengthen out their abode in them; i{majl
inclofures do not require it, which, by the bye, shews the
advantage ef thefe contracted pieces over thofe of wider
extent ; for in thefe {mall tields the fheep lie much warmer
in the winter, and a confiderable expence is faved in
hurdles, which in great tields are requived in great abun-
dance, befides the labour of {ettiag them, and the necef-
{ary delay of time where the horfes mutt be taken eff from
other work to.draw them to and fro. For thefe reafons,
{mall fields, to a farmer who places much dependence on his
flock, are far more commodious than large ones; but for
corn the peeference is to be given to thofe of wider domain.
A gootl fhepherd wil! be careful that his flock be driven
late to fold in an evening, and relafed early in the morn-
ing from their confinement, in order that they may enjoy the
cooleit parts of the day en the food. He wiil be cautious
that they are allowed a fufficient time to graze in the up-
lands previous to theic being driven into the fold, that the
may retire to reft with their bellies full, by which the
quautity of dug and urine will be coniiderably augmented.
He will likewife be careful in reviewing the hurdles, and
provide that thefe are fixed tight m the ground, leit by any
accident they fhould be thrown down during the aight, and
the flock by thefe means get into miichief, or mtermix
with other fheep; he will count his iheep regularly every
evening when he drives them to fold, and take a freth tale
in the morning when he turns them to their feed; he will,
previous to diimifling them from the fold, worry them gently
round the fame, in order to caufe them to dung aad ftale
pleatifully, that the manure may be Jeft ia tag ficid, other-
sa wile

FOLDING.

wife the greateft part of the trundles will be dropt on the
road, or carried on to the marfh, where, lying thin, this
dreffing can do but little fervice, and where it 1s not wanted
in any degree.

After the fheep have been fhorn, as they are very ten-
der for fome little time, tt will be advifeable to keep the
flock out of the fold for a week, and, during that time, not
to turn them on any pafture where there are thiftles or other
annoyances. If the weather fhould prove hot and dry at
this feafonof the year, the natural grafles and clovers are
generally fhort, and the farmer is at a lofs for a baiting-
place whereon to turn his flock previous to their going into
the fold, unlefs he hath had the forefight to raife a piece of
{pring tares for this ufe. At this time, likewife, the fal-
low ground works like afhes, and, by the heat of the fun,
a great part of the invigorating juices arifing from the dung
and urine of the fheep 1s evaporated, fo that it may be well
queftioned whether it be produ@tive of any material advan-
tage to fold the fheep at this feafon. ‘That the fheep are
greatly injured from being folded under thefe circumittances,
efpecially if their drift is at any diftance, with the inter-
vention of a dufty turnpike-road, for a quarter of a mile or
more between the marfh and the fold, as is frequently the
cafe, he is fully convinced: it would, therefore, perhaps,
be prudent to difcontinue the folding till the rains about
Midfummer, when a day’s work may be ploughed, ona
lay intended to be fown with wheat in November, and the
fold immediately fet on that part, and fo to proceed on
the ploughed ground; and thus the folded furface, although
the fun fhould ftill continue hot, and quickly exhale the
moifture of the dung and urine, will neverthelefs enjoy an
exclufive benefit of being clofely preffed by the tread of
the fheep, which will prove of infinite fervice, and which
could have been of no ufe on the turnip fallows, where the
fold had hitherto been fet. After weaning the lambs,
by continuing the fold at work on the lays in the manner
before noted till November, a flock of two or three hun-
dred-fheep will have dreffed a confiderable breadth of new
lay ground, and the wheat may then be harrowed in. But
now commences a method of folding, which is of more
importance than any which has preceded it. ‘This is, to
fold on the wheat when fown, the method of which is as
follows: firft, fow a day’s work ona lay that has been
ploughed ever fince the Midfummer rains, and the feed
being harrowed in, pitch the fold, and let the fheep he on
the new fown furrows; and fo continue every night till the
whole is completed, unlefs there fhould fall fo heavy a
glut of rain as to make it unadvifeable to lodge the fheep
on the damp ground; otherwife there will be no fear
of treading the furface too clofe after fowing; for on
light foils, a firm texture is abfolutely necellary towards
the future welfare of a wheaten crop, efpecially when this
grain isfown on lays, which, if not. well trodden, is fubject
to be mucheaten by the worm; but there need be no doubt
of the corn forcing its blade through the hardened furface,
although from its appearance a perfon unacquainted with
this bufinefs would deem it impraéticable. When the fold
fhall have gone over this firft drift, let another day’s work
be ploughed, fown, and harrowed in, and the fold continue
to run ever the fame in like manner as before directed, and
fo proceed till the wheat feafon is finifhed, and the corn
begins to germinate, when it will be proper to difcontinue
this praétice as quickly as poffible, as injury would be done
tothe crop.

Winter folding. —At this period the flock may commence
their winter folding, the manner of which is thus explained,
And fir, it isfuppofed that the farmer has taken care to pro-

¥ / e XK,

vide a due allowance of meat for his fheep on the uplands,
as likewife a fufficient tock of hay or pea-itraw forthem to
browfe on whilil in the fold, during the long brumal nights;
for at this feafon they will require fome fiteaaiiee in the
night, which at the ftummer folding was not neceffary to
be given to them. Let the fold be then pitched ona ftub-
ble, intended to be ploughed up in the {pring for a fallow,
axd let it be made confiderably larger than the fummer folds.
A flock of three hundred fheep ought not to be limited to
a lefs fpace of ground than forty rods, which is a quarter
of an acre, in which there fhould be placed a fufficient
number of racks, filled with hay or pea-ftraw ; and in this
fold they may lie two or three nights, at the option of the
owner. Whilft the weather continues mild and open, and
is not* attended with too confiderable a proportion of
moiiture, the fheep may run in the marfhes during the day-
time, and be baited in the uplands, on a piece of young
clover or other fucculent food towards the evening, previoufly
to their going into the fold: but when the weather be-
comes cold and wet, with fharp winds, they muft no lenger
be driven into the marfh, but be maintained altogether on
turnips near to the field where the folding is carried on ;
and if it does not fuit the farmer to apportion any of his
winter food for his folding flock, the bufinefs muft be al-
together relinquifhed, fince it would be highly improper
that the fheep fhould have fo long a drift in the depth of
winter. Whillt the bufinefs of the fold is going forward
on the itubble in the night, as before mentioned, the theep
may be employed during the day in treading the wheat, a
practice of great utility both in the autumn and fpring, and
which in fome degree anfwers the end of the fold, to that
part of the land which had not partaken of this advantage.
In the winter folding, the lambs ought not to fhare in any
degree, though they are fometimes penned in the fold with
the fheep after weaning-time. Towards Chriftmas, it will
be proper to difcontinue the ewe fold entirely, as the ewes
then get heavy in lamb, and might be greatly injured
through a longer continuance of this prattice. At this
time, therefore, the breeding ewes fhould be turned into the
marfhes, to lie quietly during the time of geftation ; and
if the folding be any longer continued, let it be with tke
young wethers and ewe tags, which are the leaft liable to
injury by it. :

Thus the winter folding being finifhed, fuppofe the feed-
ing wethers to be on turnips, and the lambs and young
fheep on the graftens, with occafional fhiftings on the fhells
of the turnips, left by the fattening fheep, and the breed-
ing ewes quietly lodged in the marfhes or low pafture
ands.

We now come to the method of condu@ting a folding
fleck of wethers, which is generally adopted by thofe
farmers only who poflefs not the advantage of breeding
land, as from what has been mentioned on that head, and
what remains to be faid on this, it will appear, on a com-
parifon, that the balance is much in favour of the breeder,
where the fituation of the farm will allow of the praétice.
But in order to maintain a folding flock where there is
no marfh land or natural grafs attached to the farm, it will
be neceffary that the arable land be fufficiently extenfive to
admit of raifing annually a quantity of turnips, rye, tares,
clover, and trefoil, in proportion to the exigencies of the
flock ; and if the farm hes in the neighbourhood of an ex-
tenfive common, the bufinefs of foiding may be carried on
toa much greater advantage. The fheep which are beft
adapted to this purpofe are thofe of the large Wiltfhire or
Hampthire breeds. But thefe are not calculated for the
purchafe of the farmer who wifhes te profit by his fold,

and

FOLDING.

and afterwards to fatten his flock on turnips ; fince it is
great odds if he will be able to provide them with meat,
equal to maintaining them in the condition wherein he
a a them, and by confequence he mutt either difcontinue

_his fold, or be content to fee his flock dwindle, and become

of lefs value the longer they are kept on the farm. But

_where the purchafe 1s made with a view of penning them

‘large wethers may be very proper.

immediately on turnips, to fatten for the butcher, fuch
Hampfhire wethers
are fomewhat lefs than thofe of Wilthhire, and either thefe,
or the inferior kind of Wiltthire, are beft adapted for fold-

ing.

a is added that wethers are purchafed by the hufband-
man at different ages, according as the economy of his farm
may direct his views. If lambs are preferred, thefe are to
be bought at the autumnal fairs, and will require to be

_kept atwelyvemonth before much benefit can be expected

from them, as the folding them at this early age, during

_the winter, might prove highly prejudicial to their growth.

Four-tooth fheep, or two-yearlings, are likewife laid in at
the autumn, and wili come into work immediately. As to

_the fix-tooth, or three-yearlings, and full-mouthed-fheep,

thefe are rarely if ever bought with a view to keep as
ftores ; for being arrived at their full growth, the profit to
be expected from them, except for immediate fattening,

will not be confiderable; and when fold off in the fuc-
ceeding winter, the owner mult again have recourfe to the
like expedient of renewing his fold, which would occafion

“his purpofe.

a.confiderable drain of ready money, and not fully anfwer
Whereas, by purchating young flock, either

lambs or tags, the original price is lower, and the lofs of

thofe which die by cafualty will confequently be lefs
feverely felt: befides that thefe fheep, having been inured

_to the foil, will be found to go through their work with

eater facility, and the hazard of their dying will be
effened in proportion to the time they have been refident
onthe farm. For thefe reafons, the farmer who keeps a
wether flock fhould make purchafe either of lambs or tags.

: Thefe tags, or two-tooths, are to be met with at the {pring
_ fairs, and may be folded after having refted a few nights to

fhepherd is equally ufeful to a
“fold at work, as to the breeding

_recover themlelves from the fatigue of the dult. A good
pede who keeps a wether

armer.
And now fuppofing the winter fold to commence at
Michaelmas, the fheep at this time are to be driven to and

‘from the fold, at the fame hours as was direéted for the

ewes, and when releafed in the morning fhould be turned

_to graze on the common, where they are to continue till

two or three hours before the time of folding, when they
are to be brought home and baited on a piece of clover or
other paflure, where there is plenty of herbage, that they
may enter the fold with full bellies. As the grafs on the
common falls off, it will be proper to relinquifh this
patture, and take the flock into the inclofures; fuch as old

_lays, clovers, &c. of which by proper management, there

will be always great ftore remaining on farms of any
extent, where this mode of hufbandry is purfued ; and where
‘there is not a large tract of arable land, that fheep feed may
he yearly raifed in abundance, ii will be ufelefs to at-
tempt it. Thefe paftures then, by favour of the autumnal
rains, we will fuppofe, have thrown out a tolerable bite of
‘grafs by the time the flock is taken off the common; and
from hence the fheep may be folded, till the ftate of the
“weather renders it neceflary to remove them on the turnips,
of which the writer likewife prefumes there is no deficiency.
From the turnip field they may be driven every night into
fold, till the further progrefs of the winter renders it ne-

ceffary to difcontinue this bufinefs. In folding wethers, it
is prudent to take in a large compafs of ground in the
winter time, as hath been before obferved in [peaking.of the
ewe fold. Racks filled with hay and pea haulm fhould be
ftanding at this feafon within the fold. As there will be
annually a number of the full-monthed fheep drafted off for
fattening, and as fuch forward wethers will have been
fome time at turnips before it is neceflary to turn on the
ftore fheep, thefe latter may fucceed the former wethers,
and be made to eat up the hulls which they had left behind.
As to the lambs, thefe fhould be always kept to a good and
plentiful diet during the winter; by which management
they will probably gain a larger fize than they could have
poflibly reached if they had not been allowed a great
lenty of meat whilft they were young. The fame rule

holds with colts, calves, and other young animals, which, if
ftinted in aliment during their growth, will always carry
with them fufficient ratte to denote this improper manage-
ment throughout the remaining part of their lives. This
being the cafe, it is evident that fome of the beft pafture
and mott prolific grattens fhould be allowed for the lambs
till the turnips are ready for feeding, when this young
ftock ought to come in for their fhare of that root. By
ths mode of treatment they will make large tags in the next
year, and prove a valuable addition to the fold. In buying
lambs, which are hereafter intended to compofe a folding
flock, the purchafer will do well to be directed more by the
fize of the young creature than by its corpulency. As the
{pring advances, the fat fheep will continue to be fold off,
which will enlarge the circuit for the {tone wethers, fo that
on land in any degree kindly for the cultivation of turnips,
a fufficient quantity of this root may be raifed for the
winter fupport of the folding flock. As to thofe fheep
which are intended to be fattened, it muft never be per-
mitted for them to entrench too far on the provilion of the
flock ; therefore, when the turnips are flight, it is found
to anfwer better the intereft of the farmer to fell the
full-mouthed wethers out of the fold at Michaelmas, than to
fuffer them, on the expectation of bringing in fome ready
money towards the {pring, to devour the meat which
ought to have been referved for the flock, and without
which the {tore fieep will fink in flefh, and the farmer in
the end will be confiderably out of pocket in the profecution
of this f{cheme. When the turnips are eaten off, the flock
may be turned on the rye; or if this feed hath got to
a good bite in the month of February, which frequently
happens in mild winters, and on land that is in tdletably
good heart, the folding wethers may be occafionally fhifted
from the turnips to the rye field, and when they have
eaten down this latter, be removed back on the turnips,
and afterwards driven again on the rye when the blade
fhall have arifen toa fecond bite; obferving that this food
fhould never be allowed to ftand till it begins to be on
the fpindle, for after that time it foon lofes its fuccu-
lency, and becomes unfit for this ufe. It is therefore in
the early part of the {pring, only whilft it continues ia
its herbaceous ftate, that rye is for any ule for fheep
feed; as in a forward {pring it forms its fpindle towards
the beginning of April, it ‘hould feem that no material
benefit can be derived from it after thofe winters which
have been attended witha coufiderable length of froft,
fo as to prevent it from growing to a head for fheep
feed in the months of February and March; for it is in
thefe two months when rye is of the greateit advantage.
In very backward {prings, however, rye may continue to
be fed much later than the period here mentioned, and be
faund very ufeful at fuch times, when, from the ungental
sA3 weather

FOL

weather in thefe late #prings, the tare and clover fields are
fluggith in their vegetation and growth.

The whole of the fields of rye and turnips having been
fed off, the rye grafs will by this time have formed a fhoot,
and will afford a wholefome food, on which, with alternate

_removals to the old lays and young clovers, the flock will find

fufficient pafturage till the time advances for turning them
on the common, when the fummer folding will commence.
The lambs which were bought in at the la{t {pring fairs are
now become tags or two-tooths, and thofe which were
bought in tags at Michaelmas are become four-tooths, or
two-yearlings. Thefe will now allof them go to the fold
together, and feed in the fame pafture, that is, on the com-
mon during the day time, and %n_ the evening, previous to
the time of folding, are to be baited on the clover, &c.
that they may go into the fold with full bellies. At the
{pring fairs tags may be bought to fupply the place of thofe
old fheep which were fold off, and thefe may conveniently
go to fold with the reft ; and if at Michaelmas it fhould be
found neceflary to increafe the number, either lambs or two-
yearlings may then be purchafed, at the option of the far-
mer; and by this management, if the mafter is cautious in
Jaying out his money, and the fhepherd diligent in his office,
a wether ftock may be maintained to great advantage on
thofe farms where there is a confiderable traGt of land, and
anadjoining common. And thus by obferving to lay down
the moft fterile part of the land, and that which is at the
fartheft diftance from home, with rye-grafs, and when worn
out to plough it up, end after having reaped one crop of corn,
to fow it again with rye grafs, and by folding on fuch part
of the land as will admit of being kept in tillage, with al-
ternate growths of clover, trefoil, &c. the pooreft foils
may be made to anfwer the purpofes of the hufbandman.
And it is by the profecution of this mode of agriculture
alone, that fuch poor, thin, and hungry ground can be cul-
tivated to any good account; forif the renter, cither from
want of mowey, or through ignorance, fhould negleé to
keep a folding flock on thefe barren farms, and place his
whole depetdence on the plough and the feed-crop, a few
years would cenvince him of his error, and, unlefs his re-
fources were very ample, bankruptcy and ruin would inevi-
tably enfue.

It has long fince been remarked in the third volume of his
« Effays on Agriculture and Rural Affairs,’’ that much
amelioration and improvement may frequently be effected in
bringing watte land into cultivation by the folding of fheep,
provided it be condu@ted with proper attention to the fea-
fon, the nature of the land, the courfe of crops, and the
having a fufficient number of folds, according to the ex-
tent and fituation of the land.

FOLDS, in the Manufa@ures. See Crotn, &c.

Foups of the Drapery, in Painting. See Drapery.

FOLENGIO, or’ Forenoius, Joun Baptisr, in
Biography, was born at Mantua in the year 1490, and at
the age of fixteen he entered into a Benediétine monattery
iz his native city, where bis talents and induftry obtained for
him a high reputation for proficiency in literature, and fa-
cred critici{m, while the excellence of his difpofition ren.
dered him an objeét of general efteem. He was felected to
fill the moft important and diftinguifhed itations in his or-
der, and he was afterwards chofen by pope Paul IV. as vi-
fiter ef the BenediGtine foundations in Spain. When he
thad performed this tafk hr had returned to his native coun-
try, and devoted himfelfalmoft wholly to theological ttudigs.
His mind was liberal, and he was defirous of reforming
the church, and of uniting Catholics and Proteftants in one
communion. After a life {pent in the fervice of his fellow

4

FOL

creatures, he died in 1559, in his feventieth year, -He left
behind him many theological works, of which the principal
were ** Commentaries upon the Epiftles of St. James, St.
Peter, and the firft epiftle of St. John,”? publifhed an 1555
in 8vo.; alfo, a * Commentary upon the Pfalms.” Thete
works were diftinguifhed for erudition, piety, and liberali-
ty, and were foon prohibited by the chureh of which he
was an ornament. ‘The latter was reprinted at Rome by or-
der. of pope Gregory XII[. in 1585, being firft revifed,
and curtailed of fome offenfive paflages. Dupin, {peaking
of the labours of Folengio, fays, that he ‘ writes purely and
nobly, and Thuanus had reafon to fay, that no man will
ever repent the reading of hiscommentaries.”” Moreri.

FOLENGO, Tueornizus, known in the poetical
world by the name of “* Merlin Coccaye,” 1s celebrated
for the {pecies of poetry called macaronic. He was born
at Cipada, near the lake of Mantua, about the year 149r-
He was, in carly life, initiated in the ftudics of polite litera-
tureand philofophy, and at the age of fixteen entered the
order of St. Bencdi@, and changed his name of Jerome to
that of Theophilus ; but his paflions were ill adapted to the
contined limits of a monaftery, and he paffled eleven years,
after he quitted the cloilter, in a rambling kind of life, dur-
ing which he compofed and publifhed at Venice his macaro-
nic verfes. his mode of writing, which has not very fre-
quently been imitated with fuceefs, confilts in interweaving
with Latin verfe a number of words and phrafes in the ver-
nacular tongue, thrown in at random, and made to fit the
metre by Latin terminations. Folengo, if not the inventor
of macaronic verfe, was the firft who brought it into vogue.
He was, however, capable of a higher {pecies of compoti-
tion, and would probably have excelled in pure and elegant
poetry, had not the love of novelty led him into this extra-
vagance. The late learned Dr. Geddes, the tranflator of
the early books of the fcriptures, wrote, about the year
1790, two or three macaronic poems, which he circulated
among his friends. Folengo returned to a telizious life in
the year 1526, and publifhed the ‘ Chaos del ’lriperuno,’”
which is defcriptive of the various incidents of his life, end-
ing with his converfion. He then retired*to a {mall monaf-
tery, where he endeavoured to expiate the fault of his loofer
writings, by compofing a poem entitled “ La Umanita
del Figlio di Dio.” After this, we find him at Palermo,
where he compofed a kind of drama reprefenting the crea-
tion, the fall, &c., and fome religious tragedies. He died
in 1544, in the monaftery of S. Croce de Campefe, in Pa-
dua, and was interred with great pomp. ‘Theeftimation in
which he was held was exhibited in the ere€tion of a magni-
ficent tomb, on which were infcribed feveral epitaphs in va-
vious languages. Moreri. ,

FOLEY KUNDA, in Geagraphy, a town of Africa, in
the country of Kantor.

FOLIA, in Botany, is ufed for the leaves of plants, and
alfo of flowers, but particularly the former; the leaves of
flowers being more properly called peta/a.

FOLIACEUM Expansum, in Anatomy, is that ex-
treme of the Fallopian tube next the ovary ; and which is ex-
panded like the mouth of a trumpet, and invironed with
a fort of fringe. ;

FOLIAGE, a clutter or affemblage of flowers, branches,
leaves, &c. .

ForraGe is generally ufed for reprefentations of fuch
flowers, leaves, branches, rinds, &c. whether natural or
artificial; ufed as enrichments on capitals, freezes, pediments,

&e..,

FOLIANUS, Lupivicus, of Modena, in Biography,
a writer on the theory of mufic, publifhed a Latin treatife,
in

FO.

im 1529, at Venice, folio, with the following title ; « Mufi-
cea Theorica, Ludovici Foliani Mutinienfis: doéte fimul ac
dilucide pertraétata: in qua quamplures de Hanmonicis in-
tervallis, non prins tentata, continentur {peculationes.’?
s© The theory of mufic by Luigi Fogliani of Modena, in
which are centained and learnedly elucidated many harino-
nic {peculations relative to the intervals of mutfic, never be-
fore attempted.”’ ‘This work is divided into three feétions :
-in the firft the author treats of mufical proportions; in the
fecond of confonances ; and in the third of the divifion of
themonochord. In the fecond fection a foundation feems
to have been laid for a mufical controverfy, which was after-
wards agitated with great warmth ; this author, contending
forthe do@trine of Boethiws, from whom two-thirds of his
book are taken, forthe diftinGtion of greater and /c/s tone in
the diatonic tetrachord. ‘The title of one of his chapters
being, “* De utilitate toni majoris et minoris.” Harmony
now began to be felt, and was improving and refining, and
as there was no melody till the lyric theatre was eftablifhed,
and folo fongs, fine voices, and refined finging were culti-
vated, it alike occupied profeffors and dilettanti, philofophers
and mathematicians. We know not what rank Fogliano
held in fociety ; if he was a profeflor, he adhered too exclu-
fively perhaps to mathematics, and the fcience of harmonics,
“to be much ufed to practical mufic ; and if a mere mathe-
matician, the real beauties and refinements of the art mult
be unknown to him. However, to Fogliano is afcribed the
firit idea of introducing a temperament into modern harmuny.
Boethius, Guido, and Franchinus, were filent on the fub-
ject. The organ was tuned in fuch a manner as rendered a
few keys perfect at the expence of allthe reft. There was
no inflrument that could make occafional temperaments but
the violin, and that was wholly unknown in concerts at the
beginning of the 16th century. Wind inftruments, and all
-keyed and ftringed inftruments, in which one note was
obliged to ferve different purpofes, were forced to fubmit to
falfe intonation, and the exclufion of all tempered keys,
till temperament gained ground, and the do@rines of Didy-
mus and Ptolemy were adopted, which were in favour of
major and minor tones, and femi-tones ; and thofe who en-
joy the harmony of thirds, which, without temperament
‘are intolerable, owe their pleafure to Foglianus for recom-
mending them, and to Zarlino for feconding his endeavours.
See Dipymus, Proremy, and Temperament.

FOLIATE, in the Higher Geometry, a name given by
fome to a curve of the fecond order, expreffed by the equa-
tion x' + yi’ = ax, being one {pecies of defective hyper-
bolas, with one afymptote, and confilling of two infinite
legs crofling one another, and forming a fort of leaf.

FOLIATING of Looking-glaffes, is the {preading a
compofition of fomething which will firmly adhere to the
back of the glafs, and there reflect the image.

This compofition is called the fei/, and is ufually made
with quickfilver, mixed with tin, and fome other ingre-
‘dients. For the method of foliating looking-glafles,
both plain and globular, fee LooxinG-Geass.

FOLIATION, in Botany, &c. is uled by Dr. Grew to
exprefs the aflemblage of the folia, ov petala of a flower.
he foliation is the moft confpicuous part of flowers,
being that collection of fugaccous coloured leaves, which
conftitutes the compafs, or body of the flower.
~ Itis of great ufe in the generation and prefervation of the
youn it, or feed ; it filtrates a fine juice, to nourifh ft
in i tere or piltil.
In fome f{pecies, as apricots, cherries, &c. it likewife
ferves to guard the young tender fruit from the violence of

FOL

wind, weather, &c. For this being of a very tender
and pulpous body, and coming forth in the colder times of
the f{pring, would be often injured by the extremities of
weather, if it were uot thus prote¢ted, and lodged
within the flowers.

Before the flowers open, the foliation is curioufly and arte
fully folded up in the calyx or perianthium.

Dr. Grew enumerates feveral varieties of thefe foldings,
viz. the clofe couch, as in rofes; the concave couch, as in the
blattaria flore albo ; the fing/e-p/ait, as in pea-blofloms; the
couch and plait, as in marigolds; and the row/, as in the
ladies bower.

FOLIES, Fr. Follia, Ital. a Spanifh dance, formerly in
high favour. It is compofed on a ground with variations,
and danced by a fingle perfon a pas feul. Corelli’s twelfth
folo, confifting of 24 variations on a tune called ** Farinel’s
ground,”” which is faid to have been compofed at Hanover
on purpofe for Corelli to exercife his fancy upon, by a Ger-
man maufician of the name of Farinel; but usluckily, Co-
relli never was at Hanover, and this ground, on which he
worked, was an old Spanifh dance, long before Corelli was
born.

FOLIGNO, or Fucicno, in Geography, a town of Ita-
ly, inthe province of Umbria, the fee of a bifhop: built on
the ruins of the ancient Forum FJaminii. . According to its
old conftitution, it was governed by feven magiftrates, call-
ed ‘ Septemviri,” who are changed everytwo months. It
contains eight churches, and many convents, and though it
has fome good ftreets, it has neither fquares nor town-houfes :
its ‘hief bufinefs is confe¢tionary, paper making, and ma-
nufacture of filk. In 1796 it was taken by the French ;
10 miles N.N. W. of Spoleto. N.lat. 42° 55’. E. long.
IZ 36°.

FOLINGRE, a town of Sweden, in Jamtland ; 30 miles
N. of Ofterfund.

FOLIO, or rather Folium, in books of account, &c.
fignifies page.

Thus folio 7, written abridgedly F° 7, denotes the fe-
yenth page, &c.

Folio reéto, or F° R°, expreffes the firft fide or page of a
leaf.

Folio verfo, or F° V°, the fecond or back-fide of the

‘leat,

The word is Italian, and literally fignifies /eaf.

Forio, among Book/ellers, a book in folio, or fimply a
folio, is that where the fleet is only folded intwo, each
leaf making half a fheet.

Beneath the folio are the quarto, o€tavo, duodecimo,
fixteens, twenty-fours, &c.

FOLIS, or Foutis, anciently fignified a little bag or
purfe ; whence it came to be ufed for a fum of money, and
very different fums were called by that name: thus the fcho-
liatt, on the Bafilics, mentions a follis of copper which was
worth but the twenty-fourth part of the miliarenfis; the
gloflz nomice, quoted by Gronovius and others, one of a
hundred and twenty-five miliarenfes, wd another of 250
denarii, which was the ancient feltertium ; and three differ-
ent fums of eight, four, aud two pounds of gold, were
each called follis. According to the account of the {cho-
liait, the ounce of filver, which contained five miliarenfes of
fixty in the pound, was worth a hundred and twenty folles
of copper. The gloffographer, defcribing a follis ef two
hundred and fifty denarii, fas it was equal to'three hundred
and twelve pounds fis ounces of copper; and as the dena-
rius of that age was the eighth part of an ounce, an ounce
of filver muft have been worth a hundred and twenty ounces
of copper; and, therefore, the fcholiait’s follis was an

eunce

FOL

ounce of copper, and equal to the gloffographer’s nummus.
But as Conftantine’s copper money weighed a quarter of a
Roman ounce, the fcholiaft’s follis and the gloffographer’s
nummus eontained four of them, as the ancient nummus
contained four affes. See Phil. ‘T'ranf. vol. Ixi. p. it.
Pp: 555, &c.

FOLIUM, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology.
Lear.

Forium Branchiarum, the leaf of the gills, a term ufed
by fome of the ichthyologifts, to exprefs that part of the
gills which looks red and fringed. The gills of fifh are
compofed of certain bony circles, which are formed on the
convex fide with a great number of lamine ; thefe ferve to
receive the ramifications of the arteries, and are called the fo-
lium or leaf of the gills, The aorta or great artery reaches
no farther than this partin fifh. It has no defcending trunk,
but every part of the body is fupplied by a large venal trunk,
formed by the joining of the feveral fmaller trunks of the
feveral circles of the gills.

Fotium Jndicum, or Indum, calledalfo tamalapatra, and
malabathrum; a leaf brought from the Indies, grow-
ing chiefly about Cambaye, produced by a tree not un-
hke the lemon-tree; ufed in the compofiticn of Venice-
tezcle.

FOLKES, Martin, in Biography, an eminent philo-
fopher and antiquarian, was born in Weftminfter in the year
1692. He was educated under Mr. Cappel, formerly
Liebrew profeffor at Saumur, but at the age of 17 he was
fent to Clare-hall, Cambridge, where he purfued the ftu-
dies peculiar to that univerfity with fo much affiduity and
fuccefs, that he was elected member of the Royal Society
before he had completed his twenty-third year. THis com-
munications to this learned body were fo much etteemed,
and his underftanding fo highly appreciated, that he was
frequently chofen into its council. He was in habits of
friendfhip with the illuftrious Newton, at that period pre-
lident of the fociety, and by his isfluence Mr. Folkes was
ele&ted one of the vice-prefidents in 1723; and at the
death of that great man in 1727, he was candidate for
the vacant chair, but the fuperior intereft of Sir Hans
Sloane rendered his application unavailing. The contett
was probably carried on without that bitternefs and ani-
molity which occur too frequently on occafions of this fort,
for we find Mr. Folkes ftill in the council, aad vice-prefi-
dent till the year 1733. During this and the two follow-
ing years he refided for the moft part in Italy, improving
himfelf in the knowledge of claffical antiquitics. Here he
laid the foundation of his works on ancient and modern
coins, having by his fituation ample opportunities of afcer-
taining their weight and value; the refult of which he laid
before the Royal Society on his return from tke continent.
He likewife read before the fame body memoirs upon the
meafurements of Trajan’s and Antonine’s pillars, together
with other remains of antiquity. A table of all the Englifh
gold coins, drawn up by Mr. Folkes, was afterwards printed
at the requelt of the Royal Society, before whom he laid his
«¢ Remarks on the Standard Meafure preferved in the Ca-
pitol of Rome,” and a model of an ancient {phere preferved
in the Farnefian palace. A reprefentation of this {phere
was publifhed in Dr. Bentley’s edition of Manilins. Mr.
Folkes vifited Paris in 1739, where he was received with
great refpe&, and was introduced to the company, and
obtained the friendfhip of the moft eminent literary cha-
racters in that metropolis. On the refignation of Sir Hans
Sloane in 1741, he was elefed to the honourable office of
prefident of the Royal Society, and ina yery fhort time he
was nominated to fucceed Dr. Halley as one of the eight

See

FO. L

foreign members of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,
In 1745 he publifhed in a thin quarto volume, printed at
the expence of the fociety of antiquaries, his very valuable
«© Table of Englifh filver coins, from the Norman conqueft
to the prefent time, with their weights, intrinfic values,
and fome remarks on the feveral pieces.’? In an appendix
to this work we have an account of the * Coins minted in
Scotland fince the Union of the two Crowns:’? and “ A
table of Englifh gold coins from the eighteenth year of
king Edward III. when gold was firft coimed in England,
to the prefent time.”? He intended to have illuitrated
thefe with plates, which he had prepared, but which he
did not live long enough to publifh. They were, however,
purchafed by the Antiquarian Society, and publifhed fome
years after hisdeath. Mr. Folkes, in addition to hismany
other honours, had conferred on him the title of doGtor of
laws by both univerfities, and he was alfo chofen prefident
of the Antiquarian fociety. He died in the year 1754.
Dr. Birch collected materials for a life, which are preferved
in the anecdotes of Bowyer. He was a man of very exten-
five and accurate knowledge, and he was diitinguifhed in
private life for politenefs, generofity, and friendfhip. Biog.
Brit. ‘

FOLKINGHAM, in Geography, though a market
town in the hundred of Aveland and divifion of Kefteven,
in the county of Lincoln, diftant from London 107 miles,
is but a fmall place, fituated on the fide of a hill, abound-
ing in fprings, containing 99 houfes, and a nen of
531. The church is a well built ftruéture, having at the
weft end a handfome lofty tower furmounted by eight ele-
gant light crocketted pinnacles. The feffions-houfe has
lately been rebuilt, and the houfes in general have a com-
manding view over the extentfive adjacent fens. It poffeffes
little trade, and the {mall market is held weekly on ‘Thurf-
days. Folkingham was included in the one hundred and
thirty-one manors in the county of Lincoln only, which
formed part of the immenfe poffeffions belonging to Gilbert
de Gaunt, who accompanied the conqueror from Nor-
mandy, and afterwards it was granted, in the reign of
Edward I. to Henry de Bellamonte, or Beaumont, who it
is {uppofed ere&ted the caftle, which having been defended
for king Charles I. was deftroyed by Cromwell. In
this vicinity are the remains of the monaftery of Sempring-
ham, remarkable for having been the firft double houfe in
England, for the fingular and ridiculous order of reclufe
that comprized both monks and nuns under the fame roof,
called, from their founder, Gilbertines. Gough’s Camden’s
Britannia, and Beauties of England and Wales.

FOLK-LAND, a term which in the ancient Saxon
cuttoms fignified copyhold lands. Aud in oppofition to
thefe, charter lands were denominated book or boe lands.

FOLKMOTE, Foremore, or Forkesmore, among
our Saxon anceftors, fignified any popular or public meet-
ing of all the folk or people ofa place, diftriét, or the like ;
e- gr. of all the tenants at a court-leet, or court-baron; or
of all the freemen of the county; or of all the barons of a
Kingdom.

The word, fays Stow, is fill in ufe among the Lon-
doners, and fignifies ‘ celebrem ex omni civitate couven-
tum,”’ an aflembly of all the citizens. Manwood fays, it
is the court holden in London, wherein all the folk and
people of the city did complain of the mayor and aldermen

for any mifgovernment.

Somner, in his Saxon di€tionary, makes foleuoapee de-
note a, general affembly of the people, for doing fealty to
the king, and confidering and ordering matters of the com-
mon-weulth ; whence fome date the origin of parliaments.

s¢ Omnes

E Oh

‘ Omnes proceres regni, & milites & liberi homines uni-
verfi totius regni Britanniz, facere debent in pleno folemote
fidelitatem domino regi, coram epifcopis regni. In Leg.
Edw. Confeff. cap. 33. Et amplius non fit in huftinga,
mifkenninga, i.c. {peaking amifs; neque in folkefmote,
neque in aliis placitis infra civitatem.”? Charta H.I. pro
London. Du-Cange.

When fuch aflembly is made in a city it may be called
a burghmote : when in the county, a /hiregemote.

« Cum aliquid vero inopinatum & malum contra regnum
vel contra coronam regis emerferit, ftatim debent, pul-
fatis campanis, quod Anglice vocatur motbel, convocare
omnes & univerfos, quod Anglici vocant folkmote, &c.”
Leg. Alfred.

FOLKSTONE, in Geography, a town of England, in
the county of Kent, fituated in the Englifh channel, and a
member of the Cinque port of Dover, irregularly built
along the cliff, nearly oppofite to Boulogne. It was for-
merly a large town, containing five parifh churches (now
only one); but the greater part of it has been carried off
by the fea. There was an ancient ftation on Caltle-hill,
which is a {mall oval of about two acres, double-ditched on
ie eaft, and triple on the north and weft. Some vettiges
ot walls remain, and Roman bricks have been found.

_This town is a corporation, geverned by a mayor, 12
jurats, and 24 commoners. It is populous, and contained,
in 1801, 3257 inhabitants, who chiefly fubfift by fifhing,
and employ a great number of {macks in this trade. Before
the town there is good anchorage in 8 or 10 fathoms’
water. T'wo hoys Bil alternately every other week to
London, when wind and weatker permit. It is diftant feven
miles $.W. from Dover, and 72 E.S.E. from London,
N. lat. 51° 5’. E.long. 1° 10’. To the weftward of the
town is Sandgate-caitle, built by Henry VIII.

FOLLICLE, Fouticutws, in Botany, a kind of peri-
carp or feed-veffel, confifting of one valve and one cell, burft-
ing longitudinally, and bearing the feeds on or near its
edgcs, or on a receptacle parallel therewith. Its fubftance is
ufua!ly coriaceous and tough, in fome inftances approach-
ing to woody. Examples of this fort of fruit are found in
the Peony, Periwinkle, Sterculia, and {ome others. Linnzus
efteemed the follicle diftin@ from a capfule, but Gertner,
more properly perhaps, comprehends it under his idea of
the latter. (See Capsure.) The capfules of Helleborus,
Delphinium, Aconitum, &c. come very near the idea of a
follicle, except that they appear to be formed of two valves,
but this is rather in appearance than reality, and if true,
would, on the other hand, bring them to the definition of

a ene but the latter is always folitary, which the {aid
capfules are not, except in the anomalous inftances of fome
fpecies of Delphinium, in which their true nature is never-
thelefs evident from analogy.

FOLLICULUS, in Anatomy, a name fometimes given
to fmall glandular bodies; it means alittle bag. The parts
dele fhe andec this name have an opening in their centre,
through which the fecreted fluid is difcharged. They are
frequently termed mucous follicles, as they generally pro-
duce a mucous fecretion.

FOLLINUS, Herman, in Biography, was born at
Frifon, and during feveral years was phytician to the chief
magiftrate of Bois-le-Duc, until he was elected profeflor of
medicine at Cologne, where he was equally diftinguifhed as
a public teacher and as a practical phyfician. e died of
the plague near the middle of the feventeenth century, and
Jeft fome works of repute. The titles of thefe are, 1. “* De
Luis peftiferee furd, deque remediis ejufdem, libri duo, &c.”’
Antwerpie, 1618, 8vo. 2. Orationes due; de natura et

t

FOM

curatione Febris peticularis; de ftudiis chymicis conjun-
gendis cum Hippocraticis,” Colonia, 1622, 8vo. His
fon John, bora at Bois le Duc, wasalfo diltinguifhed by his
practice and his writings.

FOLLIUS, Czcitivs, was born at Modena in 1615,
after the death ot his father, and was educated at. Venice,
under the care of his uncle, who held a diftinguifhed fta-
tion among the phyticians of the council of health. His
medical education was completed at Padua, where he re-
ceived the degree of doétor in phyfic, He returned to
Venice, where his talents were rewarded by the fenate with
the honour of knighthood, and aa appointment to the pro-
feflorfhip of anatomy, which he long held. He publithed
the following works. 1. ‘ Sanguinis a dextro in finiftrum
cordis ventriculum defiuentis, facilis reperta via,’’ Venetiis,
1639, 4to. He erroneoufly fuppofed that a communica-
tion between the cavities of the heart fubfifted through life,
by means of little collateral apertures which fupplied the
place of the foramen ovale, as foon as it was clofed after
birth. 2. “ Della generatione e ufo della pinguedine,”’
Venife, 1644, 4to. 3. ‘“* Nov auris interne delineatio,””
Venetiis, 1645, 1647, 4to. . This little work of fix pages
is efteemed on account of the accuracy of the figures.

Another author, Francis Follius, publithed a work at
Florence in 1665, under the title of “ Recreatio Phyfica,
in qua de fanguinis et omnium viventium analoga circula-
tione differitur,’? Svo.

FOLLOWERS, in Rural Economy, is a term em-
ployed to fignify fuch lean or ftore cattle and theep as fol-
low the fattening bullocks or other live ftock in the paf-
tures or other grafs lands. It is only in this way that fuch
lands can be fed down in the moft effectual manner, and
with the greateft profit to the grazing farmer.

FOLLOWFIELD, in Geography, a townthip of
America, in Wafhington county, Pennlylvania ; containing
1635 inhabitants.x—Alfo, E. aud W. Followfield, are two
townfhips in Cheiter county, Pennfylvania, the former
having 1622, and the latter 839 inhabitants.

FOLLY, according to Mr. Locke, confiits in the
drawing of falfe conclufions from juit principles ; by which
it is diftinguifhed from madnefs, which draws juft conclu-
fions from falfe principles.

But this seems too configed a detinition; folly, in its
moft general acceptation, denoting a weakuefs of intelle&
or apprehenfion, or fome partial abfurdity in fentiment or
condu&.

FOLPAGO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in -the
Trevifan; fix miles N. W. of Trevigio.

FOLSELLI, a town of Africa, in the country: of
Barca; 18 miles S. E. of Derna.

FOMAHANT, or Fomatnaut, in Afronomy, a ftar
of the firft magnitude, in the conitellation Aquarius.
See Aquarius.

FOMANO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which
runs into the Adriatic, N. lat. 42° go’. E. long. 14° 5’.

FOMENTATION, a liquid medicine, applied to any
difeafed part, to refolve, difcufs, foften, affuage, fortify,
or conitringe the fame.

Fomentations are either /imple or compound.

Fomentations, Compound, are deco&tions of roots,
leaves, flowers, and feeds, made in common water, or other
proper liquor, to which are fometimes added falts, axungiz,
oils, &e.

To ufe, or apply them, they dip a hot linen cloth, or
flannel, in the liquor, and fpread it on the part affeéted
There are alfo P ccatetians made another way, wis. by

boiling

FON

boiling certain drugs in linen bags, and then applying them,
bags and all, on the part.

There is alfo a fort of dry fomentations, being bags filled
with medicines, but not boiled, only fometimes fprinkled
with a little wine or brandy.

FomENTATIONS, Simple, are thofe made with luke-warm
water, milk, oil, oxycrate, or the like liquors.

Fomentations are alfo called /oca/ baths, or partial bath-
ings; becaufe, being applied on a difeafed. part, they have
much the fame effeét as a bath, or half-bath, has on the
whole body.

Fomentations have different names, according to the pre-
parations of which they confift, and the ufes to which they
are applied. ‘Thus, the anodyne fomentation, ufed for re-
lieving acute pain, is compofed of white poppy-heads, two
ounces ; elder flowers, half an ounce; which are boiled in
three pints of water till one pint is evaporated, and then the
liquor is {trained out : the aromatic fomentation is prepared
by boiling half an ounce of Jamaica pepper, in a pe of
red wine for a little while, and ftraining out the liquor:
this is ufed both for external and internal complaints.
Colics and diforders of the bowels are often abated by fo-
menting the abdomen and region of the ftomach with this
warm liquor. The common fomentation is made by flightly
boiling the dried tops of wormwood and camomile flowers,
of each two ounces, in two quarts of water, and pouring
off the liquor ; to which may be added fuch quantities of
brandy or {pirit of wine as the particular cafe may require.
The emollient fomentation confifts of one ounce of camo-
mile flowers; elder flowers, and fweet-fennel feeds, of each
half an ounce ; boiled for a little while in two quarts of wa-
ter, and ftrained, with the addition of fpirit of wine, &c.
The ftrengthening fomentation is prepared of oak-bark,
one ounce; granate-peel, half an ounce; alum, two drams ;
aud f{mith’s forge-water, three pints: the water is boiled
with the bark and peel till one third ts confumed, and in
the remaining decoétion, ftrained, the alum is to be diffolved.
This aftringent liquor may be applied to foment weak parts,
and alfo ufed internally.

Fomentations, in Veterinary Science, are commonly
made by boiling wormwood, fouthernwood, camomile
flowers, and bay-leaves in water, fo as to make a ftrong
deco&tion, which, being ftrained off, are be applied as hot
as poflible, without giving pain to the animal, by means of
large flannel cloths. The efficacy of fomentations depends
in great meafure on their ufe, being continued for a con-
fiderable time, and their being frequently repeated.

FOM-HOAM-TOUKA, in Geography, a town of
Chinefe Tartary. near a mountain of the fame name; feven
miles N. W. of ‘Vam-fan.

FOMHIO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Adda; 15 miles S.S. E. of Lodi.

FOM-UL-SICH, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the
Tigris ; 20 miles N. of Valit.

FONAMI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Xinto ;
eight miles S. of Taifero.

FONCEAU, in the AZanege, is the bottom or end of
a cannon-bitt mouth; that is, the part of the bitt that
joins it to the banquet. See Brrr and Crargron.

FONCQUEVILLERS, in Geography, a town of
Franca, in the department of the ftraits of Calais; 12 miles
W. of Bapaume.

FOND pe w’Isees pe Vacue, a town of the ifland
of Hifpaniola; So miles W. of Jaquemel. ’

Fonp des Negres a town on the S. coalt of Hifpaniola ;
‘40 miles W. of Jaquemel. ~

FON

Fonp, le Petit, a town of the ifand of Hifpaniola ;
near the W, coaft; 15 miles N. E. of St. Mark.

FONDAMENTALE, Fr. See Basse FonpAmMEN-
TALE, where the hiftory of this term has been given ; but
the abbé Feytou having prohibited the calling any bafe
fundamental except the generator of a common chord with
a fharp third, has awakened new refieétions on the fubjedt.

In teaching thorough-bafe, or counterpoint, the rule,
that every bafe cargying a common chord or chord of the
feventh, with a major or minor third, was the fundamental
of fuch chord in every ftage or inverfion, was clear, com-
prehenfive, and eafily retained ; but when a ftudent is told
that F is the fundamental bafe to the chord of A minor, it
proves that the term fundamental, though ufeful in harmo-
nics, is not admiflible in practice without occafioning confu-
fion. The term principal, as /affo principale, ufed by the
Italians, from the time of Zarline to that of Padre Martini,
would be more clear and lefs liable to objeétions, and to this
ufe we {hall continue in practice to apply the term funda-
mental bafe.

The fyttem of /a baffe fondamentale, which Rameau pro-
pofed in his “‘ Nouveau Syftéme de Mufique Theorique,” in
1726, he prefented to the Academie des Sciences in 1737,
under the title of “ Generation Harmonique.”? The mem-
bers of the academy appointed to examine it, report that
« the work is founded on a phyfical hypothefis, of which
the firft idea was reported in the Hiftory of the Academy by
M. Micran, in 1720, upon a known experiment, that every
founding body, when ttruck, produces, befides the princi-
pal found, the oétave, its fifth, and the tierce above the
double o¢tave,” &c. But this M. Rameau had forgotten ;
though that early period was more than 100 years fub-
fequent to Galileo’s difcovery.

In 1752, Rameau’s fyftem was thought fo great a dif-
covery, that mathematicians, as well as muficians, interefted
themfelves in its general adoption. M. d’Alembert, at the
height of his fame as a geometrictan, undertook to arrange
and explainit ; and “ thofe (fays Rouffeau in his Di&. de
Mof. art. Sy/éme) who with to fee the fyftem of Rameau,
fo obfcure and diffufed in his own numerous writings, exhi-
bited with a clearnefs of which it was not thought fufcepti-
ble, will have recourfe to the “ Elemens de Mufique™ of
M. d’?Alembert.

In 1757, d’Alembert gave offence to Rameau, by fome
doubts of the validity of his fyflem ; for fome parts of which
d’Alembert himfelf had been attacked by the great geome-
trician Dan, Bernouilli in the Mem. de Acad. de Berlia
1753. Andd?’Alembert, in 1762, publifhed a new edition.
of his Elements, in which he pointed out feveral defe&ts in
Rameau’s fyftem, changed the chord from which he had de-
tived the minor mode, and threw out feveral refe€tions on
his pretending to have demon/rated the principle of har-
mony. ‘This occafioned a breach between Rameau and his
commentator, that was never repaired. And at the end of
hie “* Code de Mufique,” 1760, he inferted a letter to
d’Alembert, full of afperity and complaint. Upon which
the great eae made feveral alterations in his
Elements, which were now hoftile to many of Rameau’s
principles, and in the notes, defended his alterations, as well
as himfelf, againit the reflections of Rameau in the letter
which he had addreffed to him. ?

Rameau defended his fy{tem (as Fontenelle did the
Tourbillons of Defcartes) to the end of his life, in 1767 ;
and had eftablifhed it in France almoft univerfally ; but
fince his death, Italian and German mufic growing into
favour, and by degrees fuperfeding his operas, which had
been the delight and pride of France during 30 years, the

natiow

FONDAMENTALE.

nation began to find that Gluck, Piccini, and Sacchini,
could produce good mufic without the affiftance of his bafle
fondamentale : his fyftem has at prefent but few abettors.

Such is the hiftory of this famous fyftcm of the funda-

mental bafe, + “ee
& ett

-+--@

See Basse Ry Cena in which article we have
explained a curious difcovery in natural philofophy, andthe
ufe that has been made of it in practical harmony, ‘Though
M. Rameau’s fyftem will not alone enable a ftudent to com-
pofe good mufic, it will help to facilitate his ftudies, give
him the etymology of chords, and of ixnumerable paflages
in melody, and regulate his harmony on a fure foundation.

nd though it would be dull mutic indeed that had no other
bafe than the fundamental, as the harmony and modulation
of no mufic is fo {imple as to be wholly confined to common
chords ; the fundamental bafe will therefore teach their war-
rantable fucceffion, perhaps fuggeit a melody, or at leaft
guide its progrefs.

Nothing more feemed neceflary to be faid on this fubje&;
but in looking into the Encyclopedic Methodique, we find
that it has furnifhed matter for an article of fuch enormous
length, as to occupy 39 4to. pages, 26 of which have been
{eientifically filled by M. Abbé Feytou, with an elaborate
attempt at confuting all that has been faid by previous
writers on the fubjeét. We have heretofore frankly con-
feffed, that after frequent perufals and confultations of
Rameau’s theoretical works, and a long acquaintance with
the writings of his learned commentator d’Alembert, and
panegyrifts the Abbé Rouffier, M. de la Borde, &c. if any
one were to afk us to point out what was the difovery or
invention upon which his fy {tera was founded, we {hould find
it a difficult taf.

The bafe to a common chord has been known ever fince
the firft attempts at counterpoint ; and it only feems as if
Rameau had given new names to old and well-known com-

binations, when he calls the key-note, with >, generateur,

baffe-fondamentale. But the Italians, ever fince the time
of Zarlino, have dittinguifhed this loweft found by calling
it the firf? bafe, imo. baffo; and the other parts of the
chord, when made the bafe, baffo rivoliato, or 2do. Laffa.
But Broffard in his Mufical Diftionary, publifhed 1702, in
defining Trias harmonica, or the three founds of a common
chord in its firft ftate, calls the under-note dafe, or /on
Sfondamental ; and afterwards remarks that among the three
founds that compofe the Triade harmonique, the graveft
is called bake, or fonus fundamentalis. And what has
Rameau told us more, except that the harmoniques pro-
duced by a ftring or pipe, which he does not pretend to
have firkt difcovered, are precifely the third and fifth in
queftion.. This is the practical principle of the fundamental
bafe ; the theoretic was furely known, of harmonical, arith-
metical, and geometrical proportion and ratios of found,
with which fo many books have been oftentatioufly filled
ever fince the time of Boethius.

The Abbé Rowfier, his moft learned apoflle and able
champion, candidly confeffed in his firft work, that « the
fyitem of a fundamental’ bafe ought not to be regarded as

Vou, XIV.

one of thofe principles which precedes the confequences te
be deduced fromit.”? ‘ Le mérite de cette découverte con-
fitte, a avoir réduit en un fyitéme fimple, commode, et
facile a failir, toutes les opérations des grands maitres de
Vharmonie.”” _Traite des Accords, 1764.

Rameaw’s fyftem, as compreffed and arranged by d’Alem-
bert, is perhaps the fhorteft, cleareft, and beft digefted, that
is extant; and yet, from the geometric precifion with
which it has been drawn up by that able mathematician,
many. explanatory notes and examples are wanting to render
Rameau’s doétrine intelligible to mufical ftudents, in the
firft ftages of their application; and even after that, the
work, to be rendered a complete theory, would require
many additions of late difcoveries and improvements, both
in the theory and practice of harmony. ;

About the year 1760, the Syflem of a Fundamental
Bafe, by Rameau, gave occafion to much difcuffion in
Germany. By fome it was adopted there as well as in
Italy, by others difputed. It feems, however, as if this
fyftem, ingenious as it is, were fomewhat over-rated by
French theorifts, who would perfuade the world that all
mufic not compofed on Rameau’s principles fhould be
thrown into the flames—“ Jufqu’ a mon fyteme,” jays Ra-
meau himfelf ; and M. dela Borde fays, that “« Mutfic, fince
the revival of arts, was abandoned to the ear, caprice, and
conjecture of compoiers, and was equally in want of unerring
rules in theory and praétice—Rameau appeared, and chaos
was no more. He was at once Defcartes and Newton,
having been of as much ufe to mufic as both thofe great
men to philofophy.’? But were Corelli, Geminiani,
Handel, Bach, the Scarlattis, Leo, Caldara, Durante,
Jomelli, Perez, &c. fuch incorre& harmonifts as to merit
anrihilation, becaufe they never heard of Rameau or his
fyftem? Indeed, it may be further afked, what good
mufic has been compofed, even in France, in confequence
of Rameau giving a new name to the bafe of a common
chord, or chord of the feventh? The Italians itill call the
loweft found of mufic in parts the Ja/e, whether funda-
mental or derivative; but do the French imagine that the
great compolers above-mentioned, and the little compofers
who need not be mentioned, were iguorant whence every
fuppofed bafe was derived? The great harmonifts of the
fixteenth century feldom ufed any other than fundamental
bafes. And the fundamental bafe to the hexachords has
always beea the key-note, and the fifth above and fifth
below, juit as Rameau has given it in his theoretic tracts.

The rules, however, which Rameau has given, with
d’Alembert’s commentary, were tolerably clear for com-
poling according to his fyftem ; but are now “explained till
all men doubt them’? and the editor of the long article, or
rather treatife on the fubjeé&t, feems only to have puzzled
the caufe. The detinitions and nice diftinGtions in this
article appear to us more ingenious and fubtle than ufeful,
at leaft in practice. The nature of our harmony, like the
nature of man, is fo imperfect, that all the calculation and
reafoning which enable us to difcover their imperfections,
can never fupply us with the means of cure.

If by ttudy and labour we can fomewhat diminifh thete
imperfections, and approximate that perfe€tion at which
we afpire, itis all that our nature and the nature of things
willallow. We can only counterfeit perfection, as a painter
or {culptor can counterfeit a man. On our keyed initru-
ments we can have but one key or mode perfectly in tune ;
and on wind inftruments not even that. ‘Temperament, and
a deviation from the laws of nature, which our medulation
and mixture of keys require, give our auricular organ pleas
fure, as it accommodates itfelf to the Might bearings and

5B hone

FONDAMENTALE,

imperfections in our intervals and fcales, Many think the
eharaéter and beauty of keys depend on thefe falfe inter-
vals in the old temperament.

We fhall not here give our readers all the problems to
folve, or metaphyfics to ftudy, on the fundamental bafe,
with which the New Encyclopedie abounds ; but where it
is faid, p. 150, that the fundamental bafe produces the dia-
tonic genus only as long as it confines its movements to the
o¢taves, sths, and ats: when it moves by 3ds it gives the
chromatic genus ; and the enharmonic genus when it moves
‘diatonically ; to the two firft affumptions we can readily
fub{cribe, but deny the laft. A fundamental bafe, moving
diatonically, would only produce major 17ths to all the
founds ; that is, the notes in the ftop of the organ called the
tierce, moving in the key of E major, while the bafe moves
inCbh. See Plate VI. Mufic, N° II.

It is very perplexing to young contrapuntifts to find
theory and practice fo frequently at ftrife ; they are told that
though the fundamental bafe may rife diatonically, that is,
two bafes, carrying common chords by contrary motion,
it never mult defcend. The itudent, however, if he has
read much mufic, muft recolle&, that in Corelli’s XIIth
folo, called ‘La Follia,”? on Farinel’s ground, or bet-
ter known by the firlt line of a fong written to the melody,
« All Joy to-great Czfar,” bar the 4th, the modulation
is from D minor to C major; and the effe&, which at frit
furprizes, from being fo uncommon, is pleafing. In the
fecond bar of Pergolefi’s «« Stabat Mater,”’ the fundamental
bafe moves diatonically, from F to Eb. How isa tira to
reconcile thefe contradiftions? Nature gives harmonics to
every found, which are never heard but frem very low and
very flow notes, and are we never to have a moving bafe,
or an elegant paflage in melody, becaufe every found has
latent harmonies, which, though we cannot hear, (any more
than with the naked eye we can fee the fatellites of Jupiter)
who but the utterly ignorant doubt of their exiftence !

‘Let us new forget that practical mufic is wholly a work of
art, Weare very proud to find that there fubfifts in nature
any thing on which to build ourtheory. It is true that with
great difficulty we can difcover from the refonance of a
fingle ftring, or great bell, the founds of a common chord
rife in the following fucceflion: 8th to the principal found,
5th to the 8th, and major 3d to the 15th or double o€tave,
as trebles to. the fundamental found. But thefe are mere

indications, of which none but cultivated, curious, and-

nice ears, can ever be convinced. -T'he fyftem built on thefe
phenomena is very. defeCtive ; it extends our ideas of nature,
but contraéts thofe of art. Whatever melody or harmony
has been found, or may be found, that is grateful and pleafing
to the ear, may furely be admitted in pradtice, though
not confonant:to mathematical demonftration, or the {fpecu-
lations of mere theorifts. The philofopher, Euler, fays
that time, in mufic, is.a filent arithmetic; and we may add,
that harmonic intervals are an auricular geometry, beft mea-
fured by a {trong hand and good ear.

M. Abbe Feytou, who has furnifhed fo many fcientific
articles in mufic to the Encyclopedie Methodique, thinks
fo differently from all other writers on every mutfical article
which.he treats, that his readers have every thing to learn,
which they knew tolerably well before. He neither gives
the ftudents, nor their matters, credit for knowledge of
any kind. “And when in the new edition of the Encyclo-
pedie, he takes up an article after the editors who have
preceded him, it is not to explain more clearly what they
have advanced, but totally to overfet their reafoning, and
neutralize their precepts and opinions. He feems to fpeak

like the firft inventor of every thing pertaining to the

mufical feience. Of praétical mufic he knows but little,
and feems to feel lefs.

He fets off, in fpeaking of the fundamental bafe of Ra-
meau, and the third found of Tartini (fee Terza Suona,)
by faying, that “ their inventors were ignorant of the na-
ture, the product, and movements of the founding bodies
or fundamental founds; they tid not know the law of pre-
paring, refolving, fyncopating, &c.; nor the principle of
meafure, nor that of the paufé at an harmonic phrafe, nor
the charaéter of a mode or key in general, nor the dif.
tinction of different keys, nor the origin of chords, nor the
formation of different parts, nor the difference between a
continued and fundamental bafe ; and that they have fub-
ftituted, without neceffity, numberlefs abftraét relations to
thofe experiments. which the vibrations of the founding
body offered to their inyeftigation.” And yet thefe were
the greateft compofers of their time in France and Italy ;
the one for the opera, and the other for the violin !

The Abbé F. gives fome amufing experiments in har-
monics in confirmation ef Galileo’s difeovery, who is, how-
ever, never mentioned in a French book on the fubject of
mufic, except by Merfennus. The experiments given by
the Abbé are ingenious and curicus illultrations of Nature’s
propenfity to give a perfect chord to every fingle found ;
but in compofing mufic tor imperfect inftruments, till bet-
ter are invented, we muft content ourfelves with fuch an
approximation to perfect harmony as we can acquire by
tuning and perfeét execution; the reit, we fear, is imprac-
ticable. P

The Abbé fhews the imperfection of our intervals and
keys, when every fixed found in the courfe of modulation
muit neceffarily ferve for two or three purpofes. “This had
been very clearly and ingenioufly done in eur own country
twenty ycars ago, ina tra& called “* An Effay on Tune.??
The difeafe has. been long difcoyered ; but where, with our
prefent initruments, is the cure? See Harmonics. ;

Still difputing the principles of Rameau and Tartini,
M. Feytou clearly fhews, what had been long known by
{peculative muficians before, that we have no true bafe to
the {cale or octave of C : but this accounts for the Italians
finging in their folfeggii only the hexachords of each key.
(See Sorreccio and Hexacuorp.) Of the two tetra-
chords in C, whether we fuppefe the firft in F, as the
Abbé has done, or in C, as in practice, there {till muft be
two fundamental bafes rifing diatonically, as 2

CD°*EF|GABC)orCDEF TL CARE
FB_)CF/CDGC CACFICFGC

But as there is no neeeflity for thefe fundamental bafes
in praétice, which can be avoided by innumerable expe-
dients, why regard them as fuch evils?) In fac, the oftave,
as the Abbé obferves of the key of C, has three genera=
tors, or fundamental bafes, F C G, or CFG. It is
only the violin and its kindred that can give every found
its true intonation in all keys ; as Dp and Cx, Dx and Ep,
&e. .

We are obliged to mitigate thefe wants by temperament,
which makes all keys imperfect to a certain degree; though
the fuffering is not great, when the mufic and execution”
are perfedl. And, till new inftruments are invented, what
can we do? Mauittweburn the old, drive mufic from: the '
company of the fine arts, nor longer allow her to rank in
the circle of the {ciences till perfeétibility in all inftruments -
is attained ? which will probably be when that perfectibility
of man is acquired that fhall exempt him from all the infir-
mities ** which flefh is heir to,”? and enable him, “ uanlefs.
he chufe it,’ to efcape death itfelf. mr :

' 22 M.PAbbée.

FON

“M.V Abbé deduces every thing of importance in prac-
tical mufic from the fundamental bafe. Not only the moft
perfect chord in harmony, the moft pleafing notes in
melody, but clofes, meafure, genera, preparation and refo-
Jution of difcords, | and moduiation. The. only
thing m which he all Rameau to de right in explaining

his own fyftem, is the terming the’ fundamental bafe the’

magnet, compals, fovereign guide of the ear.

"The making the F. B. the regulatrix of time in mufic
is new and fanciful; but, we fear, vifionary aud impractica-
ble in the unbridled range of modern mufic, which is fo
defultory, wild, and often capricious, comic, and whimfical,
as well as folemn ‘and pathetic, that if regulated in its
meafures. and phrafeology by any new reltraints, there
would be an outcry againit the inyafion of a mufician’s
rights, and ** lalibert¢ de la mufigue;” a fubje&t. which
M.:d’ Alembert has treated with great gravity. _ See
d’ Alembert. ;

sae the experiments in harmonics, we have. mufical
problems, which manifeft much ingenuity and meditation,
{n {peaking of the genera, the learned Abbé was naturally led
to the fubje&t of Greek mufic. He regards the notes of
the hypaton, or loweft tetrachord, BC D E, as the
original four ftrings of the Mercurian lyre; and. gives Ptole-
my’s ratios of thofe founds. He has nothing new on this fub-
ject, except that it is not a fubject of difpute.
fore gives the ratios of the three genera from the Greek
writers in Meibomius, which others have often dene before,
But that the fundamental bafe may have a fhare in the
honour of Greek inventions, he informs us that the fcale of
the conjoint tetrachord in the diatonic genus is derived
from the F. B. of two keys, C and F, and the modern
oétave {cale from three. (See Terracuorps and Scaur)
But we have long obferved, that there is no afcending more
than three notes gradually without a change of key.

Notwithftanding the extreme leagth and labour of this
article in the Encycl. Meth. the Abbé F. has left many of
its con{tituent parts where he found them, with refpect to
practice: fuch as the feale, cadences, meafure, modulation,
enharmonic, &c. (which fee under their feveral heads.)
‘He neither allows Rameau nor Tartini to know the gammut ;
he difputes with them the intervals of the fc le, and the
bafe to thofe intervals. Indeed nothing has ever been
advanced by a mufical writer, that has fallen in his way, of
which he does not fet about the refutation. To have a
new gammut to learn, new technica, and to accuftom the
ear to new founds, is a taf to which great muficians will
not fubmit, and the little ones will follow them, not the
advice of {peculative theorifts, which indeed they are not
likely to read.

We cannot help fuppofing that the ears of modern mu-
ficians are as well organized by nature, and as highly polifhed
by art, as thofe of the ancients; and that the cit eh gammut,
and laws of harmony, are as perfe€ and refined as the pre-
fent conftru€tion of our inftruments will allow ; and if ever
better fhould be invented, that they will foon be univerfally
adopted, piano fortes being preferred now to harpfichords, as
harpfichords were to fpinets, and fpinets to virginals.
But tillthe cea and refinements in our feales, inter-
vals, and confonances are rendered practicable by new in-
ftruments or corre€tions of the old, mufic will not be bet-
tered by thefe fpeculations, though they may point out
incurable evils to the ignorant, and make them more un-
willing to be pleafed than before they were told of thefe,
and which they never could have found out or fufpeéted.
And after the bold affertions concerning the ignorance of
two men of fuch great profeffional abilities as Rameau

He there-.

FON

and Tartini, we had a right to expe the abbé Feytou’s
rules to be illuftrated by exam ples of «compofition on his
own principles, or at leaft rendered fo evident, that all
muficians, and the public ear would be benefitted by them;
but alas! after fhaking the ftudent’s faith in the rules which
fo loug guided him to the means of delighting the mufical
world by what were then thought admirable productions ;
it appears, according to this learned Abbé, that »we are alb
in the wrong, to be pleafed; for all the mufic hitherto
compofed has proceeded from falfe principles: neither tiie
{cale, melody, nor harmony, with which we have been
delighted, was genuine and pure; concords nor difcords
properly treated, accents rightly placed, nor meafure cor-
re&. The nice diftinétions, refinements, and fcientific pa-
rade, with which they are laid down, give them aa impofing
appearance; but when examined, and we confider what has
been done, and is /7i// doing without them, and that nothing
has yet been atchieved with them ; that many are unin~
telligible, and others impra¢ticable ; it feems as if we had.
better e’en go on inj explaining the old eftablithed rules
upon which Corelli, Handel, Vinci, Pergolefi, jomeili,
Piccini, Sacchini, the Bachs, Haydn, and Mozart, have
been formed ; nor till we are {ure of the eftect, can we cons
{cientioufly recommend young fubjeéts to be inoculated by
matter taken from this learned and elaborate article.

FonpameNTALIs, Sonus, Lat. is the principal found of
the harmonic triad. Waltlier.

FONDAMENTS, Ital; Fondament, French; Funda-
mentum, Lat. is the lowelt and moft important note in the
harmony of the common chord, the ground or foundation
upon which the chords in thorough bafe are built. Wal-
ther. See Basse FonpAMENTALE.

FONDE, Isues pe; in Geography, three {mall iflands
in the Southern Indian ocean, near the S. coaft of Ker

uelen’s land. S. lat. 49° 51’. E. long. 68° 39’.

FONDEROY, a town of America, in Virginia, fituated
on the ‘Rappahanock ; ten miles. S.E. of Leeds» N. lat.
38°\2'., Welong. 16° 54".

FONDI, a town of Naples, in’ Lavora, near a lake to
which it gives name; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of
Capua. This was anciently a municipal town, and after-
wards a prefecture ; which itood on the Appian way. At
the extremity of the town is a caftle, of no great ftrength.
It was ereéted by Ferdinand, king of Naples, into a duke-
dom, in favour of Profper Colonna. In 1534, Barbarofla,
the famous corfair, wifhing to feize the beautiful Julia of
Gonzaga, widow of the fon of Colonna, for the purpofe of
carrying her off, and prefenting her to the Grand Signior,
but difappointed by her efcape, took vengeance on the
town, which, as well'as the inhabitants, he treated with
the utmott barbarity. The ftory of the havock, which he
committed, is painted in the church’ of the Annuneiade,
Fondiis fituated on a plain, furrounded on one fide with hills,
having the appearance of an amphitheatre ; moft of thele
hills are’ covered with olive-trees, and the whole plain is
interfperfed with orafige, lemon, and other fruit-trees, the
verdure of which forms a perpetual fpring ; 56 miles E. of
Rome. N. lat. 41° 20'. E. long. 13° 30%.
~ FONDO, or Scoctro Fonpo, a {mall ifland in the gulf
of Venice, near the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 45° 14’. E. long.
] '

*40'.
FONG, the name of feveral towns of China; one in
Quang-tong; another in Hou-quang; and a third in
Kiang-nan.. .
FONG-CHAN, a town in the ifland of Formofa; 25

miles S. of Tay-ouan.
5 Ba FONG:

FON
FONG-CHANG, a town of Corea; 11 miles S. of

Hoang-tcheou.

FONG-HOA, a town of China, inthe province of
Yche-kiang ; 11 miles S.S.W. of Ning-po.

FONG-HOA-TCHING, a large and commercial town
of Chinefe Tartary, in the province of Chen-yang, on
the borders of Corea; the chief manufaéture is paper of
cotton, which is white and tranfparent, and ufed for win-
dows inftead of glafs. N.lat. 40° 31'. E. long. 123° 42!

The adjacent country contains many mountains, fome of
which abound with metals and wood fit for building ; the
land is in general fertile, and produces wheat, millet, legu-
minous plants, and cotton. Immenfe herds of oxen, and
flocks of fheep feed in the vallies. The inhabitants fow
little rice; but fruit-trees of almoft every kind are found
here.

FONG-KIEOU, a town of China, of the third rank,
in Honan.

FONG-SIN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Kiang-fi.

FONG-TCHING, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Pe-tcheli.

FONG-TCHUEN, a town of Corea; 57 miles
W.S.W. of Hoang-tcheou—Alfo, a towa of China, of
the third rank, in Quang-tong.

FONG-TEN, a town of Corea; 24 miles N.N.W. oF
King-ki-tao.

FONG-TSIANG, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Chan-fi. N. lat. 34° 36’. E. long. 107°.

FONG-YANG, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
the prevince of Kiang-nan ; fituated on a mountain, which
hangs over the Yellow river, and inclofing within its walls
feveral fertile little hills. Its jurifdi€tion is extentive ; com-
prehending 18 cities. This was the birth-place of tlle emperor
Hong-vou, who formed a defign of rendering it a famous
and magnificent city, as the feat of empire. After having
expelled the Weftern ‘Tartars, who had taken poffeflion of
China, he transferred his court hither, and named the city
Fong-yang, i.e. the place of the eagle’s {plendour. But
feveral objections occurring in the further view of the
fituation, he abandoned his defign, and eftablifhed his court
at Nan-king. Of his defign three monuments were exe-
cuted, which, now remaining, fufficiently fhew how mag-
nificent the city would have been, if the emperor’s plan had
been completed. ‘The firft of thefe monuments is the tomb
of the father of Hong-vov, called ‘* Hoang-lin,” or the
Royal tomb. The fecond is a tower built in the middle of
the city, of an oblong form, 100 feet high, and faid to be
the moft lofty in China. The third is amagnificent temple
ereGted tothe god Fo. This was at firit a pagoda, to
which Hong-vou entered when he had loft his parents, and
where he found an afylum in his diftrefs ; but after he had
been elevated to the throne, in confequence of a fucceffion
of viciffitudes, he caufed this temple to be conftructed, in
teftimony of his gratitude to the Bonzes; affigning them
a revenue fuflicient for 300 perfons, under a chief of their
own fe&, whom he conftituted a mandarin. At prefent here
are ouly about 20 priefts, who being negleéted are almolt
reduced to beggary.

FONGA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 65
miles S.E. of Meaco.

FONIA, a kingdom of Africa, on the borders of the
river Gambia, near the fea.

Eee: a town of China, of the third rank, in Pe-
eche-li.

FONS Pursaritis, in Anatomy, a name given to the
fentanel, in confequence of the pulfation felt there, which

FON

arifes from the influx of blood into the arteries of the
brain. :

Tons, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Let; ra miles S, of St. Cére. N. lat. 44°
4o!. Es long. 2° 2’.

Fons, Cape, a cape on the S, coaft of Minorca. N. lar.
39° 40'. E. long. 4° tol. ‘

FONSECA Bay. See Amapa.ra.

Fonseca, Peter pez, in Biography, a learned Jefuit,
was born about the year 1528. He entered the fociety at
the age of twenty, and became diftinguifhied by his talents,
learning, and addrefs. He was the firft who was appointed
profeffor of philofophy in the uniyerfity cf Coimbra; after-
wards he undertook the profefforfhip of theology in the
univerfity of Evora, where he was admitted to the degree
of doétor, in the year 1570. From this period he filled,
with high reputation, feveral very confiderable pofts be-
longing to his order. He was alfo in high favour with
Philip II. king of Spain and Portugal, and with pope
Gregory XIII.; by both of whom he was employed in
different important negociations. He died at Lifbon, in
the year 1559, at the age of 71. He was author of many
publications, chiefly philefophical, which have been printed.
in three volumes, folio. Moreri.

Fonseca, Ganriev pe, was born at Lamego, in Por-
tugal, and became a public teacher of philofophy at Pifa,
and of medicine at Rome, where he was appointed phyfician
to Innocent X. He furvived that pope, and died in 1668,
under the pontificate of Clement IX. He left fome writ
ings under the titles of CEconomia Medici ;” ‘ Confulta-
tiones 37? © Convivia Medicinalia.’? Itis believed that he
was likewife the author of fome of the works, which biblio-~
graphers have attributed to his coufin Roderic.

Tonseca, Roperic DE, was a native of Lifbon, and
the reputation which he had: obtained in that city, by the
practice of his profeflion, induced the univerfity of Pifa to
invite him to the chair of profeflor of medicine. He ac-
cepted the invitation, and filled the office with confiderable
diftin€tion for a number of years ; but at length relinquifhed
it, in 1615, in order to become the principal of the faculty
of Padua: an office which he adorned by his talents until
the period of his death, in 1622, The following are the
titles of the numerous works which are attributed to him :
1. In Hippocratis Legem Commentarius,” Rome, 1586,
4to.; 2. “ De Remediis Calculorum quiin Renibus et Ve-
fica gignuntur,”’ ibid. 1586, 4to. ; 3. “* De Venenis eorum-
que Cuvratione,” ibid. 1587, qgto.; 4. ‘ In Hippocratis
Aphorifmorum Libros Commentaria,” Florent. 1591,
Venet. 1596, &c. 4to.; 5. * Opufculum quo Adolefcentes
ad Medicinam facile capeffendam inftruuntur,”? Florent.
1596, 4to.; 6. “In Hippocratis Prognoftica Commenta-
ria,”? Pataviil, 1597, 4to.; 7. ‘* De tuenda Valetudise et
producenda Vita Liber fingularis,” Florentiz, 1602, &c.;
8. ** De Hominis Excrementis Libellus,’” Pifis, 1613, 4to. 5
9. “ Cenfultationes Medica, quibus acceffit de.confultandi
Ratione,” Venetiis, 1618, and 1620, folio; afterwards pub-
lifhed at Franckfort, in 2 vols. 8vo. with, ro. a treatife,
«De Virginum Morbis qui intra Claufuram curari ne«
queunt,”? 1625; 11. “ Tratatus de Febrium acutarum et
peitilentium Remediis Dieteticis, Chirurgicis, et Pharma-
ceuticis,”” Venet. 1621, gto. Eloy. Diét. Hitt.

FONSOMME, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aifne, near the fource of the Somme;
5 miles N.E, of St. Quintin.

FONSSAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Vendée ; 6 miles N.E. of Fontenay le Comte.

FONT, in Zeclefajfical Hiflory, is now applied bd des

ignate

FONT.

fignate the veffel.ufed.in churches to hold the water confe-
erated for the purpofes of baptifm. The term font was
early adopted among the fathers of the primitive church.
It was originally applied to the lake, river, or ftream, where
perfons, in the dawn of Chriftianity, received initiation into
the congregation of Chrift, by the ceremony of immerfion.
At that period, it was a matter of indifference, as Tertullian
ftates, whether a perfon were baptized in the fea, ora lake,
in ftagnant or running water; and the validity of the or-
dinance was alike acknowledged in thofe who had received
it at the hands of St. Peter in the Tiber, and in Jordan by
St. John. As the gofpel was extended, and the number of
converts increafed, this practice, from local circumitances,
muft in a variety of inftances ceafe ; and an artificial foun-
tain, or bafin of water, be adopted in place of the natural
ftream. During the firft period of the church, and while
Chriftians laboured under the difadvantages of perfecution,
the f-eraments could be performed in no ftated place; but
when once eftablifhed, and places of public worfhip erected
and faGtioned by law, it is reafonable to fuppofe that fome
proper place would be chofen, and an appropriate ftru¢ture
built for the performance of the baptifmal r.tes. This was
a principal building among what were termed the exedre of
the early churches. Eulebius, defcribing the church of
Paulinus at Tyre, fays, when that curious artift had finifhed
his famous ftru€ture, and completed the internal decorations,
he then commenced the exedrz, or buildings annexed to the
church, and which, he obferves, were chiefly for the ufe
of fuch perfons as needed purgation by ablution of water,
and the Holy Ghoft, viz. the baptiffery. Hence it is evi-
dent, contrary to the opinion of Dr. Beveridge, and other
learned writers, this building was a diftin& place from the
church ; and that the font, or lavatory, was not originally
placed in the narthecium, or weftern part of the church, as
at prefent; but in a place peculiarly appropriated for its
reception. ‘This opinion is fupported by-politive evidence,
Paulinus, bifhop of Nola, difplaying the great munificence
of his friend Severus, obferves, that he erected two
churches, and a baptiftery between them. And Cyril,
bifhop of Jerufalem, in defcribing one, reprefents it as a
feparate building, which had firft its mgowvAsov oxovy porch
or ante-room, where the catechumens or noviciates delivered
their renunciation of Satan, and confeffion of faith; and its
eqwrseoy oixovy OY inner apartment, where the facrament of
baptifm was performed. Sidonius Apollinaris alfo {peaks
of it as a feparate building; and St. Auguftin intimates
that there were diltinét apartments for the accommodation
of male and female converts. Thefe baptifteries were an-
ciently very capacious, becauie, as Dr. Cave juftly obferves,
the ftated times of baptifm but feldom occurring, immenfe
multitudes ufually attended at the appointed feafon; and
the manner of baptizing by immerfion, and many of the fub-
jeGts.adults, rendered it requifite to have a very large refer-
voiror font for water. Accordingly Venantius Fortunatus
ftyles the baptiftery “* aula baptif{matis,’’ the grand hail of
baptifm. So capacious indeed were fome of them, that it
is reported councils have held their fittings in fuch itruc-
tures; as Du Frefne clearly evinces from the acts of the
council which fat at Chalcedon. Suicerus alfo mentions,
that in the ads of the council of Carthage, a recapitulation
is made of tranfactions which occurred in one, held in the
baptiftery of Conftantinople. ‘Thefe anfwered the purpoles
of chooks alfo, where the catechumens received initruction

revious to their being baptized; and from this cireum-
itanee, and the confequent illumination derived from the
facrament, the baptiftery alfo obtained the appellation of
Gurisreicr, Or place of divine illumination, The diftinction,

then, between the baptiftery and the font is now apparent :
the one comprehending the whole building, drefling rooms,
and other apartments; and the other, the receptacle for
the water ufed in the folemn rite. The latter, in Greek
writers, is ufually denominated KoavySrSex, in the Latin
pifcina, and is frequently diftinguifhed from the baptiftery,
as a part from a whole; for Socrates exprefsly Ayles font
the baptifmal pool. The Greek name, Dr. Beveridge fup-
pofes, was given to the font in allufion to the falutiferous
pool of Bethefda; and Optatus furnifhes a more myttical
reafon for the Latin appellation. He obferves it was called
pifcina, in allufion to our Saviour’s name, more technica,
sxSus, an acroftic compofed of the initial letters of his fe-
veral titles, Jefus Chrift, the Son of God, our Saviour.
But thefe are remarks unworthy of criticifm, and derogatory
to the dignity of antiquarian refearch. Both terms are
common names for fountains, pools, or baths, in Greek
and Latin authors. And the font appears to have been
originally, in thefe baptifteries, a kind of bath in a feparate
room from that where the veltments were depofited, while
the ceremony was performed: for Cyril defcribes the cate-
chumens as being unclothed in an inner apartment, and
thence conduted to the laver of regeneration, where, after
having made a profeffion of their faith, they were immerfed
three times in the water, in allufion to the doétrine of the
trinity.

Refpeéting the form of the ancient baptifteries, little can -
be colle&ted from early writers. Leo III. who, according
to Du Pin, was ele&ted pope A.D. 795, is ftated-to have
ere€ted one, probably agreeable to the ancient model,
which is thus defcribed: ‘* I{dem preful a fundamentis
ipfum baptifterium in rotundum, ampla largitate conitrnens
in meliorem ftatum, atque facrum fontem in medio largiori
{patio fundavit.”? What was the form of the font, or of
what materials conftruéted, little fatisfaétion can be ob- -
tained. Ina canon of the council at Lerida it is obferved,
the font fhould be /apideus, made of ftone. What Damafus
relates, in the pontitical, of a font made of porphyritic
marble, richly ornamented with gold and filver imagery,
and other elegant decorations, in which the emperor Con-
ttantine was baptized, and by him prefented to the church
of Si. Sophia at Conftantinople, is a mere fabulous legend,
unworthy of the fmalleft credit.

Thus did the ufe of baptiiteries, as ftruures diftin&
from the church, continue till about the fixth century:
though Mofheim obferves, ‘ baptifmal fonts were now,
(in the fourth century,)ere&ed in the porch of each church,
for the more commodious adminiftration of that initiatory
facrament.’ But inthis obfervation he is only borné out
by the brief hint of Du Pin, in his remarks on the life and
writiugs of Athanafius. ‘* As to what concerns difcipline
in his time, one may obferve in his works that there were
fonts in churches, and that oil, wine, and bread for offer-
ings were kept forthe ufe of the font.’’ Stavely, in
his Hiltory of Churches, obferves the firlt fonts were fet up
in private houfes, and after thole profeffing Chriftianity had
recovered from perfecution, they were placed in more cone
fpicuous fituations at a {mall diftance from the church ;
afterwards they were removed into the church porch;
and fubfequently into that part of the nave where
they ufually ftand at prefent. The learned are generally
agreed that anciently there was but one baptiftery in a city,
and that at or near the bifhop’s church; which ufage
Durandus informs us was continued down to his time at
Pifa, Bononia, Orvieta, Parma, and Florence, in Italy.
And the church of St. Jean le Rond at Paris was the place
for the general baptiltery of that city. In thefe, which

wera

FON T,

were called baptifmal churehes,-baptifm was adminiftered
during the vigils of Eafter and Whitfuntide, with lighted
tapers burning, by the bifhop, and the prefbyters by him
commiffioned for that purpofe ; and it was only in cafes of
extreme urgency that a faculty could be obtained for the
adminiltration of this facrament, but'at thefe two folemn
feafons of its adminittration. In after ages, however, the
inconveniences were found fo great from this reftriction,
that baptilterics were allowed to be fet up in many parochial
churches. For in the council of Auxerre, baptizimg ia
villages, ‘by allowance from the ‘ordinary, is formally
recognized, This privilege, however, was not granted to
every place, but only to thofe the bithop appointed 5 and
where the neceflity of the cafe feemed to require fuch ex-
tenfion ; whence the churches at fuch places obtained
the diftintion of mother-chiurches, becaufe the reft d -pended
upon them for receiving ‘tlie ceremony of regeneration, as
they had previoufly done on’ the epifcopal church. After
the eftablifhment ot Chriftianity in ftates, fubjects following
the example of their fovereigus, almoft. univerfally became
profefling Chriltians; and as they would early devote their
offspring to a participation of the fame faith, adult bap-
tilm would feldom be found neceflary. For not withftanding
the unfupported aflertion of Mr. Robinfon in his hiftory,
that infant baptilm:did not become an eftablifhed cuftom
till the fourteenth century ; yet Bingham and Wall have
incontrovertibly proved that it was a practice generally
prevalent in the latter end of the firft, or beginning of the
fecond centuries, Indeed the exittence {till of fonts only
calculated for the immerfion of infants, made fo early as
the Saxon period of our own annals, would be fufficient
to refute the allegation,

On increafing the number of baptifmal churches, the
general adoption of infant baptifm, and the neceflity of a
capacious bath for the immerfion of adults no longer
exifting ; a large bafin of ftone was fubftituted for the
{pacious bath, and the baptittery exchanged for the Lapi-
dean font : which afterwards retained the original appel-
lation,

Refpeéting fonts in’ England, they are mentioned by
Bede in his Ecclefiattical Hiftory, under the name of
Lavacra: for he mentions king Edward having received
the “ lavacrum fanéte regenerationis :”? and obferves, that
in the year 689, “ Rex Cadwalla venit Romam ut ad limina
beatorum apottolorum fonte baptifmali ablueretur.”? Though
the privilege was early extended to certain parochial
churches, yet the erection and ufe of fonts, in conventual
churches, occafioned as {trong contentions as the fetting up
conventual mills under the feodal fyftem. An author in the
Gentleman’s Magazine, (Mr. Denne,) is of opinion, that
few cathedrals were ornamented with fixed fonts, at a much
earlier period than the date of one fet up in the cathedral at
Canterbury, in the year 16363 unlefs in inftances where
they had alfo parochial altars for the ufe of the lay-people
of fome contiguous diftriét : which was the cafe at Salis-
bury, and probably alfo at Winchelter and Lincoln. Yet
Edmund, archbifhop of Canterbury, in the conttitutions
promulgated by himin the year 1236, directs that a ftone
font fhould be provided in every baptifmal church ; which,
according te Lynwood, was a church having the city con-
nected with it. * In qualibet ecclefia baptifmahy, tal: que
habet populum, five cathedrali, five conventuali.”? f In the
hiftory of Sherborne monaitery, a contention is noticed be-
tween the monks and the parifhioners, im which diffenfion
the former complained, that though there had been from the
foundation of the monaftery a font in the nave of the con-
wentualechurch, where the children of the parifh had ulually

been baptized ; yet the inhabitants had fet up another ig
that part of the chureh in which they were accuftomed to
hear divine fervice.

Fonts were generally formed of ftone, vet fome inftances
occur of their being made of lead ; and Stavely mentions a
moit magnificent one of folid brafs, that was placed at St.
Alban’s. This, in which the children of the kings, of
Scotland ufed to be baptized, had oa it an infcription, indi-
cating that fir Richard Lea, knight, matter of the pioneers,
took and brought it home among the [poils, and prefeuted
it to this church.* The general adoption of ftone for the
compolition of fonts, fay Durandus and other Romith
ritualifts, was, becaufe, as water iffued out of the rock, as
a type of baptifm, fo Chrilt, who is the fountain of living
water, is alfo a rock, and the chief corner ftone of the {piri
tual church. ;

A defcription and detail of the archite@ure, fculpture,
and defigns, difplayed iu all the fonts fubfiftins in this
kingdom, would be an ivterefting work, To attempt to
clafs them under fyftem at firit fight appears impoffible.
The toute enfemble puts on fuch a Protean fhape, and
affumes fuch a confufing variety, as feemingly to defy all
attempt atarrangement. Upon a clofer furvey, however,
they appear to feparate, and fall within certain epochs ; and
although fome anomalous cafes may occur, and fome fanciful
inftances may be produced ; yet when properly ranged they
will be reducible perhaps to three periods, wiz. Saxon,
Anglo-Norman, and Englifh : no monument of this kind
appearing fo decidely Britifh, as to be referable to that

eriod, ,
i After the converfion’ of the Saxons to Chriftianity by the
miffionary, St. Auttin, they appear to have had a clofe
connection and intercourfe with Rome. And in their
ecclefiaftical buildings and ornaments they would naturally
imitate the praétices of the church, from whence they had
imbibed their faith; and indeed it is recorded that for a
confiderable period their architeéts and other artifts were
brought from Italy. Thefe would of courfe imitate fuch
ornaments as they had been accuftomed to admire in the
magnificent temples, and other ftructures in that country,
Thus fome of the moft ancient fonts are in their forms
evidently taken from vafes, urns, votive altars, &c. Some,
for inflance, are fimply excavated ftones, placed upon plain
pedeftals, confifting of one, two, or more fteps ; others
altar fhaped, and ornamented with pilafters 1

Under this early, or fi/? period, may be clafled the font
at Wimpole in Cambridgethire, confifting of a fimple ftone
of an hexagonal fhape, having a circular cavity in the centre,
and placed ona flat {quare bale. The one at Stukeley
Bucks is a vafe, in the fhape of a truncated hollow. cone,
inverfely fixed upon two circular fteps. Another of dark
grey marble, in whieh, as Camden was informed, princes
had been baptized, of a fimilar fhape, is at Prefhate-in
Wilts; the columns of which church are clearly affignable
to a Saxon era. Rotherfield-Grays, Oxfordthire, is of an
oblong form, with a circular hollow, and has a pilafter at
each angle, and the bafe and upper part furraunded with
ogee mouldings. The font in the upper church of Lewes
in Suflex is barrel-fhaped, the convex part ornamented
with fretwork, and round the tep and bottom runs a
fafcia, compofed of rings and quatre-foils. Nefwick in
Yorkfhire is a cylinder, ornamented with numerous flender
pilafters, furmounted with interlacing arches: and a fimilar
one may be {een at Ancafter, in the county of Lincoln.

Next to thefe, in point of antiquity, appear to be thofe of
a quadrangular or circular form, placed upona fingle central
fhaft, encompafled with pillars ; or having a {mall column at

each

FONT.

each angle of the font, which they apparently fupport as
anentablature. Of the firlt kind is the font at Berkley in
‘Gloucetterfhire, which has four mafly round columns with
fimple capitals, ftanding ona plain pedefial, and a {ecroll
moulding round the lower edge of the font. Under this
divifion range the fonts at Boxbourne, Herts; Sudburn,
Suffolk ; Roydon, Effex ; Hendon, Middlefex ; and Albury
and Stevenage, Herts. Oneat Ifley, Oxfordfhire, has the co-
lumns devoid both of bafe and capital, and ornamented with
divers fauciful circumgyrations. Of the fecond, or circular
kind, are thofe of Hempitead and Ozleworth in Gloucetter-
fhire. Other inftanses occur, where the central fhaft is
wanting, ‘lhe one at Bowes, in Yorkfhire, is a circular
bafin, fupported by three columns; one at Whieedon,
Bucks, by two; and the one at Eaiby, in Yorkhhire, is
round, and itands on a fhaft, formed by a circular arcade.
In point of time it is difficult to decide which of thefe two
kinds juftly claims precedence. But,

The next in antiquity feem to be thofe decorated with
hiftorical or emblematical bas reliefs. At Everingham, in
Yorkfhire, is a very antique font, ornamented with Saxon
carving ; and one at Alphifton, in the county of Devon, is
charged with interlaced arches and a fafcia, compriling the
figures of birds, beafts, fport{men, &c. emblematic of
hunting. One at Eaftbourne; Suffex, is {till more fingular
and rude in the defigns ; and a fimilar one is in the church
of Davent, Kent. The font of Burnham Depedale, in
Norfolk, is deferving of particular notice. The fculpture
is fo mean, and the figures fo rude, as clearly to evince it
to be a work of remote antiquity : and notwithftanding Mr.
Pegge has afligned fome reafons in the Archexologia for re-
ferring both the church and font to a later than the Saxon
or Danifh periods, yet they are very far from being fatif-
faGtory. + ple, far more antiquated than the body
of the church, is one of thofe round towers fuppofed to
have been eretted by the Danes, which give almott an ex-
clufive peculiarity of features to the ecclefiaftical ftructures
in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. The rudenefs of the
figures, and the nature of the fubjeét they were meant to re-
prefent, militate alfo againft Mr. Pegge’s conjecture. The
font is of a quadrangular fhape, fupported by four cluftered
columns, each compofed of three pillarets. Of the {quare
form refting upon four pillars, devoid of the central thaft,
the one in Sharnebourn church, in the eounty of Norfolk,
prefents acuriousinftance. The body of the font refts upon
four mafly cluftered columns, the capitals ornamented with
grotefyue heads, and a fanciful border extends round the edge
of the font. This, though rude, isa rich piece of f{culpture.
The whole is placed againit one of the pillars of the nave, for
which pofition it was originally defigned, one of the tides
havin Been left blank. The three others are ornamented with
figures in baflo relievo, reprefentative ef agricultural {ub-
jects. The compartments are twelve, and the emblems
were defigned to depict the labours of hufbandry through
the different months of the year.
figure feated with a drinking horn in his hand; February,
by a figure fitting in a quiefcent poiture, emblematical of
‘the inactivity of that feafon; March, by a hufbandman in
the aé& of digging; April, by a man with a pruning-hook
in one hand, and a branch in the other; May, by a female
figure with ftreaming hair, difplaying a banner; June, by
‘an uncouth figure holding a weeding implement; July, by
a.man mowing; Augutt, bya perfon gathering and bind-
ing corn; September, by a man threfhing ; Oétober, by a

erfon cafking liquor; November, by a man carrying wood ;
TDecelnbet, by a group feafling. A font decorated with
rude and emblematic {culpture iu P'incham church, Norfolk,

January reprefented by a -

which was mifunderftoed by the hiftorian of that county,
is by fome fuppofed of equal antiquity. Such were, pro-
bably, many of the firft tonts in the early dawn of Chrif-
tianity among the Saxons, while heathenifm was ftrongly
mixed with Chriftian rites; but as the genius of the gofpel
was better underftood, it would be natural to decorate their
temples, aad ornament their facred utenfils, with Chrittian
emblems. Such appear the fontsof Lincoln, Wincheit er
and Eaft Meanjin Hants. The latter two; which are very
fimilar, are probably as ancient as the time of Birtuus, the
firtt bifhop of Winchelter ; and the emblems by which they
are enriched are fuppofed allufive to the converfion of the
Welt Saxons fromidolatry. An engraving of the former has
been given in that {plendid werk, the ** Vetuita Monumenta.’”
The latter is a fquare block of black marble, having a central
excavation, and refting on a fhaft, formed of three fingle
{tones, with a circular column at each angle of the font,
devoid of bafes, and capitals compofed of foliage. At
two of the angles are two doves, reprefented as putting
their beaks into bottles, furmounted by a crofs.. Two
faces of the {quare are ornamented with arches, fupported
by alternate double and fingle pillars, and the incumbent
freize is charged with various birds and beafts. On the
alternate two are reprefented, in the rudett ftyle of relief,
on one the creation of man, the conformation of Adem,
and Eve taken from his fide, and the temptation by the fer-
pent ; on the other, their expulfion from paradife by an
angel driving them, with an uplifted fword, through the
portal of a palace; and the other fcene reprefents Adam
with a {pade, Eve with a diftaff, and an infant placed ftand--
ing between them,

The next, in ref{peGt of time, are probably fuch as are orna-
mented with figures of the apoftles, as the one at Kidding-
ton, in Oxfordthire, removed from Iflip, in the fame county.
This is faid to have been the identical font in which Ed-
ward the Confeffor was baptized. The font at St. Peter’s,
Oxford, which was charged with figures of the twelve
apoftles, Hearne erroneoufly {uppofed coeval with the one
at Winchefter. One at Ambrefbury is a long hollow veffel*
fet upon a mafly fhatt, containing niches, which appear
formerly to have contained figures. The fecond period
comprifes fuch as are of divers agonal fhapes, decorated with
fcriptural emblems and armorial bearings. This fafhion was
probably introduced from Normandy foon after the con-
queft. The fonts at Bredon, Kirkby Belers, and Market
Bofworth, in Leicefterfhire, are of au hexagonal fhape, and
the fides charged with fhields of arms. Of a like defcrip-
tion Burbach, Great Shepey, and Ufford, in Suifolk; St.
Ofyth, Effex; Maltravers and Winterbourne, Dorfet ; and
numerous others in various parts of the kingdom. About °
the time of Henry III. this mode of introducing heraldic °
devices, to emblazon the deeds of munificence or piety per-
formed by great families, became extremely prevalent ; and
was not only made a fubjeét for fculpture, but alfo of paint -
ing, when what was at firlt in relievo and in miniature on
fonts or monuments, was transferred on an extended feale
to the windows of churches, and gave rife and encourage-
ment to the elegant art of {taining glafs. To. this period
are aflignable fuch as are ornamented with armorial bear-
ings, and thofe alfo having borders of quatre-foils, initials,
&c. fupported in divers initances with. figures of animals
couchant, rampant, and in other attitudes. To a fucceed-
ing period may probably be referred thofe bearing the fym-
bols of the evangeliits, inftraments of the paffion, with the
fhafts {upported by figures of the apoftles, and other faints.
Of this kind are Flixton, in Suffolk; St. Clement’s, at.’
Hastings; and Sittingbourne, in Kent... The font at Luton,

wm

FONT.

in Bedfordthire, is of an oGagonal fhape, raifed upon a flight
of octangular fteps. Over it is a canopy fupported by
eight columns, about twenty-five feet in height, forming a
kind of piazza, under which might ftand eight people.
This may be confidered a baptiftery on a {mall feale, and is
the only thing of the fort in the kingdom. In the centre
of the roof is a lion O., and a griffin V., rampant.

The af period comprehends a portion of our hiftory
for about two centuries anterior to the reformation ; and
is the more remarkable, becaufe the change which occurred
in the mode of ornamenting fonts is conneéted with that
event, it having been one of the jefuitical tricks made ufe
of by the flrenuous abettors of the Romifh tenets to fup-
port their tottering faith againft the tremendous blows it
was then receiving from the formidable attacks of Lol-
lardifm. ‘The controverted doétrine refpeéting the feven
facraments, powerfully oppofed as antifcriptural, muft be
defended, and every art was had recourfe to likely to accom-
plith the defirable meafure. Not only were they embodied,
but fo reprefented in painting and fculpture. They were
depicted on glafs in the windows of churches, delineated in
ftone on the baptifmal fonts; and the emblems of aétual events
and real perfonages of fcripture were fuperfeded by figures
reprefentative of the fuperititions and errors in the Romith
church. No people better underftood the mode of work-
ing upon the minds of men, and bringing adventitious ob-
jects to aflilt the powers of perfuafion, than the priefts in
general of that communion. The effeé&ts produced upon
the mind by objects reprefented ftrongly to the fight by
the fafcinating arts of {culpture and painting, they had well
ftudied for centuries, and now had recourfe to them for
vivetting the doctrine, and fixing the vacillating minds of
the multitude on the occafion. Appeals were made to
Rome for artifts, ufages, &c., and no expence was {pared
to combine elegance of defign with exquifitenefs of execn-
tion. he o¢tagonal form was adopted, not only becaufe
it exhibited fufficient fides for the requifite exhibitions, but
becaufe it was fanétioned by a cuftom of high antiquity. It
is thus recommended in lines, written by St. Ambrofe,
placed over the font of St. Tecla, at Milan, in Italy, prior
to its having been adorned with modern magnificence.

“ OGachorum fanétos templum furrexit in ufus,
Oagonus fons elt munere dignus eo,
Hoc numero decuit facri baptifmatis aulam
Surgere, quo pepulis verz falus rediit
Luce refurgentis Chrifti, qui clauttra refolvit
Mortis a tumulis fufciter examines.”

During the period in queftion, fome mott coftly ftruc-
tures were erected. The florid Gothic, as it has been
termed in architecture, was carried to its height; and the
mode of enriching fonts with elegant fculpture, as well as
decorating various parts of the building, feemed to keep
pace with each other. Numerous fonts ereGted at that
time are objects of laudable curiofity, and worthy of peculiar
inveftigation, as ferving to mark the progrefs and advance-
ment in the art of fculpture, and how much it appears to
have derived improvement from the cultivation of the fifter
art. To point out all, or to defcribe even a few of thofe
worthy of notice, which fall under this divifion, would ex-
tend this article too far. A defcription of one fill in high
prefervation at Walfingham abbey church, in the county of
Norfolk, unnoticed by writers on this fubje&t, may be ac-
ceptable; as it is, perhaps without exception, the finett
and moft perfeét fpecimen in the kingdom. The bafe is an
oagon, decorated with rofes and quatre-foils ; the plinth,
ef the fame fhape, has in it four fteps, the fronts and fides

of which are enriched with divers ornaments. The oan-
gular fhaft is decorated with various tabernacle-work, and
the pilatters concentrating from niches with crochetted pin-
nacles, in which are placed ftatues of the apoftles. The
lower border of the font alfo is ftudded with emblematic
heads and devices ; and the eight fides have the feven fa-
craments, and the crucifixion, executed in bold relief.
Among other fine {pecimens of this kind may be briefl
enumerated Eaft Dereham, Norfolk; Melton, Suffolk ;
and Grantham, in Lincolnfhire. The covers feem gene-
rally to have been made to correfpond with the work ex-
hibited in the font: the fimpler fonts having plainer covers,
and vice verfi. Thefe generally confifting of wood were
of a pyramidal fhape, crowned with a crofs patee fitchee ;
and in fome inflances over it was placed the figure of a dove.
In fome cafes the covers were curioufly carved, and deco-
rated in the pointed ftyle with rich tabernacle-work. Such
is the one at Sudbury in Suffolk, made of oak, varioufly
carved in the pointed ftyle, the fides adorned with the
figures of four lambs, as agni dei, over which are the
fymbols of the evangelifts; and between thefe, angels pre-
fenting fhields charged with different family arms. This is
conjectured to be coéval with the time of Richard I. Mr.
Vertue alfo mentions his having feen feveral fonts in Nor-
folk, which had for covers « high pinnacled wooden {pires,’”
richly ornamented with elaborate carvings.

It may at firft feem paradoxical that fonts fhould have
gradually come into difufe, fo far as refpe&s the original
purpofe of them, as veflels for containing the confecrated
water, from the time of the Reformation ; efpecially when,
among the canons promulgated in 1571, one parscularly
directs the providing a font, and prohibits the fubititution
of a dafin. But the veafon will be found in the variety of
fuperftitions conneéted with the ufe of fonts previous to the
time in queftion; the effeéts of which remained long after,
and are not even at the prefent day eradicated from the
minds of the common people. In the ancient fonts there
was a hole in the bottom of each, provided with a itopple,
for letting out the water, after the ceremony was over;
which was conveyed away under ground by means of a Pipe,
included in the fhaft. This was done to prevent a fuper-
{titious ufe being made of fuch confecrated water : perfons
frequently taking it to the houfes of thofe affli@ted with
divers difeafes, in order to perform miraculous cures. ‘Two
others alfo are alluded to in one of the before-mentioned
canons: ‘* whether any ufeth to Aad/ow the font on Ealter
even? and, whether the water in the font be changed every
month ?”? Upon the abolithing of the liturgy, and the fub-
{tituting the direStory in its {tead, an order was iffued by
the parliament for the removal of all fonts out of the
churches, and to adopt the ufe of bafins in their ftead.
Many were then fold, turned into horfe-troughs, and de-
fecrated to other ordinary ufes; and though, at the Reftor-
ation, many were repurchafed, and again fet up in the
refpective churches, yet numbers never were replaced.
From the coldnefs of our climate operating on that timidity
of parents, arifing from luxury, which obtained the op-
tional privilege of afperfion inftead of immerfion, and gra-
dually introduced the ufe of {prinkling altogether in the
baptifmal ceremony, large fonts became unneceflary, and
bafins were found much more commodious: fo that now, in
moft of our modern churches and chapels, the veflel for this
purpofe confitts fimply of a fmall marble bow], placed upon
a flender column or ftand of the fame material; fo that, in
no diftant period, fonts will become, not only re{pecting
their age, and as {pecimens of art, but alfo as to tneir de-
fignation and ufe, a fubjec& of curious inquiry and anti-

quarian

FON

quarian refearch, Bingham’s Origines Ecclofiattice, or
the Antiquities of the Chriftian Church. Mofheim’s Ec-
clefiaftical Hiftory. Durandus de Ritualibus. Various
Papers in the Archeologia, publifhed by the Society of

_Antiquaries, &c. &c. &ew 4
Font, in the Art of Printing, denotes a complete al-

fortment of letters, accents, &c. ufed in printing. See
Fount. ©

FONTABELLE, in Geography, a fort on the wett
-coaft of Barbadoes; 1 mile N.N.W. of Bridge-town.

FONTAINBLEAU, a {mall town of France, in the
+department of the Seine and Marne, and chicf place of a
diftriet 5 fituated on the left bank of the Seine, 13 leagues
fouth of Paris. The place contains 7,429, and the canton
10,231 inhabitants, ona territory of 1624 kiliometres, in
‘6 communes. The royal palace in this town, which was
‘the birth-place of Henry III., is one of the largeft and
molt elegant flructures which belonged to the kings of
France, It is an affemblage of four palaces, having five
courts of different architecture, and containing about goo
apartments. Each palace hasa garden. One of the gal-
Jeries is 1co feet long, and covered with paintings. ‘The
adjacent country exhibits no pleafant {cene, when the trees
have loft their verdure. The palace is furrounded by a
foreft, containing about 25,000 Englifh acres, and abound-
ing with deer. The gardens are neat and extenfive ; and
befides the grand fountain, which from the excellent quality
of its water gave name to the place, there is a great number
of others, which ferve to adorn this royal refidence. ‘The
‘town of Fontainbleau confifts of one principal {treet of con-
fiderable length, and feveral fmaller ftreets. ‘The principal
trade depends upon the palace, and on its fituation in the
high road from Paris to Lyons, and alfo on its manufacture
of thread lace.

TONTAINE, Jonny De La, in Biography, was born at
Chateau-Thierry, in the year 1621. He received the ufual
rudiments of learning at Rheims; and at the age of 19, he
placed himfelf wader the tathers of the oratory, in which
fituation be remained about a year and half: Soon after
this, he was fo much impreffed with hearing one of the
odes*of Malherbe recited, that he began inftantly to itudy
that author, to commit his works te memory, and finally
to imitate them. He entrufted to a relation his firft efforts
asa poet; but in connection with*his poetical ftudies, he
did not fail to unite a fleady attention to more [erious
authors. He foon became converfant with the works of
Plata and Plutarch, and fo thoroughly imbibed their moral

and philofophical maxims, as to intermix them in all thac:

he compofed. tis faid that he had little inclination for the
matrimonial flate, but married to pleale his family; and
being incapable of {trong attachment, he made little diili-
culty in quitting his wife. He went to Paris with the
duehefs of Bouillon, who excited him to write his © Vales.”
Here he found a relation in the fervice of the faperintendant
Fouquet, by whom he was patronifed and pentioned; but
= fal “ Fouquet, wehenhad been the hberal friend to
men of letters, Fontaine was almott the only perfon who
publicly tamented his fate, which he did ina pathetic clegy.
e next entered the fervice of Flenrietta of England, aiter
whofe'death he found proteétors in the princes of the blood,
and other perfons of diilin¢tion. At Paris he had the
cares of domeltic life taken from him by Madame de la
** Sabliere, who took him into her houle. Here he was on
terms of ftri@ intimacy with all the principal wits and
writers of the age, among whom was Boilean, Molierc,
Racine, and Chapelle, By thefe, and by ali who wore
Vous XLV.

FO/N

acquainted with him, he was hichly efteemed. In his cha~
raéter he exhibited the fimplicity of a child: he was mild;
gentle, timid, credulous, fincere, and void of envy and
ambition. He was fingularly zofent in the concerns of
life, and readily fubmitted himfel to the guidance of others.
He obtained the appellation o& “le bon-homme.” In
company he was ufually filent, avufeldom fhone in fociety»
unlefs with a few intimate friends. 112. Fontaine was not
in favour with Lewis XIV., and was almoft the only con-
fiderable writer who did not partake of that prince’s bounty.
The king even hefitated to confirm his eleétion to a feat in
the French academy, and would probably never have given
his confent, but to compremife the matter in refpe& to
Boileau, who was elected to pleafe the fovereign, though-
much againft the withes of the majority of the academy.
After the death of Mad. de la Sabliere, with whom he
had lived 20 years, La Fontaine was invited to take up his
abode in England ; but the difficulty which he found in the
attempt at acquining the language made him abandon the
defign. In the year 1692 he was taken ferioufly ill: a

prieft was introduced to him for the purpofe of afcertaining

his faith. ‘The fick man began the converfation: ‘1 have,”
fays he, * lately taken to read the New Teftament. I af-
fure you, it isa very good book; but there is one article
to which I could not accede: it is that of the eternity of
future punifhments, I cannot comprehend how this eternity
is compatible with the goodnefs of God.” The -priett, it
is faid, explained the dotrine to the entire fatisfaGtion of
the poet, who, probably to free himfelf from the contro-
verfy, acknowledged that he was perfe@tly fatisfied. As an
effect of his converfion, he threw into the fire a theatrical
piece which he had begun, cgnfeffed his forrow for his of-
fences againft morality and decorum, and gave up the pro-
fits of a new edition of his tales, then printing in Holland.
The fa& being related to the young duke of Burgundy, he
very confiderately obferved, that it was unreafonable thathe
fhould become poorer for having done his duty, and fent
him a purfe containing go louis d'or, La Fontaine fur-’
vived this ilnefs, and pafled about two years in the honfe
of Mad. d’Hervart, who fupplied the place of his former:
friend.” He now undertook to tranflate fome pious hymns,’
bet did not fucceed in this new {pecies of compofition. He
died at Paris, in the year 1695, at the age of 74; ‘and
when he was undrefled for interment, a hair-cloth was found
next his fin. "The belt editions of his ** Tales”? are thofe
of Amfterdam, 1685, and Paris, 1762.> His * Fables”
have paffed through a vait number of impreffions. Splendid
editions ‘af them with engravings, i 4 vols. folio,’ were
publifhed in 1755 and 1759. La Fontaine was author of
many other works, as, ‘* Les Amours de Pfyche,” a ro-
mance; “ Le Florentin,?? a comedy;’ “ L’Eunuque,” an-
other comedy; “ Anacreontiques;” ‘“ Lettres;*? and
« Poems.” D’Alpmbert has given his literary chara@ter

in the following words: If among the’ celebrated writers

of the age of Lewis XIV. La Fontaine is not the greateft,
he 1s at Teatt the molt firgularly original, the moft an obje&
of defpair to imitators, and the writer whom it would coft
nature the moft pains to reproduce.” His verfes, though
negligent, have the ‘charms of nature, which none of his
contemporaries ‘could acquire, They appear to flow from
his‘pen Ypontaneoufly, and abound in grace and’ delicacy.
His manner of narration is etlivered with all the little
touches which reader defeription auimated and interefting ;
and hig refleGtions are ji, natural, and appropriate. His"
memory was fo highly refpe&ed by his country, that when
bis widew was molcited for the payment of taxes that bore

5c hard

EON

hard upon her, an order was given that the family of La

Fontaine fhould be for ever exempted from all public bur--

thens; a prvilege which has been granted to them ever
fince. Moreri.

~ Fonraine, Niewovas, a confiderable French writer,
the fon of a ferivener, was lori at Paris, in the year 1625.
He loft his father when he.was twelve years of age, and was
entrufted to the care of a relation, who was defirous of
bringing him into public life by placing him under the
patronage of cardinal Richlieu. "The youth did not relifh
the propofal: he felt a ftronger inclination for retirement
and ftudy, than for mixing in the bultle of the world; and
refolved, if poffible, to enter into the fociety of the Jefuits.
At the age of 20 he accomplifhed his plan, and by a fe-
dulous attention to the ftudies which were prefcribed to
him, and by the excellence of his charaéter and urbanity of
his manners, he acquired the eltcem, friend{hip, and con-
fidence of the moft re{pe¢table members of the fociety. He
was, ina fhort time, appointed one of the tutors to the
young perfons fent to the feminary, of which he was a
member, for education. His leifure hours, and all that he
could redeem from fleep, he devoted to theological ftudies.
When M. Arnauld was expelled from the Sorbonne, and
withdrew into privacy, M. Fontaine, already attached to
him by the clofelt ties of friendfhip, readily followed his
fortunes, and thofe of M. Nicole, for whom he aéted as
their fecretary. He was alfo the friend and companion of
M. Sacy, the difciple and nephew of Arnauld, and accom-
panied him into places of concealment, where he took re-
fuge from the perfecutions of the Jefuits. In one of thefe
they were difcovered, and committed prifoners to the
Battille, where they were confined two years. After their
liberation in 1668 or g, their intimacy became ftronger
than ever, and continued unbroken till the death of M. Sacy
in 1684. From this time Fontaine was obliged frequently
to change his place of retirement, until he removed to Me-
lun, where he died in 1709, when he had completed the
eighty-fourth year of his age. He was the author of nu-
merous works, publifhed chiefly without his name, and
fometimes with fictitious titles. The moft important that
are confidered as belonging unqueflionably to him are,
«¢ Thuftrations of the New Teftament,’’ firft publifhed in
2 vols, Sve., and afterwards in 2 vols. 4to.; ‘ An Abridg-
ment of St. Chryfoftom on the Old and New Teftament ;””
«The Lives of the Patiiarchs, Prophets, and Saints,”? in
feveral otavos. M. Fontaine was diftinguifhed for great
integrity, for the fimplicity and innocence of his manners,
and for unaffected modefty, humility, and piety. Mo-
reri.

Fontaine, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri&t of Befort. The place contains 261,
and the canton 7,134 inhabitants, on a territory of 140
kiliometres, in 29 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Vendée; 6 miles N.E of Fontenay-
le-Comte.—Alfo, a town of Canada, on the S.E. bank of
the lake St. Pierre. N. lat. 46°. W. long. 72° go’.

Fontaine /e Bourg, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Seine; 9 miles N. of Rouen.

Fontaine 2: Dun, a town of France, in the department
ef the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri& of Yvetot; x2 miles S.W. of Dieppe. The place
contains 382, and the canton 10,448 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 105 kiliometres,. in 22 communes.

Fonraine ?£vegue, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Jemappe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&

F.ON

of Charleroy ; 3 miles W. of Charleroy. The ‘place cone
tains 2,468, and the canton 11,245 inhabitants, on a terri-:
tory of 100 kiliometres, in 12 communes,

Fontaine Franroife, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Céte-d’Or, and chief place of a canton, in the:
diftri& of Dijon; 10 miles E. of Is fur Tille. The place
contains 1,050, and the canton 5,460 inhabitants, on a ter-'
ritory of 1574 kiliometres, in 14 communes. ’

Fontaine Guerin, a town of France, m the department:
of the Mayne and Loire; 13 miles E. of Angers,

Fontaine fous Jouy, atown of France, in the departe
ment of the Eure; 60 miles N.E. of Evreux. %

Fontaine /ur Somme, a town of France, in the depart.
ment of the Somme; 5 miles S.E. of Abbeville.

Fontaine de Vauclufe, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vauclufe, formerly the refidence of Petrarch:
and Laura; 15 miles E. of Avignon.

Fonraines, Perer Francis pes, in Biography, a ce-
lebrated French critic, was born at Rouen in the year
1685, where his father was a counfellor of parliament. He-
received his education under the Jefuits, and obtained ad--
miffion into that order; but at the age of thirty, diflikin
the reftraint attached to a clerical charatter, he quitted the- -
fociety, and at the fame time a cure he poffefled in Norman-.
dy. Having excited fome attention by his critical writings.
at Paris, the Abbé Bignon, in 1724, committed to him the
conduéting a diftinguifhed periodical publication, entitled’
«© La Journal des Scavans.”? While peaceably enjoying the-
fame and emolument of his literary labours, his numerous
enemies, whom he had excited by the fevere ftri¢tures on:
their works contained in that pnblication, determined on
revenge; and they cruelly retaliated by accufing him of’
having been guilty of an unnatural crime; which afperfion-
on his chara¢ter occafioned his imprifonment. He however’
procured his liberty after fifteen days, and a juttification of
his condu@, in a letter from the magiftrate, addreffed to’
the Abbé Bignon, which tended to re-eftablifh him in his:
former credit. The Journal having been fuppreffed by au--
thority, he obtained permiffion to publifh, in 1731, a fimilar’
work, under the new title of «* La Novellifte du Parnaffe, ou»
Reflexions fur les ouvrages nouveaux.’’ But this only proceed-
ed to two volumes, when theimprimatur was alfo withdrawn,
on account of the numerous and loud complaints of the va--
rious authors, lampooned, and held up to ridicule by the
feverity of its criticiim. In 1735 he again entered the
theatre of literary diffeGion, and by affurances of more -
candour, and lefs perfonality, he procured a licence for an-.
other periodical publication, entitled, “* Obfervations fur les
ecrits modernes;” which, after running to the protracted:
length of thirty-three volumes, was by order of government:
filenced. But unterrified by menaces, and undifmayed by-
difafters, in 1744 the critic appeared again in the paths of:
{cience, and publifhed his remarks in a weekly paper, called
“« Jugemens fur les ouvragesnouveaux,’’which proceeded to
the eleventh volume under his dire&tion; and the lait two,
thirteen, and fourteen, of that work were performed by.
fome other hand; he having been attacked with a diforder-
in his cheft, that occafioned his death in 1745 on which.
occafien his enemy, Piron, wrote this fatirical epitaph,

«Sous ce. tombeau git un auteur
Dont en deux mots, voici l’hiftoire ~

Il etoit ignorant comme un predicateur, _
Et malin comme un auditoire.”’

Befides his avocations in the voluminous periddical publi-
cations, he found leifure to execute a variety.of other works,
of

FON

of which his biographer enumerates feventeen 3 fome criti-
al, fome hiftorical, and fome tranflations. He publithed a
_ profe tranflation of Virgil with plates by Cochin in four vo-
Jumes, 8yo., in which fome. critics have decided Virgil is
either traveftied or murdered in every line. In 1754 tranf-
lation of Horace’s odes appeared from his pen, and at dif-
. ferent times from the fame prolitic fource, facred poetry, in
imitation of the Plalms; Dictionnaire Neologique; a new
Gulliver, in two voluines; a tranflation of Swift’s Gulliver’s
travels; and portions from his other works, and thofe of
Pope, Fielding, &c. '
¥eron, who has drawn up his charafer, obferves, that
he was born a fentimental perfon, a philofopher in conduét,
as well as principle; exempt from ambition, and of a free
and noble fpirit, which would not ftoop for titles or prefer-
-ments. In common converfation he appeared only a com-
mon man ; but when any thing out of the ordinary way oc-
curred, he difcoyered great difcerument, force of imagina-
tion, depth of hamour, and brilliancy of wit. The Abbé
de la Port publithed in 1757, “ L’ Efprit de P Abbé des Fon-
taines,’’ with a life annexed; and a catalogue of his writings,
and thofe who wrote againil him, in four volumes, 8vo. which
fee, and Nouveau Diétionnaire Hiftorique.
.. FONTANA, Prosrero. a painter of hiftory, born at
‘Bologna in 1512. Vafari mentions him as having been em-
ployed in 1556 to finifh works left incomplete by Inrocenza
da Imola at Bologna, and he appears more as the fervant
-and affifant to ethers, than as the inventor of great works.
He is introduced here principally, as having had the honour
of ufhering into the world of art thofe two brilliant lumi-
naries Annibal and Ludovico Carracci. It is not known
when he died,
_ Fontana, Lavinia, daughter of Profpero, practifed por-
trait painting with very confiderable fuccefs, under the pa-
tronage of Pope Gregory XIII. She died in 1602, at the
age of 50.

Fontana, Dominic, an eminent archite&t, was born in
1543 at a village on the lake of Como. Having acquired
the elements of geometry, he went to Rome, where his
‘elder brother John was a ftudent in architecture. Here he
applied himfelf moft diligently in fludying the works of an-
tiquity, ard at length was employed by cardinal Montalto,
afterwards pope Sixtus V. Montalto had already begun to
difplay the magnificence of his character, by undertaking
the conftruétion of the grand chapel of the manger in the
church of St. Maria Maggiore. The pope, Gregory XIII.
jealous of the munificence of his cardinal, took from him
the means of his defigns, and thus put a {top to the works.
Toutana, with a {pirit worthy of a great mau, went on with
the building at his own expenee, which fo gratified the car-
dinal, that when he was raifed to the popedom, he created
Fontana his archite¢t. The chapel and palace were finifhed
ina iplendid ityle, hut this was a fmall part of the vait de-
figus projected by Sixtus. Betides completing the dome of
St. Peter’s, he refolved to contribute to its grandeur by con-
veying in front of its piazza the obeliik of a fingle piece
of Egyptian granite, which had formerly decorated the
circus of Nero. This.defign, had been contemplated by
fome of the predeceflors of Sixtus, but none had actually
attempted it. Sixtus fammoned the architects and engineers
from ali parts, to confult on the beit means of effecting the
bufinefs. Fontana’s plan obtained the preference, and he
was able to perform’ in praGice what he had advanced in
theory. This was regarded as the mot fplendid exploit of
the.age, and rewards and honours the moit magniticent were
beftowed upon Fontana and his heirs. He was afterwards

oy

FON

employed in the elevation of other obelifks, and in the em-
bellishment of the principal ftreets of Rome. He built the
Vatican library, and began confiderable additions to that
palace, which were interrupted by the death of Sixtus.
One of Fontana’s great works, was the condu€ting water
to Rome from the diftance of fifteen miles, in a channel
fupported upon arcades. The fucceflor of Sixtus, Clement
VIII., was*prejudiced againft the papal architeét, and dif-
mified him from his office, but his reputation caufcd aim to
be engaged by the viceroy of Naples as architect to the
king. He accordingly removed to Naples in 1592. Here
he undertook and executed many works of confequence.
His laft efforts were direéted to a new harbour for Naples,
which he did not hve to finifh. He died at Naples in 1607

in his fixty-fourth year. Gen: Biog. ,
Fonrana Fora, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Capitanata; 14 miles S.W. of Salpe. ,

FONTANAMORA, a town of France; in the départ-
ment of Dora; 18 miles E.S.E. of Aoftas

FONTANAROSSA, a town of Naples, in Principato
Ultra; 14 miles N.W. of Conza.

FONTANEL, in dnatemy, called alfo bregma; the
vacancy left between the two portions of the frontal and the
parietal bones, before the offification of the fkull is com-
pleated. The parictes of the cranium are made up here by
the dura mater. Two of thefe vacancies are found in the
head ; one in front and the other at the back part of the pa-
rietal bones. ‘Vhe former is the largeft. They are gradually
loft as the bones approach each other. See Fons and
CRANIUM.

FONTANELLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the department of the Upper Po; 8 miles N.E. of Crema.

Fonranfura, in Surgery, an iffue. See Issue.

FONTANELLO, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Sefia; 7 miles E. of Crefcentino. -

TFONTANESIA, in Botany, fo called by M. La Billar-
diere, in jut commemoration ot his amiable friend M. René
Louiche Desfontaines, the able author of the /Yora Atlantica,
and of feveral learned botanical and phyfiological effays.
The late M. L’ Heritier had, with the fame intent, publithed
a Louichea, which proved to be the Pteranthus of Forfkall,
Camphorofma Pteranthus of Linneus.— Billard. Syr. fafe. r.
g.t.1. Wild. Sp. Pi. v. 1. 52. Vahl. Enum. v. 1. 37
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2. Lamarck. Illuftr 77. t. 22.—Clafe
and order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat, Ord. Sepiarie, Linn.
Fafminea, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, very fall, in four deep,
ovate, equal, permanent, bluntifh fegments. Cor. of two,
much larger, inverfely-heartfhaped, deeply cloven, obtufe,
concave petals, deciduous. Siam. Filaments two, inferted
into the bafe of each petal between its lobes, thread-fhaped,
Jonger than theepetal; anthers roundifh-oblong, with two
furrows. i. Germen fuperior, ovate, compreffed; ftyle
hort, comprefled, permanent ; ftigmas two, acute, incurved.
Pertc. Captule elliptical, emarginate, comprefled, membra-
nous, of two cells, not burfting ; very rarely of three cells,
Seeds folitary, oblong, pendulous. q

Edf. Ch. Calyx im four deep fegments. Petals two, deeply
divided. Capfule fuperior, membranous, not buriting, of
two cells. Seeds folittary, pendulous. t

Obi. The character of this genus comes very near Frax-
inusy to which Billardiere adverts, faying that it is diftin-
guifhed “by its fruit being of two cells; but in that it
actually agrees with Fraxinus, the latter differing only is
the leafy elongation of its capfule. We do not mean that
the two.genera are not perfectly diltingt, ‘Che petals indeed

. 5C2 are

FON

_are not fo indubitable a mark as could be wifhed, being in
.all this tribe very uncertain, and according to Billardiere
himfelf, occafionally united into a tube in the plant under
confideration.
The only known {pecies is
1. F. phillyrioides. Billard. as above. —A /hrub, native of
Syria, about twelve feet high, fmooth, buthy, and ever-
green, but not remarkable for beauty, the flowers being
fmall, greenifh and inconfpicuous. They are copioufly pro-
duced in {mall axillary clutters. The ripe fruit looks fome-
-what like that of the Elm. This fhrub ftands ovr winters
in the open ground, and is kept in fome of the Englifh
gardens, but rather for curiofity than ornament, The leaves
are oppofite or fcattered, ftalked, fimple, ovate, acute and
entire, of rather a dull green,
FONTANGES, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Cantal; 10 miles N.W. of Murat.
FONTANINI, Giusro, in Biography, a learned Italian,
was born in the duchy of Friuliin the year 1666. Having
gone through his preparatory ftudies, he was ordained prielt
at Venice in 16g0.. Here and at Padua he ftudied very
hard, improved himfelf io literature of various kinds; and
in 1697 he was invited to. Rome as librarian to cardinal Im-
periali, From this period he became known and celebrated
by many learned publications ; and he acquired the notice
and friendfhip of the moft learned people of the age. He
.was patronized by pope Clement XI.,; who made him his
own chamberlain, and gave him a pention and preferment in
the church. He died in the vear 1736 in the feventieth
year of his age. His principal work was a difcourfe on
Italian éloquence,. entitled ** Dell’ eloquenza Italiana.”
This went through feveral editions during. the author’s life;
but the beit and molt correé& is that printed at Venice fince
his death in two volumes 4to., with notes &c. by Apottolo
Zeno. Fontanini contended, in this work, that the Italians
wrote in the French language before they ufed. Italian,
which gave much offence, and excited a warm controverfy
-amoag the Jiteratt of the country. Moreri. ;
FONTANKA, in Geégraphys a navigable river of Ruf-
fia, which goes from the Nevka, on the-right of the Neva,
flowing 2s a flow morafs brook, fitlt towards the fouth, then
weltwayd parallel with the Nevaj to the Cronitadt gulf, into
which, with the Neva, .it formerly fell in two arms. In
the former reigns it had been deepened and lined with fides
of timber; but gradually filled up again, aud in fumimer
was partially dry. By order of her late Majeity it was dug
afrefh, to a bed of one sathom in depth, ‘and in breadth ten
or twelve, and its fides faced with hewn granite railed on
piles to the height of a fathom above the water’s level, with
an iron baluftrade 5 and without-fide of this, a pavement five
feet broad of granite fags, for the accommodation of foot-
pafiengers. Its batiks are now full of fime flowing Neva-
water; it is navigable for barks of burdeii, and conftitutes
one of the-chief ornaments of the imperial refidence. The
lengah of this river is nearly 3000 fathoms.
FONTARABIA, in Spanith Puente Rabiayandin Latin
Fons rapidus, is _a fortified town in the province of Bifeay
and diltri of Giupufcoa, and one of the keys of Spain.
It is fituated in a fimall peninfula on the fea-coatt, and upon
the left bank of the: Bidaffoa, and has the title of a city.
Te is {mall, but weil fortified both by nature and art. On
the land fide it is protected by high mountains, by the Sierras
ef Jafquevel, and on the fea-fide it is defended by a good
fortrefs. :
its harbour would be a good one, if the tide, which is
generally very high there, did not leave it dry, when it retires.

4

FON

The town is built in the form of an amphitheatre, upon 2
hill which faces the fea, and in the fouth angle of the gulf
of Gafcony. It has a goveruor, a king’s lieutenant, or majors
an aide-major, anda Sep lefs:numerous at dif.
ferent times. _N. lat. 43° 23’. W. long. 1° 55’.

FONTELLO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 4 miles N.E. of Lamego,

FONTENAY, Perer Ccaupe, in Biography, a French:
Jefuit, was born at Paris in 1683, and entered on his novi-
ciate in the order when he was fifteen years-of age. Having
compleated his iuitiatory ftudies,the was employed fome time-
to furnifh extraéts and remarks on books relating to religion
and ecclefiaftical hiftory in the “ Journal de Frevoux.”” He
was engaged for fome years in collecting materials for writin
a hiltory of the popes, in which however he made but {mal
progrefs.. His attention to ecclefiaftical hiftory did not
prevent him from purfuing the lighter ftudies of polite lite-
rature, in which he excelled, and as the refult of thefe pur-
fuits, he publifhed various {mall poems in the colle@tions of
the day. His talents and learning pointed him out asa fit:
perfon for rector of the Jefuits’college at Orleans, where he
continued till the year 1735, when he was recalled to Paris,
and appointed to continue, Longueval’s « Hiltory of the
Gallican church.’? Eight volumes of this work had been
already publifhed, and father Fontenay proceeded with it till
the eleventh, when he was incapacitated for further progrefs
in the undertaking by a paralytic ftroke. He furvived the
{troke but twelve months, and died at the college La Fléche-
in the year 1742, in the fifty-fixth year of his age. Moreri.

Fonrenay, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the T'wo Scvres, and chief place of a canton
in the diftriét of Niort. The place contains 1,235; and the
canton 6,183 inhabitants, ona territory of 1424 kiliometres,.
in Io communes.

Fonrenay-/e-Comte, a town of France, and chief place
of a diftri€t, and capital of the depariment of Vendée, fitu-
ated in a fertile valley on the Vendée. The place contains
6,600, and the canton 15,003 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 1474 kiliometres, in 13 communes. The chicf
articles of commerce of the inhabitants are cloth, woollen
dtuffs, and cattle, of which they fell a great number at the.
three annual fairs. N. lat. 46° go". W. long. 0° 24".

FONTENELLE, Beanarp ie Bovier pet, in Bio-
graphy, aman of letters, was born at Rouen in 1657. “He
was educated among the Jefuits,- and became, at a very
early age, diftinguifhed for the progrefs. which he made in
polite literature. He ftudied the law asa profeffion, but
lofing his firft caufe in the courts, he renounced the bar,
and devoted limfelf entirely to literature and philofophy.
In 1674 he vifited Paris, and became known as a poet; and
in 1683 he. publifhed “ Dialogues of the Dead,” in two
vohimes. Thefe were well received, and proved a happy
fpecimen of his talent of combining niorality and literature
withthe graces of elegant and, ingenious writing. Three
years. afterwards he publifhed his moft popular work, en-
titled, “* Entretiens fur la Pluralité- des Mondes.? Tn
this little-piece, which-has been tranflated into all languages;
fcience and philofophy are united with vivacity, gallantry,
and delicate humour. The next production of Fontenelle
was “ The Hiftory of Oracles,” which appeared in 1637;
and which expofed-the author to the fulpicion of infidelity,
becaufe he oppofed certain dogmas held by the clergy as
facred. He publithed, in the year 1688, Pafloral Poems,
with a Difcourfe on the Eclogue,?? and in this and the
following year the operas of « Thetis and Peleus, and
«‘Aimeas and Lavinia,” which met with a coufiderable fhare

of

WOW

ef popularity. In 1690 he was admitted into the Trench
academy; and in 1699 he waseleéted fecretary of the aca-
demy, a poft which he occupied forty-two years. In this
fituation he wrote a hiftory of that body, of which he

ublifhed a volume annually, contaifiing extraéts and ana-

yfes. of memoirs, and culogies of deceafed members,
eb cevellt was author of many cther pieces, of which the
principal are, “ L’Hiftoire du theatre Francois jufqu’ a
Corneille ;?? “* Reflexions fur la Poetique du theatre, et

. - du theatre Tragique;’’ “‘ Elemens de Geometriede I’ Infini;”’

a tragedy, and fome comedies. His- conftitution was ori-
ginally and naturally delicate, yet he reached the great age
of fourfcore years and ten, with no other infirmity than
that of deafuefs. After this his fight began to fail him ;
but he lived till he had nearly completed a century. A
-fhort time before he expired, he was afked by his phytician
if he felt any pain, “ I oily feel,’’ he replied, « a difficulty
of exifting.”” He died January 9, 1757. Fontenelle, fays
his biographer, ‘‘ a3 a poet, did not rife beyond elegance and
ingenuity = as a man of fcience, he excelled more in eluci-
dating the inventions of others, than in difcovering new
truths. Inthe commerce of life he was truly a philofopher ;
- fudious of his own happinefs, yct without facrificing the
duties of a man of honour and virtue. In his converfation
he was guardéd; in his aétions firm avd decided. He
-eften gave an heneft vote ia a minority at the academy, and
was the only one who had the courage to vote againft the
exclufion of the abbe St. Pierre from its meetiags, when
he had been declared guilty of treating the memory of
‘Louis X1V. with difrefpe@. He had many friends; and,
in the latter part of his life, fearcely an enemy.?” The
works of Fontenelle, with the exception ot thofe on geome-
“try and-phyfics, have been colleéted in eleven volumes,
1zmo. under the title of « Ceuvres Diverfes.” Moreri.
Fontenelle, the moft pleafing and alluring writer on fub-
jeQs of hittory, eriticifin, and philofophy, was fo totally in-
‘fenfible to mufic, that, like our Pope, he wondered how
its votaries could be fo delighted with it.
all the pleafure exprefled by the admirers of the art to af-
fe&tation ; while Foutenelle, ignorant of its obje&, concern-
“ng which his ears afforded him no information, cried out,
“@ Sonate, que veut tu??? and this humble queftion has
“paffed for a bon mot among {coffers ever fince. The fonata
perfonitied might have anfwered, « 1 would have you liften
with attention to the fweetnefs of the harmony, the grace,
fpirit or pathos of the melody, and the ingenuity of the
compolition.”? But it is wonderful that fo intelligent an
author fhould write dramas for mulic, without knowing
vat mufic meant; yet, when no more than twenty years
of age, he produced Pfiche, and Bellerophon, two ferious
operas for the lyric theatre, and which were fet by Luili
in 1681 5 Peleus and Thetis, another ferious opera for
what he could not underftand ; m 1689, /Eneas and La-
vinia 5 and in 1y31, Endymion; and all thefe dramas weve

to be tranflated into melody, a language of which he knew:

not thealphabet. He ufed to fay that the ancient matic of
the Greeks could never be recovered, or fimilar effects pro-
duced by the moderns, unlefs the poet and mufician were
whited in one and the fame perfon, for he had read that
Sophocles and Euripides fet their own dramas to mufic,
‘Metattafio was more modeft and more reafonable ; for, upon
‘being aflted if he had ever fet any of his own dramas to
‘mofic, he anfwered in the negative, afligning as a veafon,
that mufic was now become fo difficult and complicated a
‘ftudy, that a man of letters had not leifure fuflicient for
its cultivation ; as it is neceflary now hot only for an opera

ganization,

Pope afcribed:

~ FON

compofer to be poffefled of genius, tafte, invention, and
knowledge of counterpoint, but he fhould know the pecu-
liar caft and power of different voices, the feale and genius
of different inftruments, and fing in good tafte, though
without a voice. Pope, whofe auricujar organs were too
obtufe to vibrate in unifon with mufical tones, wrote a
beautiful ode for mufic on St. Cecilia’s Day, and Addifon
not only wrote an ode, but an opera for mufiec, both as ig-
norant of its meaning. as Fowtenclle. Thefe admirable
writers, who, on fubjects within their competence, feem
beings of a fuperior order, only degrade themfelves to 2
level with the common malfs of mankind, in condemning
what they neither feel nor underftand, No one is afhamed
to own that he is near-fighted ; nene will allow that their
apathy and contempt for mufic arife from an imperfect or-
There is an ear for mufic, an eyé for painting,
and a voice for fong, with which thofe who hear, fee, znd
talk well enongh for the commen purpofes of life, are not
gifted. Dr. Johnfon, who had no ear for mufic, and ufed
to have fome pleafure in humbling thofe whom he thought
vain of their mufical talents, feeming to hang over the harp-
fichord as if he were liftening to the founds, being told by
the performer that he hoped he would grow fond of mufic
at lat, the great philologer faid, “Sir, I fhall be glad to
have a new fenfe given me !”’ which was candidly afcribing
his contempt for mufic to its true caufe. Fontenelle, whole
ftyle in his profe writings was the mofl ingenious, elegant,
playful, and corre&t, of aay author who contributed to em-
bellith the fplendid and literary reign-of Louis. X1V., was
nephew to the great Corneille.

FONTENOY, in Geography;.a village of France, in
the department of Jemappe, famous for ab ttle which was
fought nearit between the Freach and the allies, in May
1745 3 theallies and Englifh were commanded by the duke
of Cumberland, and the French by marfhal Saxe. The
allied army left 12,020 on the field- of battle,-and the lofs of
the French was not'much lefs ; 4 miles S.E of Teurnay.—
Alfio, atown of France, in the department of the Muerte ;-
4amiles N.E. of Toul.—Alfo, a town of France, ia the
department of the Aifne,-onthe Aifue ; 5 miles W..of Soif-
fons.

FONTES, atown of France, in the department of the
Heranlt ; 13 miles N. E.uf Beziers.

PONTEVRAUD, a town of Prance, in the depart-
ment of the Mayne ; famous for an abbey, in the church of
which feveral kings and queens of Eugland were buried; 6
miles E of Saumur.

FONTEVRAULT, in Leck/iafical Hifory, an her-
maphrodite order ‘of-monks and nuus, ia which, “contrary
to others of a fimilar complexion, the weaker fex isallowed
the pre-eminence. It was founded foon atter the celebra-
tion of the council at Poictiers, in the year nro2, by Ro-
bert d’Arbriffel ; who was dirit archdeacon of Rennes, aad
then received a particular miffion from pope Urban If.
to become an itinerant preacher; for the better toltru&ien
of profefiing Chriftians. Having been very fuccefsful, and
perfuaded numbers, both men and women, to devote them-
felves to a monaitic life, he ereled for their aceemmodation
cells in the woods of Fontevrault, three leagues from Sau-
mur, on the contines of Poiftiers, in France. After lodg-
ing the women in feparate apartments, and fabje@ed the men
to the controul of the abbefs, in honourof that. portion of
facred hiftory written by St. John, in the rgth chapter of his
gofpel ; he placed the whole order under the rules of St.

enedi@, only adding fome particular conttitutions; and
appointed this houfe to prefide over the whole, Pope Paf-

chal

FON

‘shal approved of the inftitution, and its privileges were con-

firmed and extended by fucceeding pontiffs. Previous
to the French revolution, there were about fixty of
thefe monafteries in France. The nuns wear a_ black
robe, witha white veil; and the monks are habited in
‘black, like fecular priefts, with the addition of a camail
on their caffock.

FONTICULUS, in Sargery, an ifflue. See Issue.

-FONTINALIA, or Fonranarta, in Antiguity, are-
ligious feaft, held among the Romans, in honour of the
deities who prefided over fountains or fprings. Varro ob-
ferves, that 1t was the cuftom to vilit the wells on thofe days,
and to caft crowns into fountains. Scaliger, in his conjec-
tures on Varro, takes this not to be a feait of fountains in
‘general, as Feftusinfinuates, but of the fountain which had
a temple at Rome, near the Porta Capena, called alfo Posa
Fontinalis ; he adds, that it isof this fountatn Cicero {peaks
‘in his fecond book De Legib. The fontinalia were held on
the 13th of O@ober.

FONTINALIS, in Botany, from fons, a fountain or ri-
vulet, alluding to its place of growth. Water-mofs.
Bauh. Hitt. v. 3. 770. Dill Mufe. 254. Linn. Gen. 562.
Schreb. 761. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.z. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1336.
Hedw. Fund. v. 2.96. t. 9. f.53—55. Juff. tr. Clafs
and order, Cryptogamia Mufci. Nat. Ord. Mu/fci.

Gen. Ch. Male in axillary fcaly bues. Female lateral.
Sheath of numerous, imbricated, clofe fcales. Cap/ule ob-
Jong, fmooth, on a fhort briftle-like fruit-italk, enveloped
in the fheath. Veil awl-fhaped, deciduous. Lid awl-fhaped.
Fringe double; the outermof of fixteen teeth, broadeit at
their bafe, at length recurved, brittle and deciduous ; the
inner conical, moftly red, beautifully reticulated, having
fixteen upright briffles, and numerous tranfverfe fibres, de-
ciduous.

Eff. Ch. Capfule oblong, lateral, enclofedin a {ealy fheath.
Outer fringe of fixteen teeth, dilated at the bafe ; inner re-
ticulated.

One of the moft natural genera of Moffes, though only
four {pecies are known. The character derived from the red
reticulated inner fringe, is no lefs ftriking than certain ; but
the fragility of the fringes altogether renders a careful exa-

“mination neceflary, when the lid is juft ready to fall. All
the fpecies are of a dark hue, and grow on rocks, {tones or
pofts in frethwvater, floating with the current, their {tems
being much branched, and tufted.

1. F. antipyretica. Great Water-mofs.— Leaves pointed,
folded fo asto form a keel, difpofed in three ranks. Scales
of the fheath obtufe. Lid awl-fhaped.— Linn. Sp. Pl. 1571.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 1336. Engl. Bot. t. 359. Hedw. Sp. Mute.
298. Hudf. 467. Turn. Mufe. Hib. 199. (T°. triangularis
major complicata, e foliorum alis capfulifera ; Dill. Mufe.
254. t. 33. f. 1.)—Frequent abont mill pools, and in flow
deep waters, growing far below the furface, and rarely pro-
ducing fruit. ‘he roots are ftrong and perennial. Stems
wiry, often a foot ldng, irregularly branched, leafy. eaves
of a deep tranfparent green, fcarcely fhining, often eu-
crufted with calcareous earth, depofited. by the water, in
the manner of Chara vulgaris and hifpida ; fee Cuara.
Cap/fules {cattered along the main ftem, nearly feffile, ellip-
tical, clofely covered with the imbricated fcales of the
fheath, except the lid, which is awl-fhaped, fhort, prominent,
-covered wth a veil rather exceeding its owu length. The
ftru@ture of the fringe is not fhewn in Eng/. Bot. but
may be feen in Hedwig’s Fundamenta as above. Linneus
relates, in his Mora Suecica, that the Swedes ‘ ftuff in this
mofs- between their chimneys and wooden walls, to guard

‘FON

‘the latter from ‘fire.’ Hence he has given it the namé 9f
antipyretica, and hence fome have fuppofed it incombufti-
ble, for which there is no foundation, except perhaps
when it is thickly encrufted all over with earth. Its ufe
can be accounted for fufficiently, by its being a bad con-
-dutor of heat, and excluding the paflage of air. 4

2. F. /quamofa. Shining Scaly Water-mofs.—Leaves
imbricated, lanceolate, pointed, concave. Scales of the
fheath blunt, as well as of the lid—Linn. Sp. Pl. 1572.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 1337. Engl. Bot. t. 1861. Hedw. Sp. Mufc.
299. Crypt. v. 3. 32.t.12. Hudf. 467. Turn. Mufc. Hib.
199. (F. fquamoila tenuis fericea atro-virens ; Dill. Mufe.
258. t. 33. £ 3.)—Found in alpine rivulets, in Wales, Scot-
land, Ireland, and the north of England. Smaller than the
preceding, as weil as more fhining, with a yellowifh cat.
Leaves taper-pointed, ufually in three rows, but not folded,
though furmfhed with a plait in their lower part which
looks like a rib. Cap/ule projecting a little beyond the
fheath, with a blunt conical lid. ‘ 4

3. F. capillacea. Briftly Water-mofs.—Leaves linear-
briitle-fhaped, {preading. Sheaths and fruitftalks elongated,
thread-fhaped; the {cales acute, reaching beyond the cap-
fule.-—Dickf. Crypt. fafc. 2. 1. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1337. With.
789. Hull. 275. (F. capillacea, calycibus ftyli inftar cufpi-
datis ; Dill. Mufe. 260. t. 33. f. 5.)—Native of the alpine
rivulets of Scotland, where it was difcovered by Mr. Dick-
fon. The celebrated John Bartram fent it to Dillenius from
Pennfylvania. This is of a dull olive green, fearcely fhining,
and is known by its long eaves with capillary points, which
{pread nearly equally in all d'reGtions. Thelong fruitfalls,
invefted with the clofe flender /heaths, are alfo remarkable,
and readily diftinguifh it from both the foregoing.

4.F. falcata. Sickle-leaved Water-mofs.— Leaves ovate.
lanceolate, taper-pointed, in three rows, curved to one fide.
Fruititalks elongated, half naked.—Hedw. Sp. Mufe. 299.
Crypt. v. 3. 57. t.24. Swartz. Mufc. Suec. 72. (F. capilla-
cea; Linn. Fl. Suec. 379. Ehrh. Crypt. 205.)—Found ia
mountainous rivulets in Sweden. Ehvhart gathered it near
Upfal. Much lefs flender than the laft, from which it is
effentially diftinguifhed by the fickle-fhaped leaves, curved
allone way, and the nakednefs of the upper part of the
fruit/flalks, whofe fheaths feldom reach further than their
middle. Linneus miftook this for the plant of Dille-
nius, quoted under our laft {pecies, on which, without
feeing a {pecimen, he had previoufly founded his own F.
Jquamofa. He tells us in the Fira Suecica, ed. 2, he had
not the plant at hand when he wrote that book, but adopt-
ed it from Olaus Celiius, :

The F. pennata of Linneus is Neckera pennata, Hedw.
Crypt. v. 3. 47. t. 19, a moft elegant mofs, erroneoufly
fuppofed to have been found in England. Prien

Concerning F, minor, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1571, there has been
much doubt and controverfy. The plant of Dillenius and
of Britifh writers, from which the Linnzan fpecific cha-
racter, of the terminal fruétitication, was taken, is Tricho/-
tomum fontinalioides of Hedwig, and of Fi. Brit. 1248.
This is what grows at Oxford and inthe Thames, and is
figured in Engl. Bot.t. 557. But the herbarium of Lin-
nus contains afpecimen, gathered at Upfal, marked by him
minor, which iscertainly different, though probably only a
variety of F. antipyretica. This is what he defcribed in the
fecond edition of Species Plantarum, * leaves folded foas to
form a keel, two together on the thicker branches.”
There are no capfules on the fpecimen, but fome appear-
ance of avillary male flowers. As the acute and active
cryptogamilts of Sweden have not fince dete€ted this plant

7 at

ae

FON

at Upfal, we muft conclude it tobe an evanefcent’ variety of
the firft fpecies. The Swifs botanifts have been no lefs
puzzled than Linnzus about Fy minor. What Favrod and
others have taken for fuch, and which they contend is Hal-
ler’s Hypaum, n. 1795, appears to us not different from
Hypnum rufcifolium, Fl. Brit. 1292. Poffibly, from his
quotation of Dillenius, Haller might mean our Trichoflomum
fontinalioides, but on this little dependance can be placed,
as under his very next fpecies, n: 1796, whichis Anidan-
gium aquaticum of Hedwig, Hypnum aquaticum Jacq. Anftr.
t. 290, (as the late Mr, Davall firft fufpected), Haller
quotes the fynonym which belongs to Fontinalis Squamofay a

FOO

widely different mofs, The fynonyms of this eminent wii-
ter indeed require much correétion, even in his Nomenclator,
where he is fuppofed to give only the moft obvious and indu-
bitable. S.

FONTINELLE, in Geography, a town of Walachia,
on the Danube; 18 miles E. of Nicopoli.

FONTIVEROS, or Honriveros, atownof Spain, in
Old Caftile; 10 miles N.N.W. of Avila.

FOOD. For the fubftances capable of affording nutriment
to man, fee Dicestion; and for information relative to the
quality and quantity of thofe fubftances to be taken with a
view. to the prevention and cure of difeafes, fee Diet.

Le END OF VOLUME XIV.

Strahan and Prefton,-
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